Eric Ed210513

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 210 513 CE C30 785
TITUE Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning. Energy

Technology Series.
INSTITUTION Center for Occupational Research and Eevelopment,
Inc., Waco, Tex.; Technical Education Research
Centre-Southwest, Waco, Tex.
SPONS AGENCY Office of Vocational and Adult Education (Er).
Washington, D.C.
BUREAU NO 498AH0027
PUE DATE Sep 81
CONTRACT 300-78-0551
NOTE 347p.; For related documents see CE 030 771-789 and
ED 190 746-761.
AVAILABLE FROM Center for Occupational Research and Eevelopment, 601
Lake Air Dr., Waco, TX 76710 ($2.50 per module;
$20.00 for entire course).
EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available frou EDES.

DESCRIPTORS Adult Education: *Air Conditioning; Eebavioral
Objectives; Course Descriptions; Courses; Efficiency:"
*Energy; Energy Conservation; Glossaries; *treating;
Laboratory Experiments; Learning Activities; Learning
Modules; Postsecondary Education: *Power Technology:
RefOgeration; Refrigeration Mechanics; *Technical
Education: Two Year Colleges; *Ventilation
ABSTRACT
This course in heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning is one of 16-murses in the Energy Technology Series
developed for an Energy Conservation-and-Use Technology curriculum.
Intended for use in two-year postsecondary technical institutions to
prepare tecbnicians for employment, the courses are also useful in
industry for updating employees in company-sponsored training
programs. Comprised of eight modules, the course is designed to
develop an understanding of air conditioning and heating systems and
the
, their characteristics, applications, and limitations. It presents
basics of such systems and factors affecting the selection and
efficient operation of both commercial and residential heating and
air conditioning equipment. Written by a technical kixpert and
approved by industry representatives, each module contains the
following elements: introduction, prerequisites, objectives, subject
matttsr, exercises, laboratory materials, laboratory procedures
(experiment section for hands-on portion), data tables (included in
Ost basic courses to help students learn to collect or organize
data), references, and glossary. Module titles are Easic
Refrigeration Cycle, System Types, Refrigeration Equipment,
Beating Equipment, Boilers for Heating Applications,
Piping, Air Handling Equipment, and Psychrometrics. ME)
**********************************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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HEATING, "VENTILATING,
AND AIR CONDITIONING
CENTER FOR OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
601 LAKE AIR. DRIVE
WACO, TEXAS 767.10
U S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
ED AT IONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLY
CENTER (ERIC I HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
This document has beerveproduced es,
received from the person or orpanintron
originating 0
Minor changeS have been made to improve
reproduction quality t
D. M . SEPT. '81
Points of new or opinions stated in this docu TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES
ment do not necessarily represent °Roo& NIE INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
Posa.on or poky
PREFACE
ABOUT ENERGY TECHNOLOGY MODULES
The modules were developed by CORD for use in two-year postsecondary technical institutions
" .
to prepare technicians for employment and are useful in industry for updating employees in company-
sponsored training programs. The principles, techniques, and skills taught in the modules, based
on tasks that energy technicians perform, were obtained, from a nationwide advisory committee of
employers of energy technicians. Each module was written by a technician expert and approved by
representatives from industry,
A module contains the following elements:,
Introduction, which identifies the topic and often includes a rationale for studying the material,
Prerequisites, which identify the material a student should be familiar with before studying the
module.
Objectives, which clearly identify what the student is expected to know for satisfactory module
completion. The objectives, stated in terms of action-oriented behaviors, include such action
words as operate, measure, calculate, identify, and define, rather than words with many interpre-
tations such as know, understand, learn, and appreciate.
Subject Matter, which presents the background theory and techniques supportive to the objectives.
of the module. Subject matter is written with the technical student in mind.
Exercises, which provide practical problems to which the student can apply this new knowledge.
Laboratory Materials, which identity the equipment required to complete the laboratory procedure.
Laboratory Procedures, which is the experiMent section, or "hands -on"' portion, of the module 4
(includipg Aep-by-step instruction) designed t: r6inforce student learning.
Data Tables, which are included in most modules for the first year (or basic) courses to help fo;
the student learn how to collect and organize data.
References, which are included as suggestions for supplementary reading/viewing for the student.
Test, which measures the student's achievement of prestated objectives.

CONTENTS
Preface
Table of Contents
,Introduction to Course
MODULE HC-01 Basic Refrigeration Cycle
MODULE HC-02 System Types
MODULE HC-03 Refrigeration Equipment
MODULE HC-04 Residential Heating Equipment
MODULE HC-OS Boilers For Heating Applications
MODULE HC -06 Piping
MODULEAC-07 Air-Handling Equipment
MCDULE\HC-08 Psychrometrics
eo
0
4
HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING
.
.INTRODUCTION
r
Energy used for-heating and air conditioning represents
the largest residential energy expenditure and one of the
larpst expenditures for commercial and industrial facilities
as well.
Thus,, an understanding of air conditioning and heating
systems and their characteristics, applications, and limits
tions is essential for those personnel interested in con-
serving energy and reducing energy expenditures.
This course is designed to develop such an understanding.
A.complete description of air conditioning and heating 'sys-
tems and the skills necessary for designing,' operating,
and maintaining them would fill many volumes. The intent
of this course is not to develop expertise in these areas,
but to present the basics of such systems and factors affecting
the selection and efficient operation of both commercial
and residental heating and iir conditioning equipment.
Many kinds of equipment and systems are in use; new
types are constantly being-developed, as rising energy costs
make more efficient operation necessary. Only common.eqUip-
ment types and systems are disdussed here.
(7.e area of new technology that has great promise'in
the HVAC industry is the application of solar energy to
both heating and cooling. While practical solar cooling
systems are not yet available, solar energy is currently
being used for many heating applications. The use of solar
energy in heating and cooling systems is sure to grow. Solar
energy is not,discussed in this course, but students should

note that the hot water used for heating application may
be produced by solar collectors.
1
1.
The Aeating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning' course

consists .o$ the following modules:
Module HC-01, "Basic Refrigeratiob Cycle," describes
the basic components and operation of a refrigeration sys-
tem. HC-01 includes the properties of refrigerants and
the use,of the pressure-enthalpy diagrams in examining the
operation of refrigeration'systems. The laboratory for
HC-01 consists of the operation of a small refrigeration'
system and plotting the system characteristics on a pressure-
'enthalpy diagram. Energy flow through the system is stressed.
Module HC-02, "System Types," de,scribes various systems
used to deliver heating or cooling to conditioned space.
Characteristics- and applications of all-air, air-and-water,
all.-water, and unitary systems are discussed. The principles
of operation of heat pumps are included. The laboratory .
for this module includes the first of four field trips to

a commercial air conditioning installation. The purpose
of this trip is to examine the central station and become
familiar with the system.
Module HC-03, "Refrigeration Equipment," describes
the components commonly found in large air conditioning
systems and their operation. Topics include reciprocating
and centrifugal compressors, metering devices, condensers
and cooling towers, evaporators and water chillers, and
system 'accessories and controls. The operation of absorp-
tion chillers is also included. The laboratory consists ,
of a second field trip, during which the refrigeration com-

ponents and system are examined in detail.
Module HC-04, "Residental Heating Equipment," describes
electric, gas-fired and oil-fired heating equipment used
for residential heating applications. The discussion in-
cludes system controls, efficiency, and basic inspection
O
6
0
and maintenance procedures. The laboratory consists of

performing maintenance and operation procedures on a standard
gas-fired residential furnace.
Module HC -05, "Boilers For Heating Applications," de-
scribes the construction and operation of boilers'for heat-
ing application. Topics include the design of various boiler
types, with emphasis on the scotch marine boiler that is\
Atst commonly used. Other topics are oil and gas buTner,
design, boiler controls, gas trains, and flame safeguard
Systems. The labdratory for 4this module is a third field
trip, during which students will examine the boiler of a
large HVAC installation.
Module HV-06, "Piping," discusses-the characteristics
of piping in HVAC systems. _Topics include types of pipes
and valves, resistance to floW in piping systems, and the
design and characteristics Of piping systems to carry water,
refrigerant, and steam. The laboratory consists of soldering
and brazing copper pipes.
Module HC-OT, "Air-Handling equipment,".describes the
characteristics and applications of various fan types and
ductwork. Additional topics include basic air flow principles,
air velocity in ducts, placement and types of grills 'and
registgcs, and duct configurations of various system typei.

The laboratory of this module is the latt of four field
trips, during which the ductwork and air-handling equipment
of a large air conditioning system will be examined.
Module HC-08, "Psychrometrics," describes the.charac-
teristics of air that are changed by air conditioning and
heating processes. The characteristics and uses°of the
psychrometric chart are described, and the chart is used
in problem solving and system design.' The laboratory is
a pencil and paper exercise using the chart.,
7
r.
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
cut CONSERVATION AND USE
HEATING, VENTILATING:
MODULE HC - 01
BASIC REFRIGERATION CYCLE
0.4
ORD 9
.8
14
1
.#
............"
/
4,
C Center for Occupational Research and Development, 1981
This work was developed under a contract with the Department of

Education. However, the content does not necessarily reflect the posi-
tion or policy of that Agency, and no official endorsement of these
materials should be inferred.
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyrights

hereon may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, record-
ing, taping:or information and retrievals systems without the ex-
press permission of the Center for Occupational Research and
Development. No liability is assumed with respect to the use of the in-
formation herein.
i
a.
-,
9
INTRODUCTION
- .
Heat energy always travels from a high temperatui.e re-

gion to a lower temperatUre region, lowering the higher.tem-
ufitil the twb are,
perature andlraising the lower to
equal with the system in thermal- equilibrium; To lowe1r the
temperatureof.a body or to maintain it at a temperature low-
er than its environment, heat energy must be removed ,from
the body: "
A refrigeratiOn system, is a "thermal pump" that creates
or maintains:a temperature difference by absorbing. heat en-
ergy from a "cold" substance aid releasing it into
substance.
Refrigeration systems are key elements in food storage,
processing, and marketing, in environmental control, and in
many indust?ial processes,. In all these systems heat trans-
fer is accomplished by a Circulating medium, called a "re-
frigerant," that absorbs heat from .one location through
evaporation and releases it at another location through con-
densation.
10
This module discusses the basic refrigeration.cycle,
components, and operation of a basic refrigeration system,
and common neasurements that'are performed on such a system.
In the laboratory the student will operate a simple refrig-
eration system, measure system' pressures and temperatures,
and diagraa'the operation of the system.
PREREQUISITES
The studeAt should have cpmpieted Unified Technical

Concepts I, 1I,',and III; Mechanical Devices and Systems;
and Electromech iCal Devices. e.
HC-01/Page 1
10
ye
II
OBJECTIVES
Upon cdmpletion of this module the student. should be

.
able to:
1. 'Listc the four'iajor elements of a refrigeration system
sod
and expl#iii the purposellif each. Include how each of
.the following refrigerant characteristics changes'in
each component:.
a.
a. Temperature.
b., Pressure.
.c. Energy content.
d. State (liquid or gas);
2. Draw and-label a diagram f a simple,refrigeration
system and identify the following parts:
a. Compressor.
b. Hot gas line.
c. Condenser.
d. Warm liquid line,
e. Metering device.
f. Evaporator.
O
g. Cold gas pipe.
J. Given 'a simPlifigd pressure - enthalpy diagraM,
the following:. r
a. Subcooled liquid zone. e.

b. Superheated vapor zone.
lor
c. Mixed liquid and vapqr zone.
d. Saturated liquid .line.
e. Saturated vapor4line. ,
f. Constant preisure line.

g. Constant enthalpy line.
h. Constant temperature line.
i. Constant volume line.
Page 2/HC-01
11
j: Constant entropy line.
k. Constant quality line..
4. Given a blank pressure-enthalpy chart; draw a diagram
of a refrigeration cycle and identify the following:
a. Condensation line.
b. Evaporation line.
c. Expansion line.'
S.
d. Compression line.
e. Subcooling'of liquid.
f. SuperhOiing of vapor.
S. Explain the purposes of superheating and subcooling.
6. Draw a diagram showing-the proper connection of a
gauge manifold toa refrigeration system.
7. List in order the proper steps for, attaching the gauge
manifold to system and for removing the manifold from
the system. Refer to the diagram in-Objective 6.
8. Solve refrigeration system problems of the folfbwing
type:
GiVen:: Pressure-enthalpy diagram of refrigerant.
High-side pressure..
Low-side pressure.
Compressor discharge temperature.
Temperature 'of warm liquid line.
Temperature ;..2 suction line.
Find: Condasai'idn,temperature.
,Evaporation temperature.
Net refrigeration effect.
Energy of compression. 4
.Heat rejection in condenser.

. Coefficient of performance.
Percent of vapor entering evaporator.
9. Given a blank, pressure- enthalpy diagram and the appro-
.
-priate equipment, measure the pressures and tempera-
tures present in an operating refrigeration syste and
draw the operating cycle of the system on the_pressure-
enthalpy diagram. Determine the following quantities:
a. Condensation temperature.
b. Evaporation temperature.
c. Net refrigeration effect.
d. Energy of compression.
e. Heat rejection in condenser.
f. Coefficient of performance.
13
Page 4/HC-01
4
SUBJECT MATTER,
PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
* Figure 1 illustrates the basic principles of all refrig-

eration systems. The purpose of-this system is to reduce
the temperature of a volume and the material it contains to
a temperature beloW that of the surroundings.
1.:",
-4,
HEAT ENERGY OUT
INTO HOT REGION t
ks
HEAT ENERGY IN
FROM COLD REGION
nM
1 REFRIGERATION ENERGY
SYSTEM AA/
cM
ENTERS
THROUGH
INSULATION
TEMPERATURE
DROPS
,
Ze
ENERGYINPUT TO
OPERATE SYSTEM INSULATION
Figure 1. Principles of Refrigeration.
Heat energy always moves from a region of high tempera-

ture to a region of lower tempefature. Separating the two
regions by insulation reduces heat flow but does not stop it.
The refrigeratiOn.system absorbs heat energy from the cold
reg'on and rejects it into the hotter region, .thereby lower-
ing the. temperature of the cold region. Ahheat pump is used
to pump the heat energy from the cold region'- to the hotter ,
one.
To absorb heat energy from its surroundings the cold
side of thelrefrigeration system must.be colder than its
14 HC-01/Page S
surroundings. Moreover, the hot side of the refrigeration
system must be hotter than its surroundings in order to re-
ject heat. The temperature difference across the system is
produced by energy from an external source. In the mechan-
ical refrigeration cycle discussed in this module, input
energy is mechanical energy to a compressor. The energy re-
jected by the system is the total of its operating energy
and the heat energy absorbed from the cold region.
Efficient operation of'a refrigeration system depends
upon insulation of the cold region and transfer of the maxi-
mum thermal energy with the minimum operating energy.
BASIC REFRIGERATION COMPONENTS
Figute 2 shows the four basic components of a mechanical

refrigeration system. This system transfers heat by circu-
lating a fluid refrigerant throt;gh a clbse'd loop. At some
points the refrigerant is a liquid, and at others it is a
gas (vapor). Heat transfer occurs primarily through change
of state of the refrigerant.
EVAPORATOR COMPRESSOR
.7
Figure 2. Basic Refrigeration Components.
Page 6/HC-01 15
D
COMPRESSOR
The compressor'is a mechanical device that applies

.
the operating energy to increase the temperature, pressure,
and internal energy Of the refrigerant in the vapor state.
Vapor enters the compressor from the evaporator with a low
pressure and low temperature and leaves with, a higher pres-
sure and higher temperature. The compressor adds the oper-
ating energy to the refrigerant and forces it through the
, 0
I
system.
CONDENSER ,
The condenser rejects heat into the hot region. The

hot vapor .from,the compressor enters the condenser at a tem-
perature above the temperature of the air surrounding they,
condenser. Heat energy is transferred thrqugh the condenser
waldt, cooling the refrigerant and causing it to condense
into liquid. The condenser reduces the temperature of the
hot gas to the condensation temperature, removes latent heat
at the condensation temperature to change the gas to liquid,,
and cools the liquid to a temperature below the condensation
._ . ___
temperature. The condenser operates at-the high,side pres

sure of the comprettor outlet. It reduces the internal
energy and temperature of the refrigerant and changes the
refrigerant from a gas to a liquid. .
HC -01 /Page 7
IG
, . i.
A
IP
METERING DEVICE
Hot liquid refrigerant from the condenser flows through

a metering device which restricts the flow of the fluid,
producing a pressure drop from the high-side pressure to
the low-side pressure. The refrigerant expands as it passes
- through the metering device; then its-temperatUre drops.
The refrigerant leaving the metering device is a mixture of
cold liquid and low-pressure vapor. The energy content of
thi refrigerant does not change as it passes through the
valve.
EVAPORATOR
The evaporator absorbs heat energy from the cold region.

The refrigerant enters the evaporator at low pressure with a
temperature below that of the surroundings. Heat energy is
them.tranSferred througb the evaporator walls, heating the
refrigerant and causing the remaining liquid to boil into
vapor. The evaporator has a constant temperature and pres-
sure. Only the energy content and the state of the refrig-
erant change.
BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Figure 3 shows a basic refrigeration system with all

major, components and refrigerant lines identified. The high-
-pressure side of the system extends from the outlet of the
compressor A to the metering device E. The low-pressure
side extends from the metering device back to the inlet of
Page 8/HC-01
Figuie 3. Schematic of a Basic Refrigeation System.
the compressor. The temperature given for each component

in -the following, discussion-is the approximate value of the
refrigerintin that component in a residential air condition-
ingsystem using Refiigerant R-12 with,a high-side pressure
of 185psia (pounds per square inch absolute) and a low-side
pregsure.of 40 psia.
Hot vapor (180°F) from the compressor (A) flows'through
the hot gas line (B) to the condenser (C), (125°F), where it
_condenses into liquid,- The hot liquid refrigerant (85°F)
flows thrOugh the hot liquid line (D) to the expansion valve
(E). After therefrigerantpassesthrough the valve into
the evaporator (F), the pressure is the low-side pressure,
and the temperature (25°F) is the temperature of evaporation.
The cold liquid refrigerant absorbs heat in the evaporator
and changes to cold vapor. This vapor (35°F) flows through
the cold gas Tine CG), also calledthe'sucti-on tine," back
to the comptessor,
r
1/4
13 HC-01/Page 9
-
PRESSURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM
The operating characteristies of any refrigeration

system are determined by the refrigerant used. Many ref4g-
erants are available, and the characteristics of each are
presented in a diagram called a "pitisure-enthalpy diagram"
(Figure 4). The vertical axis of the diagram is absolute
pressure (psia),
CRITICALI)omn and the horizontal
SUBCOOLED
/ axis is enthalpy.
. LIQUID
ZONE Enthalpy is 'the
energy content of
-the refrigerant in
SUPERHEATED
VAPOR Btu/lb which is
ZONE
usually stated rela-
tive to liquid re-
ENTHALPY frigerant at -40°p._
'The enthalpy of the

Figure 4. Pressure-Enthalpy- Diagram. tefrigerantmay
change because of.a
'change in temperature (sensible heat)-or because of a change
in state (latent heat).
The pressure-enthalpy diagram is divided into three
regions. To the left of the saturated liquid -line is the
subcooled liquid zone.' In this zone the refrigerant is 100%
liquid at a pressure and temperature,tnat will not allow the
formation of vapor. Vapor can be produced only if the tem-
perature is raised or the pressure is lowered.
To the_right_of'the saturate4, vapor line is the super-
,
heated vapor zone. Superheated vapor has sufficient energy

content that no liquid can condense unless.the temperature-
is decreased or the pressure is increased.,
Between the two saturated lines is the mixed liquid
and vapor zone. In this zone both liquid and vapor refrig-
erant are present. Within this zone a change in internal
energy at a fixed pressure changes the relative amounts of
liquid and vapor; but not the temperature.
The critical point is the maximum pressure at which
the refrigerant can exist as liquid. Above this pressure
the refrigerant is always in the vapor state.
REFRIGERANT PROPERTIES
Each point on the pressure-enthalpy diagram corresponds

-to,a particular set of refrigerant properties. Six proper-
ties used in describing refrigeration systems are usually
included (Figure 5)-
PRESSURE (Psia)
The vertical scale is absolute pressure in pounds per

square inch. A logarithmic scale is used so the entire use -
ful, range of the refrigerant can be included on a chart of
reasonahle-size.-7-Lihes-of-constant-pressure-(Figurerun
horizontally - across the chart.'
ENTHALPY (Btu/lb)
The horizontal scale is enthalpy (internal energy) in

Btu per'pound Of refrigerant. Absolute enthalpy is of no
interest. Only changes in enthalpy are important. The
J
enthalpy scale is linear, and

a. constant enthalpy lines run
Constant vertically (Figure 5b).
Pressure
4° TEMPERATURE (°F)
Lines ef constant tem-

perature (Figure 5c) run in a
vertical direction in the sub-
cooled liquid zone, in a hori-
zontal direction in the mixed
Constant zone, and almost vertically in
Temperature
the superheated vapor zone.
On most charts the constant
----temperiftiieiines are omitted
_-
in the first two zones (dotted
lines), as. they are easily
determined from scales along
the saturated liquid line and
saturated vapor line. '
:. .s .
Constant
Entropy
4.: "A.. - - z.e.,,, ,
bPbCIFIC-VOLUME (ftTIBI
4.
.,
.
Lines of constant volume
(Figure 5d) extend to the right
of.thesatqrated vapor line at
a slight angle above horizontal.
Constant volume lines are of
no interest in the other zones
$.- Refritexant-
,Prope ties on the Pres- and will not'be used elsewhere
tsure -En alpy Diagram. in this module.
;
nge 12/HC-01
ENT OPY (Btu/lb °F)°
/ Entropy is the ratio of heat energy transferred per

o}ndr(added to Or subtracted from a substance) to the ab-
e temperature at which this heat flow occurs. This is
thematical Adantity that cannot be measured but can be
calculated from measured physical quantities. Entropy is
important in compressor operation. Constant entropy lines
(Figure Se) extend to the upperiiRht of the saturated vapor
line as they have practical use'only in the superheated vapor
zone.
-PERCENT VAPOR
In the mixed liquid and vapor zone, part of the refrig-

erant is vapor and part is liquid. Lines of "constant qual-
ity"(Figure 5f) extend to the upper right in this zone and
are calibrated according to the percent of the refrigerant
. in the vapor state..
Figure 6 is the complete pressure-enthakr diagram for
refrigerant-R-12. d.
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Energy flOw through a refrigeration systemcan,be

examined by drawing a diagram of tbe refrigeration cycle
op_theLpressure-enthalpy diagraM of the refrigerant used in
the system. The cycle diagram consists of four lines, each
indicating thb effect of one of the foUr major components
upon the 'refrigerant.
HC-01/Page 13
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CONDENSATION LINE
Condensation occurs at'a constant pressure.' The con-

densation line is a horizontal line (Figure 7a) to the left
at the pressure of the condenser. Displacement to the left
through the mixed zone
along this line indicates
decreasing enthalpy as a.
the refrigerant condenses Condensation line
at constant pressure and

temperature. The length
of this line in the su-
perheated vapor zone b.
.indlicates heat that must Evaporation Jini

be removed before'the
vapor reaches saturation
ifid--COndensation begins.
Some of this heat is dis- o.
sipated through the hot Expansion line
gas line and causes a tem-
perature drop along that
line. An exteasion of the
condensation line into the
subcooled liquid zone in-
dicates removal of'heat
from 'the warm liquid line
and a temperature drop Components of
Figure 7,
along it. the Refrigeration Cycle.
25 HC-01/Page 1S
I
i0EVAPORATION LINE
Evaporation also occurs at constant pressure. The

evaporation line (Figure 7b) is a horizontal line to the
ri4t at th pres ure of the evaporator. This line always
starts) the mixed\gone. Displacement to the right along
this-line indicates in increase in enthalpy at constant tem-
\ .
perature and pressure as the refrigerant evaporates. An ex-

tension of this line into the superheated.vapor.zone indi-
cates absorption of energ,and a temperature increase_ in the
cold gas .line.
EXPANSION LINE
Expansion occurs with no Obange in enthalpy. The ex-

pansion line (Figure 7c) extendsownward,from the condensa-
tion line to the evaporation line,\trossing the saturated
liquid line at the temperature of the liquid refrigerant in.
' the warm liquid line. The lower end\of this line indicates
the percentage of the refrigerant thai is vaporized upon
expansion.
COMPRESSION LINE
Compression occurs in an ideal compressor at constant

entropy. The compression line (Figure 7d) is a line of con-
stant entropy upward from the end of the evaporation line to
.
the end of the condensatioh,line. Vapor pressure, tempera-
:.
ture, and enthalpy all" increase along this line\
4
Page 16/HC-01 0
4 26
,
IDEAL SATURATED CYCLE
FigUre 8 shows the ideal saturated cycle, illustrating

the functions of the four basic components of all refrigera-
tion systems. Line segments AB, BC, CD, andDA respectively
represent condensation,'expansion, evaporation, and compres-
sion: ,
,or
A-o B CONDENSER
ISGA SIDE A 13-41. C METERING DEVICE:

PRESSURE
C-IP D EVAPORATOR
LOW SIDE
PRESSURE
-41, A COMPRESSOR
NET REFRIGERATION
EFFECT ENERGY OF
COMPRESSION
Figure 8. Ideal Saturated Cycle.
The net refrigeration effect (N.R.E.) is the difference

enthalpy between C and D and is the heat (Btu) ,removed.
-from the evaporator by each pound of refrigerant, The ener-
-gy*of compression is the differenc, e in enthalpy between D
and A and is the energy necessary to.compress one pound of 6
refrigerant. The sum of these (ioto B) is the energy re-
f
jected "rough the condenser by one pound of refrigerant.
The coefficient of performance (C.O.P.) is defined as
"the ratio of net refrigeration effect to enerpit of compres-
HC-01/Page 17
27
sion." It is numerically equal to the heat energy in Btu's
removed from the cold region for each Btu of energy used in
compression.
4,
ÀCTUAL OPERATING CYCLE
Figure 9 shows the actual operating cycle of a typical,-; ..-
'refrigeration system. This_ cycle differs from the ideal

.cycle in several details, the most important of which ,are
DEVIATION FROM
CONSTANT ENTROPY
COMPRESSION
EFFECT OF ACTUAL
SUSCOOUNG OPERATING
LIQUID CYCLE PRESSURE LOSS IN
COMPRESSOR.D1SCHARGE
OD CIO =, VALVES
OM OM .0
OM OM 41111 PRESSURE LOSS IN
HIGH SIDE PIPING
CONSTANT
ENTROPY
..... PRESSURE LOSS IN
. LOW SIDE PIPING
PRESSURE' LOSS IN
IDEAL COMPRESSOR SUCTION
SATURATED VALVES
CYCLE
EFFECT Of SUPERHEATING SUCTION VAPOR
Figure 9. Actual Operating Cycle.
the subcooling of the liquid in the warm liquid line and the
superheating of the vapor in the sucticn line.
Page 18/HC-01
28
Subcooling removes additional energy from the hot
(125°F) liquid refrigerant before it'reaches the metering
device. This action lowers its temperature and results in
more liquid refrigerant moving through the. metering device,
increasing the net refrigeration effect.
Superheating adds energy to the cold (25°F) gas before
it enters the compressor. Some superheating is necessary
in all systems to assure that only,gas enters the compressor.
Liquid refrigerant can damage the compreSior.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM ANALYSIS

$),
The performance of a refrigeration system can be eval-

uated by measuring system pressures and temperatures and
. drawing a simplified operating cycle of the system on the
pressure- enthalpy diagram.
This process, whiCh is illustrated in Example A, will
be used in the laboratory.
EXAMPLE A: SYSTEM ANALYSIS.
Given: The following quantities were measured for an

air conditioner using R-12:
High-side pressure = 169 psig.
Low-side pressure = 24.5 psig.
Compressor discharge temperature = 185°F.
Temperature of warm liquid line = 85°F.
Temperature of suction line = 52°F.
HC-01/Page 19
29
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Example.A. Continued.
Convert the measured gauge prissurei to atmospheric

pressure by adding 14.7 psi.
Low-side pressure = 24.5 psig + 14.7 psi
= 39.2 psia.
'High-side pressure = 169 psig + 14.7 psi

= 183.7 psia.
Draw the compression line at high-side pressure of

183.7 psia.
Draw the evaporation line at low-side pressure of 39.2
psia.
Draw expansion line vertically, downward from condensa-.
tion line to the evaporation line so that it passes
through the intersection of the saturated liquid line
of the chart and the temperature of the warm liquid
line (85°F).
Locate the Joint where the right end of the expansion
line intersects the temperature of the suction line
(52°F) (compressor intake temperature).
Locate the point where the right end of the compression
line intersects the, temperature of the hot gas line
(185°F) (compressor discharge temperature). .;
Draw the compression fine by connecting the points lo-
cated in Steps 5 and 6.
Label points A, B, C, D, E. This completes the dia-
gram..
The following information can be determined from the
graph located at the end Of Example A.
a. The condensation temperature of the refrigerant in
the condenser is the temperature at which the con-
,
'densation.line crosses the saturated liquid and,

saturated vapor lines: 125°F
HC-01/Page 21
31'
Example A. Continued.
b. The temperature of the refrigerant'in the evapo-

iator is the temperature.at which the evaporation
line crosses the saturated liquid and saturated
vapor lined: 25°F. _ _______
c. The net refrigeration effect is the difference in
enthalpy between pointsC and D:
80 Btu/lb - 27 Btu/lb = 53 Btu/lb.
d. The energy of compression is the difference in

enthalpy between points D and A:
101 Btu/lb - 84 Btu/lb = 17 Btu /Lb.
e. Heat rejection in the condenser is the difference

in enthalpy between points A and B.
101 Btu/lb - 27 Btu/lb = 74 Btu/lb.
f. The refrigerant at point C is 20% vapor.
g. Coefficient of Net refrigeration effect

performance Energy of compression
53 Btu/lb
C.O.P.
17 Btu/lb
C.O.P. = 3.12.
Note that in this system the hot vapor is superheated by

27°F. Better insulation of the cold gas line would reduce
the temperature of the compressor and improve system effi-
ciency.
Page 22/HC-01
32
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BASIC REFRIGERATION MEASUREMENTS
1
Obtaining the data necessary to draw the refrigeration -
cycle of an operating system requires measurements of system

pressures and temieratures.
GAUGE MANIFOLD
The high-Side' and low-side, pressures are measured with

a device called a "gauge manifold" (shown connected to a
System in Figure 10). The-right gauge is a high-pressure
gauge calibrated. in pounds per square inch above atmospheric
pressure (psig). The left gauge is a compound gauge reading
pressures above atmospheric in psig and pressures below'at-
mosphere in inches of mercury. Any measurements made with
these guages must be converted to absolute pressure before
use on a. pressure-enthalpy diagram.
Figure 10b shows the construction of the manifold.
Valves A and B are used to connect the two end ports to the
center port. They do not disconnect the gauge from the re-
frigeration system.
Figure 10b also shows the refrigeration service valves
(C and D). These valves are located on the compressor and
provide access to measure high-side and low-side pressures.
They are back-seated (full counter4ockwise) when the re-
frigeration system is in operation. Turning the v.:Ives all
the way "in" (full clockwise) blocks refrigeration flow.
Page 24/HC-01
34
k
' EVAPORATOR .
MANIFOLD
i
OIANFOLD DOCHARGE
:SUCTICtt It..
, VALVE VALV E
COMIRESISO
MANIFOLD C DISCHARGE
I;
COIAFRESSOR
SUCTION
SERVICE
VALVE
a. Conventional System Avitt/ b. Schematic of Gauge

Gauge Manifold Installed' Manifold on System
Figure 10. System and SchematiC with Gauge Manifold.
USE OF THE GAUGE MANIFOLD
The following steps are used in connecting the manifold

to the system to avoid contaminating the'refrigerant with
...
air:
o
1. Remove valve stem covers.
2. Check valves C and D to be sure they are fully back
seated. Refer to Figure 10.
3. Remove covers from valve service ports (C and D).
4. Connect the low pressure giuge to D and thc, high-pres-
t
sure gauge to C.
5. Close valves A and B. Leave port-E open.
HC -0l /Page. 25
V1)
i
I
6. Open valve A slightly.
7. Open valve D slightly until gas escapes from port E.
Allow hose.to be purged until all ail is exhausted.
8. Close valve A.
-77-9.77-0Pen-vaigirrrY.
10. Open valve C slightly until gas escapes from port E.
Allow hose to be purged until all air is exhausted.
11. Close valve B.
The gauges now read the high-side and low-side pres-

sures. The system can be started, and monitored during op-
eration. Additional refrigerant can:be added to the systei
by attaching the refrigerant cylinder toloort E, purging ,
the hose, and opening valve A to allow the cylinder to ex-

haust into the suction side of the compressor. A cylinder
'should never be connected to the high-pressure side of'the
compressor.
The following steps are used in removing the gauge man-
ifold from the system to avoid loosing the refrigerant in
the high-pressure gauge line:'
1. Plug port E. but do not seal plug tightly.
2. Open valve A slightly to purge the volume between the
gauges.
3. Seal plug.
4. Back-seat vale C (full counterclockwise).
3. With the compre sor operating, open valve A.
6. Crack valve B sli htly to allow high- pressure refrig-
erant to flow into\ uction line. Flow should be slow
enough that all refri erant is vaporized to avoid com-
pressor damage. N.
7. When both gauges indicate'the same pressure, back-seat

valve D.
8. Loosen plug or connection and allow gauge pressure to
drop, to atmospheric.
9. Remove manifold.
Replace covers on valve service ports and valve tem
10:
caps.
The temperature of the refrigerant in the hot gas line,

the hot liquid line, and the suction line can be determined
with an electronic contact thermometer. The sensors should
pos-
be installed on the gas lines as near the compressor as
sible and on the hot liquid line just before the metering
device. The surface of - the pipe
should be cleaned with steel
wool to.remove paint or corrosion. The' temperature sensor
should be taped onto the pipe and wrapped with insulation.
The temperatures of the condenser and evaporator can
be-measured in the same way. Accurate temperatures of con-
be determined from pres-
densation and evaporation can also
sure measurements. Most gauges4have scales that indicate
for the two
the evaporation and condensation temperatures
most common refigerants, R-12 and R-22.
HC-01/Page 27
- 0
t
EXERCISES
of
1. Explain, with the use of-a diagram, the principle
refrigeration.
2. In.ExiMPle A the net refrigeration effect is 53 Btu/lb--
Btu /lb for'a total'
---and theenergy of compression is 17
the condenser is
of 70 Btu/lb. The heat rejection in
the additional 4 Btu/
74 Btu/lb. What is' the source of
lb?
3. List the steps Eor detaching a gauge manifold from a
refrigeration system.
that
4. Identify the processes, in the refrigeration cycle
occur at constant...
a, temperature.
b. entropy:
c. enthalpy.
d. pressure.
5. Draw and label a schematic diagram of a simple refrig-
and con:
eration system, phowing all majqr components
necting pipes. Give the approximate temperature of the
refrigerant in each component. For those in whidh tem-
peratures change, give approximate upper and lower tem-
peratures.
6. Given the following data on a refrigeration system:
High-side pressure: 140 psia.
Low-side pressure: 3Spsia.
Compressor dischalgetemperatime: 145°F.
Temperature of warm liquid line: 100°F.
Temperature of suction line: 30°F.
Pressute-enthalpy diagram for R-12 (following
page).
HC -01 /Page 29
33
A
4.,
Find: Condensation temperature:

Evaporation temperature:
Net refrigeration effect:
Energy of compression:
.Heat rejection in condenser:
*Coefficient of performance:
Percent vapor entering, evaporator:
7. What is.the. C.O.P. of the above system if the liquid
is subcooled 4o '60°F?.
V.
4
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,
LABORATORY MATERIALS
Refrigeration system with R-12 refrigerant.

