Management Research Review

Attributions and requirements of Islamic leadership

Dahlena Sari Marbun,
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Islamic
Attributions and requirements leadership
of Islamic leadership
Dahlena Sari Marbun
Islamic University of North Sumatra (UISU), 379
Medan, Indonesia

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to look into the relationship between attribution and
requirements of Islamic leadership.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper describes concepts of attribution and requirements
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of leadership and links them to related Islamic concepts.

Findings – A correlation is found to exist between attribution and requirements of “conventional”
and Islamic leadership.
Research limitations/implications – Being a practical endeavor, attribution and requirements of
“conventional” leadership converge with Islamic leadership.
Practical implications – It is hoped that leaders and managers would not hesitate to apply Islamic
leadership style.
Originality/value – This paper will add to the literature on Islamic leadership, especially for
Indonesia.
Keywords Islam, Leadership, Core beliefs, Indonesia, Islamic leadership, Islamic management,
Attribution theory, Leadership requirements
Paper type Conceptual paper

1. Introduction
Leadership has long been an often-discussed topic among intellectuals of a variety of
disciplines. Analysis of leadership is often centred around day-to-day practices of
particular organizations. An example would be the different terminologies of “head”
or “king” found in several languages to express differences between the ruled and
their ruler.
Detailed conceptions of leadership are more often found in literature of governance.
As Mar’at (1985, p. 8) quoted from the Oxford English Dictionary, the word leader in
English first appeared in the year 1300. Since then, the definitions of leadership have
been developed as numerous as the number of people defining them. However, there
are enough similarities among the different definitions to enable general schemes of
classification. The difference in definitions and conceptions of leadership has been
discussed briefly in Moris and Seeman, and Shartle and Bass, as quoted by Mar’at
(1985, p. 8) in his book titled Leader and Leadership.
Leaders and managers, especially at the top management level, are key to the
success or failure of an organization or business. Be it in economics or education, health
or religion, social or politics, government or business, the quality of a leader is of the
utmost importance. A capable leader will be able to anticipate changes, correct Management Research Review
Vol. 36 No. 4, 2013
mistakes, and achieve goals according to an allocated time plan. In short, leaders and pp. 379-387
managers have the most opportunities to transform “dust into gold,” and vice versa, q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2040-8269
if they do or do not execute plans properly and wisely. DOI 10.1108/01409171311314987
 MRR 2. Leadership and management
36,4 According to Kotter (1990), leadership is different from management. Kotter states that
management is the art of dealing with complexity. Proper management has the
characteristics of order and consistency in formal planning, design of a rigorous
organization, and evaluation of results based on plans.
Management is the key to success of many endeavors including business, while
380 leadership is the key to success of organizations. Order and regularity is equal to the need
for food and protection, and all are needed for the comfort of man. Even animals, for
example schools of fish, flocks of birds, and herds of elephants, all sustain their life through
cooperation obtained through the maintenance of a fixed pattern of regularity. Without
cooperation and regularity they would not be able to stay alive and sustain their species.
The rise and fall of the sun, moon, and stars, the change of days into nights, the
variations in seasons, all are patterns of regularity in nature. So is the case for human
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relationships, from babies, to children, to adults, between males, females, and their
offspring, to intricate social relationships in the forms of industrial complexes, trade
syndicates, nations and tribes, all are examples of order in human culture.
In such situations humans must live and work together, not by themselves, under
the guidance of a leader. For good organization to achieve shared goals, and to sustain
communal life, cooperation is needed so all human cultural expressions should have
leaders to manage them.
Leadership can be defined as the behavior of an individual in charge of directing
activities of a group. Fiedler (1981, in Mar’at (1985)) offers a similar definition:
Leadership behavior is usually interpreted as a pursuit in which a leader directs and
coordinates group activities. These activities include forming a work relationship, praising
and criticizing group members, and showing considerations of viewpoints and the welfare of
group members.