Gauge manifold.
Electronic contact thermometer with 3 sensors.
Insulating tape.
hirenchbs.
Mercury thermometer.
. LABORATORY PROCEDURES
1. Attach the temperature sensors to the hot gas line, the

warm liquid line, and the suction line, as described
in the text.
2. Connect the gauge manifold to the system, as described
in the text.
3. Operate the system until it has reached a steady state
cohditi9n (no temperatures changing).
4. Measure and record the following data in the Data Table:
a. High-side pressure. ,
b. Low-side pressure.
c. Compressor discharge temperature.
.d. Temperature of warm liquid
e. Temperature of suction line.
5. Use the mercury thermometer to measure the temperature
of the air entering and leaving the evaporator and con-
denser. Record the values in the Data Table.
6. Remove one of the. electronic thermometer sensors and
use it to measure the evaporator and condenser tempera-
,
tures. Record the values in the Data Table.

7. Remove the gauge manifold, as described in the text.
Page 32/HC-01
8. Use the data taken, in Step 4 and ExaMple A to plot the
refrigeration cycle on the pressure-enthalpy chart in
the DataTable.
9. Use the refrigeration cycle diagram to complete the
Data Table.
10. Write a short paragraph-explaining the relationships of
the following temperatures:
a. Refrigerant in condenser.
b. Condenser.
c. Air into condenser.
d. Air out of condenser.
' 11. Repeat Step 10 for the evaporator.
12. Sketch the system and include all measured refrigerant
temperatures.
DATA TABLES
DATA TABLE
MEASURED DATA
High -side pressure = psig= psia.

Low-side pressure = psig = psia.
Compressor discharge temperature = °F.
Temperature of warm liquid line = °F.
Temperature of suction line = °F.
'Temperature of air entering condenser = °F.
Temperature of air leaving condenser = °F.
Temperature of air entering evaporator = °F.
Temperature of air leaving evaporator = °F.
Temperature of evaporator = °F.
Temperature of condenser = °F.
'HC-01/Page 33
43
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FROM REFRIGERATION.CYCLE DIAGRAM:
Temperature of condensing refrigerant = °F.

Temperature of evaporating refrigerant = °F.
Net refrigeration effect = Btu/lb.
Energy of. compression = Btu/lb.
Energy rejected in condenser = Btu/lb.
Energy gained through superheating = Btu/lb.
Energy rel,ised through subcooling = Btu/lb.
Coefficient of performance =
Percent of vapor refrigerant entering evaporator =
Relationships of condenser temperatures:
Relationship of evaporator temperatures:
11C---0-1/Page 35
46
SKETCH OF SYSTEM:
REFERENCES
Althouse, Andrew D.;* Turnquist, Carl H.; and Bracciano,

Alfred. Moderti Refrigeration and Air Conditioning.
Homewood, IL: The GoOdheart and Wilcox Co., Inc., 196g.
The Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram. Special Chem*ical Division,
Allied Chemical International, 40 Rector St., New York,
NY 10006.
Page 36/HC-01
Please circle the appropriate answer.
1. Thi condenser of a refrigeration system ...

a. operates at a constant' temperature.
b. operates:at a constant pressure.
c. adds heat energy to the refrigerant.
d. Both a and b. are correct.
e. Both b and c are correct.
f. Botia and c are correct.
2. The metering device of a refrigeration system ...

a. reduces the temperature of refrigerant.
b. reduces the pressure of refrigerant.
c. reduces the enthalpy of refrigerant.
d. Both a and b are correct.
e. All of the above are correct.
. 3. . On a pressure-enthalpy diagram of a refrigeration cycle,

the condenser line is directed ...
ir horizontally to the right.-
bft vertically downward.
c.- vertically upward.
d. horizontally to the left.
e. None ofthe above are correct.
'4. On a pressure-enthalpy diagram, lines of constant

temperature are ...
a. vertical in, the subcooled liquid zone.
b. horizontal in the mixed zone.
c. slightly curved, but almost vertical in the super-
heated vapor zone.
d. All of the above are correct.
e. None of the above are correct.'
i3 HC-01/Page 37
r
S. The suction line ...
a. carries hot liquid_ refrigerant to the metering ,
device.
b. has a temperature slightly below the condenser
temperature.
c, has a pressure slightly above the evaporator
pressure.
d., carries cool, low-pressure gas away from the
Condenser.
e. None of the above are correct.
6. The enthalpy of the refrigerant ...

a. is not changed by the metering device.
b. is increased in both the compressor and evaporator.
c. is decreased in the condenser.
Only a and b -arecorrect.
f.'' Only b-and' c are correct.
7. Execssive superheating of the gas in the suction line'...

a'. increases the inlet pressure of the compressor.
b. extends the'evaporation line into the subcooled
liquid zone of the pressure-enthalpy diagram.
c. increases compressor operating temperature.
e. Only a and r: are correct.
S. . Constant pressure lin' of a pressure-enthalpy diagram

are ...
a. vertical everywhere.
b. Horizontal everywhere.
c. vertical in the subcooled liquid zone and the .
superheated vapor zone, and slanted upward to
the right in the mixed zone.
Page 38/HC-01
49
d. vertical in the subcooled liquid zone and mixed
zone, and slanted upward to the right in the super-
heated vapor zone.
\46
9. Which of the following temperitures-are the correct
approximate values for a small refrigeration system
similar to the one used in the laboratory of this
module?
a. Condenser: 85°F
b. Suction line: 135°F
c. Evaporator: 25°F
d. Hot gas line: 185 °F
e. Only a and c are correct.,

f. Only c and d are correct._
10. Which of the followingStatementsaretTueconceTnIng

the pressures in a refrigeration system?
a. the evaporator, suction line and compressor inlet
have approximately the same pressure.
b. the condenser, hot gas line, and compressor outlet
have approximately the same pressure.
c. \ the high side pressure is about 150 psi.
d. 'the low side pressure is about atmospheric pressure.
e. All of the above are true,
f. All of the above except b are true.
g. All\of the above except c are true.
h. All of the above except d are true.
i. Only a and b are true:
t-r1
J v
HC-01/Page.39
2
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Val CONSERVATION AND USE
. HEATING, VENTILATING,
.
I
1
MODULE HC 02 i
SYSTEM TYPES
ORD CENTER FOR OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
lc
51
,
3.
INTRODUCTION
Many configuiations are possible for heating, ventilat-

ing, and air conditioning systems:- System size ranges from
window units to the complex syitems of large office build-
ingS, hospitals, and airport terminals. Each of the larger
systems is unique; each is, designed to.serve the specifit
need of the structure of which it is a part. There is so
much diversity, that the, classifidation of systems into spe-
cific types is often":"difficult.
The American Society of Heating; Refrigerating, and
Air Conditioning Engineers has established the following
four systenrcategories to include all air conditioning sys-
tems: .
All-air systems.
--Kri=i1d-water systems:
All water systems.
Unitary and room air conditioners.
This.module describes the characteristics, advantages,

disadvantages, and applications of each of these-systems.
The laboratory exercise consists of a field trip on which
students will observe the components and operation of a
large central air conditioning system.
PREREQUISi ES
The student should have completed Modulp1C-01, "The

Basic Refrigeration Cycle."
BC-02/Page
52
OBJECTIVES
Upon-completion of this module, the student should be

able to:
1. Identify the four major categories of air conditioning
systems and describe how the cooling effect is deliv-
ered to the conditioned spice by each.
2. Draw and label arschematic diagram of the central air
handling equipment of a single -zone, all-air system,
showing the proper arrangement of the following ele-
ments: .
a. Return fan.
b'. Exhaust damper.
c. Outside air damper.
d. Filter.
e. Preheat coil:
f. Cooling coil.
h. Supply fan.
3. State the primary advantage of a single-zone system .
for'most applications.
4. Draw and label diagrams of two types of induction re-
/
heat/units.
S. -State the major advadtage and the major disadvantage
of a reheat system with 164..temperature-air and no-
.
return duct. *.
6. State throe major advantages of a variable-air-volume

(VAV) syst:Im.
7. Draw and label\a-diagram of a dual-duct system.
8. Draw and label a diagram of a multi-zone system..
*9. Describe the primary difference in the dual-duct system
and the multi-zone system and explain why one is chosen
over the other in practical applications.
4V
r7
Page 2/HC-02
53
and
10. State two advantages and two, disadvantages of air
water systems as compared to all-air systems.
11. Draw and label the components of a fan coil unit used
with a four-pipe all-water system.
12:. State one advantage and two disadvantages of all-water
systems as compared to all-air and air-and-water sys-
temi.
13. Describi the construction characteristics of the fol-
lowing unitary air-conditioning systems:
a. Single-package units.
b. Split systems.
c. Through-the-wall systems.
d. Room air conditioners.
14. Draw and label diagrams, showing.the comp9nentsof a
flow
heat -pump system and the direction of refrigerant
for the following:
a. Cooling.
b. Heating.
large
15. On a field trip observe the central plant of a
all-air or air-and-water air conditioning system.
'Draw a schematic diagram of the air handliig equipment
in the central plant and describe the air-and-water
delivery system,
HC-02/Page 3
SUBJECT MATTER
SYSTEM CATEGORIES
Heating and air conditioning systems are clitsified

according to the method used to deliver the heating and
cooling effect to the conditioned space. There are four
major system type's.
'ALL-AIR SYSTEMS
In all-air systems heating and cooling is accomplished

by the treatment of air in a central plant and the distri-
bution of that air to the conditioned space through a system
of ducts. The name does not mean that water is not used as
a heat exchange medium in the system. Virtually all of
these systems employ water chillers and water-cooled fan
coils,but the chilled water is confined to the central
plant. Heating may be accomplished by steam or hot water
coils or by electrical heating.
AIR-Aia-WATER SYSTEMS
Aar-and-water systems deliver both air and 'ter to
the conditioned space from the central plant. These'systems

incorpOrate a duct system to handle heated or cooled air and
a piping system to circulate hot or cold water. The water__
flows through coils in the conditioned space to provide part
or all of the heating and cooling.
HC-02/Page 5 z'
ALL-WATER SYSTEMS
All-water systems deliver the heating or cooling effect

to the conditioned space exclusively through the circulation
of hot or cold water. Air within the conditioned space is
forced across the water coils by fans.
UNITARY SYSTEMS
Large air conditioning systbms are unique systems

assembled from individual components. Unitary Systems are
41.small air conditioning.and heating systems that are composed
of one or two factory assembled packages, referred to as
"units," that contain the entire system, with the exception
of ductwork for air delivery. Unitary air conditioning
systems include room air conditioners, residential systems,
and heat pumps.
ALL-AIR SYSTEMS
SINGLE-ZONE SYSTEMS
The single-zone system continuously delivers a constant

volume of allr to the conditioned space:,, The air is heated
.
or cooled as required in the central system. One pos-

sible configuration for the central equipmentNis shown in
N
Figure 1.
Page 6/HC-02
EXHAUST DAMPER
7- RETURN FAN
OUTSIDE
AIR-----1 /
DAMPER / 1
FMTER
t
PREHEAT
t
COOLING
t
HEATING SUPPLY
COIL COIL COIL FAN
Figure 1. Central Equipment of Single-Zone System.
The return air fan brings air from the conditioned

space to the central system: Some of this air may be ex-
__ _ hausted,_ and- outside air _is_ added-for vent i 1 at ion. The air_
is filtered, is sent through a series of coils that heat or
cool the air, and is forced into the supply duct by the
supply 14_11._ .
During the cooling operation the cooling coil carries

'cold water from the chiller of the refrigeration system.
During the heating operation the heating coil carries hot
water or steam from the boiler. Water remains in the cool-
ing coil but does not flow. If the outside air temperature
is low enough, this water could freeze and damage the coil.
st.
In such cases a preheat coil can be installed before the
cooling coil. Humidifiers, dehumidifiers, and air washes
can also be included in the system.
HC-02/Page 7
The fans of this system circulate air continuously,
whethet or not heating or cooling is required. A thermo-
static,contria element, located in the conditioned space
orlthe retuL air duct, controls the flow of chilled water -
to the-coo ng/icsil or hot water or steam to the heating

coils in r eflto maintain the proper air temperature.
, JA
15ingt z-o4p--systems--are--effective---for-h-eating- and
i
cooling off, angle large spaces, but they cannot be used

when differ 11 t areas of the load have needs that vary ii7.
dependently. Large buildings, for example, require hea ing
of outer areas during the winter, but they require cool ng
of core areas year -round to remove heat from lights, ma-
chinerr, and people. A single-zone system cannot meet t ese
needs.
REHEAT SYSTEMS
The reheat system shown in Figure 2 is a modification

of the single-zone system. Its purpose is to permit zone
control- of heating and cooling for areas of unequal loading.
The central cooling system is similar to the single-zone
system. It provides, air temperature to offset the maximum
cooling load of the space. If the temperature-of the out-
side air is low enough, the refrigeration equipment is shut
off and outside ail- is used for cooling.
Heating is provided by a separate reheat unit in each
zone served. Reheating can be, accomplished by (1) hot water
or steam coils located within the equipment room in the ducts
leading to individual zones, (2) electrical duct heaters loca-
ted elsewhere in the ductwork, or (3) terminal reheat units
Page 8/HC-02
58
located in the conditioned space. If hot water terminal
reheat units are used, the system is classified as an "air-
and-water reheat system."
ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3
--Or
. SUPPLY
FAN r-,
1
I
I
--- --- - ZONES
REQUIRING
NO HEAT
3 . t t
0 1 t REHEAT UNITS
-Li- ALT.'
FILTERS LOCATION
OF C.C. ..
Figure 2.' Typical Arrangement of Components

for a Reheat System.
The name "reheat" and the equipment arrangement in

this system imply the possibility of refrigerating air in
the central system and then heating the same air for some
zones. This can and does occur, but it is not a usual
characteristic of system operation. In the summer, when
all zones require cooling, little or no heat is supplied.
In winter, cold outside air is used for cooling, and the
necessary heat is sUpplied when and where it is'needed by
r the reheatunits.
Reheat systems are commonly found in hospitals, lab-
oratories, schools, office buildings, and. in other large
structures that have different heating and cooling require-
ments for different zones. They are particularly suited
to applications in which some zones require heating while
others require cooling, and for areas where humidity control
is required.
HC-02/Page 9
5J
-T
VARIABLE-VOLUME SYSTEMS
4
All the systems discussed thus far deliver a constant
air flow to the conditioned space. Temperature control is
.accomplished by controlling -the, temperature of the air in-
troduced. Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems/provide tem-
perature control by controlling both the temperature of the
air introduced and the air flow rate. Such a system is
shown in Figure 3.
RETURN AIR FAN VAV UNITS
E] CI E
-ar 7r J
0
7_5 z
P
4
O iu
C)
FILTERS SUPPLY AIR FAN
Figure 3. Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) System.

41
Until recently', variable-volume systems -were 'Pat recom-

mended for applications with load variations of more than
20% for two reasons. First, throttling conventional outlets
down to less than 60% of their design air flaw results in
loss of control'of room air flow and produces drafts. Sec-
ond, the use of mechanical dampers produces objectionable
noise.
Improved_ throttling del/ices and aerodynamically de-
signed outlets now allow variable-volume outlets to reduce\
ti
air flow to 100 of maximum. Figure 4 shows such an outlet,
Page 10/HC-02
Go
with an' optional rehear SUPPLY AIR
HEATING TO SPACE
coil installed. Most VALVE
heating is accomplished I OUTLET
in the central system, REHEAT
COIL
but reheat units may be
installed in zones requir- SOUND
ing additional heat. ABSORBER
Variable-volume syS- I
VOLUME
REGULATOR
teas are used in office' t
buildings, schools, apart-

:.INLET
ments,.and hospitals. db
ROOM
They are-best suited for THERMOSTAT
applications in which `
all zones require either Figure 4. kaiable-Air

Volume Control Unit.
heating or cooling at the
same time but have an in-,
dividual control for each zone. For such applications,
variable-volume systems often offer lower initial cost,
lower operating cost, and simplicity of control. Operating
costs are generally lower for variable-volume systems than
for other systems that provide separate room controls. Com-,
pared to constant- volume sistems,'a savings of as muchsas
35% of the energy cost is possible.
DUAL DUCT SYSTEMS
The dual-duct system shown in Figure 5 has two separate

air delivery systems. During the summer the hot \deck car-
ries air at a temperature of about 5°F higher thaj the tem-
perature of the return air. In winter the hot air\ tempera-
ture is set progressively higher as the outdoor temperature
drops. The temperature of the air in the cold deck is main-
-1
HC-02/Page-.11
61
*
tained at 50 to 55°F. Outdoor air provides a source of hot

air in the summer and cold air in the winter. Both hot and
.
cold air are continuously available at each outlet during,
system operation,. The temperature of an individUal space
is controlled by a thermostat which operates dampers to mix
the warm airand cool air in the proper proportions.
RETURN AIR FAN
HEATiNG
EXHAUST AIR HUMIDIFIER C4IL
RETURN AIR . HOT DECK
OUTDOOR
AIR
1.---1 [
PREHEAT FILTERS SUPPLY
con. AIR FAN COLD DECK
-).ZONE 2
COOLING
COIL
Figure S. Dual-Duct System..

s
Dual-duct systems are popular, in office buildingi,

hotels, hospitals, and large laboratories because,they pro-
vide the greatest comfort.\ Advantages also include prompt
and opposite temperature response as required and ease of
oper4tion. Starting and slopping the refrigeration machine
and boiler are the only normally required adjustments for
extreme changes in outdoor temperature. Disadvantages are
higher initial cost, greater space requirements for ducts,
and possible'reduction in energy efficiency since both hot
and cold air are continuously supplied to the conditioned
space.
;Page 12/HC-02
C
MULTI-ZONE SYSTEMS
The central plant of the multi-tone system (Figure 6)

is similar to'the dual-duct system, and the two systems
function in much the same way. The essential difWence
is the point at which the hot and cold air streams are mixed.
In_themulti-_zone_sIstem, all air mixing is done in the cen-
tral plant, and a separate air duct carries the air to each
individual zone.
RETURN AIR FAN
HEATING COIL
RETURN AIR.
OUTDOOR AIR
il
1/
FILTER PRE- SUPPLY
HEATER' AIR FAN
OR COOLER'
COOLING COIL
Figure 6. Multi-Zone System.
Figure'7 shows the components of the central station

of a multi-zone system, In the coil section, the air splits.
Part of it flows through the hot deck and part through the
cold deck. The hot deck and hot water coils are much smal-
ler than the cold deck and coils because the temperature
difference between the hot coil and_the air is greater than
that between the cold coil and the, air. The actual coils
installed depend upon the anticipated heating and cooling
loads.
HC-02/Page 13
C3
OUTSIDE AIR
HOT
DECK HEATING
COIL
RETURN
COMBINATION
MIXING
BOX AND
FILTER
FAN SECTION SECTION
COIL SECTION
MULTI ZONE
DAMPER GRID
SECTION DIFFUSER
COLD DECK COOLING
COIL
Figure 7. Multi-Zone Central Station Air Handler.
The individual air duitts for the separate zones (not

shown) are,attached to the damper section. Hot air flows
through the upper half ofithe damper, and cold air flows
through the lower half. The positions of the dampers are
controlled by the temperature controllers in the individual'
zones and result in the proper air temperature for each ZDIfe\ . \\
-\
Dual -duct. systems are used when a large number of small \
zones,, such as individual offices or hospital rooms, _require
individual control. The multi-zone system offers comparable
performance for a relatively small numberf larger zones
such as several large, open office areas with lower initial
cost and reduced space reqUirements.
Page 14/HC-02
G4
A1R-AND-WATER SYSTEMS
.
?
In all-air systems,heating and cooling is accomplished

entirely by con itioned air supplied by the central plant.
In air-and-wate systems, both air and water are distributed ,.
to the conditioned space. .,
In air-and-iwater reheat systems, the central equipment

is similar to f4t-Tol the- single-zorre- -systenr-andrprovides--
,
. .
all cooling. Hating may be accomplishes with heating coils

in the central system and supplemented by reheat units, or
- it may be supplied entirely by the reheat units.
Figure 8 shislis an Induction reheat unit 'commoill'y used
with such syst4m1s and installed under windows in office
---- buildings to pioilide heating and cooling while offsetting
downdrafts invinter. The primary air from the central-
supply system flows upward through an,inductionnozzle,
which "induces" room air to flow across the heating coil,
to mix with the primary air.
SUPPLY AIR
,
. f TO SPACE
HEATING
COIL
INDUCTION
. INDUCED NOZZLE
_ ' AIR
Figure 8. Induction
Reheat Unit.
fILTER
PRIMARY AIR
HC-02/Page 15
6Z
The air-and-water reheat system is best suited for
(implications in which .intArior zones always require' cooling
while exterior zones sometimes require heating.
Other air-and-water.systems supply hot air and. hot
water for heating and cold air and cold water for cooling.
These"systems often use the piiniary-air system showrcin
Figure 9. This is ahigh- pressure air system that allows
the use of smaller air amts. Many air- and -water systems
have no return ducts, and the added primariiii volume is
exhausted directly from the conditioned space. This method
represents a savingi on equipment cost and reduces the space
Necessary for ductwork, but it also results in higher open`-
ating costs. These systems were popular when energy costs
were low, and many are still in use. However, most new sys-
/terns are designed to conserve energy by recirculating the
air.
RETURN FAN (IF PROVIDED) INDUCTION

6.4 I UNIT
SOUND
ABSORBER
SUPPLY FAN
FILTER COOLING COIL
PREHEAT COW
- ZONE REHEAT COIL
Figure 9. Primary Air Systemc.
Page 16/HC-02
Figure 10 is an air-water indUction unit used with "a.
, 4
primary'-air system. This particular unit is designed: for
use with a two-pipe system. The two -pipe system supplies
either hot water or cold water to the induction unit, but
'not both.. In such systems, conversion from heating to cool-
.
ing.is accomplished in the central plant.
.
Some two-pipe
systems are capable of simultaneously delivering cold water
-to-isome-,zones-and hat---water- to others._
MIXED AIR DISCHARGE
PRIMARY AIR ...s.TyATER OUT
BALANCING
LINT SCREEN AT
DAMPER
INLET TO CON.
NOZZLES DRAIN PAN
is-- CONDENSATE
WAWA IN 111
V DRAIN
INDUCED ROOM AIR
Figure 10.- Air:Water Induction Unit.
The'induction units of four-pipe systems have two

,
separate water coils, ane.for heating and one for cooling;

.,+
and 'ei Aler may be used at time.
The major advantages of air- and -water systems are the
reduction in space necessary/for the delivery system and
the reduction in energy necessary for the distribution..
.,
The small air ducts and water pipes require , far less spate .
than the ductwork of all-air,systems, and energy losses in.
HC-02/Page 17
liquid-delivery systeis are lower than for_air systems.
Liquid pumps are also more efficient than,fans.
Air-and-water systems offer poor humidity control and
less ventilation than.all-air systems. Their controls also
tend to be complex, and maintenance must sometimes be per-
formed in the conditioned space,.
Air-and-water systems are commonly used in office and
apartment buildings and in other high-rise structures. Four-
pipe systems are particularly popular for multiple perimeter
spaces where-changing solar heat loads produce changing
heating and cooling requirements during the day:
ALL-WATER SYSTEMS
All-water systems accomplish both heating and cooling

by the distribution of water only. These systems have no
air distribution system and, thus, no air ducts.
Each individual space is provided with a fan coil unit,
as shown in Figure 11. This unit consists of a circulating
fan, a water coil, and a damper system that allows uncondi-
tioned outside air.to be admitted for ventilation. The fan
coil unit in Figure 11 is for use with a two-pipe system in
which the entire system is switched from heating to cooling
at the central plant. Figure 12 shows a fan coil unit for
use in A four-pipe system which can provide either heating
or cooling to each individual space.
Page 18/HC-02
68
FAN
0
Figure 11. Typical Air Con-
ditioning Unit Ventilator HOT WATER-
with Combined. Hot - Chilled MILLED WATER 0
.0
Water Coil. COIL
0I 0 FACE AND
CONDENSATE 00 BYPASS
DRAIN PAN DAMPER
MIXING
FILTER
DAMPERS
OUTDOOR RECIRCULATED
AIR AIR
FLOOR
The greatest advantage of the all-water system is its

flexibility for adaptiOn to many modular building arrange-
ments.' It is also the ,easiest system to install in many
existing structures. Disadvantages include the lack of
humidity control and liM\ited ventilation capabilites. Fan
coil units require servicing in the conditioned space and
are often noisy.
HC-02/Page 19
'4 .
set-
FAN
Figure 12. Typical Air Con-

ditioning Unit Ventilator
COOLING
COIL
with Separate Coils.
HEATING
o COIL
DRAIN PAN
FILTER MIXING
OUTDOOR
AIR
FLOOR / DAMPERS
RECIRCULATED
AIR
UNITARY SYSTEMS
Itib
Unitary air conditioners are small systems which cool

and dehumidify air in single rooms or small structures. The
air is cooled by passing directly across the evaporator of
the refrigeration system. Some units have provisions for
ventilation with outside air, and, some are used in conjuction
with gas or oil furnaces or electrical heating elements.
et
'. Page 20/HC-02
,
Al-1111It
SINGLE-PACKAGE UNITS
Figure 13 is a typical single-package unitary aircon-

ditioner for roof-top installation. Figure 14 shows a simi-
lar system for through-the-wall installation. The entire
CONDENSER HEATING
0 SECTION BLOWER SECTION
::: d0
0000
0
o
CO
000 0 000
000
00 0 00
00 0 00
000
0 00
BASE
ROOF
CURS
COOLING
COIL
RETURN
AIR
ri SUPPLY
AIR
FILTERS
Figure 13. Cross-Section of Rooftop Unitary System;
refrigeration system, including the blower, is contained in

a single package. The unit requires only the connection
of a suitable duct system for air delivery.
r
HC-02/Page 21
Figure 14. Through-
the-wall Installation
of Air-cooled, Single-
package Unit.
SPLIT SYSTEMS,
Figure 15 shows a split unitary air conditioning sys-

tem. The outside unit consists of the compressor, condenser,
and condenser fan. The inside unit contains the metering
device, the evaporatory, and the blower. This type of system
is often insIalled in conjunction with a furnace to provide
heating in homes. No ventilation is provided by this system.
Page 22/HC-02
14.1
\
Figure 1S. Outdoor

Instillation of
Split Air-Cooled'
Condensing Unit
with Indoor Coil
and Counter Flow
Furnace.
.
. .-
THROUGH- THE -WALL SYSTEMS
Figure 16 shows a through-the-wall air condition'er

system used in many motels. This system is similar to the
single-package unit, but it also contains a heating coil.
Heating may be accomplished by hot water, steam, or.elec-
tricity. This unit is usually built into'theAvall'of the
room below the windows. No ductwork is required, and the
blower provides for Air circulation.
3 HC-02/Page 23
os
CABINET OUTDOOR LOUVER
AND WALL BOX
NEATttleCOOLING
CHASSIS
FRONT PANEL
(PART OF CABINET & WALL BOX)
Figure 16. Packaged Terminal Air Conditioning with

Combination Heating and Cooling Chassis.
ROOM AIR CONDITIONERS
Figure 17 shows the components of a typical room air`

conditioner. This is a small, self-contained unit designed
to be mounted in a window or similar' wall opening.
tUTDOOR AIR CONDENSER DISCHARGE AIR
ICONDENSER
FAN
COMPRESSOR
\-.,/
COLD EVAPORATOR
FILTER
ROAM AIR-COOLED ROOM AIR-WARM

4.1
Figure 17. Schematic View of Room Air Conditioner.
Page. 24/HC-02
74
HEAT PUMPS
CON. -
OUTDOOR
INDOOR
Heat pumps COIL
are unitary sys-
.tems that provide
cooling in the
summer and heat-
ing in the winter.
Figure 18 illus- .
trates heat pump

operation. During
cooling (Figure
CHECK VALVE 01 CHECK VALVE *2
18a) .the heat pump
LIQUID
functions as an a. Cooling Operation CZ LIQUID VAPOR
1:3 VAPOR
ordinary air con-
ditioner. The
indoor coil acts
as the condenser OUTDOOR
CON.
and transfers heat INDOOR
11 REVERSING COIL
energy from the 111 VALVE
111
interior.
1
Heating (Fig- ACCUMULATOR
ure 18b) is accom-

plished by revers-
ing the refriger-
COMPRESSOR
ant flow with a
HEATING CYCLE COOLING CYCLE
valve system. The EXPANSION DEVICE EXPANSION DEVICE 1
outside coil acts

as the evaporator CHECK VALVE Ill CHECK VALVE 02
and absorbs heat b. Heating Operation UQUID

0 LIQUID VAPOR
energy from-the *0 VAPOR 7
cold outside'Cair.
Figure 18. Heat. Pump
Unitary System.
HC-02/Page 2S
The inside coil acts as the condenser and releases heat
energy into the interior.
The efficiency of the heat pump during cooling is usu-
ally slightly less than that of a comparable unitary air con-
ditioner. During heating, a typical heat pump will deliver
two units of heat energy for every one unit of efdetrical
energy consumed; thereby cutting in half the electrical en-
ergy required for heating. Heat pumps produce only a small
temperature rise in the air flowing across the condenser
and, thus, never delivef "hot" air. Their efficiency also
drops with colder outside air temperatures. Heat pumps are
usually equipped with auxiliary electrical heating elements.
SYSTEM CLASSIFItATION
Most small air conditioning systems and some.larger ones

can be classified as one. of the specific systems discussed in
this module. Most laTger systems, however, combine the fea-
tures of several system types. One example is a multi-zone
air system with hot water induction reheat units in some
,zones,. In large buildings a single system may incorporate
different features to Serve the specific needs of different
zdhes. In-some cases a single building may have several com-
pletely separate systems which serve different portions of
the structure. Multibuilding complexes are often served by
central plants that contain a variety of systems that may
be interconnected or separate.' Large systems often do not
-
fit neatly into any of the categories discuised since each

is designed for a specific building and application.
Pe 26/HC-02
76
. EXERCISES
1. A large single-Story building consists of four separate

open bays with separate heat loads. Discuss the. advan-
tages and disadvantages of the following systems for
this application:
a. Single-zone system.
b. Primary-air system with hot water induction reheat
terminals.
c. Reheat system with steam coil duct heaters in the
central equipment ducts..
d. Multi-zone syitem.
e. Dual-duct system.
2. A large high-rise office building has external zones
that are mostly windows and a much larger interior
zone. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
following systems for this application:
a. Dual-duct system.
b. Air-and-water system with induction reheat termi-
nals in external zones.
c. Four-pipe all-water system.
d. Multi-kone variable-air-volume system.
3. A new hospital wing requires individual temperature
control in each-room, close humidity control, and good e
.ventilation. Discuss the-advantages and disadvantages
of the following systems for this application: 4.
a.; Multi-zone variable-air-voltime system with ter-
.
minal reheat.uniIs.
b. Primary-air, ystem with hot water induction reheat
terminals and no return air duct.
c. Sual-duct-systftA0,T23=0
d.. Four-pipe all -water system.
HC-02/Page 27
7`1
N.
4. A new motel consists of several - two -story buildings in
,which each room has one wall that is mostly glass.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the follow-
ing systenfor this application:
a. Four-pipe all-water system.
b. Through-the-wall unitary system for each room.
c. Single-package roof-mounted,unitary system for
each room.
Notebook Or clipboard.
Pen or pencil.
LABORATORY PROCEDURES
This labdratory consists of a field trip to a large

central air conditioning installation. The system visited
will be an all-air or air-and-water system which includes a
gas- or oil-fired boiler. This system will be visited and
stLdied in. more detail on future field trips that are Tabora-
tory exercises for other modules in this course.
All notes of this and future field trips must be saved
for use in future laboratory exercises. A complete system
schematic will be prepared as part of the laboratory for
Module HC -07, "Air Handling Equipment." ..
The purpose of this first visit is to acquaint-the
student with the overall system. In this laboratory, the
student will prepare a diagrafjof the central air handling,
Page 28/HC-02
78
t
.e0
I: 1
i.
, t
1
equipment and will discuss clais siti+tionsdf the system

according to the system types discuesed in the Subject Matter . t
.
i
of this module. ;
1. Observe the components cA the dystem durinOthe System

1 1
familiarization tour. Record in the field notebook the

data specified in the Data Table and any other informa- ...
tion available concernint the pystem.

i
2. Skitch-the following component's in the field notebook

(detailed drawings are not nec(essary):
1
a. Boiler. f
b. Compressor. 1
t
t
i
c. Chiller.
-' d. Cooling tower. f 1
f
:., e. Water pump. I I
t
\3.: Draw a diagram of the/air hpdling equipment of the
0..
central system in the' fielti notebook. Show all-air
1 .
'. L, ducts and all air processAng equipment, inclUding

I
ers,inJ eating and cooling coils, air
dampers, fans, fi1..ers,
washers, and humidifie0 or dehumidifiers.
4. If the system has rehtlat units outside the equipment
I room, specify their Vype apd location. If induction
/
units are used, inc,lude 4.swings and a discussion of
/ )
.
the location of tlyese.1

S. After the field tip, prel:are a schemktic diagram of
the centr0.-airthandling equipment. Identify each IL
*
major compone0 and s ate its purpose. Discusipthe.
classificatioh of thi system according to the cater
r
goriep descilbed in the Subject Matter.

f
. /
-HC-02/Page 29
-1 t' v...
. DATA TABLE
Data Table.
BOILER:
Type:
_0
Manufacturer:
Model number:
Fuel:
Steam pressure:
COMPRESSOR:
Type:
Manufacturer:
Model number
Horsepower of motor:
CHILLER;
Type:
, Manufacturer:
Model number
COOLING TOWER
Size:
a*
Location:
Page 30/HC-01 SO A
* :0
*
REFERENCES
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute. Refri eration

and Air Conditioning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: ,,Pren ice-
Hall, Inc., 1979.
Althouse, Andrew D.; Turnquist, Carl H.; and Bracciano,
. Alfred F. Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning.
Homewood, IL: The Goodheart-Willcox Company,,Inc., 1979.
Carrier Air Conditioning Coipany. Handbook of Air Condition-
ing System Design. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1965.
Croome-Gale, Derek J. and Roberts, Brian M. Air Conditioning
and Ventilation of Buillings. New York: Pergamon
Press, 1975. ti
Howell, Ronald H. and Sauer, Harry J., Jr. Environmental
Control Principles. New York: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air'Conditioning'Engineers,
Inc., 1978.
At,
HC,02/Page 31
TEST
Please circle the appropriate answer.
1. All-air systems ...

a. ldo not employ water as a heat exchange medium
anywhere in the system.
b.. deliver both heating and cooling effect to the
conditioned space `bir air flow.
c. supply the entire cooling load by air flow, but
may distribute hot water to the conditioned space
for heating.
d. Both a nd b are correct.
2. The central plant of a single zone all-air system ...

a. includes both heating and cooling coils arranged
in series.
b. has a single coilith'at is used for either heating
or cooling.
c. separates the air to flow over either the heating
coils or cooling'coiis, but not both.
d. does not provide for outside air ventilation.
e. Either b or c is true of most single zone systems.
3. Variable volume systems ...

a. can provide b,th hot and cold air from the central
plant at the same time.
b. provide the lowest operating Bost of any all-air
system with indiiidual room controls.
c. cannot be used if the system load varies more
than 20 %.
d.. are not suitable far loads comprised of a large
number of individual rooms.
e.- Both a and b are correct.
f. Both c and d are correct.
HC-02/Page 33
p
.4.
4. Disadvantages of the dual duct system do not include ...
a. large spaces needed for duct work.
b. high initial cost.
c. complexity of control.
d. a lesser degree of comfort than multizOne systems.
e. lower system efficiencies than variable volume
systems..
A multizone.system
a. can provide cooling to some zones, while providing
heating to others.
mixes hot and cold air in the ducts of the central
plant and delivers the mixture to each zone through
a single duct.
c. has a coil section that splits the air so that
part of the air flows across the heating coils
and part flows across the cooling coils.
d. All of the abcfve are correct.
,e. Only a and c are correct.
6. Air-and-Water systems. ...

a. usually supply both hot and cold water to the
conditionekspace.
b. require no conditioning for the air supply.
c. offer poor humidity control.
d. have simpler controls and require less maintenance
than all-air systeins.
f. Both c and d are correct.
7. All water systems ...

a. require air delivery ducts, but no return ducts.
b. are popular for applications where a large number
of small roc.ms require close temperature control.
I
Page 34/HC-02
PITIRMEW
c. can provide either heating or cooling, but cannot

heat one zone while cooling another.
d. provide no humidity control and no ventilatio4.
8. Unitary air-conditionef systems commonly :..
a. do not include return air ducts.
b. consist of a compressor and condenser in an out-
door unit and a fan coil and blower in an indoor
unit.
c. employ water-filled fan coils.
d. Al]. of the above are correct. .
e. Only a and b are correct.
9. Heat pumps ...

a. provide heating when the indoor coil acts as a
condenser.
b. have the same cooling efficiency as ordinary
unitary air conditioners.
c. include a reversing valve that changes tile direc-
tion of refrigerant flow through the Metering
device.
d. Only a and c are correct.
10. Which of the. following systems are unlikely to be

Eound,in a'large office building?
a. Oultone
b. Variable volume 0
c. Dual duct
.d. Air-and-water
e. All are commonly found in office buildings..
2
6
'HC -02/Page 35
41%
49
INTRODUCTION
The heart of an air conditioning system is the refriger-

ition equipment. Tilis-equipment absorbs heat from the air to
be conditioned and rejects heat outside the conditioned pace.
.1
Several heat exchange cycles are often present in a single

system. Most large systems contain a chi0+ed.water system
that transfers energy from a fan coil to a water chiller: A
refrigefation cyclqpremoves heat from the. water in the chill-
This
er ansi rejects hea,t into a water-cooled heat exchanger.
water is circulated through a cooling tower where the waste
-heat is removed-by evaporation. °Smaller systems typically
rely on refrigeiant-to-air heat exchangers and use no water
coils.
This module describes the equipment-and components com-
monbi found in air conditioning systems of all sizes. In the
laboratory the student will visit a large central refrigera-
tion plant and collect data on its operation.
PREREQUISITES
The Student should hi've completed Module HC-02,"System

Types."
OBJECTIVES
Upon.completion of this module the student shoGid be

able to:
1. Name the two basic compresspr-types used in air condi-
tioning systems and. explain the function of each with
the use of diagrams.
1 HC-03/Page 1
r
2. State the application and tonnage range of each compres-
sor type.
3. List three types of compressor drives; state conditions
in which each drive is used.
4. Describe five methods of compressor capacity control;
state advantages and disadvantages of each.
15. Explain the operation of an air - cooled condenser; state
three advantages and three disadvantages.
6. Explain the operation of two types of water-cooled con-
densers.
7. Explain the following terms as they apply to cooling
towers:
a. Counter flow.
b. Cross flow.
c. Natural draft.
d. Induced draft.
e. Forced draft.'
Cooling range.
g. 'Apprpach.
h. Drift.
. Entering wet bulirtemperature.
8. Explain the operation of an evaporative condenser.
9. State the condition.of the ambient air that affetts the
/ capacity of air-Cooled condensers and' evaporative con-
densers.
10. Explain the operation of direct expansion coils, dry
expansion water chillers, and flooded water chillers.
11. Explain the operation of the following metering devices:
a. Automatic expansion valve.
b. Thetmostatic'expanSion valve.
c. High side float.
d. Low side float.
Page 2/HC-03
12. State the purpose of each of the following accessories:
a. Oil separator.\
b. Muffler.
c. Strainer-drieK.
d. Sight glass.
13. List two basic types of controls used in refrigeration
equipment and give two examples of eaph.
14. Identify the major components of an absorptiOh chiller
and state the function of each.
15. Visit, a large refrigeration installation. Maie drawings
of the, system components and connections and obtain data
on the system.
0.
1,
HC-03/Page 3
SUBJECT\MATTER
COMPRESSOAS
Several types of compressors are usoad in various refrig-

eration applications. Most air conditioning systems employ
either reciprocating or centrifugal compressors.
Figure 1 illustrates the basic operationof a recipio-s
cating compressor: Refrigerant gas is 'drawn into the cylin-
der through the suction valve during the downstroke of the
piston-arid is forced outward through the disCharge valve on
the upstroke, CYlindei7s are usually arranged in pairs, with
2 to 16 c* inders to a compressor. Reciprocating comprpssors
the most
are widely,usea in-unitary Air conditioners and are
common type for central systems up to about 126 tons.,.,
PRESSURE IN
DOWN STROKE OF PISTON HOLDS SUCTION VALVE
CREATES VACUUM IN 4 CLOSED.
CYL/140ER. PRESSURE IN PRESSURE IN
a
VIC RON, UNE FORCES CYUNDE RAISES
SUCTION VALVE OPEN. DISCHARGE VALVE.
PRESSURE IN DISCHARGE GAS FLOWS INTO
LINE HOLDS DISCHARGE DISCHARGE PIPE.
VALVE CLOSED,
PISTON ON
DOWN-STROKE PISTON ON
UP-STROKE
a. Stag. t b. Stage 2
Figure 1. Operation of a Recprocatin6 Cbmpressor.
HC-03/Page 5
8:)
O
Figure 2 shows the impeller of ceptrifugal compressor.

Refrigerant gas enters through the center of the impeller.
As the impeller rotate:', centrifugal force moves the gas ,/
through'the internal openings Of the impdller and outward
through the exhaust openings. The cross-sectional area of
\
the' refrigerant channels of the impellei: is .smaller at the L,
exh'aust'openings than at the intake openings. This results

in compression as the refrigerant gas is,forced through the
,
impeller. Figure 3 is a diagram showing the construction of

a two-stage: centrifugal compressor with a self-contained.
electric 7thotor. .Centrifugal compressors are the 'most common
.
type in air conditioning systems of 125 tons and. larger.
Figure 2. Impeller (rotor) from a Centrifugal Compressor.
/7'
/Page 6/HC-03
90
0
4'
I VOLUTE CASING
SECOND STAGE
IMPELLER
FIRST STAGE
IMPELLER
PRESSURE LUBRICATED
SLEEVE BEARING
.LABYRINTH
SEAL
MRSTiTAGE
GUIDE VANES GUIDE
VANE
ACTU-
ATOR
WATER-COOLED
.MOTOR
CROSSOVER
CONNECTION
ScCOND STAGE
BASE. OIL TANK. ANO VARIABLE INLET
LUBRICATING OIL GUIDE VANE
PUMP ASSEMBLY
Figure 3. Two-Stage Centrifugal Compressor.
DRIVES
The compressor may be powered by any source of,rota-

tional mechanical energy. The electric motor is the most
HC -03 /Page 7
common power source. Hermetically sealed,compresi'ors con-
tain the compressor and electric motor sealed together in
a single container. Most small compressors and many large
ones are of the hermetically sealed type. Large compressors
may also use external electric motors in an "open drive"
arrangement in, wh&il he motor and compressolPare separate;
Internal combustion engines may be used for compreisor
.operation. This may, be done in mobile units, back up eciuip- ,
ment, and in situations where electrical energy supplies are

limited.
Large centrifugal compressors are often powered by
steam turbines. -This is particularl'y popular in installa -(
tions requiring-steam for other purposes.
CAPACITY CONTROL' -,
The cooling capacity of an air conditioning system

depends upon the rate of evaporation of liquid refrigerant
in the evaporator. Capacity control is usually accomplished
by controlling the amount of compressed refrigerant gas
leaving the compressor for the condenser. In small systems
an on-off control turns,the Compressor drive motor on when
the system is in cooling operation. In larger systems a
continuous but varying cooling effect is required. This may
be accomplished by the following methods.
The capacity of compressors driven by steam turbines
may be controlled by controlling the speed of the steam'tur-
bine 41th.a valve on the steam inlet. This simplicity of
control is one of the advantages of the steam turbine drive.,
The capacity of constant speed reciprocating Compressors
is often controlled byt cylinder unloading. A plunger in the
Page 8/HC-03
r
cylinder head extends to keep the suction valve open thrOugh-

( ,
out the compressor cycle. The exhaust valve ' remain-closed

and the cylinder has no effect. This method is used on
large reciprocating compressor's to reduce capacity by re-
moving some_cylinders from servie.while Others continue to 1
operate.
On some reciprocating compressors in systems,of IS tons
and smaller, a hot gas bypass is used for capacity control.
When reduced capacity is needed, a valver-6Pens",allowing a
portion 9f the compressor. output to bypass the evaporator
and condenser and return directly to the suction line. This
type of control is unpopular because, it is wasteful of Com- '
pressor drive energy,.. .
Centrifugal compressors Are often equipped with adjust-

able inlet vane4 for capacity.controlt as shown in Figure 3.
These vanes reduce the flow rate, of inlet refrigerawt gas
when' reduced compressor capacity is -required.
r ,
HEAT REJECTION EQUIPMENT
".0
AIR-COOLED CONDENSERS-
Figure 4 shows the construction of an air-cooled con-

_
dense'r. Hot refrigerant gas enters the inlet from com-

pressor and flows through the tubing: Heat- is conducted
through the tubing walls to the fins. Forced air flows.
.
across the fins to remove heat. Air-cooled condensers may-

be installed outdoors using propeller fans or indoors using
dentrifugal fans and air ducts to deliver and exhaust out-
' side ai..
,
93 .HC-03/P4ge 9
C
Figure 4. 'Air-Cooled Condens,er..

le4
,Air-cooled"condensers are common in air cu;lditioning

sytems in sizes up to 125 tons. Advantages'of air-cooled
conddnseTS include the following:
t .
No water requirement*.:,
Low first cost.
Low maintenance cost.
The disadvantages are the,-,"folldwing:
.,;
Large VolUmes of air yequired-.

IPossible noise problems.
Capacity decreases as dry bulb :temperature rises.
.,High compressor voWere,y444red at full load.
...
he capacity of an air-cooled condenser dsialfected by.
s ie, the airAflow across the condenser, and the dry
bulb emperatute.of the air. .The et bulb temperat. re has
no effect .Since -the evapbratioh of Water is not em loyed,in
to hleat exchange prcrcess.
; Pap 100C,-03
ti '
.94
. I
/1
.WATER-r OLED CONDENSERS
/Some sill611 systems and 'Test ldrge ones employ water,-

cooped condensers. Figure 9shows a tube -in -tube Condenser.
4.1=MMIMIIMP /
/
4 REFRIGERANT IN
V
WATER OUT
ACCESS
PLATE
HEADER BOXES -it

REFRIGERANT OUT/
WATER IN
Figure S. StTaight Tube-in-Tube Condenser.
Water flows through the inner tube, and refrigerant,gas flows

through the outer shell. The refagerant condewses on'the
surface of the Water-cooled tube. .Figure 6 shows a larger
shell-and-tube condenser. This unit consists of a large.
metal cylinder containing water tube. The refrigerant gas
enteTs through the top of the shell and condenses oh tlye
cool water tubes. The condensed liquid colleCts in-the bot-
tom'of.the shell. This is the most common type of condenser
in large refrigeration systems. Water-cooled condensers
always provide subcooling of the liquid refrigerant: An in-
/
grease of 2°F of subcooling increases the system capacity

by 11..
HC-03/Page 11
VAPORNT
VRANT
BAFFLE CONDENSER TUBES TUBE SHEET
Xr.
WATER OUT _al
*#:
AO!
-4. 475%: 6...."A 717--- i'AlMr7./"MIMMW...11,.11
..: -' ;.:Z; -7 .''-- - -- - - - - ___
-Am
CONDENSER
;10 ..
WATER BOX WATER BOX
SHELL
LIQUID LINE
Figure 6. Horizontal Shell:and-Tube Condenser: O
The capacity of a water-cooled condenser is dependent

upon the inlet water temperature, the water flow rate,'and
the temperature of the entering refrigerant gas The amount
of subcooling ;and the capacity may be increased by lowering'
the inlet water temperature, increasing the water flow rate,
or increasing the condensing pressure. The pressure is in-
creased by ir15reasing compressor power.
COOLING TOWERS
The water from the water-cooled condenser is circulated

by pump to a cooling tower where heat is rejected through
evaporation. Makeup water is added to offset the loss
through evaporation4
Figure 7 shows the basic construction of a cooling
tower. Water enters through a water distribution box in the
top of the tower. The water falls through stacks of wooden
decking arranged so the water from the edge of one piece of
decking falls in the center of the next lower piece. The
Page 12/HC-0.3
O O
a
'decking is arranged to present

the maximum water surface to
the air for evaporative cool-
,
ini. This cooled water isv

Collected in the bottom of
the cooling tower and then,
returned to the water-cooled
. condenser.
Cooling towers may use
natural draft air flow or air
flow supplied by a fan. If
Figure 7. Cooling Tower
the direction of air flow is Splash Deck Type.
opposite the direttion of
water flow (vertical air flow),-the tower is classified as
a "counterflow" tower. In "cross-flow" towers, the air flow
is perpendicular to the water flow (horizontal air flow).
.
Fans may be located to provide either a forced draft or an

induced draft (Figure 8).
AIR OUT DRIFT

ELIIANATOR DISTRIBUTION PAN WATER IR
WATE
IN WATER
'ISTRIBUTION "4"-:
SYSTEM
.
AIR
OUT
*"
1000019
.,
Z::`,.."4---
AIR IN
MAKEUP WATER
11, FLOAT VALVE OVERFLOW
WATER
OUT
WATER OUT
OVERFLOW
Figure 8. Types of Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers.

o
RC-03/Page 13
o
Figure 9 shows the cooling water circuit of a water-

cooled condenser and cooling tower combination. The cooling
. tower must be lncated above the level of the centrifUgal
water pump so gravity will provide a constant water supply
. to the pump.
IOgng COOLING TOWER FAN
SPRAY ELIMINATORS
NOZZLES
DISTRIBUTION DECK
iWETTED DECK)
SLAT S
AIR INTAKE "BLEED -OFF WATER LINE
SWAP - FLOAT MAKE-UP VALVE
s _..)
OVERA.OW
WATER-COOLED
BLEED-OFF UNIT
VALVE ----)
1
t
PUMP
.Figure 9. Schematic Diagram of a Mechanical 4

Draft Cooling Tower.
. i
Cooling towers provide a cooling effect through evapo-
ration and, therefore, are dependent upon the wet bulb tem-
perature of the air. Thus, cooling. towers lose capacity
during hot humid weather. The evaporation of one pound of
_water. removes 970 Btu of heat. This gives an evaporation
rate of 1.S gallons of water per hour for each ton of aiy 4
Page 14/HC-03
98
p
with draft elimi-
conditioning. Cooling towers are'equipped
.tators that reduce the loss of water Adroplets from the tower.
The following terms are often used in the description
of cooling tower performance:
Cooling range is the temperature difference ( °F)
between the hot water entering the tower and the
,cool water leaving it.
Apprbach.is the temperature difference (°F) be-
e
tween the cold water leaving the tower and the
wet bulb temperature of the surrounding air.
Ambient wet bulb temperature is the wet bulb tem-
.
perature of the surrounding air that is not being
affected, by the warm, moist discharge air of the
tower.
Entering wet bulb temperature is the wet bulb
temperature of the air that actually enters the
tower. This air often includes the recirculation
of some of the exhausted air; thus the ambient
wet bulb temperature may not provide an accurate
evaluation of performance.
The capacity of a cooling tower May be controlled by

the use of multi-speed fans or adjustable louvers.
Cooling towers are,,the most popular type of heat rejec-
tion equipment because they afford large capacity in a rela-
tively small space and because of the simplicity' f the pip-
*
ing used. The primary disadvantages of cooling towers are
of dam-
the need for regular maintenance and the possibiltt,ity
age due to freezing in cold weather.
9,9 .
HC-03/Page 15
\
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS
An evaporative. condenser is a combination of a water-

cooled condenser and a cooling tower in a single package.
Figure 10 shows two configurations of evaporative condensers.
The operation is similar to that of the cooling towers.
Evaporative condensers are most popular in installations. in
which the condensers are located inside the equipment room
and outside air is supplied and exhausted by ducts. Such a
system is shown in Figure 11. If the cooling is to take
place at a remote location, a water-cooled condenser and
,cooling tower are used to eliminate the need to pipe refrig-
.
erant outside the'equipment room.
9
C-
AIR OUT AIR OUT

A
DRIFT
ELIMINATORS
M411
rereeteareamwaw
SPRAY
NOZZLES REFRIGERANT
''77Tif7f451-1M
A
IN
REFRIGERANT
C`, COtELt1SING IN
REFRIGET RANT
OU
XpfiliFiLIGERANT
000",10,00, Nme OUT
AIR IN N. AIR IN
'Roan MAKE-UP
111.- WATER
SUMP
4--
MAKE-UP FAN
PUMP WATER
a. Caunternow Draw-Through Type b. Slow-Through Type
7 Figure 10. Evaporative Condensers.
Page 16/HC-03
1 oo
0
EVAPORATOR
EVAPORATIVE
CONDENSER
.
CZI
_3:3) SESLOWER
CT1011
UUOUID SPRAYS
NE
S_AUCTION
vLVE
PRESSURE REUEF VALVE VIBRATION

PUMP
COMPRESSER UOUID RECEIVER EUMINATORS
Figure 11. Evaporative CondensevInstallation.

o
EVAPORATORS
Evaporators are classified according to two sets of

criteria: as dry expansion or flooded and as air coils or
water chillers___In dry expansion evaporators, the liquid
refrigerant entene end of a tube, expands, and evapo-
rates. 'Refrigerant gas leaves the other end of the tube.
Flooded evaporators consist of a reservoir of liquid refrig-
erant that boils to produce a cooling effect. The refriger-
ant gas is exhausted from above the liquid surface by the
compressor.
10
HC-03/Page 17
DIRECT EXPANSION COILS
Most small air conditioning systems employ dry expan-

sion coils that resemble the condenser shown in Figure 4.
The refrigerant evaporates inside the tubes, absorbing heat
energy from the tube walls. ._
Air is forced across the fins
attached to the coil and is cooled.
WATER CHILLERS
Most central air conditioning "systems use water

chillers. The evaporating refrigerant chills water that
is then circulated.through a fan coil. Water chillers.may
be of either the dry expansionlor -the flooded type. Figure
N
12 shows a dry expansion chiller that is often used with
refrigerant R-22. The liquid refrigerant enters the lower
part and flows through.the tubes. Refrigerant gas is ex-.
hausted through the upper part. The water flows around the
tubes through a vet of internal baffles.
Figure 12. Dry Expansion Chiller.
Page 1S /HC -03

.1
In a flooded water Chiller.; the water flow through

tubes that are emersed in a cylinder partiallyfilled with
Mk liquid refrigerant.
METERING DEVICES
AUTOMATIC EXPANSWN VALVE
Figure 13 is a schematic diagram of an automatic expan-

sion valve. Liquid refrigerant enters the valve frot the
left. The liquid line pressure P3 forces the movable needle
'downward, as does atmospheric pressure iq and spring force
F1. The needle is forced upward by spring force F2 and
ADJUSTABLE
PRESSURE ATMOSPHERIC
SPRING PRESSURE
Pt
io
UQUID
LINE
PRESSURE
P3
4110;
SUCTION OR
EVAPORATOR
PRESSURE
NONADJUSTABLE
SPRING
-Figure 13. Automatic Expansion Valve.
HC-03/Page 19
103
evaporator pressure P2. While the compressor is running,
Pz_it_low_and P3 ts sufficient-to open the valve to allow
liquid refrigerant to flow. When the compressor stops, the
low side,pressure P2,rises until the valves close.
The automatic expansion valve is designed to produce
a constant pressure drop; it can be adjusted by.a screw
that changes spring force F1. This metering device is com- a
mon in refrigeratois but is'seldom used in air conditioning
systems.
q
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE
Figure 14 shows a thermostatic expansion valve. The

construction is the same as the automatic expansion valve,
except'P1 is no longer atmospheric pressure. The upper
portion of the valve is connected by a capillary tube to
4
VAPOR PRESSURE
FORCE - OPENS VALVE
F1
CONTROL
LOW SIDE \BULB TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE -
, CLOSES VALVE
EVAPORATOR
81JCTION PRESSURE -
a=x) IF CLOSES VALVE TEMPERATURE
cGR A
SPRING FORCE
CLOSES VALVE
Figure 14. Thermostatic Expansion Valve.
-Page 20/HC-03
104
a Pt
a control bulb. The bulb is ~attached to the suction line

and is charged.with refrigerant. The pressure P1 depends
on the temperature of-the control bulb T1 which in turn`
4 depends upon the suction line temperature T2.:. If T1 drops,..
P1 drops; and the valve closes slightly, regulating the-flow
of refrigerant. 4.
'Thermostatic expansion valves are widely used in many:.
refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
A.
HIGH PRESSURE FLOAT
-Figure 1S shows a high pressure. float used in' many air

. conditioning systems. Liquid refrigerant enters,the re-
ceiver from .the condenser. As the liquid level rises, the
float rises, opening the needle valve. When the liquid
level drops, the valve closes;
,
INLET FROM
.dt-...". CONDENSER
Figure 15. High.

.
Pressure Side Float
Refrigerant Control
Mechanist. FLOAT uduto
LEVEL
TO EVAPORATOR
"6-
ti
105 HC-03/Page 21
0
e;
LOW SIDE FLOAT

..
Figure-- 16-,is low_slae_flo at _This_par_ticular stesign

uses a float pan, but solid or hollow floats may arso be .
used. This metering device Iblintaids a constant liquid re-

frigerant lvver in a flooded evaporator.
FLOAT FAN
SUCTION UNE
NEEDLE AND
SEAT ASSEMBLY
UOXIID UNE
SCREEN
LEAD GASKET
Figure 16: Low. Pressure Side Float Refrigerant. Control:
ACCESSORIES,
OIL 'SEPARATOR .
An oil separator (Figiirc 17) is included in most air,

c'ond'itioning systems to remove' oil from the refrigerant gas
as it le'aves the compressor. 'Hot gas and oil enter from the
left and travel downward through a pipe -and screen. The oil
4
4.
Page 2,2/HC-D3
,
.
t
collects in the bottom of the separator and is returned to

.-the compressor. .The hot refrigerant gas travels through
- -the pipe at.'the right to the condenser. Oil.separators are
never 100% efficient; therefore some oil always circulates
with the refrigerant.
Figure 177. Oil Separator. a
4
MUFFLERS
0 *iteciprocating compressOrs are usually equipped with

mufflers similar to automobile%mufflers. These mufflers
fit
reduce noise and smooth the'flow of gas before it reaches
the condenser. Mufflers dre sometimes combined with oil
separators.
HC-93/Page 23
0 . 107
HEAT EXCHANGERS
, ?
A heat exchanger (Figure 18) transfeA\heat from the
warm liquid to the cold suction gas. This action subcools
the liquid, increasing system capacity;' and it superheits
the suction gas to protect the compressor from liquid re-
frigerant.
Figure 18.
Heat Exchanger.
STRAINER-DRIER
'The strainer drier is installed in the. liquid line.

.It serves two purposes: it strains any solid particles
from the liquid before it'reaches the metering device and
it contains a disiccant that absorbs any water that may be
present.
Page 2.4/HC -03

:tv
Figure 19 shows the sight glass common on smaller air

conditioning systems. The sight glass, located in the liq-
4uid line, should .be completely filled with liquid refriger-
ant during normal operation. This-particular model also
contains a moisture indicator-that can be used to determine
when the drier should be - changed.
Figure 19. Sight Glass

and Moisture Indicator
CombinatioA.
le
CONTROLS
Several types of controls can be used to regulate re-

frigerant and water flow, turn off or on compressor motors,
an0 control the compressor capacity. Some of these control
.
mechanisms are a part of normaLsystem.control; others are
safety features: The same type of control mechanism may be
a part of normal system operation in one system, a safety
109 )
HC-03/Page 25
feature in another, and entirely missing in a third. All
control mechanisms are either pressure sensors or tempera-
ture sensors.
TEMPERATURE CONTROLS
The control bulb ofthe thermostatic control valve is

one type'of temperature sensor. Electronic temperature
sensors alsoare used. The temperature of the suction line
may be used to control refrigerant flow and compressor capal_
city control. It can serve as, a safety feature to turn the /
compressor drive off if there is danger of liquid refriger-

,ant entering the compressor. Chilled water flow through the
.fan coilsalso is controlled by temperature actuated valves.
PRESSURE CONTROLS
Pressure sensors located in either the hot gas line or

the suction line can be used to control compressor capacity
or as a safety feature. These controls can be connected in
a variety of ways. One common application is a switch that
turns the compresor motor off (or reduces compressor capa-
city) when the low side pressure drops below a certain level.
The same control can be used to turn the compressor on when
the pressure rises. High side pressure controls-are often
included as safety devices.
Page 26/HC-03
110 .
SYSTEM CONTROL
Control of an air conditioning' system can be accom-

plished in several ways. One of the most common is to use
a thermostatically controlled water valve to allow cold
water to flow through the fan coil or to bypass the coil
and return to the chiller. If the water bypasses the fan
coil, the-chiller temperature and the temperature of the
suction also,drop. A thermostatic control valve senses the
a.
drop in suction line temperature and reduces liquid refrig-
erant flow into the .evaporator. This reduces the suction
line pressure, and a low suction pressure control either
reduces compressor capacity or turns the compressor off -.
' SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS
-A variety of system configurations are- common ranging

front' individual components connected by piping to packaged
.1
Water chillers. Figure 20 shows a reciprocating large

package chiller. The water-cooled condenser and the water
chiller (evaporator) are the cylinders located below the
compressOr. Such a package only requires connection to a
cooling tower and a fan coil to be placed in operation.
HC-03/Page 27
O
Figure 20. Reciprocating Large.Pacage
Figure 21 is a centrifugal chillei assembly. The single

cylinder below the compressor is divided into two sections.
One, is the evaporator, and the other is the condenser..
Page 2S/HCO3
112
do.
ti
1. A
*C.)
Figure' 21. Centrifugal Chiller Assembly.
ABSORPTION CHILLERS
An absorption.chiller produces a cooling effect through

the direct applidation of htat energy. Absorption refrigera-
tion Can be explained by following rejected heat energy as
it travels through the systems.
113
HC-03/Page 29
r.
A
EVAPORATOR
The evaporator (Figure 22) consists of a tube coil

inside a vacuum chamber. Water, the refrigerant, is cir
lated by a pump. The water sprays over the evaporator coil
and boils away at the low pressureP4emoving heat from the \\
evaporator coil and tooling the water flowing through it.
This chilled water supplie0o a fan coil.
1is
ABSORBER
The absorber (Figure 23) is located below the evaporator

in the same vacuum shell. It consists of a condenser coil
and a reservoir of lithium bromide (LiBr) solution. The
condenser carries water returning from a cooling tower.
(Approximate temperatures are given in Figure 23 in degrees
Fahrenheit.) A spray wets the surface of the condenser with
the LiBr solution. This solution absorbs water Vaporread-
ily, heating the water flowing throUgh the condenser and
'maintaining a low pressure inside the vacuum shell.
GENERATOR
Heat is added -to the system in he generator (Figure

24), which is located in a second cylindrical shell. The
purpose of the generator,is to separate the lithiuM bromide
solution from the absorber into concentratedLiBr solution
and water. It consiSts'of A coil thit carries Steam and'hot
water through the LiBr solution. This causes some of the
water to evaporate. The concentrated LiBi solution returns
to the absorber.
-Page 30/HC-03
114
Mir/
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MAO sess (61.40.1 =tab
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01100140110417
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wc... CCC CC
C:=3
aft0
STEAM OR
OEN
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Alt0 SOLUTION AT LOW
1.OAO$ Ei LOW CONOENSING 70 mm
WATER TEMPERATURES 1 346 PSIA
EXCEPT WHERE
SHADED.
c vilsootwurti
t
bDaa
rt
RCP* CRAW
PUMP
Figure 22. Evaporator.
HC-03/Page 31
IA
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SOLUTION
PUMP
CNIGERANT
RUMP
Figure 23'. Absorber.
Page 32/HC-03
116
0
, (v
CIIINCINTOIATIM
1440 141m1 Cut. elm
oss..uve
simario
1ooriameos4.4
timaTime MI
4441444488T
owarion
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caolocAsce
MATte 1 346 PSIA
STEAM OR
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'MILO SOLUTION AT LOW
GENERATOR
1,040S lb LOW CONDENSING

WATER TEMPERATURES /0'
EXCEPT MORE
1444010.
CooLLEO
vpu 101
44
561
J
95
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SOL. U T I ts'Al
PUMP
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' PUMP
Figure 24. Generator.
HC-03/Page 33
'he condenser (Figure 2S) is ,a water-cooled coil located
in thelshell-with.the generator. ;Water from, the condenser
coil .of the absorber f'ows through the condenser and returns
to the cooing tower. The water vapor from the generator
condenses on- the' condenser coil and is returned-to the evap-
orator in the lower shell.
HEAT EXCHANGER AND EDUCTOR
The:efficiency of an absorption chiller is greatly

increase4.by the addition of a heat exchanger (Figure 25).
Hot concentrated LiBr solution from the generator flows41"-
through the heat exchanger in one direction and release
some pf its heat to the solution traveling to the generator
in the other direction. The eductor is a mixing device that
mixes theiconcentrated LiBr solution from the generator. with
the weaker solution from the absorber. The resulting inter-
mediate solution is -sprayed on the coils of the absorber. ,
e
k
el IL
err CIINTAPit 1:=3 CONOC MIL* 10
PPM.T.IN AP^.WAS
2e4ttell '34
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isewerseis
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comeeiseee
MAWS
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401. WATER CCM
*MILO SOLUTION Al LOW 51
LOMA LOW CONOINSINO
WATM TEMPERATURES
)(an MOIRE
WMXM
rof
CHILLED
LIQUID
44
0.I I
I I
1 I
'Ot.1
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95
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OL UTION
PUMP
RCP 191 (*ANT
PUM
Figure 25., Condenser. 4
HC-03/Page 35
Q
Figure 26shows a typical absorption liquid chiller.