3. Review of attribution
Research on attribution is part of research on social psychology. The theory of attribution
deals with people who attempt to understand the relationship between cause and effect.
To begin, the story of the King of Thailand riding a dirty bull could suffice. The King of
Thailand usually rides a white elephant, and during his travels is usually greeted in
unison by his subjects with “Long live the King who rides on the white elephant.”
Then one day when the King came riding a dirty bull, his subjects continued to
greet him with the same words, except for four youths, who uttered, “The King is
riding a dirty bull.” They were captured and brought to the King’s palace. People
thought they would be imprisoned by the King. Instead, they were installed as
ministers. The King said, “You are truthful people. I need people like you.” This means
that it is difficult to seek honesty among people who merely follow the popular path.
Attribution is the process of determining motives, meanings, and characteristics of
others by observing explicit behavior (Baron and Byrne, 1979, p. 56). Attribution can
be directed at oneself (self-attribution), but here attribution is limited to leadership
attribution. In general there are two kinds of attribution: causality attribution and
honesty attribution (Rakhmat, 1996, p. 94).
When observing the behavior others, we often try to understand what drives them
to such behavior. Heider (1958, in Rakhmat (1996, p. 93)) was the first person to research
 causality attribution. According to Heider, if we observe social behavior, first we Islamic
should try to determine their causes, public or personal, which in attribution theory are leadership
often termed as external causality and internal causality. For example, does a student
drop out of school because of laziness or lack of motivation or because of a faulty
education system or unqualified lecturer? Are people poor because they are lazy, stupid,
or lacking in initiative or because of the exploitative economic structure? Do the people
living down the Mountain of Leuser Bahorok, which area was destroyed by the huge 381
flood in 2003, suffer because of their sins or because of God’s will? These questions are
asked to discover internal or external causality.
How do we discover whether another’s behavior is caused by internal, not external
factors? According to Jones and Nisbett (1971), we could understand personal motives
by observing two things. First, we focus on behavior which allows only one or two
causes. Second, we focus on behavior which deviates from typical behavior.
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Let us use an example (Goldstein, 1980, p. 140). In a class room, we could expect
a variety of student attitudes, looking forward while writing notes, looking forward
while chatting to peers closeby, looking forward while reading a newspaper, looking
forward while sleeping, or looking backward. All these behaviors are possible. Looking
forward while writing notes is the most probable behavior. This is the behavior most
difficult to be explained. Perhaps the student wishes to study, or pass a test, or maintain
scholarship, or respect the lecturer, or merely follow social norm. The first two are
internal causality, while the latter three are external. As such, the motive for this
behavior could not easily be ascertained.
Take a dissenting student. This deviates from the typical behavior of a student. We
could pinpoint the motive of the behavior to individual causes. Perhaps the student hates
the lecturer, or wishes to show bravado, or avoid the lecturer’s gaze. Whatever the
motive, clearly this shows internal causality. A conclusion which emerges from Jones
and Davis (1965) is that we could ascertain behavior causality through its context.
Several other researchers connect the process of attribution with status of personal
stimuli. Thibault and Riecken (1955, in Rakhmat (1996, p. 94)) conducted a thorough
experiment by requesting two groups of students to use persuasion to convince two
research subjects (researcher’s friends in disguise) to donate blood. The first group was
told that they needed to convince a lecturer with a doctoral degree, while the second
group was told they needed to convince a freshman. Both research subjects played their
roles perfectly.
The students were then asked to explain whether the research subjects followed
their request based on their persuasion, or based on the subjects’ own motivation (they
wish to donate blood whatever the reason). Internal causality was attributed more to
the subject with a higher status. The subject with a lower status was deemed to be
convinced of donating blood because of the students’ persuasion. Jones and Davis
(1965) strengthened this hypothesis. Compliment from someone with a higher status is
deemed as admiration, and considered honest, while compliment from someone with a
lower status is deemed as brown-nosing, deemed to conceal a self-interested motive.
More famous is the attribution theory of Kelley (1967, in Rakhmat (1996, p. 95)).
According to Kelley, we can determine internal or external causality through three means:
consensus, whether others act the same way in a different situation; consistency; and
distinctiveness, whether others act the same way in every situation, or only a
specific situation. To Kelly, if all characteristics are high, people are using external
 MRR causality attributes. For example, Rudi argues with lecturers as well as with students
36,4 (high consensus). Rudi has argued with the lecturer previously (high consistency). Rudi
has never argued with other lecturers (high distinctiveness). The conclusion would be that
Rudi is angry with the specific lecturer’s attribute, not that he is usually temperamental.
There is also an attribution of honest or dishonest personality. According to Baron
and Byrne (1979, pp. 70-1), we could observe two things:
382 (1) How far does a person’s statement deviate from accepted popular opinion?
(2) How much does a person personally profit from us by his statement?

The previous researchers have proven the veracity of this theory. So, when analysing
the attributes of leadership, we cannot escape its relationship with requirements of
leadership.
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4. Requirements of leadership
The concepts of leadership must always be linked to three central issues (Kartono, 1986,
pp. 27-31):
(1) power;
(2) dignity; and
(3) ability.