These units were 'iery popular befoie rising energy costs
made them uneconomical. Many absorption chillers are still
in use in applications wherehotwater or steam is available
as a by-product of some industrial process.
CONDENSER
GENERATOR
PURGE CHAMBER
.....
EVAPORATOR
I
A
ABSORBER
EDUCTON
SOLUTION
PUMP
REFRIGERANT- ,
d.
PUMP
AUTOMATIC HEAT
VECRYSTALLIZATION EXCHANGER
PIPE
Figure 26. Absorption Liquid Chiller,
Page 36/HC-03
120 -
11
---
EXERCISES.
1. Explain how each of the two major compressor types used

in air conditioning systems compreises the refligerint
gas.
2. The equipment room of a large building. is located in
the basement, and the heat rejection equipment is on
the roof. Explain the advantages and.disadvantages of
the following types of heat rejection equipment for
A this application and state which is the best choice:
a. Air-cooled condenser. 1
b. -..::Eliaporative condenser.
c. --Cooling tower.
75. Explain air flow in'the following types. of
tower:
a. Counterflow, natural draft.
b. Counterflow, draw through (induced draft).
Cross flow, blow through (forced draft).
4. Explain the difference in the following types of water
chillers:
a. Dry expansion.
b. Flooded.
S. Explain the difference in the operation of an automatic
, expansion valve and a'thermostatic expansion valve.
,Explain the purpose of the following system accessories.'
a. Oil separator.
b. M}Iffler.
c. Heat exchanger.
d. Strainer drier.
7. Explain the operation of the Control system. of an air
conditioner system using a thermostatic water valve at
the fan coil, a thermostatic expansion valve, and a
cylinder unloader`that operates from suction line pres-
sure,
HC703/Page'37
121
3
8. Explain, with diagrami, the operation of an absorption

chiller.
4 .
NoteboOk.or,clipboard.
4
--o Pen or pencil. . ,
W
='1
Notes from lab in Module HC-02, "SysteM Types."
,LABORATORY PROCEDURES
This laboratory consists of the second of four field

trips to a large central air conditioning.installation. The
system chosen should include 'a water chiller and cooling
tower. The pUrpose of this visit is a detailed study of the
'refrigeration equipment.
1. Observe the system components during the refrigeration

components - familiarization tour. Record in the field
notebook the data specified in the Data Table and any
other information available. concerning-he system.
2. Sketch the following components in the field notebook:
a. Oil separator.
b. Muffler.
,
c. Heat exchanger.
d. Strainer-drier.
-
e. Sight glass.
f.. Water pumps.
g. Water control valves.
h. Refrigerant control valves.
.38/HC703
1 22
Cp
3. Draw a diagram showing the components, water flow, and
.
air f-ow of the cooling tower-
4. Draw circuit diagrams showing all components and con-
b.
cc
i.
Chilled water.
w
netting pipes for the following heat exchanging loops:
a. Refrigerant.
Condensing water.
IA'
S. 'Explain all. system controls. .
6. Calculate the system capacity in. tons of refrigeration

effect, using the following equation:
1 vAT
C' 24 "44
where:.
C = Capacity in tons.
V =. Water flow rate through chiller in.galimin.
AT = Change in water temperature in chiller in °F.
.e
7.- Determine the volume of water evaporated per hour in

the cooling tower (1.8 gal/hr per ton).
8. After the field trip, draw a single schematic diagram
showing all components of the refrigeration system.
HC-03/Page 39
123
:-.
DATA TABLE
ti
DATA- TABLE
COMPRESSOR
Type:
= Drive:
Maximum drive power (kw and hp):
Capacity control:
Refrigerant:
Suction line pressure:
Discharge pressure:
CONDENSER
Type:
Inlet water temperature:
Outlet water temperature:
Water flow rate:
COOLING TOWER
Type:
Cooling range:
Approach:
Amb'ient wet bulb temperature:
Entering wet bulb temperature:
CHILLER
Type:
Inlet water temperature:
Outlet water temperature:
Water flow rate:
Cooling capicity (tons):
Water evaporated (gal/hr):
Page 40/HC-E3
12
4,
REFERENCES
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute. Refrigeration

and Air-Conditioning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
- Hall, Inc., 1979.
Althouse, Andrew D.; Turnqui'st, Carl H.; and Bracciano,
Alfred F. Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning.
Homewood, IL: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc.,
1979.
Carrier Air Conditioning Company. Handbook of Air Condition-
"2-
ing System Design.' NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965.
TPC Training Systems. Condensers and Cooling TOWers.
Barrington, IL: Technical Publishing Co., 1977.
a
HC-03/Page 41
.125
IS
TEST
1. CentrifUgal compressors...
4 a. are often driven by steam turbines.
b. may have adjustable gas inlet vanes for capacity
control.
c. are the most common compressor type in systems of
125 tons or greater.
d. All of the above.
2. Which of the following methods of compresso-r capacity
control has the poorest energy efficiency?
a. Cylinder unloading.
b.- Compressor drive speed control.
c. On-off control of compressor drive.
d; Hot gas bypass.
e. Adjustable inlet vanes.-
3. Which of the following heat.rejection devices is lower
in first costs and has lowest maintenance costs?,
a. Air-cooled condensers.
b. Evaporative condensers.
, c. Cooling towers.
d. Water-cooled condensers.
4. Which of the following is not a disadvantage of air-
cooled condensers?
a. Capacity decreases as wet bulb temperature rises.
b. Large volumes of air are required.
c. Possible noise problems.
d. Capacity'decreases as dry bulb temperature rises.
5. The capacity of a water-cooled condenser, is dependent
a. temperature of entering water.

b. water flow rate.
1') HC-03/Page 43
c. temperature of entering refrigerant gas.
6. A cooling tower has a fan that forces air into one side
of the tower. The air flows out through the other side.
This tower is
a. counter= flow, .natural draft.
b. counter flow, induced draft.
c. cross flow, forced draft.
a; cross flow, induced draft.
7. Which of the following is true of cooling towers?
a,. "They require more space than air cooled condensers
or evaporative condensers.
b. Their capacity decreases as the dry bulb tempera-
ture rises.
c.. Long piping runs often cause problems.
d. Maintenance requirements cause them to be used
only infrequently.
e. None of the above.
8. Which of the following is not true of evaporative
condensers?
a. They consist of a single unit incorporating the
features of a water-cooled condenser and a cooling
tower.
b. Their capacity increases as the wet bulb tempera-
ture drops.
c. They are often located inside the equipment room,
and outside air is supplied and exhausted by ducts.
d. They are more popular than cooling towers for re-
mote cooling because they eliminate the need for
long runs of.water pipes.
.e. None of the above (all are true).
Page 44/HC05
9. Which of the following is not a common evaporator type.
in air conditioner systems?
a. Dry expansion coils that directly cool the air
forced across them.
b. Flooded expansion coils that directly cool the
air,forced acr4 them.
c. 9ryexpanslon7waterch-ille-rsin which tubea_carry
refrigerant.through a water filled cylinder.
U. Flooded, water chillers in which pipes carry, water
through a cylinder filled with liquid. refrigerant.
e. None of_the above (all are in common use).
10. Which type of metering device monitors suction line
temperature?
a. Automatic expansion valve.
b. Thermostatic expansion valve.
c. High side float.
d. Low side float.
11. In an air conditicTing system using a thermostatic
expansion valve thle ,compressor capacity- is. usually
ControlleU by...
a. suction line temperature.
b; fan coil water temperature.
c. suction line pressure"
compressor disdharge pressure.. 4
d.
12. The refrigerant in an absorption chiller is usually...,
a. LiBr.
b. R-12.
c. R-2I.
d. water.
128 HC-03/Page 45
O
13. The major component -of an absorption unit that cools

the "chilled.witer" for the fan coil is called the...'
a.° evaporator.
b. .generatbr.
c. absorber.
.d. condenser.
e. he,at,exchanger.
14. Abiorption
a, have found more widespread use as energy costs
have risen.
b. require steam for their operation.
c. are usually employed in situations in which waste
energy is available in the form of steam or hot
water.
d. do not require cooling towers.
129
Page 36/HC -03
fli
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
CONSERVATION AND USE
HEATING, VENTILATING,
MODULE HC- O4
RESIDENTIAL HEATING EQUIPMENT
130
INTRODUCTION
Residential'heating,equipment may use electrical heat

or the combustion heat off fuel oil or natural gas. All
"three types of warm air furnaces are in common use. The
one selected for a particular application depdnds upon the
availability and cost of fuel and electricity'at the unit
location.
This module discusses the basic configurations of warm
air furnaces and their applications. .The 'components and
operation ,of electric, oil-fired, and gas-fired furnaces
are presented. Maintenance and adjustment instructions for
gas-fired warm air furnaces are included and are used by
the student in a practical laboratory exercise in furnace
maintenance.
PREREQUISITES
The student should have completed Module HC-02, "System

Types."
OBJECTIVES
C
Upon completion of this module, the student should be

able to:
1. List the four basicwarm\air furnace configurations and
state the application of each.
2. State the three major advantages of electric furnaces.
3. Draw and label a-diagram of a Klixon limit control and
explain its operation.
HC-04/Page 1
131
Given a diagtam of an oil-fired furnace, identify the
following components:
a. 'Supply air duct.
b. Return air duct.
c. Flue outlet.
4. . Filter.
e. Blower.
f. Blower motor.
g. Oil burner.
h.' Combustion chamber.
i. Heat exchanger.
j. Jacket.,
S. Explain the operation of the following components of
an oil burner:
a. Air adjustment.
b. Deflector vanes'on air tube.
c. Ignition system.
d. Oirpump and nozzle.
e. Flame detector.
6. Explain the difference between an oil combustion cham-
ber and a gas combustion chamber.
4
7. Explain, with the use o f a diagram, how primary and
secondaiy air are provided in a gas burner.
8. Describe the main burner flame if_the-ptimarvair
shutter is as follows:
a. Opened too far.
b. Closed down too far:
c. Adjusted properly.
9. Explain the operation-of the thermocouple and the valve-'
it controls.
10. Explain, with the use of diagrams, the operation of the
gas valve of a gas-fired furnace.
Page 2/HC-04
>N
11. Explain theltollowing test procedures for a gas fired

furnace:
a. Test heat exchanger for leaks.
b. Test thermocouple output. .
c. Check dropout time Of thermocouple-controlled

valve.
d. Check priiaary air adjustment.
).e. Check gay manifold pressure.
012. Check, adjust, and operate a gas-fired furnace in the
laboratory.
-133 HC-04/Page 3
9
SUBJECT MATTER,
WARM AIR FURNACES

. .
Most residential heating is provided by warm air

furnaces that burn fuel oil or natural gas or ritcorporate
electrical heating elements.- Air circulation iy result.
y employed.
from convection currents; but a blower is usua fll
I.
.
The warmed air.is usually.delivered to tRe heaped space by
system of ducts. Four basic configuration§ warm air
furnaces and their applications are dis.cussedn the follow-

.
incorporat4 an evapoTatoi
ing paragraphs. Each type may also
coil to provide air conditioning service. t
f
I
UPFLOW FORCED WARM AIR FURNACE

' 1
1
In the upflow, or "high-bOy," furnace (Fiigure la) air

enters through a filter at the bottom of the cabinet and Is
blown upward through the heat exchanger. Thi furnace con-.
figuration is widely used in utility roams lotated-on the
first floor of home's without basements and inibasement; with
return air ducts leading to the blower compaitment. The.
I
primary advantages of thig furnace design are the; small

floor space required and the use of overheadior 0attic deliv-
ery ducts.
5w-
H -04/Page
ri
t. f
. WARM AIR OUTLET WARM AIR OUTLET R.A. INLET
FLUE
CONNECTION
FLUE
CONNECTION
rr
BURNER BURNER
AND AND
- CONTROLS CONTROLS
BLOWER
b. Basement. (Low -Boy) Forced
ALTERNATE Warm Air Furnace
LOCATION
OF FILTER
AND R.A. INLET
.,
a. Upflowitiigh-Boy),Forted Warin Air Furnace
1
R.A. INLET FLUE
rerrnerszleseram.....-- FILTER BLOWER FiCONNECTION
BLOWER
WARM
AIR
OUTLET
R.A. INLET BURNER AND

AND FILTER , CONTROLS
FLUE
HEAT CONNECTION
EXCHANGER d. Horizontal Forced Warm Air Furnace
BURNER
AND
CONTROLS
c. DOwnflow (Counter flow)Forced

Warm Air Furnace
WARM AIR OUTLET
T.
1
Figure 1. Warm Air. Furnace Configurations.

\
Page 6/HC-04
4
BASEMENT FORCED WARM AIR FURNACE

.
Ns
As the name implies, the basement forced warm air
furnace (Figure lb) is primarily deslignedfor*b ement in-
stallation. It requirei more fldor space bu less head
room. The low-boy, a modification of the high-boy, is
classified as an upflow furnace.
DOWNFLOW FORCED WARM AIR FURANCE
The downflow, or "counter-flow," furnace (Figure lc)

f\
adcL
t-he top of the cabinet
is designed to intake leA\brn
and exhaust warm air at the bottom. This furnace design is
used for perimeter heating of houses without basements and
in mobile homes. It requires little floor space and is best
suited for use with a delivery duct system under the floor.
HORIZONTAL FORCED WARM AIR FURNACE
The hdrizontal flow furnace (Figure 1d) moves air

through the cabinet in a horizontal direction. Such units
are used in locations with limited head room such as in
attics, in crawl spaces, below floors, and above suspended
ceilings.
4
HC-.04/Page 7
1 3 tJ
S
"it
ELECTRIC FURNACES
HEATING ELEMENT
The heating element of an electric furnace (Figure 2)

:Consists of a wound element of nichrome tAre looped around
/a rack on ceramic insulators. Most residential electric
. -/ furnaces use 20-gauge wire and operate on 220-V a.c. cur-
/
/ rent. One of the advantagei of electric heating is the

small_sipace_requirement_for the electric-element- Heat
exchange occurs as air passes across the element. Another
advantage of electric heat is the absence of an exhaust
system for combuftion gases.
Figure 2. Heating Element of Electric Furnace.
Page 3 /HC-04'
LIMIT CONTROLS
A third major advantage of the electric furnace is the

ease of control. The klixon-type element shown in Figure 3
is incorporated in each heating element and switches that
element OFF if the switch temperature exceeds 170°F. Simi-
lar switches are used to control fan operation in this and
other warm air furnaces. They switch the fan ON after the
furnace has heated to operating temperature and turn it OFF
after the furnace has cooled.
ELECTRIC
. TERMINALS
MOVE ABLE MOVEABLE
CONTACT CONTACT
ARM ARM
c
THRUST
BUTTON
b. BI-Metal Olsc. c. RI-Metal Olsc.

Hot Circuit Open Cool Circuit Closed
Figure 3. Klixon-Type Limit Control.
OIL-FIRED FURNACES
Figure 4 shows the components'of.a typical oil-fired

furnace '(low -boy design). The principal parts of this
furnace are the combustion chamber, heat exchanger, and oil
burner.
HC-04/Page 9
I
SUPPLY RETURN
AIR ftt AIR
MEAT OUTLET
'.-FULTULE
EXCHANGER
FILTER
Figure 4.
MOTOR Typical Oil-
Fired Furnace.
BLOWER
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
COMBUSTION CHAMBER'
The combustion chamber of an oil furnace must reach a

high temperature quickly and maintain that temperature for
complete combustion of the oil. The lining of the chamber
(Figure 5) is made of lightweight refractory material that
assures proper combustion temperature and protects the metal
walls from that temperature.
Figure 5. Refractory Used in

the Combustion Chamber.
Page 10/HC-04
1 39
HEAT EXCHANGER
The hot gases from the combustion chamber pass through

a metal heat exchanger where their thermal energy is trans- "-
mitted through the walls to the air to be heated. As much

as 80% of the thermal.energy is transferred to the heated
air. Figufe 6 shows several oil heat exchangers.
Figure 6. Typical Oil Heat Exchangers.'
ATOMIZING OIL BURNER
Most residential oil-fired furnaces (over 95 %) employ

the high-pressure atomizing oil burner shown in Figure 7.
This unit consists of a fan, oil pump, oil nozzle,,ignition
system, and flame detector.
HC-04/Page 11
140
Figure 7. High-Pressure
Atomizing Oil Burner.
Fan and Combustion Air Adjustment
Combustion air for the oil fire is supplied by afan

internal to the burner. The amount of air provided is con-
trolled by.adjustable openings on the fan intake (Figure 7).
Oil Pump
Figure 8 shows the oil circuit diagrams of two types of

oil pumps commonly incorporated in residential oil burners.
Both employ a recirculating system in which regulation is
accomplished by controlling the amount of oil that bypasses
the nozzle.
The,single-stage,pump (Figure 8a) is used in gravity-
fed and low-lift (lesi than 10 in Hg vacuum) applications.
The two-stage pump (Figure 8b) has two sets of pump gears.
A
The first stage lists oil to the pump and the second stage
',provides pressurized-oil to the nozzle. The oil delivery
pressure is typically 100-300 psi.
Page ,12/HC-04
141
f
ANTI-HUM DEVICE PRESSURE GAUGE

STRAINER EASY FLOW BLEED VALVE
FROM TANK r-
, GEARS
f 7 !i
TO NOZZLE
a 1: =IV- 7...
i LEED ORIFICE
PRESSURE REGULATING
S CUT-OFF VALVE
OPTIONAL BY-PAS I
TO TANK BY-PASS
TO SUCTION
a. Circuit Diagram Of A Single-Stage Pump
PRESSURE GAUGE
FROM STRAINER EASY FLOW

TANK BLEED. VALVE
2ND STAGE GEARS
1ST STAGE GE RS
TO NOZZLE
BLEED ORIFICE
BY- PASS TO SUCTION

ANTI-HUM
DEVICE
111
OPTIONAL INTERNAL DISCHARGE TO TANK 'PRESSURE EGULATING
RETURN TO SUCTION & CUT-OFF VALVE
b. Circuit Diagram Of A Two-Stage Pump
Figure A. Oil Pumps.
Oil Nozzle
The oil nozzle is designed to provide a conical spray

of oil that matches the shape of the combustion chaMber, as
shown.in Figure 9. Deflector vanes (Figure 7) cause the'air
HC-04/Page 13
1.42.
and fuel mixture to spin as it leaves.the end of the burner.
This mixes the air and fuel and provides for complete com-
bustion.
`,10;;FAcCE
1. 70. T090° Spray Angles Are For 0. 30.T0 60 Spray Angles Are For Rectan-
Square Or Round Combustion Chambers. gular Or Cylindrical Combustion Chambers.
Figure 9. Oil Spray Shapes.
Ignition System
Figure 10 .shows the ignition electrodes of a typical.

oil burner. An a.c. voltage of about 10,000 V is applied,
across the electrodes by the ignition transformer (Figure
7). The transformer limits arc,curient to about 23 mA.
Some systems produce an arF only during initial ignition of
the oil flame, but most employ continuous ignition. This
means that the arc is present anytime the burner is operat-
ing"and will assure that the flame remains lighted as long
as'fuel is present.
Page 14 /HC -04

143
ELECTRODE STEM
NO ZLE ADAPTOR
WAYNE BURNER
a. Burner electrodes and nozzle b. Typical electrode spacing.

. assembly.
Figure 10. Ignition Electrodes of an Oil Burner.
Flame Detector
If'the ignition system fails, or 'if the flame is extin-

guished and not relighted immediately, a dangerously explo-
sive mixture of fuel and air fills the combustion chamber
and heat exchanger. A cadmium sulfide cell is positioned
inside the burner, a9 shown in Figure 11. This photoconduc-
tive element-has a high resistance (100,000 a) in darkness,
but -its resistance falls in the presence of visible fight
(300-1000 a). It is positioned-so light from the o 1 flame
falls on the cell. As long as a flame is "seen," the burner
operates. If the light from the flame ceases to strike the
HC-04/Page 15
1 44
ti
cell, it turns OFF the oil spray and burner motor. For
proper operation the cell must receive light directly from
,thi flame, and no outside light should gr,ter t1(4:/combustion
chamber. I
BURNER HOUSING 1"I0LE DRILLED IN BURNER HOUSING

1,
LIGHT FROM FLAME . 1111F/41

41
ADJUSTME, C SCREW
OM LINE ADJUST CAD CELL SO

THAT IT*SEEr LIGHT
FROM THE FLAME
-CONTACT Nei ie
MOUNTING BRACKET
-WraliZNIcarNAMI .M...SX:41Z2Enter
Figure ,11. Mounting the Cad Cell.
GAS-FIRED FURNACES
HEAT EXCHANGER
The heat exchanger of a gas-fired furnace is often

called a "clamshell" because it is made of two pieces of
Page 16/HC-04
145
metal stamped into" right and left halves and welded together.
Several clamshell !designs are shown in Figure 12. The heat
exchanger of a gas furnace is usually composed of several
clamshells, as shown in'Figure 13.
IN/
\Figure 12. Typical Clamshell Heat -Exchanger Designs.
The large opening at the bottom of the heat exchanger

is the,combustion chamber, which contains the gas burners.
'he chaber temperature for gas fires is much lower than
, for oil fires, and no refractory material is needed. The
hot combustion gases rise through the inside of the clam-
'shell and are exhausted through the ports at the top. About
80% of the heat is transferred to the air blown across the
t
dutside of the clamshells. The surface area of'the exchanger

t7 by Using the shapes shown in Figure 12.
Leaks in the \heat exchanger may be detected by spraying
a solution of table,salt and water into the combustion cham-
ber during furnace *ration. A butane torch is then posi-
I tioned in the warm output air from the heatexChanger. If
HC-04 /Page 17
L. c'
.- .
any of 'the salt solu-

tion has mixed with
the heated air (indi-
cating a leak in the
heat exchanger), the
butane flame will
change color.from
blue.to yellow.
MAIN GAS BURNERS

.
. The principle
of operation of a gas
burner is illustrated
in Figure 14. Gas
under a small posi-
iive pressitre sp.rays
through-an-orifice
into the throat of
the burner. Primary /
combuStion air is
/
drawn into the burner
throat by ve'nturi /-
.
tion. This air an
gas mixture flows
Figure 13. eat Exchanger Composed upward through holes
of Three Clamshells.
in the burner. Com-
bultion takes pace_
above the burner surface. Secondary air inside the co bus-
,
tion chamber proys_forcomplete combustion of the as.

Figure-I-3---four
ows common burner configurations. /
I
'
/
Page 1S/HC-04
147
! 1
1
Gas burners for resi- SECONDA RY

PRIMARY
AIR AIR
ft dential Use do not employ
*
combustion air blowers. ORIFICE.=
Air is itoved through the
gas furnace by convection. VENTURI
Tie heated air rises r

through the heat exchanger Figure X14. Supplying Primary
and Secondary Air.to Burner.
and\exhust system, and
roo> aixf is drawn into
the combustion chamber.
Colbustion is con-
trolledEby adjusting the
ratio6 of, primary air to
gas 4ith a primary air
shutter!located.around
the gas orifice at the
rear of the burner (Fig-
ure 16). If too little )
primary air is iiimittid,
.Figure 15. Several
the flame will be tall
Burner Designs.
and will have yellow tips
due-to the incomplete
combustion of carbOn.
If the primary air supply
,
is set too high, the flame

'may:roar and be blown up:
*ward away from the surface
of the burner. When a
burner with too' much pri-
mary air is turned OFF
(by closing the gas supply . Figure 16. Effecti of Poor
'Adjustment of Primary Air.
valve), the'dnburned fuel=
4
HC-04/Page 19
148
f,
air mixture inside the burner ignites to produce a loud pop-
ping or extinction noise, and the:pilot flame may be blown
Out.
The primary air supply is adjusted by lighting the--.
burner and closing the primary air' shutter until the tip of,
the flame is yellow. The air shutter is then opened until
the yellow disappears% and a locking screw is:tightened
hold the shiltter at the proper setting.
tIL0T BURNERS
The main burners of gas-fired furnaces are ignited

from small pilot flames that burn-continuously. Figure 17
;
shows the typical shape of a normal pilot flame. The flame

is flared in two directions. One side of the flAlne strikes
the thermocouple control element (deicribed later in this
module), and the otherside is directed toward the main
burner for ignition.
Figure 17. Normal Pilot'

Flame Fans Out in Two ,
Directions.
Page 20/HC-04
7-
The size of the pilot flame is adjusted by the pilot
adjust screw on the gas valve ,(Figure.22). The pilot flame
should be adjusted so approximately one-half inch of the
thermocouple rod is in contact with the flame.
Primary air' for the pilot flame is provided by a slot
or a drilled hole in the pilot burner.' A yellow pilot flame
indicates that the primary air hole-is blocked.
THERMOCOUPLE
The flame-sensing. element of a gas furnace is a thermo-'

couple heated by the pilot flame. The voltage produced by
the thermocouple drives a low voltage coil in the,gas valve.
If the pilot flame goes out, the coil is de-energized, and
the valve closes. This provides 100% safety shutoff, and
it does not depend on any external electric power.
The thermocouple may be tested by inserting a General
controls adapter No. 103050G
between the thermocouple lead
and.the gas valve. The volt-
:.
age between the outer conduc-

torTofthethermocouple lead
ard 'the side terminal of the
adapter (Figure 18) is mea-
sured with a d.c. millivolt-
, meter. A voltage of at least
7 mV is required to operate
the gas valve. If the read-
ing is below 7 mV; the pilot
Figure 18. Connecting
_burner should.be cleaned or Millivoltmeter Probes
repositioned, or the pilot to Adapter.
HC-04/Page 21
150
4
flame size should be increased. If this does not increase

the voltage to 7 mV or greater, the thermocouple should be
replaced:
GAS VALVE
The most common gas valve for gas-fired furnaces in-

cludes a'pressure regulator, pilot flame adjustment, pilot
valve, and main grs valve. Figures 19 through 22 illustrate
the normal operation of the gas valve.'
In Figure 19 the-gas valve is in the OFF position.
There is no pilot'flame, so the thermocouple-controlled
valve is closed. The main valve also is closed to prevent
the escape of any gas that may leak past the thermocouple-
controlled valve.
TO MAIN
BURNER
PLUNGER
ON
PILOT
GAS SUPPLY
THERMOCOUPLE---P-
OFF
PILOT BURNER
Figure 19. Schematic of Gas Valve in OFF Position.
Vag 22/HC-04
151
Figure 20 shows the gas valve in the pilot position
used for lighting the pilot flame. The control knob is
first set to the'pilot position. This allows no gas flow
because there is no pilot flame, and the thermocouple-con-
/
trolled valve remains closed. Pressing the light plunger
opens this valve manually and allows the pilot flame to be
lighted. The plunger must be held down for about 1 minute
to allow the thermocouple to reach operating temperature.
The pilot will then continue to burn ,when the plunger is
released. Only the pilot burner is supplied with gas in
the pilot position; no gas can reach the main burner.
TO MAIN
BURNER
PLUNGER
THERMOCOUPLE -'
Figure 20. Gas Valve in Pilot Position.

NN
Figure 21 shows the gas valve 'in the ON positiOn before

a call for heat. The pilot flame is burning, and gas is
supplied to the main burner valve. This valve is controlled
by an external thermostat and will open (Figure 22) when
HC-04/Page 23
1 ')
1'
I
TO MAIN
BURNER
PLUNGER
ON
PILOT
__OAS4UPPL1V--
THERMOCOUPLE-----o.
OFF
P11.01 BURNER
1111
Figure 21. Gas Valve in ON Position Before a Call for Heat.
TO MAIN
BURNER
PLUNGER
ON
PILOT
GAS SUPPLY
THERMOCOUPLE--,.-
OFF
PILOT BURNER
Figure 22. Gas Valve in ON Position After a Call for Heat.
Page 24/HC-04
15
there is a call for heat. Gas then flows to the main burner
and is'ignited by the pilot. If the pilot flame goes out
The
at any time, the thermocouple-controlled valve closes.
operation of this valve may be checked by measuring the time
required for the valve to close. The gas valve is first set
to the pilot position. The pilot is lighted and.is allowed
to burn for a few minutes. Then the gas valve is turned OFF,
and a timer is started. The closing of the thermocouple
-valve -iTrd-i-cated by a-click. If-this --requires__mora_than_
2.1/2 minutes, the valve should be replaced.

The gas valve also includes a pressure regulator to
control the gas manifold pressure. The manifOld pressure
is loW (less than 1 psi) and is measured in inches water
gauge (in w.g.). The correct manifold pressure for natural
gas is 3 1/2' to 4 in w.g. ,Eor propane the correct pressure
is 11 in w.g.
Figure 23 shows the measurement of manifold pressure
with a water-filled U-tube manometer. The presiure is indi-
cated by the difference
in water levels in the
two arms of the manometer.
Most gas valves or mani-
o 1 ds ir-aye-a-part far
such measurement. When
the plug is replaced, it
should be sealed with an
approved pipe dope, as
should all gas pipe con-
nections.
Figure 24 shows the
complete burner assembly
Figure 23. U-Tube Manometer
used with the heat exchang- Attached to a B Valve.
er in Figure 13. This
HC-04/Page 25
154
;
system employs three,main'hurners with crossover ignitors
to light one.burner. from another.
GAS VALVE
THERMOCOUPLE
LEAD-
AO.
PILOT BURNER
GAS SUPPLY
PILOT BURNER +r
THERMOCOUPLE PILOT
ADJ
SCREW
BURNERS 00 lI
THERMSTAT
O
CONNECTION
CROSSOVER
IGNITERS
ORIFICE
1101tX GAS MANIFOLD
LOCKING SCREW
110 PRIMARY
AIR SHUTTER
Figure 24. Complete Burner Assembly.
Fan control in gas-fired furnaces is usually accom-

plished by thermal switches located on the heat exchanger.
Page 26/HC-04
1
FURNACE SELECTION
applica-
The type of furnace selected for a particular
avail-
tion depends upon the heating laid and the cost and
ability of fuels and electrical energy in the area.
In areas where the natural gas supply is
natural gas is the most economical source of heat energy.
Equipment cost,. maintenance, and fuel costs are generally
less than_far oil-fired furnaces. Electric furnaces are
less expensive and require even less maintenance, but elec-
expensive in terms of energy
tric heat is usually the most
costs.
Electric furnaces are popular in areas where the air
conditioning load in summer far exceeds the heat load in
of
winter. In such cases, the savings in the initial cost
the equipment and in not having to extend gas lines is suf-
ficient to warrant,paying a higher-pricefor limited heating
often incorporated as
requirements. Electric furnaces are
auxiliary heaters in heat pump systems.
Oil heating is used extensively.in areas in the North
heating're-
and East where natural gas is unavailable and
quirements make electric heating costs too high. tOil-fired
furnaces are more expensive and requife more maintenance
offer
than either electric or gis-fired furnaces, but they
the advantage of a long-range fuel supply that is not depen-
dent on a constant delivery system.
Oil-fired furnaces have a nasty habit of blowing up if
not maintained properly.
HC-04/Page 27
EXERCISES,
1. State the configuration of the warm air furnace most

suited for the following applications .and explain each
.
choice briefly.
a. ' House with attic space for air ducts and*no base
ment.
b. House with basement.
c. House with no basement but ductwork in,the floor.
House with-nobasement-but crawipace firidertht,
floor.
2. Explain the controls necessary for the safe operation
of an electric furnace. 0
3. Explain the flame detector systems of the following:

a. An oil-fired furnace.
b. A gas-fired furnace.
Explain why the system used with each is unsuitable
for the other.
4. Explain the ignition system of an oil burner.
S. Draw diagrams showing gas flow in the gas valve of a
gas-fired furnace under the,following conditions:
a. Lighting pilot with plunger depressed.
b. Gas valve "ON" but no heat requested..
Gas va1ie "ON" and-heat requiested.
6. Explain how the following quantities are adjusted in a
gas-fired furnace:
a. Primary air supply.,
b. "Gas manifold pressure.
c. Pilot flame size.
HC-D4/Page 29
157
Gas-fired furnace.
Gas supply. .
Thermostatic control for furnace.

Plastic spray bottle of saltsolution.
Hand-held butane torch.
Screwdrivers and wrenches (as appropriate to furnace).
General controls adapter No. 103050G,
d.c. millivoltmeter. ."
Water-filled U-tube manometer with valve.

Watch with "second" indicator.
Thermometer 0-300°f.
1. Close gas supply valve at gas main and disconnect all

electrical' power to the furnace.
2: Remove furnace cover plates.
3. ,Draw in the Data Table a sketch of the major furnace
components and their location in the cabinet. Include
blower, burner, gas valve, heat exchandr, filter, flue,
room air inlet and outlet.
4. Draw a diagram showing the shape of the heat exchanger.
S. Remove the main gas burners and draw a diagram showing
their construction. Include the orifice and the primary
air shutter.
6. Draw a diagram of the pilot burner and thermocouple rod.
7. Draw and label a diagram of the furnace,gas valve, show-
ing all controls.
Page 30/HC-04 1
8. Reassemble main burners. Install the thermocouple
adapter and'the manometer as indicated in the Subject
Matter. ;Connect millivOltmeter to adapter.
. 9. TUrn on the gas supply to the furnace and connect elec-
trical 'Amer. BEWARE OF EXPOSED WIRES AND TERMINALS!
10. Light pilot, following instructions in the Subject Mat --
ter.
11. Record the thermoCouple voltage in the Data Table.
Inspect_the pilot flame. Turn OFF and clean the pilot
burner if necessary. Adjust the pilot to the proper
level, as indicated in the Subject Matter. Record the
new thermocouple voltage.
'13. Turn OFF the gas valve and measure the time for "drop-
out" of the thermocouple- controlled valve. Record this
value (in seconds) and the thermocouple voltage in the
Data Table.
14. Relight the pilot burner. <
15. Set the gas valves to "ON" and sets the thermostat for a
heat demand. Observe the main burner as it lights.
16. Measure the gas manifold pressure with the manometer.
Adjust the pressure to the proper range and record the,
pressure in the Data Table.
17. Set the primary air shutter to provide too little pri.-
mary air (momentarily) and describe the results in the
Data Table.
18. Set the primary air shutter to provide too much primary
air and describe the results in the Data Table.
19. Set the primary airshutters for the correct amount of
primary air and describe the result in the Data Table.
20. With the primary air supply properly adjusted and the
main burners on, adjust the manifold pressure downward
and observe the.flame. Describe the)result in the
Data Table.
I
HC-04/Page 31
15D
O
21. Adjust the manifold pressure to above the normal oper-

ating range and record the results.
22. Set the manifold pressure to the proper value. Turn
QFF the furnace and remove the manometer and thermo-
couple adapter.
23. Return the furnace to operation. Spray salt solution
into combustion chamber and check output air with butane
torch. Record the results of the leak test in the Data
Table.
24. Set the control thermostat to a ,level requesting no heat
and allow the furnace to cool,for a few minutes.
25. Turn the thermostat to request heat. Measure the time
between main-bUrner 3gnition and fan turn-ON and record
in the Data Table.
26. Lower the thermostat to request no heat and, measure and
record the time between main burner turn-OFF'and fan
turn-OFF.
27. ,Turn the furance back ON and allow it to operate. Mea-
sure and record the' temperature of the air entering the
furnace, the air tosthe furnace output, and the_,erichaust
gas
28. Turn OFF-the furnace and replace the cover plates.
29. Write a brief aescription of the:condition of the fur-
nace, the test that was made, and any corrections that
were made. Kor4 it as a service technician would re-
port work to a customer.
Page 32/HC-04
1G
DATA TABLE.
OP
DATA TABLE
SKETCHES OF FURNACE
/ Layout of futnace/components: O
Heat Excha*r: Main Burner:
Pilot Burner:. Gas Valve:
HC-04/Page 33
16;
Data Table: Continued.
Thetmocouple Voltage before adjustment:

Thermocouple voltage after adjustment:
Time for dropqut:
Thermocouple voltage at dropout:
Manifold pressure:
i or
Flame with too'little primary air:
\
Flame with too much primary air:
Flame with manifold pressure too low:
-Flame with manifold pressure too high:.

Pt
Results heat exchanger leak test:
Time from main burner ignition to fan-ON:

Time from main burner off to.fan-OFF:
Temperature of entering air:
Tempe-riture ofheated air-:
Temperature of exhaust:
Page 34/HC-04
1G2
.
Data. Table. Continued.
DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE CALL AND EQUIPMENT CONDITION
I
I
HC -04 /Page 35
163 /
;-
,-- ,,,,,,,, ,
li'
REFERENCES
Howell, Ronald H. and Sauer, Harry J., Jr. Environmental

Control Principles. New York: The American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engi-
neers, Inc., 1978.
Russell, Allen. Getting Started in Heating and Air Condi-
tioning Service. Birmingham, MI: Business New3
Publishing Co., 1973.
Page 36/HC-04 1 t..)