Power confers control, authority, and legality which gives leaders responsibility to
influence and persuade their followers to act. Dignity confers advantage, brilliance, and
precedence which enables leaders to instruct their followers. Ability confers strength,
willingness, and skill, which enables leaders to exceed their followers.
According to Fayol (1949, in Sukarna (1989, p. 96)) there are five requirements of
leaderships:
(1) physical quality;
(2) mental quality;
(3) moral quality;
(4) educational quality; and
(5) experience quality.

So a leader must be of good health, good mind, good character, good education, and
worldly. These five requirements are important for a leader. A leader without these five
qualities would most likely fail to achieve any goal.
These five requirements are inter-related. It can be seen that even if a leader possesses
good health, good mind, good education, and worldliness, without good character the
leader would not achieve true success. Similarly, even if the leader possess good
character, without good mind and other qualities again the leader would not achieve true
success. As such, the five qualities cannot be separated, they can only be differentiated.
Terry (1960), in his book Principles of Management, stated that the eight
requirements of leadership are as follows:
(1) energy/strength;
(2) emotional stability;
 (3) knowledge of human relationships; Islamic
(4) personal motivation; leadership
(5) communicative skill;
(6) teaching ability;
(7) social skill; and
(8) technical skill. 383
There are three new approaches to leadership theory:
(1) leadership attribution theory;
(2) charismatic leadership theory; and
(3) transactional versus transformational leadership theory.
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If there is a unifying theme to these three theories, it is an attempt to reduce theoretical

complexity in the analysis of leadership to enable understanding even by a layperson.
The theory of attribution, as mentioned previously, is used by people who wish to
understand cause and effect relationships. These people attempt to find connections
between causes and effects of an event. In the context of leadership, the theory of
attribution states that leadership is merely an attribution ascribed by others to an
individual. Using the framework of attribution, researchers found that people tend to
ascribe qualities of intelligence, affability, reliability, eloquence, assertiveness, and
perceptiveness.
Hence these qualities are closely related to the first three, and the fifth, requirements
of leadership presented by Terry (1960), namely energy, emotional stability,
knowledge of human relations, and communicative skill. A leader must be energetic,
physically, mentally, and spiritually, as there are many day-to-day problems needing
immediate solutions (Sukarna, 1989, p. 97). A leader with little stamina will not be able
to endure long working hours doing tasks which cannot be delegated to others.
Related to the second requirement, emotional stability, a leader must possess a
balanced and steady emotion. A leader must have a cool head even then the heart is boiling
(Sukarna, 1989, p. 978). A leader with an unstable temper may be quick to get angry and be
in a mood of desperation. Anger and desperation can doom the effort at hand.
The third requirement, knowledge of human relations, is closely related to the
attribution of a leader as perceptive and reliable (Robins, 1996, p. 59). To get along well
with other humans, a leader must know human nature and behavior. By knowing these
qualities, a leader can know the followers’ ways of thinking and capabilities for action,
and as such can assign the most appropriate task to suit everyone’s strength. A wise
leader would not assign a task to those who do not like or are not able to do such a task
(Sukarna, 1989, p. 98). Knowledge of human relations can help in these task assignments.
The fourth requirement of eloquence corresponds to the fifth requirement of
leadership by Terry (1960), which is communicative skill. A leader must be able to
convey his idea to others and grasp what others are trying to say. Communication aims
for understanding, and as such a leader must be eloquent in writing, if not in speech.
A well-conveyed idea would result in deep understanding enabling the achievement
of shared goals. When a leader manages to do this, orders would not be considered a
burden, but a responsibility for shared benefit.
 MRR From the above analysis there exists a strong link between leadership requirement
36,4 and leadership attribute. The high style of leadership is considered the best style of
leadership. At the level of organization, the framework of attribution considers the
state of leadership to explain the results of an organization. Whether an organization
performs satisfactorily or disappointingly, people tend to ascribe its success or failure
to the leader. This explains why CEOs are generally vulnerable if their organizations
384 lose money, regardless of their contribution to the performance. Similarly, CEOs tends
to arouse admiration when their organizations increase in profit, regardless of their
contribution (Gibson, 1996).
An interesting observation in the literature (Gordon and Graham, 2006) of
attribution theory is that effective leaders are usually observed to be consistently
upholding their decisions. This can explain why Ronald Reagan (in his first term in
office) was considered an effective leader due to his commitment, resilience, and
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consistency with his decisions and goals.