° 1'
TEST
1. Allow-boy warm air furnace will probably be located

a. in the equipment room of a house without a base-
ment.
b. in an attic.
c. in a basement.
d. in a mobile home.
2. A counter flow warm air furnace is usually'used
a. when ductwork is located in an attic.
b: when ductwork is located under the floor of a
house with a basement.
c. when ductwork is located under the floor of a
house without a basement.
d. without ductwork.
-3---Advantagesafectric furnaces include
a, small size
b. simplicity and safety of control.
c. no need forductwork.
d. All of the above are true statements.
e. Only a and 151 are true statements.
4. Thermally actuated switches are used
a. to turn the fan ON and OFF in gas-fired furnaces.
b. as over-tempeature shutoff devices in electric
furnaces.,
c., to turn on the oil burner in oil-fired furnaces.
e. Only a and b are\true statements.
S. Id9ntify the following components of an oil-fired fur-
nade by placing the prper letter from the diagram in
each space.
HC-04/Page 37
155
Oil burner.
Supply air duct.
Flue outlet.
Combustion chamber.
Heat exchanger.
6. Which of the following is true of both gas-fired and
oil-fired furnaces?
a. The combustion chamber is lined with a refractory
material.
b. Combustion air is supplied by a blower.
c. Eighty percent of the heat energy is transferred
to the room air.
d. The presence of the flame is detected by a thermo-
couple.
e. Both b and c. ,
7. Secondary combustion air is supplied to a gas burner

a. by a blower.
b. by room air entering the combustion chamber.
c. by air drawn into the burner throat by the gas
stream.
d. None bf the above are true statements.
Page 38/HC-04
166
8. Which of the following statements is not true of an
oil burner?
a. All combustion air is provided by a blower.
b. Deflector vanes on the air tube cause the fuel-
air mixture to swirl for better combustion.
c. The ignition system consists of a transformer
and electrodes.
d. The flame detector is a photocell that produces
a voltage when visible light strikes it.
e. All of the above are true statements.
9. If the primary air adjustment of a gas burner is opened
too far
a. the flame will be yellow and may smoke.
b. the pilot flame may be blown out when the furnace
turns OFF.
c. the pilot may be blown out when the furnace turns
ON..
d. the flame may hiss or "roar'."

e. Both b and d are true statements.
f. Both c and d are true statements.
10. If the pilot flame of a gas-fired furnace goes out,
the thermocouple voltage drops, and
a. a valve turns OFF the main burner fuel supply.
b. a valve turns OFF the pilot burner fuel supply.
c. a switch turns OFF the blower electrical supply.
d. Both a and b are true statements.
e. All of the above are true statements.
HC-04/Page 39
167
AgENV4Ag`t:....gsr.,
D CENTER FOR OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
Mastlarge_heating systems and many small ones employ

steam or hot water as a heat transfer medium. This water
is heated and, in most cases, vapori2ed in a gas or oil-
fired boiler. The three, basic boiler designs are the fire-
tube boiler, the water-tube boiler, and the cast ir'bn boiler.
The most common boiler fo heating application is a giTe-tube
boiler called the "Scotc marine boiler."
This module discusses the characteristics and applica-
tions of the three boiler types and the construction details
of the Scotch marine boiler. Oil and gas, burners, flame
.
safeguard systems, fuel delivery systems, and boiler control
are also described. The laboratory exercise consists of a
field trip on which students will observe and describe an
industrial boiler. .
PREREQUISITES
The student should have completed Module HC-04, "Resi-

dential Heating Equipment."
OBJECTIVES

able to:
1. List and describe the three basic types of boilers.
State the steam pressure ranges and common applications
of each type. '
2. Draw and label a diagram of a 3-pass Scotch marine

boiler. Identify the following parts:
HC-OS/Page 1
14J:)
a. Combustion tube.
b. Flue tubes.
c. Rear header.
d. Front header.
e. Smoke box.
3. Explain the difference in wet-back and dry-back boilers
and state two reasons for the greater popularity of the
dry-back boile.r.
4. Explain the purpose and operation of a blow-down tank.
5. Describe briefly the operation of the following burners
and state the fuels (oil type) burned by each oil
burner.
a. Mechanical atomizing oil burner.
b. Air or steam atomizing oil burner.
c. Horizontal rotary oil burner.
d. Gas ring burner.
e,(2,,, Given a diagram of a gas train, identify it as UL, 'FM,
or FIA approved. State the nine common elements con,
tained in each of these gas trains.
7. Describe the operation of the following flame safeguard
systems:
a. Infrared detection.
b. Ultraviolet detection.
c. Flame rectification.
S. Describe the control sequence in the turn ON and turn
OFF processes of a gas-fired boiler with low fire start
ing and flame rectification.
9. -.fist and explain the four systems of firing rate con-
trol.
10. Visit an industrial boiler installation on a field trip
Observe and record information on the boiler and draw
diagrams of the system.
Page 2/HC-05
170
SUBJECT MATTER
F 0.
BOILER TYPES
Three basic boiler types in common use are the fire-

tube boiler, the water-tube boiler, and the cast iron boiler.
. .
The characteristics and applications of each type are pre-

.
sented below.
FIRE-TUBE BOILER
In a fire-tube boiler the hot flue gas passes through

flue tubes that are submerged in the water within the boiler'
pressurevessels. Figure 1 shows a horizontal return tube
boiler. This type of fire=tube boiler was a popular indus-
trial boiler in the past, and many remain in service. HRT
boilers have efficiencies as high as 70% and have been used
for pressures up to 250 pounds. These boilers are no longer
being built because of (1) the high construction cost of the
firebox and support
structure and (2)
their relatively low
efficiency compared
to other boiler designs.
The Scotch marine boiler
(discussed in detail
later in this module)
is an improved fire-
tube boiler design de-
Figure 1. Horizontal Return
rived from the HRT" Tube Boiler (HRT).
boiler.
HC-05/Page 3
171
WATER -TUBE BOILERS
In a water-tube boiler the hot flue gas passes around

pipes filled with water and steam. The boiler consists of
drums for the storage of water and steam and pipes for heat
transfer. Water-tube boilers-are usually used for'hdgh
steam pressure (about 150 psi) but are sometimes found in
low pressure heating service.
Figure 2 shows the two basic categories of water-tube
boilers. Straight-tube boilers (Figure 2a) are an old de-
sign. Although some are still in service, most modern water-
.tube boilers are of the bent-tube design (Figure 1)). These
boilers are used whenever high capacity of high pressure
steam is-required. Boilers delivering 1,000,000 pounds of
steam per hour at 5000 psi are not uncommon in large power
plants. Bent-tube boilers operating at efficiencies' of
78-80% produce most of the electrical energy in the United
States.
a. Straight Tube b. Bent Tube
Figure 2. Water-Tube Boilers.
Page 4 /HC -0S
172
Since water-tube boilers are not extensively'employeds
in heating service, they will not be exantined in detail in
this module. The burner types, fuel systems; and control
systems for Scotch marine boilers (discussed later in this
module) also apply to water-tube boilers.
CAST IRON BOILERS
Cast.iron boilers (Figure 3) are used primarily for

low pressure (5-to 15 psi) heating service. They consist
of cast iron segments that may be stacked together to form
a boiler of the desired dimensions. The primary advantage
of cast iron boilers is that they can be erected in rela-
tively small spaces and in existing structures where water-
tube or fire-tube boilers cannot be vved into place.
4ffitlinalt1§E
Etl-fga.kti-'"'eri es I
lammumm
344:ite,166ikkIkeAtirll
111111!
ThIII
.:#
s
III
hi
fa
a. Vertical b. Horizontal
Figure 3. Cast Iron toilers.
vertical design (Fi,gure 3a) requires little floor

e vertical
space and is often found in'small commercial buildings and
HC-05/Page S
173
/light industrial plants. The horizontal design (Figure 3b)
/ is a larger boiler and is common in central heating plants
of older buildings. Few cast iron boilers are installed"
today because of the high cost of labor involved in erecting
them.
Small 'cast iron boilers are fired by oil or gas burners
similar to those used in residential heating equipment (see
Module HC=04, "Residential Heating Equipment"). Figure 4
is a diagram of a small gas-fired cast iron boiler that uses
- natural convection draft and a continuous gas pilot.
INSULATION FLUE CONNECTION
FLUE GAS COLLECTOR
it
DRAFT HOOD
HEAT
LI TRANSFER
SURFACE
j
Figure 4. Small Gas-
Fired Cast Iron Boiler.
111i11111111
AUTOMATIC PILOT
1111111.1111b
111111,
1.
- 0 BURNER
HEAD
BURNER SPUD ADAPTOR AND ORIFICE

GAS MANIFOLD
t
Larger cast iron boilers use forced draft and burners
similar to those described later for Scotch marine boilers.
The same fuel delivery and control systems are also used.
Page 6/HC-OS
174
SCOTCH MARINE BOILER
As the name implies, this boiler, shown in Figure 5,
was developed in Scotland for shipboard application. It

is not a separate boiler
type. Rather, it is a
fire-tube boiler de-..
signed to replace the _.""v v
"!.. ^ fr2 '''Ne"."- %.,1
HR4thoiler.
The combustion
chamber of the Scotch
marine boiler is a tube
surrounded by the water
in the pressure vessel. Figure S. Scotch Marine Boiler.
This design affords
maximum heat transfer
and eliminates the need for a refractory lining in the com
$ustion chamber. Additional energy transfer occurs as the
combustion gas passes through the flue tubes.
The Scotch marine boiler is produced with two b-asic
designs of rear header. This is the area where the flue
gs changes direction, and it is subject to damage unless
protected from the heat of the gas. The rear header of the
dry-back boiler (Figure 6a): is a box lined with a refractory
material. The wet-back bone' (Figure 6b)'uies a water
filled header that is an integral part of the pressure ves-
sel.
The wet-back boiler has the advantage of containing no.
.refractory material in'the rear heider, but it has,the dis-
advantages of greater difficulty of construction and limited,
access to the flue tubes. These tubes must be cleaned and /
inspected'periodically. Thus, the dry -back boiler is more
HC-OS/Page 7
-\-
o
popUlar even though the refractory matell'al in its header '
muse be replaced after a few years of operation. //
; MANHOLE .00
REAR HEADER
o
a. Dri Back b. Wet Back
I
.-.
Figure 6. Rear Header Design for Scotch
Marine Boilers. ,
The Scotch marine boiler is the most popular type for

operating pressures up to 150 psi. It has a standard oper-
ating efficiency of 80% and accounts for 65% of the commer-
cial and industrial boiler market. Scotch marine.boilers
A
are available as packaged units to develop steam pressure
/
in the ranges of 0 to 15 psi, 15 to 150 psi, and 150 to 250
.i
psi, with capacities from 500 to 25,800 pounds of steam,per
.
hour. '\,
.
.
,
.
The remainder of this module describes the.features .of
the packaged Sctch

o marine boiler.
r.
/
10'
Page 8 /HC -0S
/
a.
..":
SCOTCH.MARINEBOILEk CONSTRUCTION
PRESSURE VESSEL
V-
. 'The-ends of the 4,oiler pressure vessel are called "tube
sheets" (figure 7). They contain h les for the furnace tube
an flue tubes. The ligament, which is the spacing between
the flue tubes, is typically about three-fourths of an inch.
L6*.pressure boilers use the plain cylindrical type of
,
furnace.-tubes... Higher pressure boilers may use a ring re-
,
infOrced cylinder or a coaugated cylinder. The latter is
seldom used,because of combustion. problems due to eddy cur-
(
/- rents caused 1:1)>' the corrugations.
TUBE SHEET
LIGAMENT
TUBE HOLE
PLAIN
CYLINDRICAL TUBE
. Figure 7. Tube Sheets

and Furnace Tubes.
CORRUGATED
FURNACE TUBE' CYUNORICAL .

RING REINFIIRCED
The furftace tube and tube sheets are, welded together:

Then the.boiler shell (Figure 8) is completed. The flue
tubes are added andl!faled into place. Three methods can
-Be used to seal the tubes, as shown in Figure 9. In low
pressure boilers the ends of the tubes are flared to form

a seal and'reduce resistance togas flow. In higher pressure
HC-05/Page 1
177
(,)
gr.
boilers the tube ends can be beaded for extra strength. The
/
end of the tubes in the rear header are often welded in place
in high pressure boilers.
FLARED
ILO PRESS.)
BEADED
tH PRESS.)
WELDED
FURNACE TUBE
Figure 8. ,Boiler Shell. Figure 9. Sealing

- ----,..
Flue Tubes.
HEADERS AND SMOKE BOXES
Headers are plenum boxes that receive the flue _gases,

reverse their direction, and direct them into the next boiler
pass. The smoke box is the output part for the flue gases.
Boilers are available with 2, 3, or 4 pisses. The boiler in
Figure 5 is .a 2-pass'boiler. Figure 10a shows a 3-pass boil-
er, and Figure 10b shows a 4-pass boiler. The front and rear
header designs and smoke box location are also shown in Fig-'
I
ure,10.
The number of boiler passes does not dictate boiler
efficiency. Two -pass boilers have the same efficiency as
4-pass boilers. The number of passes does increase the
Page 10/HC-05
,
178
.4.
,resistance to flue gas flow and provides higher combustion
'chamber pressure in forced draft systems.,
-111,
,REAR HEADER
SMOKE BOX
4TH PASS
EFRACTORY
REFRACTORY
3RD PASS
2ND PASS
FRONT HEADER REAR HEADER 2ND PASS
REFRACTORY
b. 4 -PASS BOILER
Figure 10. Addition of Headers and Smoke Boxes.
INSULATION AND JACKETING
The boiler vessel is covered with two or three inches

of insulation to reduce heat loss. This is covered with an
outer jacket, or lagging, to prevent damage. The boiler is
then fitted with legs or skids to sup/iOrt it on its founda-
tion.
WATER CONTROLS
Figure 11 shows the condensate tank, feedwater pump,

and water level controls of a typical boiler. The water
,
level controller turns on the feedwater pump and opens the
HC-05/Page 11
179
feedwater valve when
WATER LEVEL CONTROLLER
CITY
CONDENSATE WATER the boiler water level
drops. If the level
drops too far, this
*.!... controller turns off
41111r the burner and soUnds
\ MAKE-UP
\ WATER an alarm. The conden-
4111,1611177141 FEEDER
sate tank receives
FEEDER CONDENSATE TAN!'
WATER VALVE FEED PUMP, condensed water from
the heating system.
Figure 11. Feed Pump and A makeup water feeder
Condensate Tank.
adds city water to,
compensate for any
losses.
Sedimentation of scale and suspended material (Figure
12) occurs in all boilers and must be removed periodically
by manually opening thei)low-down valve connected to the
lowest point of the-boiler. This pip& leads to the blow-
down tank shown in Figure 13. This tank al'ows steam to,
vent through a steam pipe to the.-outside air and channels
the hot water into the sewer.
FROM BOILER STiAM.VENT
SSI SIPHON BREAKER
Figure 12. Sediment Figure 13. Blow- wn Tank.

in Boiler.
Page i2/HC-05
COMBUSTION CONTROL
The burner and combustion controls are installed and

the completed packaged boiler is ready for shipment, A
variety of burners and control systems are cormonly use'd
with Scotch marine boilers. The same system are also used
on4 water-tube boilers and on larger cast iron boilers. The
remainder of this module discusses the burners and controls
in current service.
BURNERS
Boilers used, for heiting and most industrial applica-

tions are fired'with natural gas or fuel oil. In either
case the fuel must be mixed with the proper amount of air
1
and burned completely.
COMBUSTION AIR
Air fling th;OUgh a boiler can be accomplished by three

'Ow
mechanisms.
Natural Draft
Small cast iron boilers (Figure 4) hd-Ve no mechanical

blowers. The hot exhaust gas rises through the heat ex-
changers and flue, drawing room air into the-combustion
chamber. The major disachlantages,of natural draftcarc
air flow rates and poor control.
HC -05 /Page 13
.Induced Draft
,
Air flow can be increased in some boilers by placing
a blowei in the exhaust system. The induction fan creates
a lower preSsure inside the combustion chamber and draws,
Òr "induceS," room air into the combustion chamber. The
major disadvantage of induced draft is damage to the fan by
hot flue gases.
C
Forced Draft .
Most modern boilers use_a forced draft system that in-

corporates an air blower into the buimer assembly (Figure
14). The fan derivei.s the proper amount of combustion air,
usually 30Vmore than the amount required for total combus-
tion of the fuel. This assures complete burning and results
in better heat transfer in the flue tubes. The blower also
pressurizes the combustion chamber and forces,flue gas through
the tubes.
3. SMOKE BOX
FLUE TUBES
FRONT HEAD
BURNER /EAR HEAD
DAMPER FURNACE TUBE
FAN MODULATING FUELALVE

.61
Figure 14. Typical Boiler (3-Pass, Forced Draft).
Page 14/tiq-e5 4
182
r
MECHANICAL ATOMIZING OIL BURNER
The nozzle tip of the mechanical atomizing oil burner

(Figure 15) contains slots that, cause the escaping oil to
rotate and spray outward in
a sone. Combustio6Wilc--
enters through a set of
vanes that cause the air
to spin, or "turbulate,"
for complete mixing with
the oil spray. This is
the same type of burner
Cased in residential oil-
Figure 15: Mechanical
fired furnaces: It is Atomizing Oil Burner.
used primarily with lighter
weight fuel oils.
Two basic nozzle types can be used in mechanical atom-
izing oil burners. The non-recirculatinenozzle (Figure 16a)
consists of an oil metering valve in series with a spray noz-
zle. The fuel delivery rate of this nozzle depends upon the
square root of the pressure at the spray nozzle. To reduce
the fuel flow rate to one-half its maximum value the pressure
must be,reduced to one-fourth maximum. This pressure reduc-
tion would resilt in poor atomization of the oil. Thus, non-
.
recirculating nozzles provide only limited control of com-

bustion rate.
In the recirculating nozzle (Figure 16b) oil circulates
past the spray nozzle through'a metering valve. In this de-
sign the fuel delivery rate is proportional to the square of
the pressure. Reducing oil flow to one-half can.be accom-
plished by reducing pressure to three-fourths. This superior
control makes the recirculating nozzle tht most popular.
olf
HC-05/Page 15
183
O
OIL SUPPLY'
OIL
SUPPLY
NOZZLE
OIL OIL BYPASS
METERING VALVE NOZZLE OIL BYPASS LINE
METERING VALE,
NOZZLE DELIVERYwear NOZZLE DELIVERY%1 p
a.' Non-Recirculating Nozzle b. Recirculating Nozzle
Figure 16. Nozzles Used in Mechanical Atomizing

Oil Burners.
AIR OR STEAM ATOMIZING OIL BURNERS
In air or steam atomizing oil burners (Figure 17) the

oil sprays thrOugh ports on the edge of a disk. A high
velocity stream of aqif or steam atomizes the oil spray.
Secondary combustion air
enters around the burner
nozzle. Air atomizing
burners typically operate
with an input air pressure
of 10 to 20 psi. Steam
0: atomizing burners require
about 2% of the boiler
steam o.itput for their
operation. Steam atomizing
Figure 17. Air or Steam
burners also require an
Atomizing Oil Burner.
auxiliary ource of steam
or compressed air during
startup. \14
Page 16/HC-05
18
These are the most popular burners for large commercial
boilers because they can efficiently, burn any grade of fuel
oil.
HORIZONTAL ROTARY OIL BURNER
The horizontal rotary oil burner (Figure 18) consists

of a cup rotating at 3500 rpm in afast moving air stream.
Oil enters the center of the
cup and is slung from its
edge into the air stream.
Air turbulence introduced
by the'shaper vanes aids in
atomizing the oil. The ad-
vantages 6f this burner are
its ability (1) to burn any
oil and (2) to operate at
low oil pressures. Its major
Figure 18. Horizontal
disadvantage is high mainte- .eotary Oil Burner.
nance for repair of moving
parts and cleaning:
6
GAS BURNER
Most forced draft boilers using gaseous fuels use the

ring burner shown in Figure 19. The gas sprays from orifices
around a ring manifold into an air stream that is turbulated
by vanes on the manifold. In some boilers a gas burner is O
located around an oil burner so either fuel may be used.
HC -0S /Page 17
1a5 v
Figure 19., Gas Ring Burner.
FUEL TRAIN CONTROLS
Three approval bodies govern the application of control

equipment and sequence of control used to handle boiler
fuels. These are Underwriters Laboratory (UL), Associated
Factory Mutual (FM), and Factory Insurance Association '(FIA).
Virtually all boilers will employ one of these appr9ved con-
trol systems.
'PILOT GAS CONTROL
Figure 20 shows the gas. train approved by UL,. FM, and

FIA for pilot gas control. An electrical signal froth the-
control circuit opens the pilot solenoid valve, allowing gas
to flow to the pilot burner. This gas is ignited with a
spark ignitor. The 'gas supply to the Main burner is turned
ON only after the flame detector system verifies the pilot
flame.
Page 1S/HC-05
186
PILOT
PRESSURE SOLENOID
a REGULATOft VALVE
MANUAL
SHUTOFF
COCK
Figure 20. Gas Train for, MOT
Pilot Gas Control.
UL GAS CONTROL
Figure 21 show's the components of the UL approved gas

train. Valves 7 and 8 are operated togethet, and both serve
the same function to shut off fuel to the main burner. If
one of these valves should fail, the other will.continue to

interTupt gas flow. Valve 9controls the fuel flow rate to
the burner.
2 POSITION OR
VENT TO MODULATING MOTOR
OUTSIDE
ATMOSPHERE
BURNER
t
MAIN
SHUTOFF VALVE
8 BUTTERFLY
MODULATING GAS VALVE
(OPTIONAL)
GAS PRESSURE AUTOMATIC 7
REGULATQR SAFETY SOLENOID MOTORIZED GAS VALVE
SHUTOFF VALVE
p
Figure 21. UL Approved Gas Train.
HC -05 /Page 19
fs
FM GAS CONTROL
The FM approved gas train (Figure 22) incorporates the

same valve arrangement as the UL system, with four additions.
The low (10)and high (12) gas pressure switches prevent the
opening of valves 7 and 8 if the proper gas pressure is not
present. The main test fire valve (11) is used to test gas
,leakage through valves 7 and 8 in the closed position. A
gas leak is indicated by bubbles in'the water container when
valve 11 is closed. Valve 8 has the additioni\feature of
providing an electrical signal to indicate when the valve is
closed. The ignition sequence cannot be initiated unless
this valve is closed.
2 POSITION OR
MODULATING MOTOR
LOW GAS PRESSURE SWITCH
BURNER
HIGH GAS PRESSURE SWITCH

MAIN TEST FIRE VALVE
, Figure 22'. FM Approved Gas Train.
'I
Page 20/HC-05
r 41'
8
a
,r
FIA GAS CONTROL

S
Figure 23 shows the FIA approved gas train. The sole-

noid valve (7) of the UL and FM trains is replaced with a
motorized gas valve. A vent line is provided to vent any
gas trapped betweevalves 7 and 8 to the atmosphere. The
vent valve momentarily Opens after the main burner is turned
OFF.
Figure 23. FIA Approved Gas Train.
OIL CONTROL
Figure 24 is a diagram of a typical oilcontrol system.

, All three approval organizations require a spring-loaded 2
solenoid oil Valve between the pump and the burner. FM and
FIA also require an oil _pressure swiXch that allows the oil
vLve to 0,pen affei.Ithe pump ha$ reached operating pressure.
Thf.fuel -flow rate of oil burners is controlled by valves
l'ci-cated in the nozzles (Figure 16).
HC-.0S/Page 21
189
I
Figure. 24: Oil Contrel

} I System..
FLAME SAFEGUARD SYSTEMS-7-
,'Ali .boiler control systems incorporate a flame safe-

., <0
guar& system that interrupts the fuel supply should tj.e
boiler flame go out. In gas-fired boilers the flame detec-
tor must confirm pilot burnerl,pperation before the Twin. //
burner is",turn9d ON.

i.'
IThe.thermocouple flake detects system used in residen- /
...
,
ti.al:gap furnaces is alSo used with.naturaL.drai.4.-gas-firedi
cast iron.lboile'rs (Figure 4), but the response time is too
,t
..
slow:for larger, as burners. Visible light (cadmium sulfide)

1
cellS cannot 14 used-mittigas flames because good gas flames
igrodUce little visiblft light. Their use is confined almost
'''\ entilely to residential oil burners.
ti
INF RED FLAME DETECTION
1An infrared flame detector (Figure 25) c nsist7 of a

lead sulfide cell in which electrical ance detreases
in t e presence of infrared (heat) radiation ,from:. he oil
or vs flame. Hot, refractory also produces an in rared
.
Page 22/HC -05
190
1.1
"AMMON.
.
.
1, -
_
./ e
,
signal that might fool such a

flame detector.- To prevent
this, the amplifier in xhe
control ciTit is designed
to amplify the flickelng
-."flame signal" at a frequency
of 10 cyCles perk second, and
Inote the constant refrac, Figure 25.
.
Infrared Detector.
tor signal.
r-
ULTRAVIOLET FLAME DETECTION
of
The ultraviole4 flame detector (Fi °gure 26) consists
a gla§s tube containing two electrodes and 4 low-pressure
An a.c. signal is applied to the elecitrodes. In dar,k-
gas.
ness, no current is c.onducted
through the tube. the
AC POWER
presence of ultraviolet light GAS
-FILLED TUBE
from the oil or gas flame,
FLAME
the gas in the tube becomes RELAY
conduCtive_im_one direction ULTRAVIOLET
only. (Electrons move from

AMPLIFIER
the large electrode to the
smaller one;) This rectifies
Figure 26.
the'applied a.c. signal to Ultraviolet Detector.
pr6duce a d.c. signal that
confirms the preseLe of a
flame. lUItraViolet detectors cannot be fooled.by
hot refrac-
.- toriqs; but they can be fooled by electric ignitor sparks

and shoUld be located where'they are shielded from the ig-
nitor.,,
HC-05/Page 23
191
4
FLAME RECTIFICATION
A gas flame conducts electricit with a typical resis-

tance of 50 laZ to 150 U. If the area of one electrode is
much smaller than the other, the flame will conduct in one
direction similar to the
ultraviolet cols). The
flame rectification system
METAL PLATES
(Figure '27) consists of
IGNITOR - flat metal plates welded
ELECTRODE O
to the pilot nozzle at
ground electrical potentfal.
If a gas flame is present,
the rectified d.c. closes
the flame relay, and the,
main burner may be turned
ON. The conduction of an
a.c. signal indicates that
the flame rod is shorted.
This will turn OFF the
Figure 27. Flame
Rectification System. flame relay. The pilot
flame is usually turned.OFF
after the main burner ig-
nites.
COMBUSTION CONTROL
Combustion control in both gas-fired and oil-fired

boilers is accomplished by a motor that drives the combus-
tion air damper and the fuel flow valve (Figure 28). The
Page 24/HC-05
motor may be either a two position motor or a modulating
motor depending on boiler size and design.
2 POSITION OR
BURNER MODULATING
MOTOR
Figure 28. COMBUSTION

BURNER AIR DAMPERS
Combustion Control. FAN
FUEL FLOW VALVE

(BUTTERFLY VALVE) FUEL SHUTOFF
VALVE
TURN ON
.
The following sequence of steps_ ,is to turn the
boiler burner ON:
1. With the fuel shutoff valve closed, the air dampers are
I.
opened'to the "high-fire" position, and the blow'er motor.
is turned ON. The timing control alloWs, time for four
air changes'in the combustion chamber to remove any fuel
vapors.
2, The air dampers are partially closed to the "low-fire"
position.
3. The ignitor is turned ON, and fuel is admitted. In oil
burners, the main burner ignites at loW-fire; and the
presence of the flame is detected before the burner is
turned to'high-fire. In gas burners, the pilot flame
is lit and verified before the main burner fuel shut-off
valve is opened.
HC-05/Page 25
1 93
4. After flame verification, the burner is adjusted to the
high-fire condition.
TURN OFF
The following sequence pf steps is used to turn the r
boiler burner OFF:

1. The fuel supply is turned OFF at the main shutoff valve.
2. The air dampers are partially closed to the low-fire.
position. *The blower continues to operate, driving
fuel vapors from the combustion chamber and flue tubes.
3. After four air change's, the blower is turned OFF and
the air dampers are closed.
FIRING RATE CONTROL
Boiler controls are designed to maintain boiler pressure

- between two limits. Four types of firing rate controls are
used, depending"primarily upon boiler size.
Many small boilers, including most cast iron boilers,

emoloy a simple ON-OE'F control-system. There is^no provi-
sion in the control system for a low-fire condition. The
main burner turns ON when the boller'pressure falls below
a lower limit and turns OFF when an upper limit is reached.
Page 26/HC-05
e L94
r
.
i
.. ,
'--On-Off, Low Fire.Start ,-
Boilers in the 15 to 60 horsepower range often employ

a low-fire ignition sequence but provide no modulation after
the burner is ON at high-fire. The burner turns OFF when
the upper pressure limit is reached.,
High-Low
\
Boilers in the 60 to 150 horsepower range also employ
a low-fire ignition sequence. The Main burner then Operates
at high-fire until an intermediate pressure is reached. At
this pressure the burner returns to low fire. If the pres-

sure increases above the upper limit, the burner shuts OFF.
' If the pressure drops below the' intermediate value, the
burner goes to high-fire.
Modulating
..
Boilers larger than 150 horsepower usually use modulat-

ing control. The two-position control motor is replaced by
a modulating motor that can vary the combustion rate contin-
uously overvr a wide range. This control system is used for
boiler control in electrical generating plants and in most
,
other large boilers. eo
HC-05/Page 27
1 0...r-0
0,0
EXERCISES
1. State the boiler type most likely used in the following

applications:
a. Production of low pressure steam for heating
(installed in a small equipment room).
b. Production of steam for electrical power genera-
tion.
c. Production of 150 psi steam in an industrial
plant.
2. Draw and label a diagram of-a 3-pass Scotch marine
'boiler. showing the following parts:
a. Combustion tube.
9
b. Flue tubes.
c. Rear header.
d. Front header.
e. Smoke box:
f.. Burner.
3. Describe the function and operation of a blow -down
ank.
4. De'scribe the burners used with the following fuels:
a. Natural gas.
b. Light fuel oils only.
c.'. Heavy fuel oils.
Dr nw anelabel diagram of the following gas irains:
a. Pilot gas control.
b. UL.
c. FM.
d. FIA.
6. Describe the three flame safeguard systems used with
HC-05/Page 29
1 1,./(1.11,,
7. Describethe control sequence for the tun ON and turn
OFF of a gas-fired boiler with high-low control.
8. Describe the difference in operation of recirculating'
and non-recirculating oil burner nozzles:
Notebook or clipboard.
Pen or pencil.
Notes from labs in Modules HC-02, "System Types," and'HC-03,
"Refrigeration Equipment."'
This laboratory consists of the third of four field

trips to a large heating and air-conditioning installation.
The system chosen should produce low pressure steam in a
Scotch marine boiler. The purpose of this visitis a de-
tailed study of the boiler.
1. Observe the boiler components, piping, and controls

during the boiler explanation and tour. Record in the
field notebook the data specified in the data table,
as well as any other information available concerning
the boiler.
2. Sketch the following components in the field notebook:
a. Boiler shell, headers, smoke box, and location of
water and steam ports.
b. Fuel delivery system.
c. Water level control system.
Page 30/HC-05
*It
d. Blow-down tank.
e. Combustion air blower.
3. After completion of the field trip, draw diagrams
showing the following:
a. A side-view cross section of the boiler showing
the burner, combustion chamber, flue tubes,
headers, and smoke box.
i
b. The fuel control system of the boiler:
i
c. The burner used in the boiler (if possible).

d. The flame safeguard system (if possible).
4 Write a description of the controls used for the
/
following.
a. Turn ON.
b. Turn OFF. 3
-.
,
N
c. Firing rate control. /
..-
HC-OS/Page 31
198
DATA TABLE
DATA TABLE
1. Boiler type (and number of passes):

2. Steam Pressure:
3. Steam Delivery Rate:
4. Fuel:
5. Burner type:
6. Fuel train:
7. Flame detector system:
8. ,List details of control for the following:

a. Turn ON.
V
b. Turn OFF:
c. Firing rate control.
9. Answer the fallowing questions:

a. How often are the flue tubes cleaned? Why?
b. How often is the boiler "blown.down"? Why?
c. What kind of routine maintenance is performed

on the boiler and how often?
d. What problems have arisen in the operation of

the boiler?
Page 32/HC-05
1 "a
11=1.11.` N..
I o
. REFERENCES
411=MMM=L
4
Howell, Ronald H., and SauA., Harry J., Jr. Environmental

Control Principles. New York: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers,
Inc., 1978.
The Trane Co. Boilers for Steam and Hot Water; La Crosse,
WI: The Trane Company Educational Division, 1971.
..
.e
..*:....4......
41.
.,
4
HC-05/Page 33
/
20j
V
. TEST
1. Water-tube boileii... P
a. are mainly used fbr-electrical polder production.

b. can operate at steam pressures of 5000 psi%
c. are not widely used in heating applicatidns.
d. All of the above are,true statements.
e../ Only a and .c ate true statements.
2. Cast iron' boilers ...
a. -can.be erected in cramped spaces one section
at a time.
b. are usually less expensive'than fire-tube boilers.
c. are more efficient than small fire-tube boilers.
e. 0 Only a and'c are true statements.
3. Scotch marine boilers ...
a. are fire-tube boilers.
b. operate at pressyres in the range of 15' tc 250 psi. .
c. are the most common boilers in heating service.

&- d. All of the above,are true statements.
e. Only a andc are true statements.
4. The major advantage of a dry-back boiler over a wet-back
boiler is that ...
a. the dry-back boiler is more efficienp..
I b. the dry-back boiler is smaller and weighs less.
c. the flue tubes of the wet-bacboiler are not
easily accessible for servicing.
d. the dry -back boiler uses less refractory material.
5. 'The mechanical atomizing oil burner ...
a. consists of a cup that spins in an air strAlile.
b. burns lightweight fuel oils.

c. burns'heavy fuel. oils.
HC -O5 /Page 35'

201
..
d. All of the above are.true statements.

e. ' Only a and b are tree statements. ,
4 6. The most popular burner for heavier oils is

the mechanical atomizing burner.
b. the air or steal atomizing burner.
the horizontal rotary burner.
d. the ring bdrner.
7. Which of the following is not a"part of all three
C
approved gascontrol systems?
a. Pilot solenoid valve:
b. = Butterfly"modulating gas valve.
c. Safety solenoid shutoff valve.
d. Automatic motorized gas valve.
e. All are included in all systems.
8. If a gas train has a vent to the - atmosphere between
the two automatic shutoff valves it the main burner"
gas supply, it is probably approved by ...
a. UL.
b. FM.
c.
d. FBI. a
9. --Infrared-flame detectors-'...
.)
a. are used with oil fires only.
b". 'send a d.c. signal to.an-amplifier, indicating
the presence of a. flame.
c. can be fooled by electric ignitor sparks.
d. are used in residential oil burners only.
e. None of the above is atru6 statement.
10. Flame rectification flame detectors ...
a: produce a d.c. signal when.the"fl&me is.present.
b. produce an a.c. signal when the flameroci:is
C
sh'rted.
Page 56/RC-05
20:2
,
,
../
c. produce no signql when no flame is present.

d. .
All of the above are true statements.
e. ' None of the above is a true statement.
11. In a gas-fireboiler the pilot flame ....
a. is lit whefi the combustion air blower is turned
M. '`
,
b. must be detected before the mv,inburner gas valve
can open.
c, burns continuously during main_burner operation.
d. Both a and b are true statements.
e. Both b And c are true statements.
:.-
I)
d c,
. , 4
I,
, .
4 HC-OS/Page 37
I
203
0
MODULE HC -' 06

INTRODUCTION,
At first glance, it may seem that,piping is a simple

matter of connecting two points with a piece of pipe large
enbugh to carry fluid from one place to another. However,
piping design in air conditioning and heating systems re-
.
quires care in selecting and assembling the components of

a sophisticated system. Major problems often arise because
of failures in the piping system. Improper piping is a
major cause of loss of capacity and efficiency in.air con-
ditioning systems. i
This module discusses the sizing of water pipes and

pumps and the sizing of pipes in refrigerant systems. It
also presents common problems that should be avoided in

pipe design and construction. In the laboratory,'the stu-
,
dent will practice techniques used in soldering and brazing
copper pipes for air conditioning systems.
l
PREREQUISITES
The student should have completed Modules HC-03, "Re-

frigeration Equipment," and HC-03,, "Boilers for Heating
Applications."
OBJECTIVES

able to:
1. List the piping materials commonly used in air condi-
tioning and heating applications.
HC-06/Page 1
205
2. Draw diagrams of,expansion loops for risers and explain
their application,
3. Explain the operation and application of the following
valve types:
a. Globe.
b. Angle.
c. Y.
d. Gate.
e. Swing check.
f. *Lift check.
4. Describe the following water piping systems with the
use of diagrams and state the applicationof each s)4-
tem:
a. Reverse return.
b. Reverse return headers with direct return risers.
c. Direct return.
5. Given the water flow rate and schematic diagram of a
water piping system and charts in the subjectOmatter,
determine the pipe size and pump capacity required.
6. Explain the effects of the presence of refrigeratiton
oil,on the design of the following pipes:
a. Hot gas line.
b. Suction line.
c. Liquid line.
Given the refrigeration load, the equivalent length of
each pipe, and charts in the subject matter, determine
the proper pipe sizes for a refrigeration system.
S. Discuss the features.necessary for the following pipes
to assure proper system operation:
a. Hot gas line.
b. Suction line.
c. Liquid line.
Page 2/HC -06
2 110
9. Explain the connections necessary when two or more
compressors are used in one efrigeration system.
10. Draw diagrams showing the operation of the following
steam pipes:
a. Dripped riser.
b. Non-dripped riser.
11. Explain the operation of the following steam'traps:
a. Float trap.
I
b. °Thermostatic trap.
12: List the five types of steam systems and the pressure
ranges of each.
13. Given the proper equipment, braze and solder copper
tubing in the laboratory.
U.
C.2
HC-06/Page 3
, 20;1
SUBJECT MATTER,
GENERAL PIPING DESIGN
PIPE TYPES AND APPLICATIONS
-Several types of piping and tubing may be used in air

conditioning and heating systems. Although aluminum and
plastic pipes are sometimes -used, most Piping is copper or
steel. Fittings are usually of copper, brass, or iron.
Table 1 lists the types of pipe and fittings suitable for
air conditioning and heating applications.
Copper tubing:and pipe are available in several types.
Annealed copper tubing. is soft and easily bent; it is used
primarily in residential systems and is joined using solder.
.Hard copper is used extensively in larger systems and,cannot
be bent; it is connected with fittings that are brazed to
the tubing. Both types'are available in three wall thick-
nesses designated K, L, and M. K is the thickest wall, and
k, is used for higherpressures. M is thin-walled tubing, and
is used primarily for drainage and other nonpressui=e appli-
cations. 'Most-air conditioning applications use type L,
copper tubing. All copper tubing used in air conditioning
is.designated ACR tubing and should not be confused with
.copper tubing used in plumbing applications, called nominal
tubing. q
Steel pipe also is available in several wall thick-

.
nesses. .Most air conditioning apPlication'S use schedule 40

steel pipe, although thicker wall pipe is sometimes used for
high pressure steam piping.
HC-06/Page 5
,
28 ,
TABLE I. RECOMMENDED RIPE AND FITTING MATERIALS
FOR VARIOUS SERVICES.
SERVICE PIPE FITTINGS
Hard copper tubing, Type L* Wrought copper, wrought

.'. brass or,tinned cast brass
Suction Line
Steel pipe, standard wall 150 lb welding or threaded
Lap melded or seamless malleable iron
Hard copper tubing, Type L* Wrought copper, wrought

REFRIGERANTS brass or tinned as brass
12, 22, SOO Liquid Line
and 502 Steel pipe, standard wall 300 lb welding or threaded
Lap welded or seamless malleable iron
Hard copper tubing, Type L Wrought copper, wrought

brass or tinned cast brass
Hot Gas Line \
SteelApe, standard'iii11,--- 300 lb welding or threaded
.
Lap welded or seamlesS \ malleable iron
Black or galvanized steel piper Welding, galvanized; cast,

malleable or black iron:
CHILLED 4ATER
Hard copper tubingt Cast brass, wrought copper
or wrought brass
Galvanized steel pipe- Welding, galvanized; cast

CONDENSER OR \ or malleAble iron: .
?AB-U? .i.ATER
Hard copper tubing' Cast brass, yrought copper
or wrought brass
Galvanized steel pipet Galvanised drainage:, cast

DRAIN OR CON- ,or malleable iron:
- DENS ATE '..2F.5
Hard copper tubingt Cast brass, wrought copper
, or wrought brass
.
Black steel piper . Welding or cast iron:

STEAM OR
CONDENSATE Hard copper tubing- Cast brass, wrought copper
.
or wrought brass
- ,
Black steel pipe Welding or cast iron:

HOT WATER
Hard copper tubing' Cast brass, wrought copper
.
or wrought brass
*Except for il:es 1/4" and 5/8" OD where all thicknesses of 0.50" and 0.52" are required.
Soft cooper refrigeration tubing may be used for sizes 1-3/8" OD and smaller. Mechanical
Joints -lust no,t be uses with soft copper tubing in si:es larger than -i3" OD.
-Norman.: standard wall steel pipe or Type M hard copper tubing is satisfactory for air
conditioning applications. However, the ping material selected should be checked for
the design temperature-pressure ratings.
:Normally 123 lb cast iron and 150 lb malleable iron fittings are satisfactory for the
usual mar conditioning application. However, the fitting material selected should 3t
checl.ed for the design temperature-pressure ratings.
Page 6/HC-06
S
209
PIPE SUPPORTS
Pipe must be suppoited along its length to prevent

sagging. This is due to the weight of the pipe and the NN
fluid it contains. Tables 2 and 3 give the recommended
support spacings for schedule 40 steel pipe and hard copper
pipe. Support structures must 4,1so reduce the transmission
of vibrations and a'l'low for tffeexpansion of the pipe as
the tempe.ture changes.
TABLE 2. RECOMMENDED SUPPORT SPACING FOR SCHEDULE 40 PIPE.
Nominal Pipe Size Distance Between Supports

(inches) (feet.)
3/4 - 1 d/4 8
1 1/2 - 2 1/2 10
3 - .3 1/2 . , 12 ,.t.
,, 4, - 6 . 14
8 - 12 , 16
14 - 24 ,
20 -
.
TABLE 3: RECOMMENDED SUPPORT SPACING FOR COPPER TUBING.
Tube OD Distance Between Supports

(inches) (feet)
- 5/8 6
7/8 - 1 1/8 8
1 3/8` - 2 1/8 10
2 5/8 - 5 1/8 12
6 1/2 - 8 1/8 14
HC-06/Page T
210
Figure 1 shows an isolated
DRAW UP-
sheath pipe hanger used to reduce
SNUG the vibration transmitted from the
pipe to the building structure.
METAL This type of hanger is used in pip-
SLEEVE
414+AiRf.Ety---- _ing systems incorporating machinery
such as pumps and compressors.
In most systems, allowances
Figure 1. Isolated must be made for the expansion of
Sheath Pipe Hanger.
the pipe as its temperature changes.
Expansion joints of several types
may be employed. Slip-type joints consist of telescoping
pipe sections. They have the'disadvantages of-requiring
packing and lubrication and guides to prevent binding of
the joint. Bellows-type expansion joints are satisfactory
for short travels and moderate pressures. Longer lengths
must be supported, and high pressure stiffens the bellows
and reddces its vibration isolation characteristics.
Vertical pipes, called
risers, are anchored at one
end only and are equipped with
expansion loops. Figure,2
shows the loop used to connect
a riser toa fixed horizontal
pipe. In this case, the riser
is anchored at the top. For
heights of five stories or
more, expansion 'loops must be
included in the length of the
risers. Figure 3 shows the
Figure 2. Riser Connected
to Allow for Expansibh-.-- ,combination of expansion loop
and riser anchor used for this.
Page 8%HC-06
RISER
PITCH'
Figure 3:- Riser Anchor. ANCHOR

MOVEMENT
PITCH
If horizontal takeoff pipes are Located too cldse.to

the floor or ceiling (Figure.4), the expansion of the riser
may bring the horizontal pipe in contact with the obtruc-
.
tion and result rn a break.
Figure 4. Takeoff Too

Close to Floor.
VALVE TYPES AND ,,PPLICATIONS
A wide variety of valves are used in air conditioning

and heating applications. The basic types are discussed
Figures 5, 6, and 7 shows respectively a globe valve,

a Y va e, and an angle valve. Many variations of these
types are yailable, but-all serve the same basic function.
HC-06/Page 9
Their high resistance to fluid flow, even when fully opened,
makes them unsuited fof applications requiring only ON-OFF
operation.
HANDWHEELA' RISING STEM

( RISES WITH STEM ) INSIDE SCREW )
PACKING NUT
WITH GLAND
SCREWED UNION'
RING BONNET
PLUG TYPE DISC
SCREWED
ENDS
Figure 5. Glove Vlve.
HANDWHEEL,
RISES WITH STEM )
RISING STEM
OUTSIDE SCREW)
BOLTED BONNET
( WITH DIAPHRAGM SEAL )
FLANGED
ENDS
FLOW c:4>
COMPOSITION
DISC
-F-i-gu-r-e 1-Y- -Valve_ _(Diaphragm Type
Page 10 /HC-06,
2r-," 8.
RISING STEM HA NOWHEEL
(INSIDE SCREW ) ( RISES WITH STEM )
PACKING NUT
WITHOUT GLAND
SCREWED 'THREADED
80N1 T
SCREWED
ENDS
NARROW SEAT DISC
(CONVENTIONAL )
FLOW
Figure,7. Angle Valve.
Figure 8 shows a gate valve. This type of valve con-

sists of a wedge-shaped gate that may be lowered into the
fluid stream to block flow. It is not suited for flow con-
trol, but does present the minimum resistance to flow when
in the fully-opened position.
Check valves are used to allow fluid flow in one direc-
tion while preventing flovhn the opposite direction. Swing
check valves (Figure,9) may be used in a horizontal line oi-
in a vertical line for upward flow. 'The valve disc swings
upward'out of the fluid path to present little resistance
to flow in one direction, but drops' by giavity to block flow
in the reverse direction: Swing check valves are usually
used in conjunction with gate yalves.
HC-06/Page 11-
211
I
-T.
RISING STEM . HAMOWIIEEL

I OUTSIDE SCREW AND YOKE ) I DOES NOT RISE WITH STEM )
I
BOLTED GLAND -%
BOLTED BONNET
SOUD WEDGE DISC
FLOW
ll,
FLANGED ENDS
Figure 8. Gate Valve (Rising Stem).
BOLTED
BONNET FLANGED
ENDS
,..
Figure 9,. Swing

FLOW F4> Check Valve.
COMPOSITION ,
DISC
,
,
0
Lift (Figure 10) are similar in design to glove
valves and also close by gravity.' They can be used in hori-
zontal pipes only and are usually used with'globe, Y, or
angle valves: The resistance of various valves to fluid
flow is given in Table 4 in the following section.
i
Page 12/HC-06
24,,
Figure 10. Lift
Check Valve.
10-
PRESSURE LOSSES IN VALVES AND FITTINGS

4.
Fittings are responssible fol. a large part of the pres-

sure drop in most piping systems. The greatest pressure
drops occur when the fluid changes directioni. Sharper-turns
produce greater loss. For thfs reason, long radius elbowg
.
'are used whenever possible, and 45° ells are preferred over
90° ells if space permits., Figure 11 illustrates one cftcum-
,
stance in which the use of 45° ells can greatly reduce the
pressure drop in the pipe and; thus, the pump power required
to move fluid through the system.
a. Recommended b. Acceptable
Figure 11. Offsets to Avoid. Obstructions.
Tees should be installed in the piping system in a man-

ner that produces the minimum turbulence. Figure 12 shows
the right and wrong-WNTs to Connect tees. A condition called
HC-06 /Page 13%

2ro
4
---OP
I .
..
-04 14-- 41- -..-= --im.
41-
'3 f
3 t
NO. 1 'N0.2 NO. 3 NO. 4
° BULLHEADING PREFERABLE PERMISSIBLE PREFERABLE
DO NOT USE . TO NO, 1 TO NO. 3
Figure 12. Tees..
bullheading occurs wherever the straight - portion

of the tee from both directions. Bullheading produces,.great
ttrbuience and should alwaysbe avoided.
When one fluid line joins another, the resistance to .
flow can be reduCed by connecting the'entering line at a -
sharp angle in the direction of flow, as' shown in Figure 13.
AIR VENT
SLOPE GRAVITY RETURN
UNES TOWARD RISER
RISER -
.3
ri UNIT
ENTER RISER AT
SHARP ANGLE IN
DIfIECTION OF FLOWS --t ri UNIT
1+
ELEVATION
Figure 13. Connecting Entering Line to Reduce

Resistance to Flow.-
The amount of resistance to fluid"flow presented by

a valve or fittingis specified in terms of the length of
straight pipe of the same size that has the sale resistance.
Pvge 1/HC-06
21;
Tables 4; 5, and 6 list the resistances of stanoard valves
and fittings for commonly used pipe sizes. Refer to these
tables and compare the values for various types of valves
and fittings. The total resistance of a piping system is
expressed in equilkalent feet, and is the sum of the equiva-
,lent feet,for_each_component and the length of all pipes in
the. system. These tables will be used'ingexample problems
later in this module.
TABLE 4. VALVE LOSSES. IN EQUIVALENT FEET4OF PIPE*.

SWING OPT
.tout W-r l 45 -y moist GATItt CHICK:
If-TYPE STRAINIRI: CHICK
s''
NOMINAL c;m
OR
TUN
SIZE
Flanged Strewed
Ind
17 6 6 '0.6 5
Is 9 7 7 0.7 6 3
22 11 9 9 0.9 4 Glob. &
Vertical
29 13 12 12 1.0 10 Uft
114 3$ 20 13 13 1.3 14 9
Same as
43 24 18 1.8 16 10
114 Glob*
2 35 30 24 24 2.3 20 27 14 Valve
214 69 33 29 29 2.111 23 28 20
84 43 35 33 3.2 30 42 40
3
3/4 '100 30 41 41 4.0 33 411
4 120 5. 47 47 4.3 40 60
$ 140 71 58 S 6 SO BO
4 170 70 70 7 60 .110
220 115 85 IS 14 9 SO I50
Ig 240 145 105 105 12 100 190
12 320 145 130 130 13 120 250 Angle Uft

14 360 1113 135 455 1s 133 SOM. as
14 410 210 140 17 ISO Anglo
200 19 163 Valve
14 440 t40 200
2S 320 273 235 235 22 200
24 610 320 265 265 23 240
ensessare Yet ell velvet in fully open position and streiners lean.
jibes* lasses de not apply 1 V061 with needle Ord type mats.
:lotto! also apply to the Wine, be ypa dmck valve.
sfer "Y" potters globe lift check metre with met epprenhaately 'goal to the nemoft01 pipe diameter, use yoga, of 60 "r valve for loss.
tIllegektr end sheet pottson Plug cock wolves, when fully open, have some loss as gate valve. for valve losses of short pattern plug cocks above
6 ins. check reenufectswer.
...a**hr .045 thru21aLpn. etfoyedens vas greens SO% dogged, loss is doubled.
HC-06/Page 15
21
?ABLE 5. FITTING LOSSES IN EQUIVALENT FEET OF PIPE.
SMOOTH SONO MOWS SMOOTH NINO TIES,
NOMINAL
w NL N 46* 4s. ' 11111* FlowTbry Oro 1.116-Thre Row
MI 161. 16414 SiteW SW Woe SW* Iltimesh
N. Rodeved Rod NNW
OR
WU
,
" 7:-
111941160 14 %
nu At\t
N
1
010 j (1: li iffilo
. .
, . -
% 1.4 0.1 2.3 07 1.1 2.3 27 0.1 1.2 1.4
% 1.6 1.0 2.5 0.6 1.3 2.3 3.0 . 1.0 1.4 1.6
% 2.0 1.4 3.2 0.1 1.6 3.2 4.0 1.4 1.1 2.9.
1 2.6 17 4.1 1.3 2.1 4.1 5.0 17 2.3 i;,2.6

I% 3.3 21 SA 17 3.0 3.6 7A 2.3 3.1 -3.3
'I% 4.0 2.6 61 2.1 ., 3.4 6.3 6.0 2.6 37 4.0
2 5.0 3.3 111 2.6 4.5 6.2 10 03.3 47 5.0
2% 6.0 4.1 10 3.2 . .3.2 10 12 4.1 3.6 6.0
3 7.5 5.0 12 4.0 6.4 12 ' 13 5.0 . 7.0 7.5
3% 1.0, SI 13 47 7.3 15 16 SI 6.0 1.0
. 4 10 67 17 5.2 6.5 - 17 21 V 11.0 10
13 $.2 21 6.5 II 21 ' 25 6.2 12 13
6
g
10
16
20
25
10
13 ,
16
--
25
10
13
7.9
--
13 25
33
42
30
40
50
10
13
16
14
IS
23
16
20
23
.
12 30 11 -- 16 -- 50 60 19 26 30
14
16
34
311
23
26 - 111
20
.
- SS
62
66
711
23
26
30
35
34
311
IS 42 21 0 -- 23 -- A 65 21 40 42
20
24
50
60
33
40 - 26
30 - -
SI
14
100
115
33
40
44
SO
50
60
MITRE ELBOWS .
90° Ell 60° Ell 45° Ell 30° Ell

NOMINAL
-C:
PIPE
TUBE
SIZE
MO
OR
s- IP
h/).
4n 6
% 2.7 1.1 0.6 0.3
% 3.0 1.3 0.7 0.4
34 4.0 1.6 0.9 0.5
1 5.0 2.1 1.0 0.7

1% 7.0 3.0 1.5 0.9
1% 8.0 3.4 11 1.1 -
2 10 4.5 2.3 1.3
2% 12 3.2 2.8 1J
3 15 6.4 3.2 2.0
3t 18 7.3 4.0 2.4

4 21 . 8.5 4.5 2.7
5 25 11 6.0 3.2
6 30 13 7.0 ko
S 40 17 9.0 5.1
10 50 21 12 7.2
12 60 25 13 8.0
14 68 29 13 9.0
16 78 31 17 10
II 85 37 19 11
13
20 100 41 22
24 115 49 25 16
Page 16 /HC -O&
2J9
4,
TABLE 6. SPECIAL FITTING LOSSES IN EQUIVALENT

FEET OF PIPE.
...
SWORN INIARIMMINT. die SUDDIN CONTRACTION' d/D SHARP 10011 PIPS ROACTION.
% I % I % % 1 % I % lomice I RAM lowamie 1:11
NOM.
PIM
OR
d -.-0 111=
MSS
UZI
WO
Ord
.
% 1.1 0.1 03' 07 I 0.3 1

0.3 1.5 .1 1.5
1.8
1.1
1.5
Yi 1.8 1.1 0.4 OR I 07 0.4 1.1 -' 1.0
34 U 1.3 0.3 1.2 1.0 , 0.3 2.8 1.4 2.8 2.2
3.2 2.0 07 1.6 j 1.2 07 37 1.8 , 37 2.7

1
11/4 7 3.0 1.0 2.3 1.8
2.1
I 1.0
1.2
5.3
6.6
2.6
3.3
3.3
6.6
4.2
5.0
11.4 5.8 3.6 . 1.2 2.9
2 1.0 4.6 1.6 0 3.0

3.8
1.6
2.0
9.0
12 3.6
.4 9.0
12
6.8
1.7
21/2 10 6.1 2.0 3.0
1 1
I
3 13 8.0 2.6 6.3 .9 2.6 7.2 11
31/2 15 9.2 2:0 77 I 6.0 3.0 17 8.5 17 13

4 17 11 3.1 9.0 I 6.1 3.8 20 10 20 16
5 24 15 3.0 12 9.0 3.0 27 I 27 I 20
19 25
--
6 22 6.0 1I 6.0 33 33
29
--
13
25 U , 13 6.3 47 2 47 35
10
11
32 II
i
20 11 60 29 60 6
-- --
r
1
--
73 57
12
14
16 -
i
1
13
16
18 - I --
25 13
16
11
86
96
37
3
50
73
86
96
I
1 66
77
-
1
-- -- --
I
10 20 ,
--
20 113 38 113 I '90
- - 142 70 108
1
20 1
142 !
24 1 163 83 163 1 130

'intsq table for lours of SIN011itt dialalif et "d."
WATER PIPING
SYSTEM TYPES
Most large air conditioning systems incorporate at

least twowater systems. One supplies chilled water from
the chiller to the fan coils. The other moves warm water
from the condenser to a cooling tower. These water systems
may be operated as open or closed loops. An open system is
one in which the units served, such as cooling towers, are
all open to atmospheric pressure. In a closed system, the
HC-06/Page 17
220
.
units suppliee such as fan coils are sealed, and atmo-

spheric pressure has no effect.
Whenever possible, closed systems are connected in an
arrangement called reverse return piping as shown in Fig-
ure 14. In this system, several identical units are con-
nected so that the total length of pipe.to and from each
unitiis the same, The unit with the shortest supply. run
thas_the longest return run. Therefore, the flow rates
,>
through all units balance because each loop has the same,
resIstance.
.1uNIT1 .1 1
J 1 1 a. Unita Piped Vertically
--4
RETURN
I `-'4 1- b
SUPPLY
s. ).-
b. Units Piped Horizontally
RETURN
..-
Figure 14. Reverse Return Piping.
Figure 15 is a water system with reverse return headers

ar'
and direct return risers. This is not a balanced system,
since the unitsat the top of this figure have shorter pip-
ing runs than those at the bottom. However, the risers are
Page 18/HC-06
RETURN
SUPPLY
10, DP
UNIT
_In
Figure 15. Reverse Retdrn Headers With
Direct Return Risers.
balanced because each has the same total loop resistance

).
between the supply and return lines. When long piping runs
are required, this system is often more economical than re-
verse. return piping. If all units supplied are of the same
fluid resistance,. the system must be balanced by using dif-
ferent pipe sizes or by including balancing valves., This
system is often used for 'fancoils of different sizes when
different coil capacities help balance the system.
,
"Figure 16 shows a direct return piping system in which
each unit is connected to the supply and return mains by the
shortest possible pipe. Direct return systems are used for
closed water systems in which each unit requires balancing
valves because of differing capacities. Open systems are
always the direct return type because units that are open to
atmospheric pressure require individual flow control, and
the extra pipe length of the'reverse return systems affords
--no advantages.
HC-06/Page 19
2`)2
SUPPLY
-OP-
RETURN
I 1
a. Units Piped Vertically
1J
SUPPLY
b.: Units Piped Horizontally
4
RETURN
Figure 16. Direct Return Water Piping System.
PUMP CONNECTIONS
Pipes bringing water to the pumps should always be

arranged to minimize air entry into the pump and to bring
the water into the pump in the plane of the pump rotor.
Figure 17 illustrates correct pump connections and incorrect
connections that can lower system efficiency. (Note that
every wrong method mentioned in this module is actually
found in some systems.)
Parts a, c, and d of this figure show connections that
can result in air being drawn into the pump and correct con-
nections that will remedy this problem. Figure 17b is a top
view showing a water path out of the plane of the putp rotor
and the necessary correction.
Page 20/HC-06
2 ") 3
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AIR
ir-iik POCKET 0 111 Z1h MR POCKET
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CORRECT CORRECT CORRECT d.

- CORRECT Itl
a. b. C.
Figure 17. Pump Suction Connections.
Figure 18 shows the piping and valve connections used

when two or more pumps are used in the same water system.
Figure 18. Multiple

_Pump Piping.
Closed water. systems include an expansion tank to allow

for expansion of the water as its temperature changes. This
tank may be sealed, or left open to the atmosphere as shown
in Figure 19. This is strn a closed systemas this is the
only opening to atmospheric pressure in the system. An en-
larged tee is incorporated at the point of entry of the re-
turn line into the expansion line to remove any air bubbles
HC-06/Page 21
224
QUICK FILL UNE VENT
REMOVABLE LID FOR CLEANDA
FLOAT VALVE
GAGE GLASS
GATE VALVE
WATER LEVEL
DRAIN VALVE ( GATE VALVE )
TO DRAIN
TRAP
EXPANSION LINE t 1MIN. )
ENLARGED PORTION OF RETURN UNE TO PERMIT
AIR SEPARATION ( NOTE.2 I
d ENLARGED TEE FOR AIR- SEPARATION
RETURN
LINE -
NORMAL LINE SIZE
AT LEAST 4d--'
CIRCULATING PUMP
NOTES:
1. Do not put any valve strainer or trap in the expansion line.
2. Enlarged pr rtion of return line and enlarged tee are each
two standard pipe sizes larger than return lihe.
Figure 19. Open Expansion' Tank Piping.
in the return water before these bubbles can reach the pump.
Water strainers may be plqiked in the return line upstream
from this point or in the discharge line from the pump.
Strainers are never 'placed between, the tee and the pump in-
let since a clogged strainer can result in return water being
diverted completely to the expansion tank. The pump would
run dry and be destroyed. 4
Page 22/HC-Oo
PIPE"AND PUMP SIZING
Water systems are usually designed to have a water

velocity of not more than 15,feet per second (fps). Higher
flow rates ,result in greater,frictional losses. Higher floW
rates also shorten the life of elbows in. the system because
of erosion. In general, larger pipes result in lOwer pump
capacities and lowered operating costs. However, pipe cost
is usually the greatest expense in any water system, espe-
cially in larger systems, and sizing pipes for flow'rates
below 5 fps is rare.
Figures 20 and 21 are charts used in sizing pipes and
determining pump pressures for closed and open systems,
respectively.
' The vertical scale of these charts is the water flow
rate in gallons per minute. The horizontal scale is the
friction loss in feet of head of water per 100 feet of pipe.
The slanted lines represent pipe size and water velocity in
feet per second. Flow rates of greater than 15 fps and fric-
tion losses of greater than 10 feet/10.0 feet are not recom-
mended. These are represented by shaded areas on the charts.
If any two of the qUantities shown on the charts are
known, the other two quantities may be read from the chart.
Examples A and B illustrate use of these charts and Tables
4, 5, and 6 in determining pipe size and pump capacity in
0
closed and open water systems.
HC-06/Page 23
226
Schedule 40 Pipe
15 20 3 4 .e t0 15 4 6 10 13 20 2530 40 60 SO 1020000
20000
!SOO°
'5000
1
10 000
10 000
0000 S000
c.^
POWO*00#
6 000
6000
5000
5000
.4000 4000
3000 3000
2000 2000
1500 1500
1000 ,1000
' e00 800
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
150 150
100 100
00- 190
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
15
10 10
e e
6
5 5
2 2
1.5
tO
15 .2 25 3 4 56 e 10 15, 2 2'5 3 4 56 8 10 15 20 25 30 40 60 80 1001.0
FRICTION LOSS (FEET OF WATER PER 100 FT)
Figure 20. Friction Loss for Closed Piping Systems.
Page 24/HC-06
IP
A
Schodul* 40 Pip*
20000
.1 .15 .2 .25 3 4 56 .8 10 1.5 2.0 25 3 4 6
20 000
15000 15 000
10000 10 000
$000 9000
4000 6000
5000 5000
4000 4000
3000 3000
2000 2000
1500 1500
1000 1000
SOO 800
600 GOO
500 506
400 400
300 300
a. 200 200
g 150 150
100 100
YO 80
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10
10
7
7
6 6
5
5
1.5
(5
10
10
.15 .2 .3 4 5 .3 10 1.5 2 3 4 56 8 10 15 20 25 30 40 60 BO 100
FRICTION LOSS (FEET OF WATER PER IOOFT.)
Figure 21. Friction Loss for Open Piping Systems.
HC-06/Page 2S
EXAMPLE A: CLOSED WATER SYSTEM.
Given: The following dimensions and specifications for

a closed wdIer system:
THREE-WAY VALVE TANK

5' 5 FT HO PO [EXPANSION
COIL
.5 PSI
PO
It D4
2' 3' 4' 35'
2'
BY-PASS'
24' S' 16'
6'
CHILLER
5 PSI PO 8'
3 20'
16'
Use schedule 40 steel pipe. Flow rate = 45 gpm

(gallons per minute).
Find: Pipe size and pump capacity.
Solution: Pipe size: Refer to Figitre.20 for pipe size.
A flow rate of 45 gpm gives the following fric-
tion losses for standard size pipes:
Pipe Size Friction loss (ft/100 ft)
1 1/2" 1.4
2" 4.0
2 1/2" 1.7
The 1 1/2" pipe is too small, and the 2 1/2"

4.4 pipe is larger than necessary. Choose the 2"
pipe. This gives a water velocity of 4.3 fps.
Page 26/HC-06
2-2
0
Exam le A. Continued.
Pump capacity: Calculate total equivalent feet

of piping system (with bypass valve closed) by
adding total length of pipe and equivalent
length for all valves and fittings from Tables
4, 5,,and 6.
Pipe length = 142.0

Ells, 90°, std = 5 @ 5.0 = 25.0
Tee, str thru = S @ 3.3 =, 16.5
Tee, branch = 1 @ 10 = 10.0
Gate valve = 4 @ 2.3 = 9.2
Globe valve = 1@ 55 = 55.0
TOTAL EQUIVALENT. FEET 257.7
Calculate head loss for piping and system com-

ponents. (2.31 ft of water = 1 pSi)
Friction loss from chart = 4.0 ft/100 ft
Pipe & ftgs = 257.7 ft x 4 ft/100 ft = 10.31 ft

'Chiller = 5 psi x 2.31 ft/psi = 11.55 ft
Coil 1.5 psi x 2.31 ft/psi = 3.47 ft

3-Way Valve = (given'in ft HD) = 5.00 ft
TOTAL. PRESSURE DROP = 30.53 ft
A safety factor of 10% is usually added *3.03 ft st
Pump. pressure = 33.36 ft
Pipe size = 2" ,
Water velocity = 4.3 fpi

Friction ldss = 4.6 ft/100 ft
Pump capacity = 33.36 ft of head
.45 gpm
4
ti
HC-06/Page 27
J.
.230-
EXAMPLE B: OPEN WATER SYSTEM.
./)
Given: The following dimeasiOns and specifications for
an open Water system4
t
Schedule 40 pipe.
Ells, are long radius.
'COOUNG-
TOWER Flow,rate = 1200 gpm.
Tower nozzles 8 psi pd.
Condenser. 13 psi pd.
Strainer "4 psi pd.
Sump exit loss 24 eq. ft.
Limit velocity to 8 fps.

Use 5% safety factor for
pump head.
UFT CHECK
Find: Pipe size and pump capacity.

Solution: UseFigure 21 to determine pipe size. Choose
8" pipe for avelocity of '7.7 fvs and a friction
loss of 3.8 ft/100 ft.
Determine total equivalent feet of pipe:
Pipe length = 283 ft

Ells, 9 °, long rad = 10 @ 13 = 130.ft
Valves,: gate = 2 @ 9 = 18 ft
Valve, lift check = 1 @ 220 = 220 ft
Sump exit loss = 24 ft
TOTAL EQUIVALENT FEET . 675 ft
Page 28/HC-06
2 ').1
I
Example B. Continued.
' Determine total pressure drop: p

!I-
Pipe & ftgs = 675' x 3.8'/100' = 25.7 ft

Condenser = 13 psi x 2.31 ft/psi = 30.0 ft
Nozzles = 8 psi x 2.31 ft/psi = 18.5 ft
Strainer ..
= 4 psi x 2.31 ft/psi = 9.2 ft
Unbalanced head = 12.0-ft
',TOTAL PRESSURE DROP 95.4 ft
Add 5% pump safety factor + 4.8 ft

Pump head = 100.2 ft
Pipe size 8"

Water velocity = 7.7 fps
Friction loss = 3.8 ft/100 ft
Pump capacity = 100.2 ft
1200 gpm
REFRIGERANT PIPING
FUNCTIONS OF PIPING
The obvious function of refrigerant piping is to trans-

port refrigeiant vapor and liquid through the system. How-
ever, the refrigerant piping system must also transport oil
that cannot be'separated from the refrigerant and provide
for proper component operation, while eliminating the possi-
bility of equipment damage.
N.
HC-06/Page 29
21
41.......
1
r
-1
Oil from the compressor is always mixed with the re-

frigerant during compressor operation. Oil separators can
be used to remove much of the oil, but it is impossible to 1
remove all of the oil. The remaining oil must travel through
the entire system with the refrigerant. In the liquid line,
,
I
this is no problem, since oil dissolves in the liquid re-
frigerant and is transported with it. In the hot gas line
1
and the suction line, oil remains in a liquid state and must
be swept along by vapor. This requires a minimum vapor.ve-.
locity of'750 feet per minute (fpm) in horizontal pipes, and
1500 fpm in vertical risers. Vapor velocity should not ex-
ceed 3000 fpm.
The piping system must also prevent oil in liquid re-
frigerant from entering the compressor valves in large
quantities, as this damages the compressor. Liquid refrig-
erant rust enter the evaporator in liquid form and be free
from vapor. This is accomplished through regulating tem-
perature and pressure.
This section discusses the sizing and design of refrig-
erant piping to accomplish efficient and safe refrigerant
flow. This discussion is based on refrigerant R-12 and type
L copper pipe with a condensing temperature of 105°F and a
suction temperature of 40°F. These are typical values for
air conditioning systems using R-12. Values for other re-
frigerants and conditions may be found in the reference mate-
rials.
HOT GAS PIPE
Figure 22 shows the hot gas velocity as a function of

refrigeration load for standard sizes of type L copper pipe.
Page 30/HC-06 2,),)

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Load in Tons at 40 degrees Suction and 106 degrees Condensing Temperature
Figure -Z 2- Trot Gas -f5r'Reirigerant-1-2 Unly.
This chart may be used to determine the size of pipe neces-

sary to produce proper gas velocity in the hot' gas pipe.
The chart illustrates that risers will have a smaller diam-
eter than horizontal runs to produce the required flow rata.
It is important that the piping be as large as posSible while
maintaining proper gas velocities. Total pressure drop in

the hot gas pipe should never exceed 3 psi to ensure effi-
cient compressor operation.
If the rise in the hot gas pipe is 8 feet 'or less, the
pipe may rise directly from the compressor to the condenser,
as shown in Figure 23. If the rise is more than 8 feet, oil
and condensed refrigerant will collect in the pipe when the
system is shut down. This liquid can enter the compressor
HC-06/Page 31
2 f) 4
Figure 23.
8 Feet or Less.
discharge valve when the system is restarted and cause damage

. to the compressor. This is.prevented by installing an oil
trap as shown in Figure 24. Oil collects in the trap after
shut-off and is forced through the system when it is re-
started. These figures also illustrate the pitch of refrig-
erant piping. Horizontal piping runs should be pitched 1/2
inch per 10 feet of run in the direction of refrigerant flow.
MORE THAN 8' Figure 24.

More Than 8 Feet.
0 OIL TRAP
In variable capacity systems, gas velocity is often too

low at low capacity to transport oil up the risers. Figure
25 shows a double riser, a technique used to overcome this
problem. At full capacity, the oil trap is open and re-
frigerant vapor flows upward through both pipes. When the
Page 32/HC-06
2t,)-ti
DOUBLE
RISER
b. Clos -up of Oil Trap

a. Double Riser Showing Placement of Oil Trap
Figure. _Double.
capacity is reduced, opicollects in the trap, blocking

flow. All vapor then moves upward through the smaller pipe
at a velocity sufficient.,to move the oil. When the capacity
increases_ is swept out_g_i_the_trap.
LIQUID LINE
In the liquid line, oil presents no problems. This

pipe. can have a relatively small diameter because of the
greater density of the liquid. However, another problem
arises if the rise of the liquid line is more than a few
feet. The pressure in a liquid column depends, in part,
upon the density of the liquid and the height of the column.
For R-12, each foot of rise results in a pressure drop of
0.55 psi. The temperature of the liquid refrigerant remains
the same as height increases. If the pressure drop is too
great, some liquid may turn to vapor before it reaches the
evaporator. This results in inefficient operation of the
expansion valve. Accessories such as strainers and valves
HC-06/Page 33
9
A t.1
4
add to this problem. The solution is to subcool the liquid
refrigerant before it enters the riser. Subcooling of 10°F
is sufficient for a rise of 25 ft. The liquid line should
be sized to produce a pressure drop, due to friction, of no
more than 3 psi.
SUCTION LINE
Figure 26 shows gas velocities for various refrigeration

loads and pipe sizes for the suction line. In this pipe, the
gas temperature is lower and the density is greater.. Thus,
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Condensing Ternporatur.
Figure 26. Suction Gas Velocity.
the,same size pipe results in a lower gas velocity than in

the hot gas line. Suction line design is particularly impor-
tant to system efficiency because compressor efficiency drops
Page 34/HC-06
2` 7
sharply with compressor intake pressure. The total pressure
This cor-
drop in the suction line should not exceed 1 psi.
responds to a maximum temperature decrease of 2°F due to gas
expansion in the line.
The suction line must be designed to prevent liquid
refrigerant, from draining from the evaporator to the com-
pressor 'at shutdown. This is accomplished by'placing a
trap at the outlet.of the evaporator, followed by a riser
extending above the top of the evaporator. This trap also
In
holds any oil that is in the evaporator at shutdown.
variable capacity systems, the gas flow rate may be too low
at loh capacity.to transport oil up the riser.
Figure 27 shows one method
of overcoming this in small
systems. The riser sized
smaller than the remainder of
the suction line to provide
higher gas' velocity at low
capacity. At high capacity,
gas velocity will be near the
3000 fps limit. Since this
riser is short, it does not
Figure 27. Trap and
greatly reduce system effi- Short Riser.
ciency.
used
In many systems, a double riser and oil trap is
as shown in Figure 28. This figure also shows the connec-
tion of two evaporators to one suction line. This arrange-
evap-
ment prevents oil or liquid refrigerant in the upper
orator'from entering the lower evaporator.
HC -06 /Page 35
Figure 28. Double
Riser and Oil Trap (Two-
Evapoxator Connection).
MULTIPLE COMPRESSOR CONNECTIONS
Figure 29 shows the suction lines and hot gas lines of

two compressors connect_ed.in_a_single system., The suction
line is constructed to equalize gas pressure and flow be-
tween the two compressors. The suction header is full size,
Figure 29. Layout of Suction and Hot Gas

Lines for Multiple Compressor Operation.
Page 36/4C:06
and is horizontal above the compressors. Branch takeoffs
are horizontal from the side of the header and are also full
size. No reduction in size is made until the vertical drop.
This assures even oil distribution between compressors.
Discharge lines are connected to a single header below the
discharge level, providing an oil trap.
Figure 30 shows additional piping that is necessary
when compressors are paralleled. Oil equalizer lines are
connected to compressor cases below oil levels, dropping to
4.
GAS
EQUALIZER
HOT GAS
EQUALIZER
OIL EQUALIZER
PLUG FOR OIL AND GAS EQUALIZERS

_DRAIN
Figure 30 Interconnecting Piping for

Multiple Compressors.
HC-06/Page 37
20
a lower level. this allows the oil level to equalize be-
tween units.. However, this will occur only if the internal
pressures in the crank cases are the same. This is assured
by gas equalizer lines that are connected to the crank cases
above the oil levels and rise to a higher level, preventing
oil blockage.
REFRIGERANT PIPE SIZING
Figures 31, 32, and 33 are used to size the suction,

_hot gas, and liquid lines, respectively. The vertical scale
is the equivalent length'of the lines and all fittings. The
horizontal scale is refrigeration load. Solid lines repre-
sent no subcooling, and dashed lines represent subcooling
of-1-5-*F-. These chartsareusedalong with Figures 22 and 26
to size refrigerant lines. The sizes of pipes are selected
using Figures 31, 32, and 33. These sizes are then used in
Figures Z2 and 26-to determine gas velocities. If the ve-
locities are in the range of 750 fpm to 3000 fpm for hori-
zontal runs and 1500 fpm to 3000 fpm for risers, they are
acceptable. If the velocities are not within these ranges,
pipe size must be changed. This is illustrated in Example C.
Page 38/HC-06 2./.2

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HC-06/Page. 39
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Pressure drop is given in equivalent degrees because of the general ac-

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psi may be determined by referring to the saturated refrigerant tables.
To use charts in Figures 31 and 32 for conditions other than 40 F satu-
rated suction. 105 F condensing, multiply the refrigeration load in tons
by the factor below and use the product in reading the chart
(S Suction, *IG Hot Gas).
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out
Page 40/HC-06
2
.1=11111,
EXAMPLE C: REFRIGERANT PIPE SIZING.
Given: A 10-ton\air conditioner has piping of the

following equivalent lengths:
Suction: 150 ft
Hot gas: 100 ft
Liquid: 50 ft
Find: Pipe sizes requirltd.