Kelley (1967, in Gibson (1996)) stated that the main task of leaders is to assign the
proper attribution to discover which of the three rationales play a part behind their
followers or subordinates’ behavior: people, task, and context. For certain behavior
causing unsatisfactory performance, a leader must determine whether the performance
was caused by people (who are incapable), or by task, or by unique circumstances
(context). A leader attempts to find three kinds of information when discovering
attributes to assign to followers’ behavior: distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus.
For each behavior, a leader first attempts to determine whether the behavior is
distinctively caused by a particular task, and by comparing whether or not such
behavior also exists during the performance of other tasks. Second, a leader determines
the consistency of behavior, the frequency of occurrence of the behavior. Third, a leader
predicts other situations in which other people will perform the same behavior: if the
behavior is unique to a certain follower, the behavior is said to be of low consensus; if
the behavior is common to many followers, it is said to be of high consensus.
The theory of attribution offers a framework to better explain the behavior of a
leader compared to the theory of trait and the theory of personal behavior. The theory
attempts to explain why a behavior occurs. The theory of trait and the theory of
personal behavior are more descriptive. They do not focus on the reasoning behind
each behavior. In addition, the theory of attribution can provide several predictions of a
leader’s response towards a follower’s behavior.
This means that the theory of attribution is related to the fourth requirement of
leadership put forward by Terry (1960), which is personal motivation. The desire to lead
must come from inside. Stimulus from outside merely ignites the sparks of leadership
inside. The desire to lead manifests itself in several ways, for example through diligence
and persistence. This internal desire is vital, considering that a leader must be
responsible for the outcome of stated goals. Motivation from inside will give birth to
enthusiasm for work to be done. No great thing is ever achieved without enthusiasm.
Hence in this series of attribution, for the first series, a leader must attempt to assign
proper attribution to unsatisfactory performance. These attributions are mediated by
three sources of information: distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus. For the
second series, the behavior and response of a leader is determined by the types of
attributes he assigned. The relationship between attribution and leader behavior is
mediated by the leader’s perception of responsibility.
 Moreover, as elaborated by Sukarna (1989, pp. 99-100), a leader must possess the Islamic
ability to teach. A good leader is a good teacher. A leader wishing success during his leadership
term must be able to teach others, be it through his actions or instructions during the
performance of a task. A leader acts like a teacher, who explains what is unclear,
corrects what is wrong, and evaluates what is being done. A leader must not only be
capable of locating mistakes, but also correct the mistakes and point to the right path.
Terry (1960) also stated an excellent social skill as a requirement of leadership. A good 385
leader must know the strengths and weaknesses of others. This knowledge can only be
obtained through interaction with others. As such, a leader must be willing to work together
with his followers and to mingle with them to obtain their trust and loyalty (Sukarna, 1989,
p. 100). When followers have trusted and are loyal to their leaders, they will work
voluntarily and contentedly. Also, a leader must appreciate his followers’ opinions and be
willing to help them. A harmonious relationship can only occur if there exists mutual
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appreciation. A leader should encourage such appreciation among his followers.

In addition, technical competence is no less important. Leading others needs solid
technical competency which can guide others. The effectiveness in planning,
organizing, delegating, analysing, persuading, advising, deciding, evaluating, and
cooperating all require exceptional technical competency. A leader without this quality
would find it hard to achieve success.