Solution: a. Liquid line from Figure 33: 5/8 inch.
b. Hot gas line from Figure 32: 1 1/8° or
1 3/8". From Figure 22,these,give gas
velocities of:
1 1/8" 2100 fpm

1 3/8" 1400 fpm.
Use 1 1/3" for upward- risers and 1 3'8"
for horizontal runs and downward risers.
c. Suction line from Figure 31: 1 5/8" or
2 1/8". From Figure 26, these give gas
velocities of: -9`
1 5/8" 2500 fpm

d 2 1/8" 1450 fpm
But 2 5/8" give 910 fpm.
Use 1 5/8" for. upward risers, and 2 S /3"

for ho trontal runs and downward risers,
to re'd e pressure drops.
HC-06/Page. 41
21.;
.
..,
...
r
Si..A.0 PIPING
. PIPING CONNECTIONS a
a .
, ,
Steam pipes must be designed to carry a mixture of

steam and liquid water. Even pipes that contain only dry
steam during normal operation may.contain condensate during
startup. Figure 34 illustrates what can happen if steam
pipes become blocked by condensate: Steam flowing,
,
1
the'ipe (Figure 34a) produces waves in the water in the
pipe that result in the blockage seen in Figure.34b. Steam
pressure then foices the water against the riser wall, as
seen in Figure 34c. This prddutes a knocking; knows-. as a,
e water hammer, which may rupture pipes. This situation occurs
whenever horizontal runs of steam pipe do not have proper
pitch.
Figure 34. Water Hammer.
4- :,
cr 1
Page 42/14C-06
AO
Figure 35 illustrates one method of preventing water
hammer in stearg pipes. The run from the steam main to the
riser is pitched at 1/2-inch per foot toward the main. This
causes condensate to flow back into the main, instead of
collecting in the run. The main is also pitched back toward
the boiler, causing liquid to return to the boiler.
RISER ( NOT DRIPPED )
PITCH TOWARDS STEAM

-Figure 35. Connection 'MAIN 2I IN ' / FOOT
to Riser (Not Dripped).
'STEAM MAIN
Figure 36 shows a dripped riser. In this case the run

is pitched toward the riser. The steam travels up the riser
to the point of application, while the condensate flows down
the riser to be returned to the boiler. The horizontal main
is pitched downward in the direction of flow, so any water
in the-main also flows-down the riser.
STEAM MAIN
RISER ( DRIPPED) 7
Figure 36. Connection

to Dripped Riser.
PITCH TOWARD RISER
IN. / FOOT )
DRIP TO
CONDENSATE RETURN
HC-06/Page 43
2W
Figure 37 shows how to pipe the steam supply main over
vertical obstacles. The large steam Main goes over the beam,
while the condensate flows through a smaller pipe below the
beam. When condensate return lines encounter obstacles, as
in Figure 38, the main water pipe goes under the obstacle,
and a smaller line for air goes above the. obstacle.
-k,
AT LEAST 1 INCM,
DRAIN
Figure 37. Supply Figure 38. Return

Main Loops. Main Loop.
STEAM TRAPS
In most steam piping systems, it is necessary to pro-

vide traps that allow passage of condensed water, but block
the flow of steam. Tn small systems, this can be accom-
plished with pipe loops, but special steam traps are usually
used. Figure 39 shows a float crap used fOrthis purpose.
When the trap fills with water, the float rises, opening the
valve and allowing water to flow through the trap. When the
trap fills with steam, the float drops, closing the valve.
A thermostatic air vent in the trap allows cool air to es-
cape, but closes when heated by escaping steam.
Page 44/HC-Ob
1 ,
AIR VENT
VALVE ACCESS
PLUG FLOAT
VALVE
Figure 39. Float Trap. OUTLE

.4-- INLET
DRAIN
PLUG' MR PASSAGE
A thermostatic steam trap is shown in Figure 40. This

trap contains an element that contracts to open the valve
when it is in contact with relatively cool condensate. The
element expands to close the valve when it is in contact
with steam. Several.other types of steam traps are also in
common use.
Figure 40. Thermostatic

Trap, Bellows Type.
SYSTEM TYPES
Steam heating systems are classified, according to

operating pressure, into the following five system types:
HC-06/Page 45
21c,i
1. High pressure systems operate with steam pressures of
100 psi or more.
2. Medium pressure systems operate at 15 to 100 psi.
3. Low gressure systems have steam pressures of 0 to
15 psi.
4. Vapor systems operate between vacuum and 15 psi.
S. Vacuum systems have the same operating pressure range
as vapor systems. They are identical except that
vacuum systems have vacuum pumps and vapor systems do
, not.
All these systems may be used in heating applications.

Most small systems are low pressure systems. Larger systems
may be of any type; however, low pressure systems are the
most common.
SOLDERING AND BRAZING COPPER TUBING
SOLDERING
Soldering requires temperatures of less than 1000°F.

Soldering is usually accomplished at about 500°F in air
conditioning work. Figure 41 illustrates the proper steps
in soldering.
Successful soldering depends upon careful cleaning of
the surfaces to be soldered. ,Surfaces may be cleaned with
sandpaper, stee1wool, .or a wire brush. Emery cloth should
not be used, since particles of abrasive left in the pipe
can cause damage to mechanical components. Flame should not
be applied directly to the surfaces to be joined, since this
Page 46/HC-06
-
r
4l,Mill)
all
., / g ----:---_ %
r, , ,,
, ,, s. V .
Step 1. Cut tube to length and remove ,N .

,,
g.f.4
burr with file or scraper.
Step S. Apply flux thoroughly to
, assemble tube and
outside of tuoe
fitt:ng.
I
Step :. Clean outside of tube 4ith

sandpaper or sandcloth.
.
J1 '
When
,. /I
.fs00" Step o.
a
Apply heat .4ith torch.
-%
fitting, the proper temperature for'
18:SkA1 soldering has been reached.

f:lacimeeramnedl
Remove
one or two :;:::;;I:iatIcota;;;::::-

e. der appears at the end of the fitt:ng.
i
Step 3. ..lean inside of fitting 'data

wire ?rush, sandcloth lr sandpa2er. ,/ s 47%.
I
lit.....,...... I 'i : 1
11/1" ig
....-..-!7 .
,..."
... .,..,,
e
.44.e'lA. '
Step 1. Apply flux thoroughly to Step ". Tap larger sited fittings
inside of fitting. with mallet while soldzring, to oreak
tension and to distribute solder evells.-
in loint.
Figure 41. Recommended Procedurs to Follow

When Soldering Tubing.
HC-06/Page 47
250
will produce oxidation that will prevent a good solder joint.
The work piece should be heated to the proper temperature,
and the flame should be removed while the solder is applied.
Overheating will result in poor seals. Large pipes are
tapped with a hammer to aid solder flow into the joint.
BRAZING
Brazing is similar to soldering, but-requires tempera-

tures of over 1000°F. Figures 42 and 43 illustrate the
proper methods of heating parts to be braied and applying
the brazing alloy. The proper temperature has been reached
when the flux turns from a milky appearance to clear. Brazed
joints should be cleaned thoroughly to remove the flux. This
prevents corrosion.
\Ck APPLY
FITTING FITTING ALLOY
I HE RE
..11-
112" TO 1"
Figure 42. Brazing Hori,zontal Joints.
Page 4S/HC-06
<01
Air
APPLY
_ ALLOY
HERE
FITTING/
APPLY
ALLOY
HERE START
HEATING
HERE
Figure 43. Brazing Vertical Joints.
SUMMARY
Piping is an essential part of air. conditioning and

heating systems. All pipes should be sized properly and
laid out in a manner that provides efficient fluid flow
without introducing problems. Sizing of refrigerant hot,
gas and suction lines is most critical to proper system
operation. Incorrect pipe size or improper layout in re-:
frigeration systems can greatly reduce system capacity and
efficiency.
HC-06/Page 49,
252
9
EXERCISES
1. Explain the difference in function and fluid resistance

of various valve types.
2. Explain the applications of the three types af water
piping systems.
3. Explain the problems likely to be encountered if the
following mistakes aremade in piping;
a. Water pipes too small.
b. Globe valve replaced with gate valve.
c. Gate valve replaced with angle valve.
d. Refrigerant suction line too small.
e. Refrigerant hotgas line too large.
f. Refrigerant liquid line rise of 30 feet with 5°F
subcooling.
g. Horizontal run to non-dripped steam riser pitched
in the wrong direction.
h. Oil trap omitted from hot gas line with a rise of
15 feet.
i. Upward riser omitted from suction line at evap-
orator.
3. Water piping system unbalanced.
k. Water strainer installed in expanSion line.
1. Oil equalization lines run above compressor oil
levels.
m. Hot gas equalization line with tees in vertical
rise.
4. Thd.foll6wing water piping system has a flow rate of
2000 gpm. Determine pipe size and pump Capacity.
HC-06/Page 51
.253
EXPANSION
TANK
15' 5' COIL CO'
4 I;f1 II I/I 24 PSI I 9*

I i t
' V
20'
10'
CHILLER
0 PSI
20'
I ALL ELLS STANDARD /
5. A 20-fon refrigeration system has equivalent pipe

lengths of:
Suction line = 150 feet. A
Hot gas line = 180 feet. I

. Liquid line ' = .62 feet.
Determine the pipe sizes_ required.
-A
LABORATORY?MATERIALS 1
Copper tubing of several sizes. 1
Connectors for tubing'.

Soft solder and flux. I
Silver solder and flux.
Oxyacetylene torch.
1
Safety goggles.
Sandpaper.
1
Page 52/HC-06
2 414 I
&
Wire brush. s
File.
Tubing cutter.
Hammer.
Vice.
Hacksaw.
Flame ignitor.
LABORATORY 1. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS.
The laboratory instructor will demonstrate all equip-

me;:t and procedures. Take notes on all procedures. List
all safety precautions in Data Table 1.
LABORATORY 2. SOLDERING AND BRAZING.
1. Using all -safety precaution's and the demonstrated

procedures,-construct the soldered and brazed joints
assigned.
2. Using the vice and hacksaw, cut the joints in half
and observe the joint. Describe any problems or
faults in Data Table 2.
NO
3. The instructor should check student work and evaluation.
HC-06/Page 53
255
41
DATA TABLES
DATA TABLE 1. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
Page 54/HC-06
t
DATA TABLE SOLDERING AND BRAZING.
EVALUATION OF SOLDER JOINTS
First attempt;
Second attempt:
EVALUATION OF BRAZE!) JOINTS
First attempt:,
Second attempt':,]
.HC-06/Page 55
2
I
,
f
it
REFERENCES
Althouse, Andrew D.;,Turnquist, Carl H.; and Bracciano,

.
AlfrOld F. ,Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning*.
Homewood, IL: The Goodheart Willcox Co., Inc., 1979.
and Air Conditioning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1979.
Carrier Air Conditioning Co. Carrier. Systems Design Manual,
Part 3: 'Piping Design. Syracuse, NY: Carrier Corp.;
1973. _Jr-
-,
I
)
,
I
t
T
9...
,..i
Page 5o/HC-06
°P/
TEST
direct
1. 3 water system with reverse return headers- and
return risers...
a. requires balancing valves unless M1 units are
identical.
b, is commonly used to serve several cooling towers.
c. isan open water system.
, d. is often used with fan coils of different sizes.
e. None .of the above.
3. If a gate valve in a water line is replaced with a Y
valve.2.
a: the maximum flow rate of the system-.will decrease.
b. the flow rate may be more easily controlled.
c. the pressure drop across the valve will increase.
e.' Only a and b are true.
line
3. The oil trap may be eliminated from the hot gas
if...
-a. an oil separator is used.
b. the rise of the hot gas line is less than 8 feet.
the diameter of the hot gas line is reduced to
provide greater gas velocity.
d. Either a or. b.
/If the suction line is too small, system efficiency
O
rops due to...
a. too much oil being sucked into the compressor.
b. too much pressure loss in the suction line.
c. oil collecting in the evaporator.
d. All of the above
HC-06/Page 57'
5:j
5. Steam mains in low ands medium pressure systems...
a. Are pitched toward non - dripped risers.
b. are pitched away from dripped risers.
c. need not-be pitched, since they carry no conden-
sate during normal operation.
d. ,Both a and b are true.
6. The greatest resistance to flow in any fluid system
is produced by...
a. elbows.
b. gate valves.
c. globe valves.
d. angle valves.
e. Y valves.
7.- Oil traps are commonly located...
a. in the hot gas line near the compressor.
b. in the suction line near the evaporator.
c. in the suction line near the compressor.
d. in the hot gas line near the condenser.
e. Both a and b.
8. Variable capacity air conditioning systems will prob-
ably have..:.
a. double risers in the hot gas line.
b. double risers in the suction line.
c. gas velocities of near 3000 fpm in all risers at
full capacity.
d. gas velocities of less than 1500 fpm in all risers
at minimum load.
e. All of the above.
f. None of the above.
g. Only a and c.
Page 5S/HC-06
261)
h. Only b and c.
i. Only a, b, and c are true.
j. Only a, b, and d are true.
9. The most likely place to find a list check valve is
the...
a. riser of a direct return water system.
b. horizontal run of a direct return water system.
c. steam riser.
d. liquid refrigerant line.
e. Both a and b.
10. The largest diameter pipe in a refrigeration system
is the...
a. liquid line.
b. hot gas line.
c. suction line.
d. risers in the suction line.
HC-06/Page 59
2( 1
MODULE FIG 07
AIR-HANDLING EQUIPMENT
CENTER FOR OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPk^c.NT

INTRODUCTION
Both comfort provided and operating efficiency of any

air-conditioning or heating system depend heavily upon the
air handling equipment used to deliver conditioned air to
space served. Proper design and installation-of ductwork is
particularly important, since ,this is usually an integral
part of constructing the building, and cannot be changed once
installed. This module describes fans and ducts used to han-
dle air, methods of introducing conditioned air into space,
and the basic duct layouts of several systems. In the labo-
ratory, the student will visit a large HVAC installation and
examine air-handling equipment.
or.
PREREQUISITES
The student should have completed Module HC-02, "System

Types"; HC-03 "Refrigeration Equipment"; and HC-05, "Boilers
for Heating Applications."
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module the student should be

able to:
1. Define static pressure, velocity pressure, and tota).
pressure, and draw a diagram showing how they vary along
a duct of varying size.
2. Given any two of the following quantities for an air
duct and the charts in the subject matter, determine -7,
the other two quantities:
HC-07/Page 1
2 P,00
'')
a. Size or dimensions.
b. Air velocity.
c. Volume flow rate.
d. Friction loss.
3. Given diagrams of various' type's of fittings and duct
takeoffs, identify those that have high resistance and
those that have low resistance.
4. Describe the three methods of duct design.
S. Describe the air flow patterns of four groups of air
outlets for both heating and cooling service.
,.,
,
6. List the characterigtics and applicttions of the follow-

ma
ing fan types:
a. Radial blade fan.
b. Fbrward curved fan.
c. Backward curved fan.
d. Vaneaxial fan.
7. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of airfoil
blades.
8. List the total pressures of the four fan classes.
9. Draw diagrams of the main supply ducts and branch ducts
of the following air conditioning systems:
a. Single zone constant volume.
b. Single zone variable volume.
c. Multizone constant volume.
d. \Dual duct.
10. Take a field trip to a large HVAC installation and exam-
ine the air-handling equipment.
11. Use all data and sketches of the system to prepare a de-
tailed description of the entire system.
Page 2/HC-07 Of
2, ,1
SUBJECT MATTER
BASIC AIR FLOW PRINCIPLES
Figure 1 shows basic components of. the air-handling sys-

tem of an air conditioning or heating system. Air is forced
through a duct network by a centrifugal blower. Energy sup-
plied by the blower must deliver the necessary volume of air
to the conditioned space and overcome all system losses. Im-
portant loss factors are indicated in the figure.
CONSTRICTION OR CHANGES
IN SHA 2E INCREASE
VELOCIT" AND FRICTION
CHANGE IN
DIRECTION IS MAJOR
RESISTANCE
AIR CONTROLS
ADO FRICTION
FRICTION AND TURBULENCE

EVEN IN STRAIGHT DUCT 11 .4 AIR OUTLETS
PRODUCE
:/747* RESISTANCE
Figure, 1. . Duct System.
. Air pressure in the duct is comprised of two components.

Static presciire is the pressure exerted against duct walls
in all directions. It is usually positive (with respect to
atmospheric pressure) in supply ducts, and negative in return
ducts. Velocity pressure is pressurecin the direction of
flow produced by the motion of air. Total pressure is.the
sum of static pressure and velocity pressure.
Figure 2 shows the relationships of these three pressures
in a duct system. Total pressure in the system always
HC-07/Page 3
2 C5
AIR
74;_e)
i
A 13: IC DI :E ° F1
T OTAL PRESSURE ;II
""-----....2.... 1 t VELOCITY PRESSURE
STATIC $
PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC,
PRESSURE
Figure 2. Pressure Changes During Flow in Ducts.
decreases in the direction of air flow, but individual compo-

nents may either increase or decrease. Between points A and
B, air flows through a straight duct (of constant size) at a
constant velocity. Velocity pressure remains constant, but
both static pressure and total pressure drop, due to fric-
tional losses.
In converging section BC, the duct area is reduced and
velocity increases. This converts static pressure to veloc-
ity pressure, but does not greatly reduce total pressure. In
section CD, air velocity and velocity pressure are constant.
Since friction loss is nearly proportional to velocity, total
and static pressures drop more rapidly than-in section AB.
An abrupt expansion occurs in section DE. Air slows and
velocity pressure drops, resulting in increased static pres-
sure. Turbulence produced by the abrupt expansion causes a
large loss in total pressure. At point F, air is discharged
into the conditioned s ace (at atmospheric pressure) with
sufficient velocity pr ssure to move the air into the condi-
tioned space. It is im ortant to note that total pressure
Page 4/HC-07
alway's decreases, but the ratio of static pressure to veloc-
ity p:essure is dependent upon air velocity.
FRICTION LOSSES IN DUCTS
AIR FRICTION CHARTS
Duct air pressures are measured in terms of inches of

water column. Resistance to air flow through a duct is de-
scribed in terms of the total pressure drOp per 100 feet nec-
espary to move air through the duct at a specified velocity.
Figure 3 is a charvrelating flow rate, pressure drop, duct
diameter, and volume of air moved. If any two of these quan-
tities are know, the other two may be determined from the
chart. For example, point A represents a 6"-diameter duct
delivering 200 ft3/min. The velocity in this duct must be
1000 fpm, and the friction loss is 0.3" of water per 100 feet
of duct. If this duct is 75 feet long. its total pressure
drop would be 0.75 x 0.3 = 0.225". of water. Point B repre-
sents an 8" duct with an air velocity o,f 500 fpm. It de-
livers air at 175 ft3/min and has a friction loss of 0.058"
of water per 100 feet.
Figure 4 is a similar chart for higher velocities and
larger ducts. These two charts are for round ducts. If rec-
tangular ducts are used, the equivalent diameter of a circular
duct may be determined using Table 1. The large numbers over-
printed on this table are called duct class numbers. A higher
number indicates a higher initial cost of the ductwork.
HC-07/Page 5
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TABLE 1.
DUCT DIMENSIONS, SECTION AREA,/CIRCULAR
EQUIVALENT DIAMETER, AND DUCT CLASS. t"
4- 4 1 13 14 16 II 30 / 33
Ana Dorn Ara burn Ana Own. 4.46 Darn Ann 0..,, %me dam Ares /Nom A., Darn [At% Dom
so Ot on sos 01 in. 40 in. 140 in %It in NO on sq It on NI 01 on 1411 on
10 39 84 .11 91 4$ Mt
13 41 91 41 7 77 I/ 9 44 131
14 33 94 71 5 91 129 109 142 121 '153
III\ 39 10f AI 172 103 137 134 143 163 167 175
II 44 II 0 91 129 1 IS 145 140 163 173 _117 IS 5 212 197
10 71 II 5 99 135 126 152 114 11I IS 2 207 193 234 207 261 2191
33 71 12 0 100 14 4 1 38 15 9 169 17 6 I 99 19 1 3 27 20 4 217 21 7 296 22 9 3 17 24 1
34 $4 124 116 146 1S0 166 I43 14 3 214 196 347 213 271 226 311 23 9 3 43 25 11
24 64 124 126 152 141 112 1.97 190 231 206 266 211 301 235 333 246 371 261
VI 93 13 2 I 33 15 6 17 7 209 19 6 147 21 3 2 64 22 9 3.23 24 4 3 40 25 7 1 400 27 1

30 101 136 141 161 1. 3 2.22 202 244 220 306 23 71 3 44 252 319 26 7 4 27
1 260
31 107 140 144 165 19 84 234 201 211 227 323 244 364 260 412 275 433 289
34 113 144 130 170 243 193 249 214 216 233 343 ^251 319 267 437 28 3 4 61 297
3 1 I0 147 1,41 174 214 194 261 219 311 239 363 256 409 274 431 29 0 ' 307 305
31 123 150 173 174 2.23 203 276 225 327 243 360 264 430 241 484 294 537 314
40 121 153' 111 182 233 207 211 230 343 251 397 270 432 :88 307 305 762 321
42 133 156 1$4 145 243 21I 291 234 337 236 413 276 471 294 331 31 2 316 324
44 136 159 113 I49 2.32 213 3I1 239 37I 261 433 242 490 300 111 3191 4 12 331
46 143 16 2 2 01 19 2 261 21 9 322 24 3 3 II 26 7 4 49 28 7 310 306 374 3251 637 342

41 141 165 209 196 271 22.3 333 244 403 272 463 292 130 312 397 331 1 644 34 9
30 216 199 211 227 344 252 413 276 4298 8 3 51 314 611 33 7 ' 6 17 355
32 222 202 241 23I 33? 256 430 261 5 00=70 3 373 324 641 343 714 360
34 229 205 296 234 371 261 443 243 317 304 590 32 9 6 44 349 731 364
16 231 209 304 234. 313 261 433 289 531 31: 406 334 60 355 762 374
243 21I 319 242 394 263 461 293 341 317 426 339 704 360 717 380
SI
24 5 404 27.3 4114 29 8 5 65 32 2 6 SO 34 5 7 36 36 3 1 12 38 6
60 2 SO 21 4 3 27 1
220 344 252 424 279 310 JO 6 191 33I 417 355 771 37 6 1 1 39 397
64 244
61 343 258 444 287 337 314 624 339 711 363 812 356 , 903 437
1
3 33 26 5 4 71 29 4 5 69 32 3 4 40' 34 8 7.34 37 2 I So 34 5 9 52 41 8
72 ,
406 274 491 300 184 328 413 334 793 382 1.90 40 4 9 98 428
76
413 276 317 308 613 336 722 364 II 29 390 931 104 438
110
341 31.5 641 345 7S4 372 333 396 973 101 446
114
II 5.51 320 644 34 9 7 17 380 I 44 40 5 101 II 2 434
92 379 324 691 35.6 112 386 939 415 104 438, II' 463
96 590 330 714 362 140 392 970 421 101 44i ,11 472
740 369 ISO 393 980 42 5 11 3 433 123 476
100
760 374 190 405 103 435 116 /62 130 488
104
7b 340 920 412 106 440 120 470 134 496
108
110 346 950 41 1 10 9 7 12 3 47 3 , 13 1 503
112
940 42 4 11.3 3 11 6 48J ; 14 3 51 3

116
110
..
100 424 II 5 60 131 49 1 , N4 515
193 435 11.9 467 134 4961 ISO 524
134
1041 44I 121 471 131 504 I 153 533
121
123 479 141 50 9 : 131 339
131 . 12.1 48 3 143 51.6 I
162 545
136
130 444 147 52 0 i 16 3 550
140
133 49 A 132 5291 161 556
/
144
Page S/HC-07
F.
DUCT FITTINGS
A wide variety of fittings are available for changing

the direction of ducts and for branching. Figure S illus-
trates angles and elbows for rectangular ducts. The resis-
tance of each fitting is'specified in terms of the length of
a straight duct of the same size with equal resistance to air
flow. Greater bends and sharper angles have higher resis-
/-
tances. Square corners (style D) include internal turning
vanes to reduce resistance.
GROUP 2 ANGLES AND ELBOWS FOR TRUNK DUCTS. INSIDE RADIUS y WIDTH OF DUCT.
F.
41111111 1?%
v." 1
...Gs 10 IT
TO IS 5 TO I /
42 T0 21 IS
19 :707.
7 TO II
2:
0
010.00 0.00.0
00100
TO II
111
T 0 27 10 15
20
28 TO 1.o$ 22 TO 27-20 12 TO IS SS 12 TO 21
2 TO 5320 2$ TO 33 25 1 TO 21 75 22 TO 27. 25
33 TO 144 23 34 TO 42 30 22 TO 27 4100 211 TO 43 4 401
3 TO 51.40 2$ TO 33 12S
,47.7.r
S2 TO 0 SO 3 TO 24150
E
4%.
10 co rt 30 to er ' 1 -- 15 ea rr
Figure S. Duct Fittings.
Figure 6 illustrates various types ui trunk duct take

offs and the resistance associated with each. Those requiring
two 90° turns in the direction -of air flow (A, C, and F) have
higher resistances than those with only one turn. B and G
illustrate the differences in resistance between a tapered
takeoff and one without a taper. Takqoffs at angles of less
than 90° have lower resistance.
HC-07/Page 9
271
N p
EXAMPLE: EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF
?'
SUPPLY AND RETURN FITTINGS
Os`
c 40
1141114r5
101 F 50
E 5
4000
G 35
Figure 6. Trunk Duct Takeoffs:
DUCT DESIGN.
AIR VELOCITY
The noise level of a duct system is a function of the

air velocity in the ducts. Lower air velocities result in
lower noise -levels, reduced friction losses, and greater sys-
tem efficiencies. However, lower velocities also require
larger ducts to deliVLer the same volume of air. This in-
creases initai/Egt and space requirements. in many cases,
smaller, high velocity ducts are more economical even though
more power is required for air delivery.
Duct systems are classified aseither low velocity or
high velocity. Table 2 lists the recommended and maximum
velocities for various parts of-low velocity systems. High
velocity duOts are used in some large distribution systems.
High velocity, air is not delivered directly to the conditioned
Page 10/F1.
1P-4,-
4.
TABLE 2.
RECOMMENDED AND MAXIMUM DUCT VELOCITIES FOR
IOW VELOCITY SYSTEMS.
Recommended Velocities, fpm .
. ,
Schools,
Designation Theaters, Industrial
Residences Buildings
Public
Buildings
Outdoor Air Intakes 500 500 500

Filters 250 300 350
Heating Coils 450- 500 600
Cooling Coils 450 500 600
Air Washers 500 500 500

'Fan Outlets .
1300-2000 1600-2400
.
Main Ducts 700-900 1000-1300 1200-1800

Branch Ducts 600 600-900 800-1000
Branch Risers 500 600-700 800
Maximum Velofities, fpm
Outdoor Air Intakes 800 200 1200

Filters 300 350 350
Heating Coils 500 600 700
Cooling Coils 450 500 600
.Air Washers 500 500 500

Fan Outlets 1
1700 1500 -2200 1700-2800 '
Main Ducts 80'0'11200 1100-1600 1300-2200

Branch Ducts '700-1000 800-1300 1000-1800
Branch Risers 650-800 800-1200 1000-1600
...
2 HC-.07/Page if
space, but to a low velocity duct system that distributes air
to individual spaces. Table'3 lists the maximum air veloc-
ities for high velocity systems.
TABLE 3.
RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM-DUCT VELOCITIES
FOR HIGH VELOCITY SYSTEMS.
cfm Carried by the Duct Maximum Velocities fpm
60,000 to 40,000 6,000

40,000 to 25,000. 5,000
25,000 to 15,000 4,500
15,000 to 10,000 4,000
10,000 to 6,000 3,500
6,600 to 3,000 3,000
3,000 to 1,000 2,500
One of three methods is employed in the design of duct

systems.
VELOCITY REDUCTION METHOD
Figure 7 illustrates the velocity reduction method of ,
duct design. Velocities are selected using Table 2 or 3.

Fan output velocity is selected first, and dUcts are designed
to reduce the velocity by arbitrary amount's in succeeding
duct sections to bring velocities within the ranges specified,
Page 12/HC-07
o 7,1
Pb
40'
ats ® E
'A V2 A V3
vi
fI
V-"r
1800 FPM 1000 FPM 800 FPM 800 FPM
\.d/ Figure 7. Velocity,Reduction Method.
it the tables. This method follows no set rules. Therefore,

it is usually employed only by duct designers who have devel-
\
6ped a "feel" for duct and velocity requirements.
EQUAL. FRICTION METHOD
In the equal friction method, each section of duct is

designed to have the same friction loss per foot of duct.
This method is the most popular for low velocity systems, both
from supply and return ducts. The equal friction method is
superior to the vel'6city reduction method, since it requires
less balanting for symmetrical duct layouts and usually re-
sults in more economical duct sizes.
STATIC REGAIN METHOD
The static regain method of duct design is used for high

velocity systems only. It makes use of the fact that static
pressure increases when velocity pressure decreases. The
ducts leaving the central station are relatively small, high
velocity ducts with high velocity pressure and low static
HC-07/Page 13
pressure. As the ducts branch, the total area of the duct
system ,increases. The air slows down and the static pressure
increases at a rate that overcomes friction losses. This is
particularly advantageous for high velocity installations
with long duct runs and many takeoffs, or terminal units.
Initial savings result not only from reduced duct costs, but
also from a reduction in clearance required between floors
of buildings. One disadvantage of the static regain method
is that large ducts are required at the ends of long runs.
In many systems, the ducts become larger near the ends, in-
stead of smaller.
AIR OUTLETS
AIR FLOW PATTERNS
Comfort conditioning requires that air be delivered to

the conditioned space in such a manner that it mixes with the
room air, providing even temperature distribution and comfort-
able air velocities in the conditioned space. Velocities of
less than 15 fpm may cause a feeling of stagnation, while
velocities of greater than 65 fpm, produce drafts. Air veloc-
ities of 25 to 35 fpm in the occupied zone are considered to
be the most comfortable.
Air is generally delivered at a much greater velocity,
mixes with room air, and is reduced in velocity befoue reach-
ing occupants. This is accomplished by the proper selection
and location of discharge grills. Grills may be located in
the ceiling, on the floor, high in the wall, or low in the
wall.
Figure 8 shows the air flow pattern for cooling with a
high wall grill. This is the most desirable arrangement for
cooling, since cool air mixes with room air and no stagnation
Figure 8. Air Flow Pattern'for Cooling. 1
occurs. Figures 9 shows the air flow pattern for the same
system during heating operation. The lower density hot air
tends to remain near the ceiling, and stagnation occurs near
Figure 9. Air Flow Pattern for Heating.
HC-07/Page 13
2?
the floor, resulting in cold floors and inefficient hefting
of room air. For these reasons, high wall outlets are often
chosen when the spgce requires cooling more often than heat-
ing.
Figure 10 shows the cooling pattern for ceiling outlets.
The grill is designed to spread cool air over the ceiling.
The greater density of. the cool air aids in air flow dOwnward
Figure 10. Cooling

'Pattern for Ceiling
Outlets.
near the walls and no stagnation occurs. The heating air

flow pattern of ceiling outlets is shown in Figdre 11.
Figure 11.* Cooling

Pattern for Ceiling
Outlets:
' Page lb/HC-07

9.
2"YR
-
I
As with,high wall outlets,hot air tends to remain near

the ceiling, resulting in stagnation and cold floors. Ceil-
ing outlets are. generally unsatisfactory for spaces with
high heating loads and low cooling loads.
Figures 12 and r3 show cooling and heating air flow
patterns for floor outlets. During cooling operation, cool
air rises to the ceiling becatthe of its exit velocity and
Figure 12. Cooling Air Flow 'Pattern for Flopr Outlets.
r.,
Figure 13. Heating Air Flow Pattern for Floor Outlets.

r
I.
e
HC-07/Page 17
0.)'1 11
4,0 0 ..1
drops back toward the floor. This produces a stagnation zone
near the ceiling, but little stagnation in the occupied zone.
During heating operations, there is a small stagnation zone
near the floor. Floor grills,are available in either spread-
.ing or nonspreading 'designs. Ronspreading grills prOvide
better cooling service, while the spreading design is better-
suited for heating service. Floor grills provide the best
comfort when heating and cooling loads for a space are bal-
anced.
Figufes 14 and 15 illustrate air flow patterns of low
wall mounted grills. These provide the most comfortable
heating service, but they should not be uspd for cooling ser-
vice. This is because the cold air remains near the floor,,
producing/a large stagnation zone in the upper portion of the
occupied area. '
1
,
Figure 14. Cooling Air Flow Pattern

of Low WallMounted Grill.
-Page 1S/HC-07
200
Figure 15. Heating Air Flow Pattern
of Low Wall Mounted Grill.
OUTLET ,TYPES
Air outlets are grioupe4 into four main class.ifications,

Group A consists of spreading floor-mounted grills. Group B
consists of nonspreading floor outlets. High wall and cell-
.,
cing grills have similar characteristics and are grouped to-

gether as Group C. Low wall .grills form Group D. Each of
these groups pictured in Figure 16. aTable 4 lists air
.i.
outlet characteristics and application.
.
HC-07/Page 19
k
2Si
. GROUP B GROUP C GROUP D
GROUP A
.
I
IJ
O
x
n .\ \.
., .,
-:;
."-':"6%
0 .
.
-...,
...
---
NM
.
x.,
.... : .
.;\ ,, -
-.;------ ---._ .......
, 44 4444;444444444;
1 ,
.
zt4CM1144414144
I
Atl 441111441
121 .......
-.1111411 ,
Figure 16. Classification or Air Sutlets.