4.1 Requirements of Islamic leadership

A capable Islamic leader must possess spiritual awareness (slave of God) and rational
awareness (vicegerent of God). As God’s slave, a human becomes a faithful creature
who always does or does not do actions, as commanded by God. As God’s vicegerent, a
human becomes a successful creature here in this world through the acquisition of
knowledge (Nuruddin, 2011).
The integration of rational excellence (vicegerent of God) and emotional and spiritual
balance (slave of God) will in turn give birth to soul and conviction which drive activities
favored by God. Islamic leaders must unite divine awareness (al-rabbaniy) and rational
awareness (al-‘ilmiy). People of knowledge, capable of reading, understanding, and
making proper use of the realities of life for their benefit and their heart feel fear
(al-khasyyah) of God; they are those considered as capable and qualified leaders in the
Qur’an. In essence, Islamic leaders are those who possess knowledge integrated to their
profession along with continuous fear of God (Nuruddin, 2011).
Taking inspiration from Branine and Pollard (2010, in Nuruddin (2011), Islamic
leaders should possess:
.
Intention (Niyya) [Justification: The Prophet Mohammed said: “Actions are
recorded according to intention and a person will be rewarded or punished
accordingly.” The Qur’an (Chapter 13, verse 11) states: “God does not change the
condition of a nation unless it changes what is in its heart”].
.
Forever mindful of the Almighty God (Taqwa).
.
Kindness and care while feeling the presence of God (Ihsan).
.
Justice (Adl) [Justification: It is stated in the holy Qur’an: “O you who believe!
Stand out firmly for God as witnesses to fair dealing and let not the hatred
of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice [. . .]”
(Chapter 5, verse 8)].
 MRR .
Trust (Amana) [Justification: The holy Qur’an states: “O you that believe! Betray
36,4 not the trust of God and the Apostle nor misappropriate knowingly things
entrusted to you” (Chapter 8, verse 27)].
.
Truthfulness (Sidq).
.
Conscious of self-improvement (Itqan).
386 .
Sincerity and keeping promises (Ikhlas) [Justification: God calls upon
the believer, “O you who believe! fulfill (all) obligations” (Qur’an, chapter 5,
verse 1)].
.
Consultation (Shura) [It is stated in the holy Qur’an, addressing the
believers, that “their matters are shura among them” (Chapter 42, verse 38)].
. Patience (Sabar).
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Another set of inspiration comes from Ahmad (2008, in Nuruddin (2011)), whose
three categories of personal and organizational excellence should be part of any
Islamic leadership requirements. He calls these categories “core values”: taqwa,
akhlaq, and itqan. Ahmad provided Table I which can also be used for Islamic
leadership.

5. Conclusion
From the above description and analysis, it is clear that there exists a significant
relationship between leadership requirements and the formation of leadership attribution.
Leadership attributes can be seen from certain behaviors, such as low
output quality. This will then form a series of leadership attributes which can reflect
whether a leader has succeeded in achieving planned goals. Contributing attribute factors
are people (capable or incapable), tasks (difficult or easy), and context (unique to
every situation).
As such, to understand leadership attributes, a “high” leader (high in early structure or
consideration time) will be equally “high” (consistent) in what makes the leader good. This
means that, in any situation, a “high” leadership style is considered the most appropriate.
In the level of organization, the framework of attribution along with leadership
requirements determine the outcomes of an organization. Formation of attributes will
influence the behavior of a leader. In sum, leadership requirements elaborated by experts
has a close relation with formation of leadership attributes.

Dimensions of core values

Personal Organizational
Piety (Taqwa) Moral (Akhlaq) Quality (Itqan)

Trustworthiness Caring (Ihtimam) Effectiveness (Syiddah al- Maf’ul)

(‘Ittimaniyyah) Cooperation (Ta’awun/Musa’adah) Efficiency (Iqtidar/Fa’aliyyah)
Justice (‘Adalah) Courtesy (Mulathofah/Adab) Innovativeness (Tajdid/Ihdath)
Sincerity (Ikhlas) Humility (Tawaduk/Wadho’ah) Discipline (Intidzam)
Honesty (Amanah) Tolerance (Tasaamuh) Commitment (Iltizam/Iida’)
Table I. Gratefulness (Syukur) Respect (Ihtiram/Ri’ayah) Learning (Ta’allum)
Example of core values Courage (Shujaah)
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About the author

Dahlena Sari Marbun has been a Lecturer at Islamic University of North Sumatra (UISU) since
1986. She has taught courses on History of Islamic Development, focusing on the means of entry
of Islam to Indonesia and development of the Islamic education system in Indonesia. She
currently heads the Teacher Program department of UISU. Her works have been published in
national journals, for example, “The Theory of Development in State Political Ideology” (Madani
Journal, Vol. 10, No. 3, Oct. 2009), “Social Change through Social Control and their Relations with
Leadership Determinants” (Madani Journal, Vol. 5, No. 3, Oct. 2004), and “The Role of Non-school
Education to Improve Life Skills” (Tarbiyah Journal, No. 39, 2003). She has frequently
participated in numerous international seminars and was recently invited as keynote speaker for
a national seminar, in Medan, by the Centre for Teaching and Learning of North Sumatra. She
obtained her Master’s degree in Education with a full scholarship from the University Science of
Malaysia, where she was invited as a keynote speaker for the seminar on The Development of
Education in Indonesia by the Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia in Kuala Lumpur. She is
currently pursuing her PhD at the same university with a full scholarship from the Directorate
General of Higher Education, Indonesia. Dahlena Sari Marbun can be contacted at:
dahlenausm@gmail.com

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