TABLE 4.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS-OF OUTLETS.
.....m=.m..,
Outlet Flow Most Effective Preferred

Group Pattern Outlet Type Application Location Size Determined by
m,., .....
A Vertical Floor diffusers, heating Along .posed Minimum supply
Spreading baseboard, and and perimeter velocity dif=
cooling fers with type
and acceptable
temperature dif-
ferential
3 Vertical, Floor registers, cooling Not critical", Maximum accept-

Nonspreading baseboard, and and \able heating
low sidewall ; heating 'temperature dif-
' ferential a
C High Ceiling and cooling Not critical Ma)or application-

Hdrizontal high sidewall whether heating or
cooling f
J Law 3aseboard and neat:ig Long outlet Maximum supply ve-

Horizontal low sidewall only at perimeter locitv should be
short outlet, leis than 300
not critical ft/min. (Not re
commended for
cooling.)
FANS AND BLOWERS`
CENTRIFUGAL BLOWERS
Centrifugal fans are.used to move air through dutts be-

cause these fans are quiet and can move air efficiently against )
pressure. Figure-17 shows the blade of a radial blade fan .
and the motion imparted to the air by the blade. Motion pro-
.1
duced becauseof wheel,rotation is tangential to the wheel.
The component of motion imparted by the shape of the blade
depends on blade design.- The radial blade fan shown here is
used f&t\handling abrasives and dust, but is not used in HVAC 7
. applications.
Ief
HC-07/Page 21
2814
4 .,.
RESULTING MOTION OF MOTION IMPARTED
AIR LEAVING FAN WHEEL TO AIR BY FAN
WHEEL ROTATION
MOTION IMPARTED
TO AIR BY SHAPE
OF BLADE
Figure 17. Radial
Blade Fan.
-.;
RADIAL BLADE
Figure 13 shows a'typical air conditioner blower with

fcrward curved blades. The resultant force on the air for
%-
3
TYPICAL HEATING AND

AIR CONDITIONING BLOWER
FORWARD CURVE MULTI-BLADE WHEEL )
FORWARD CURVED BLADE
Figure 13. Forward Curve Multi-Blade Wheel.
4+4
Page 22/HC-07
'
this blade shape is also shown. This type of fan moves large
masses of air at low rpm Ad medium pressure with little
noise. Mostresidential.and small commercial air conditioners
use forWard,curved fans. ,-
Figure'19 is 'a backward inclinecrblade. The blades may
.
be either flat, as shown here, or curved.. ThiSfan operates

at higher-speeds and efficiencies than the'forward curved fan
and is found in many larger instaLlations.
BACKWARD INCLINED BLADE
BACKWARD' piCURED. "-

BLADE TYPE
.
Backward Inclined Blade Wheel.
,--
Either forward or backward blades may have the airfoil

u a4
shape 'hownyn Figure 20. The'airfoil shape of the forward
inclin d blade'llrodUces.a 'tore forward force vector and
an inci-eased pressure forlhigh-pessdre applications at rel-
d-tivelr slow speeds. Air foil blades are more efficient but
are only used on large edipment because of higher mdnufac-
.
turing costs. Large - -backward inclined airfoil fans are the

most eficient, and are wide],y used in larger installations.
..
HC-07/Page 23
4tike I 2°(
smorir.
.10 t,
Figure 20. Air Foil Blade Wheel.
Such a fan is shown in Figure 21., This figure"also lists

the names applied to various parts of the fan.
SCROLL SIDE
SCROLL PIECE I
SIDE SHEET
SIDE PLATE OUTCHLET
DISARGE
a BAIKPLATE
INLET 40- HU DISK
INLET CONE *BLADES HUBPLATE
INLET RING FINS
INLET BELL CUTOFF
INLET FLARE
INLET NOZZLE
VENTURI
*SCROLL
4 IMPELLER CASING
WHEEL HOUSING
ROTOR SCROLL HOUSING
VOLUTE
*RIM - *SUPPORTS
INLET COLLAR SHROUD STIFFENERS
BEARING SUPPORT INLET SLEEVE WHEEL RING
PEDESTAL INLET BAND ,WHEEL CONE
RETAINING RING
INLET RIM
WHEEL RIM
FLANGE
INLET PLATE
*PREFERRED
Figure 21. Common Names associates? with

Centrifugal Fan Components.
Page 2.f/HC-07
2,?
Figure 22 compares the performance characteristics of
the two major fan types. The backward curved fan has. a non-
overloading characteristic curve. This means thit at high
delivery rates, the fan power requirement drops and the motor
cc
W
0 HP
a. HP
tu
i
tu
Y
cc
co
EFF
0
z EFF
c.)
714 14'
ztu SELECTION SELECTION
RANGE RANGE
c.)
u.
u. AIR QUANTITY ( cfm )
tu AIR QUANTITY ( cfm )
a. Backward Curved Fan b. Forward Curved Fan
Figure 22. Fan Types.
driving the fan cannot overload. The forward curved fan power
increases with increasing air quantity. This is considered
to be overloading, because the same motor that operates the
fan when connected to its duct system may be overloaded if
the fan is run while disconnected from the ducts.
. Ideally, fans are operated at the point of highest effi-
ciency and minimum horsepower, but this condition is not al-
ways achieved. The acceptable selection ranges of the two
types is shown in Figure 22. The backward curved fan offers
the highest efficiency, `but has a narrower selection range.
Tolerance between the inlet bell of the backward curved blades
is very critical for high efficiency operation, while the for-
ward curved fan requires no inlet bell. For these reasons,
forward curved fans are more ecomonical for gene'ral purposeP
use and smaller units.
HC-07/Page 2S
1
1
PROPELLER FANS
I
Propeller fans operate at higher speeds than centrifugal
. fans and are much noises. Propeller fans are never used with
1
duct systems, but are often employed in cooling towers and
condensers. Figure 23 is a vaneaxial fan often used as an
exhaust fan. Such fans are simple and relatively inexpensive; I
the higher noise level is usually not objectional in indus-
trial exhaust applications. ,y, 1
INLET CONE OR
GUIDE VANE INLET BELL
BLADE
P WHEEL
ROTOR I
IMPELLER
MOTOR
AIRFLOW OUT 1
HOUSING
CASING NOSE
COVER PLATE
1
HUB SPINNER
Figure 23. Common Names Associated

: with Axial Fans Components.
FAN CLASSIFICATIONS
U
Fans are classified according to the operation limits of

total pressure. Fan classes include:
Class I fans 3 3/4" maximum total pressure.
Class II fans 6 3/4" maximum total pressure.
Classv III fans 12 1/4" maximum total pressure.
Class IV fans greater than 12 1/4" total pressure.
..
Page 26/HC-07
28,9
Most fans in HVAC service are Class I or Class II, but
higher pressure fans are sometimes used in high pressure sys-
tems.
SYSTEM APPLICATIONS
Large air conditioning systems vary 'greatly in both their

central stations and ductwork. Each system is, in fact, de-
signed to meet the needs of the particular structure or space
it serves. The central station of low pressure systems may
be either the blow-through type (in which the fan forces the
air throUgh the water coils and then into the ducts) or the
draw-through type (in which the fan draws the air through the
coils_ and introduces it directly into the duct system). High
pressure systems are almost always of the draw-through type.
The following paragraphs describe several common configura-
tions.
SINGLE ZONE CONSTANT VOLUME
The ductwork of aingle zone constant volume system

(Figure 24) consists of a single duct with branches carrying
air to individual spaces. This system can deliver either
heating or coolirigto the entire zone, but the same tempera-
ture air goes to the entire zone at a constant delivery r te.
ture
Figure 25 shows a similar system with remote duct b at-
ers. This system -delivers constant volume and temperature
duct heaters to
air to all zones, but some zones use electric
supply additional heat if needed.
HC-07/Page 27
290
Figure 24. Single Zone Heating/Cooling
Constant Volume.
4.
,0 DUCT
HEATERS
Figure 25. Single Zone Remote Duct

Heaters Constant Volume.
Page'2S/HC-0y,
.291
-8 ..
4
SINGLE ZONE VARIABLE VOLUME
A single zone variable volume system (Figure '26) consists

.of a single duct run with branches to individual spaces. Each
branch has a variable column control box and from one to four
air diffusers mounted in the ceiling. A temperature-operated
damper in the control box controls the volume of, conditioned
air entering each space. Excess air is exhausted into the
ceiling plenum and returned to the central station.
Figure 26. Single Zone Variable Volume.
MULTIZONE CONSTANT VOLUME
In most large buildings, some outer zones require cool-

ing, while others require heating. Interior zones always re-
quire cooling because of the heat load of machinery and occu-
pants. The multizone constant volume system (Figure 27) is
popular for this application because it can deliver heat to
some zones while cooling others. The central station contains
HC-07/Page 29
.292
e
Figure 27. Multizone Heating/Cooling

Constant Volume.
both heating and cooling coils, and air is divided between

them. Only one coil is i.i operation at a time, since outside
air is used for cooling in winter and heating in summer.
Each zone is served by a separate duct run, and dampers
in the central station direct either heated or cooled air
into the duct according to the needs of thc individual zone.
(Refer to Module HC-02, "System Types," for a detailed diagram
of the central station of a multizone system.)
DUAL DUCT
Figure 28 shows the ducts of a dual duct system. This

system has two supply ducts to each zone. One carries hot
air and the other carries cooled air. The hot and cold air
are mixed in a mixing box at each zone. Such systems have
high velocities and pressures as high as 6 inches of water.
Page 30/HC-07
293
C.
Figure 28. Double-Duct Heating/Cooling

Variable Volume.
Instajlation cost is high, because of the complicated duct

systeM; however, the dual duct system provides the best.com-
- fort-conditioning available.
RETURN AIR SYSTEMS
Many residential and small commercial systems do not

have return air ducts. Return air is drawn directly from the
conditioned space into the central station intake. Larger
systems return air by a duct system that is similar to the
delivery duct system. All return systems are low pressure
ducts. Large systems employ return air fans to move the air
through the return ducts.
HC-07/Page 31
294
SUMMARY
Air-handling equipment in a typical air conditioning

system includes a centrifugal supply air fan that forces
conditioned air to the conditioned space through a system of
ducts. The power required to deliver the- air depends greatly
upon the care taken in reducing the friction of the duct
system. When conditioned air enters the space, it must be
mixed with room air to provide even temperature and adequate
air movement. In all but the smallest systems, room air is
returned to the central station by a system of ducts that may
incorporate a return air fan.
I
ie
Page 32/HC-07
. EXERCISES
1. Draw a diagram showing variations in static pressure,

velocity pressure, and total pressure in a duct system
consisting of.a straight 'piece of duct with an abrupt
reduction in size to a smaller straight duct followed
by a 90° elbow.
2. A 10" x 101' square duct BO'.ong has an air velocity of
600 fpm. Determine the volume flow rate and the fric-
tion loss of the duct.
3. 3000 ft3/min of air must be moved a distance of 250'
with a velocity of 1000 fpm. Determine the size of duct
necessary and the friction loss.
4. Describe the group of air outlets best suited for the
following applications:
a. Heating only.
b. Cooling only.
c. Balanced heating and cocifinf.-
S. Make a chart comparing the characteristics and applica-
tions of forward curved and backward curved fans.
6. Draw diagrams of the main supply ducts and branch ducts
of the folldwingsystem types:
a. Single zone constant volume.
d. Dual duct.
Notebook or clipboard.
Pen or pencil.'
Notes from lab in Modules HC-02, "System Types"; and HC-03,
"Refrigeration Equipment."
'HG -07 /Page 33
296
LABORATORY PROCEDURES .
This laboratory consists of the' last of four field trips

to a large central air conditioning installa.ion.
of this visit is to examine the air-handling equipmen d.
, piping system. At the end of this laboratory, the student

will prepare a detailed schematic of the entire system.
1. Observe the system's air-handling equipment during the
tour. Record -in the'field notebook the'data specified
in the Data Table and any other information available
concerning the system.. Examine any schematics or dia-
grams of the system that are available. (Equipment man-
ufacturer's-catalogs may also be helpful.)
2. Check diagrams of the central air handling equipment
from Module HC-02, "System Types," and make any necessary
.
corrections or additions.
3: Sketch diagrams of the following components of tK air-
handling equipment:
a. Main supply'duct layout.
b. Ducts from main supply to air outlets.
c. Air outlets.
d. Return air duct layout.
4. Check -andrevise the piping diagrams from previous mod- ,
ules: Note all pipe sizes and Valve types, and specif.,
which pipes are insulated and which are not. Include
diagrams of the pipe support structures.
S. after the field trip, consolidate all data'and drawings
from all four trips into one report describing the en-
.
tire system. Correct or redraw diagrams as necessary.

Write a'brief system analysis describing the good and
bad points of the system.
Page 34/HC-07
.er
mi
4
DATA TABLE
DATA TABLE
.......
FAN CHA1.ACTERISTICS:. .*. .
,s,
Delivery
Pruett:if Velocity rata Model nada
Fan in v.c. fpa cfa tiorespower Manufacturer Mueber Type
.
Supply air
..- N
Return air, .
d p
a
.
Exhaust
Ventilation-
.
. .
AIR DUCTS:
,
List the dimension and air velocities of each size

duct in the 'supply air systems.
.
Supply air:
.
..
Return air:
i
\
\
./' a
.....
41C-07/Page 35 .
REFERENCES
Air Conditionihg and Refrigeration -Institute. Refrigeration
and'AirConditioning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
.
Hall, Inc. 19791,

Althouse, Andrew D.; Turnquist, Carl H.; and Bracciano,
Alfred F. Mo.dezlsaL*gIRefrieratiotdAirCon'timthi.
Homewood, The Goodheart-Willcox Co..;-Inc., 1979.
Carrier Air Conditoning Company. ,Handbook 'of Air Conditoning
System 'Design. 'McGraw-H111.Book Co.; 1965.
Howell, Ronald H., vld Sauer, Harry J.o jr. Environmental
Control\Principles. NX: American Society,of Heating,
Refrigetiting, and Air Conditionirig Engineers.
Page 36/HC-07
TEST
1. If a duct with no branches is reduced size, the...

a. total pressure remains the same.
b. static pressure decreases.
c. the velocity pressure increases.
e. Only b and c are true.
2. If a duct of constant size makes a90° bend, the...
a. velocity pressure decreases.
b. static pressure decreases.
c. total presSure decreases.
c. Only b and care true.
3. Which of the,forlowing systems is most likely to, have
the central station?
'a. ,Single zone constant volume.
d. Dual duct.
e! None; such conditions do not exist.
4. If the air velocity in a ddct is doubled, the friction
loss...
a. remains the same.
b. increases slightly.
c. doubles.
d. more than doubles.
Ò.
HC-07/Page 37
300
A
or y andcooling service,
the best air outlet is the...
a. low wall outlet.
b. ceiling outlet.
c. high wall outlet.
d. floor outlet.
.e. Theie is no real difference.
6. The most common duct design method is the...
a. static regain method.
b. velocity reduction method.
c. equal friction method.
d. total pressure method.
e. hit or miss method.
7. Fans with fo7ward curved blades...
a. run at higher velocities than fans with backward
curved blades.
b. are seldom used in small systems.
C. hay.; higher efficiencies than fans with backward
curved blades.
d. are not suitable for high pressure systems even with
airfoil blades.
e. None of the above.,
8. Vaneaxial fans are not used in supply air systems with
ducts because...
a. they are too expensive.
b. they are too noisy.
c. their air pressure is too high.
'd. Only a and U.
e. Only b and, c.
Page 38/HC-07
30 1
i
9. A larp building with offices on the outside and equip -

merit rooms in the interior...
a. will probably have a dual duct system.
b. will probably have multizone system.
c. will require no heat for interior zones.
d. Only a and c are true.
e. Only b and c are true.
10. Which of the branch takeoffs in the following diagram
has the lowest resistance?
a. A /
B. B
c. C
d. D
e. A and B
f. B and D
HC-07/Page 39
302
393
Most heating and air conditioning applications require
that temperature and relative humidity are maintained within
certain limits. Energy must be supplied or withdrawn to
raise or lower temperatute, and additional energy must be
supplied or withdrawn to evaporate or condense water. Cal-
culations relating change in temperature, change in moisture
content of the air, and change in required energy are' made
with the aid of the psychrometric chart. This chart relates
all important quantities used in heating and air
-,
condition-
ing calculations. This module discusses elements of the
psychrometric chart, representation of processes on the
chart, and use of the chart in solving problems in air
conditioning_ design. The laboratory consists of solving
problems using the psychrometric chart.
. PREREQUISITES
The student should have completed Module HC-01, "The

Basic Refrigeration Cycle."
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module, the student should

be able to:
1., Identify the following terms:
a. pry-bulb temperature.
b. Wet-bulb temperature.
C. Specific humidity.
HC-08/Page 1
304
e. Relative humidity.
f. Specific volume.
g. Sensible heat.
h. Latent heat.
i. Enthalpy.
2. Identify the following elements of the psychrometric
chart:
a. Dry-bulb temperature lines7
b. Specific humidity lines.
c. Saturation line.
d. Relative humidity lines.
e. '4et-bulb temperature lines.
f. Enthalpy scale.
g. Sensible heat factor scale. \
3. Identify the following processes on the chart:
a. Heating.
b.,- Cooling.
c. Humidifying.
d. Dehumidifying.
e. Typical comfort heating.
f. Typical comfort air conditioning.
4. Given apy two of the following quantities, calculate
the third:
a. Sensible heat load.
b. Change in temperature.
c. Air flow rate.
S. Given any two of the following quantities, calculate
the third:
.a. Latent heat load.
b. Change in specifichumidity.
c. Air flow rate.
Page 2/HC-OS
305
Given any two of the following quantities, calculate
the third:
a. Total heat load.
b. Change in enthalpy. sa,
c. Air flow rate.

7. Given any two of the follow44 quantities for a sample
of air, determing the othetusing the psychrometric
chart:
a. Dry-bulb temperature.
b. Wet-bulb temperature.
c. Specific humidity.
d. Relative humidity.
e. Enthalpy.
8. Given air flow rate for two conditions of air and
data necessary for locating the two point on the
psychrometric chart representing the initial air con-
ditions, determine the condition of the resulting air
mixture.
9. Given data concerning an air conditioning process,
plot the process on the piychrometric chart and deter-
mine the apparatus dew point.
4.
*SUBJECT MATTER
--------DEFDIZTION OF TERMS
Air is composed of a mixture of dry gases and water

vapor. Air consists of approximately 77% nitrogen and 23%
oxygen,'with other gases making up less than 1%. Water
vapor exists in very small quantities, but is of great im-
portance in heating and air conditioning because of the
energy necessary to condense or evaporate water and the
necessity for humidity control. Psychrometrics is the anal-
ysis of the properties of air in relation to the normal
0 -range of temperature and water content that.are encountered
in heating and air conditioning applications. These prop-
trties are determined by using the psychrometric chart.
The followingterms are used in the chart.
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE
The actual temperature of the air as measured with

an ordinary thermometer.
WET -BULB TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the air as measured with a wet-

bulb thermometer. The evaporation of the water from around
the bulb-roWd-tt:itelitperature-.
HC-08/Page 5
307
4
MOISTURE CONTENT
The weight of the water vaporjn the air expressed

in pounds per pound or grains per pound (7000 grains = 1
pound), also called "specific humidity."
Lc.
DEW-POINT TEMPERATURE
The saturation temperature at which condensation of

water vapor to liquid water takes place. As air is cooled,
its ability to hold water vapor decreases. At the dew-
point, some water begins to condense.
RELATIVE, IUMIDITY
The ratio of actual water vapor.in the air to the maxi-

mum amount that could be present in air of the same tempera-.-
ture, expressed as a percent.
SPECIFIC VOLUME
A
A
The volume*in cubic feet of Pone pound of the mixture
of air and water vapor.
SENSIBLE HEAT '
The amount of dry heat energy in the air expressed

in Btu er pound of air. Sensible heat is reflected by the
Page 6/HC-08
q08
dry2bulb temperature. The sensible heat load of a system
is the,heat energy added or extracted to produce a tempera
turekhange. Sensible heat does not change the water c n-
tent of the air.
LATENT HEAT
The heat energy required to evaporate the amount of

moisture a specific amount of air contain, exriessed in
Btu per pound. The latent heat load of a system is the
heat energy ad4ed or extracted to evaporate or condense
water. Latent heat does not result in a temperature change;
it changes the water content only.
ENTHALPY
The total energy content of the air and water vapor

mixture. Enthalpy is the total of the 'sensible heat and
the 'latent heat. Table '1,, on the following page4 gives
the enthalpy of air as a function of wet-bulb t..iperatuTe.
The total heat load of a system is.the energy necessary
to change the enthalpv of the air by the desired amount.
Enthalpy is the sum of the latent heat load and thesensible
heat load.
HC-08/Page 7
309
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ELEMENTS OF THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
The psychrometric chart is basically a graph of water

content, or the air versus dry-bulb temperature with other
quantities added. This section discusses the components
of the chart. The completed chart is shown in Figure 11.
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE LINES
The horizontal scale of

the chart (Figure. 1) is cali-
brated in degrees Fahrenheit
.(°F) and represents the dry-
bulb temperature. Lines of
constant dry-bulb tempera-
0 20 40 80 80 100 120
ture are vertical.
Figure 1. Dry-Bulb
SPECIFIC HUMIDITY LINES Temperature (°F) Lines.
The vertical scale of 0.030 L8/1-5

0.030
the chart (Figure 2) is can.--
brated in both pounds of mois-
ture per pound of dry air and-
0.015
grains.of moisture per pound
of dry air (Gr/lb)., and repre-
sents the moisture *content, or
specific humidity. Lines of 0.002
constant specific humidity,
are horizontal. FigUre 2. Specific
Humidity Lines.
HC-08/Page 9
311
e
SATURATION LINE
0 At any specific tempera-

0.02842 p
ture, air can contain only
0.01882 so much water vapor. Plotting
0.01582
the maximum specific-volume
versus air temperature results
70 75 85 in the saturation line shown
DRY BULB r Figure 3. Points on this
Figure 3. Saturation 'line are called dew points,
Line. and the relative humidity
at this line is 100%.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY LINES
Figure 4 shows additional

relative humidity lines. They
have the same general shape
as the saturation lines and
are provided at 10% intervals.
75 F.D8
Figure 4. Relative
Humidity Line.
WET:BULA TEMPERATURE LINES
Thewet-bulb temperature lines (Figure 5) slant down-

ward to the right from the sa turation line. The wet-bulb .
temperature scale is located along the saturation line.

Along this line, the wet-bulb And dry-bulb temperatures
Page 10/RC-O3
312
re the some, since 100% rela- 75
5911.W5
tive hUmidity means that no
water will be evaporated from
the wet bulb to lower its
temperature-below that of
50 40 70 76 30
the dry bulb. 1 011
Figure S. Wet-Bulb.
Temperature Lines.
SPECIFIC VOLUME LINES.
Figure 6 shows line,s of

specific volunle calibrated in
cubic feet per pound of air.
These are used in fan and air
flow calculations, but will
not be used in this module.
Figure 6. Specific
0 Volume Lines.
ENTHALPY SCALE
. The enthalpy scale is

located above the saturation
line as shown in Figure 7.
The lines of constant enthalpy
, correspond to lines of constant
wet-bulb temperature. The
-enthalpy of any point oh the
chatt may'be determined by
follgQing the wet-bialb tempera-
ture line from that point *roe
'through the saturation line Figure 7. Enthalpy
Lines.
to the enthalpy scali.
HC-08/Page 11
313
to.
ENTHALPY DEVIATION LINES
The enthalpy of the air

does'not actually vary in
exact proportion to the wet-
bulb telrature. Figure 8
shows ent alpy deviation lines
that. may be used to correct
for the small error introduced
Figure 8. Enthalpy by assuming that the constant
Deviation Lines:
enthalpy lines are parallel
with the wet-bulb temperature lines. The errors are not
usually large, and in most cases these lines are not used.
In fact, many charts do not show these lines at all. En-
thalpy deviation lines will not be used in this module.
SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR SCALE
eq.
04.,
Figure 9 shows a process
Qd v. 40.0 that changes the state of
,.0,0 ° 30.0 (;)
fr,idr
the air from Point A to Point
254p. B. The process requires that
B air be heated and wattr vapor
MOISTURE be added. The horizontal
ADDED
/ displacement represents the
Au 6
SENSIBLE ;
sensible heat added in the
HEATING
form of a temperature increase.
75 95 The vertical displacement
Figure 9. Sensible represents the latent heat
and Latent Heat. necessary to evaporate the
water. The slope of the line
.Page 12/HC-08
314
from A to B is the ratio of latent heat to the sensible
heat. The sensible heat ratio, also called the sensible
to total ratio, Ps defined as the ratio of sensible heat
to enthalpy change (total energy change). In Figure 9,
the sensible heat added is S Btu/lb and the enthalpy change
is 1S Btu/lb. Thus, the sensible heat ratio is 0:33.
Figure 10 shows the sensi-
ble heat ratio scale. It is
used to determine the slope
of a line from a poirit if w
xce
the sensible heat ratio is
i)
known. A line drawn from mo

ro4
.--u. z
.---,..
this scale to the dot located ...--
.. . 0
. .....
at 80°F (DB) and SO% RH
!,establishes the slope. of all SO A
SO% RH
lines with that sensible
heat ratio. Note that the
do't may be locatedzat other
points on other charts. Figure 10. Sensible
Heat Factor Scale.
This is of no consequence,
since the function of this
scale is to establish a direction only.
HC-08/Page 13
315
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PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
All processes in heating and air conditioning may be

plotted on the -Psychrometric chart. Figure 12 shows- the-
prbcesses represented by vertical and horizontal displace-
ment. Movement to the right
indicates a temperature in-
crease, but no change in mois-
ture content. Thus, the
relative humidity drops and HUMIDIFY
the. wet -bulb temperdture de-
COOL ( A >HEAT- 0.011
creases. Movement to the
left indicates cooling, but DEHUMIDIFY
no change in moisture con- 80° F08
tent. In this case, both
the relative humidity and Figure 12. Effects of
1
wet-bulb temperature rise. Moving on the Chart.
Vertical displacement repre-
sents a change in moisture content at a constant temperature.
\Upward movement indicates an increase in moisture and, thus,
an increase in both relative humidity and wet-bulb tempera-
ture. Downward movement indicates a decrease in these
quantities. .
HEATING AND COOLING FOR COMFORT
,Figure 13 shows the process used for comfort control

in winter. If air is merely heated, the relative humidity
dropS, to an uncomfortable level. Thus, additional energy
is required to vaporize water in orde'r to maintain a com-
fortable relative humidity.
HC-08/Page 15
317
Figure 14 shows the proCess used for comfort control in
summer,. If the,air is'merely cooled, the relative humidity
rises to an uncomfortable level. Thus, additional energy
is require&to condense water to maintain a comfortable
relative humidity..
Figure 13. Heating Figure 14. Air Condition-

in Winter. ing in Summer.
CALCULATIONS
The data for psychrometric problems are usually given

in terms of latent and sensible heat loads in Btu/hr, air
flow rate in cubic feet per minute" (cfm), and changes in
temperature and moisture content. The following equatiOns
are often used along with the psychrometric chart to deter-
mine heat loads.
Qs = 1.08 AtT Equation 1
Page 16/HC-08
where:
Qs = Sensible heat load in Btu/hr:
A = Air flow rate in cfm.
AT = Change in dry-bulb temperature.
=0.68 AAW Equation 2
where:
Q2, = Latent heat load in Btu/hr.
AW = Change in specific humidity in Gr/lb.
Qt = 4.5 AAH Equation 3
where:
Qt = Total heat load.
AH =.Change in enthalpy in Btu/lb.
Use of these equations is illustrated in Example A,

"Calculation of Heat Loads."
EXAMPLE A: CALCULATION OF HEAT LOADS.

Given: Air at a temperature (DB) of 60°F with a relative
humidiiybf 401 is heated and humidified to 80°
and a relative humidity of 50%. The air flow
rate is 2000 cfm.
HC-08/Page 17
Exampl3 A. Continued.
Find: a. Sefisible heat,load.
b. Latent heat load.
c. Total heat load.
Solution: From the following psychrometric chart determine
the following quantitiesfor the two Points.
T1 = 60°F T2 't 80°F
W1 = 31 Gr/lb W2 = 77 Gr/lb
H1 = 19.4 Btu/lb H2 = 31,5 Btu/lb
A = 2000 cfm
a. Sensible heat load.
Qs = 1.08 AAT
= (1.08)(2000 cfm)($0°F - 60°F)
= (1.08)(2000 cfm)(20°F)
Qs = 43,200 Btu/hr.
b. Latent heat load.
Qt = 0.68 AtW
= (0.68)(2000 cfm)(77 Gr/lb - 31 Gr/lb)
= (0.68)(2000 cfm)(46 Gr/lb)
Qt = 62,560 Btu/hr.
c. Total heat load.
Qt = 4.5 AAH'
= (4.5) (2000 cfm) (31.5 Btu/lb - 19.4 Btu/lb''
= .(4.5)(2000 cfm) (12.1 Btu/lb)
Qt = 108,900 Btu/hr.
Check:
'Qs = 43,200 Btu/hr + 62,560 Btu/hr
Qs + Qt = 105,760 Btu/hr
Qt = 108,900 Btu/hr.
These values are within the accuracy of the chart.
Page 18/HC-08 32 0
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AIR MIXTURES
Figure 15 shows the result when air df two different

conditions is mixed. The con-
ditions of the mixture (Point
C) must lie on the linecon-
necting the point ,representing'
2 the conditions of the air
mixed (Points A and B). :If
v1/4 the ratio of the mixture is
known, the location of Point
C may be determined by using
Equation 4 to determine the
temperature of the mixture,
Figure 15. Air' or Equation 5 to determine
Mixtures. its moisture content.
= Ti + (A11114.2 A2)(T2.-- Ti) Equation 4
where:
Tm T perature of mixture.
T1 = Temperature of cool air.
,Tz = Tempei.4ture of warm air.
Al = Flow rate of cool air.
A2 = Flow rate\of warm air.
Page 20/HC-08 323

W A2 )(2 ,1 w
W1) Equation 5
where:
1
of air.
W2 31 Specific humidity of warm air.
\\ Example B shows the use of these equations.

\
EXAMPLE B: TEMPERATURE AND SPECIFIC HUMIDITY

OF AIR MIXTURE.
Given: 1000 cfm of air at T = 90°F, W = 120 Gr/lb is

mixed with 500 cfm of air at T = 75°, W = 70
Gr/lb.
Find: a. Temperature of mixture.
b. Specific humidity of mixture.
Solution: A2
)(T2 T1)
a. T
m = T1 + ( Ai + A2
1 00 cfm) (90 °F - 75 °F)
= 75°F = (
=;5°F 4- (0.67) (15 °F)
Tm = 85°F
b. W1)
Wm (A1A+ A2) (W2
m 70 Gr /.lb + (0.67)(120 Gr/lb - 70 Gr/lb)

= 70 Gr/lb + (0.67)(50 Gr/lb)
= 103.5 Gr/lb
m
7 Either of these values may be used to pldt the
point'representing the mixture, as shown on the
following graph.
V
HC-08/Page 21
324
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PLOTTING A PROCESS ON THE' PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Processes are examined using the psychrometric chart by

plotting the initial and fihal conditions of the air .nd read-
.
ing values from the chart. Many types of problems may be

__solved using the chart. One of the. most useful applidations
of the chart is to determine correct'operating,temperature
of the fan coil of an air conditioner. Thisis accomplished
by the following method:
1. Plot the point repiesenting the condition of the out-:
side air.
2. Plot the point representing the condition of the return
air. This is the same as the conditibn in the cooled
space.
3. Connect these two points with a iine. The condition
of air entering the coil lies on this line.
4. Locate the point - representing the condition of the
air entering the coil using Equation 4 or S. Plot
this 'point.
S.. Determine the sensible heat factor and draw a line
from this valde on the scale to the.dot.
4
6. Draw a line parallel to Line S, extending from Point
to the saturation line.
7. Locate the point where this line meets the saturation
line. This is the apparatus dew point (ADP), the cor-
rect temperature for the fan coil.
8. The condition of the air leaving the coil is located
Equation 1
on Line 6. Determine this point by using
and the sensible heat load or Equation 2 and the latent
heat load. Plot the` point.
All other values'
This completes the charting of the process.
illustrated in'Example C.
may be read from the chart,- This is
HC -08 /Page 13
34
4
EXAMPLE C: AN AIR CONDITIONING PROCESS.
. \
Given: The following data for an air conditioning system:

Outside air: DB = 100°FL.
4.,....
WB = 78°F
Room air: DB = 75°F
RH = 50%
Air supply: Vent ion = 300 cfm
Return = 2200 cfm
Supply (total) = 2500 cfm
Building load: Sensible: Qs = 36,900,Btu/hr
Latent: QL = 6000 Btu/hr
Find: Apparatus dew point (ADP).
Temperature (DB) of air entering coil.
Temperature (DB) of air leaving coil.
Moisture content of air entering coil.
Moisture content of air leaving coil.
Enthalpy of air entering coil.
Enthalpy of air leaving coil.
Check solution .by calculating total heat Load by
two methods:
a. Using change in enthalpy.
b. Using change in temperature and-moisture
content.
Solution: Two psychrometric chartS are presented in the solu-
tion to this problem. The first illustrates the
drawing of the process; the second illustrates
the reading of data from the completed chart..
3 Mathematical calculations of some quantites are
included as checks and for illustrative purposes
within the solution. These are. not essential
to solving the problem using the psychrometric
.
chart-7---but-Ilievare- --advis-a-b-le--t-oirrsure- -accuracy
AN.
Page- 24/HC-08 5
C
Example C. jContinued.
for
Note that heat load specifications are
the building only and do not include the condition-
ing of outside ventilation air. Ths,outside air
heat load and the totals will be determined in
the solution.
a. Plot the condition of the outside air (Point 1

. on the psychrometric chart.
b. Plot the condition of the room air (Point 2).
c. Determine change in water content of outside
air from chart.
AW = 109 Gr/lb - 65 Gr/lb
AW = 44 Gr/lb.
- toad of outside
= (0.68) AAW
= (0.68)(300 cfm)(44 Gr/lb)
QL = 8976 Btu/hr 9000 Btu/hr.
e. Determine sensible heat load of outside air:

Qs = (1.08) AAT
=.(1.08)(300 cfm) (100 °F - 25°F)
= (1.08) (3b0 cfm) (25 °F)
Qs = 8100 Btu/hr.
f. Calculate total heat loads:
Building Outside air Total

Sensible 36,900 8,100 45,000 Btu/hr
Latent 6,000 9,000 15,000 Btu/hr
Total 42,900 17,100 ,60,000 Btu/hr
g Calculate sensible heattfactor:

45,000 )3tu/Vir
Qs/QT 60,000 Btu/ttv,'
/Q T = 0,75 .
HC-08/Page 25
329
Example C. Continued.
h. Determine temperature of air entering coil:

Ao
TE = TR + (.2--)(T TR)
RT °
75 °F
(g0 .
0011m)( 100°F - 75°F)
= 75°F + (0.12)(25 F°)

= 75°F +13 F°)
TE = 78°F.
i. Determine temperature of air leaving coil:
AT = Qs (total)
(1.08)(ATO)
= 451000 Btu
(1.08) (2500 cfm)
AT = 16.7 F°
E
= 72°F - 16.7 F°
T = 61.3°F.
L
Note that a change in dry-bulb temperature of more
than 20°F is unsuitable for comfort conditioning.
If AT > 20 F°, increase air flow rate.
At this point, all necessary data for the completion

of the psychrometric chart have been determined.
j. Connect Points1 and 2 with Line 3. The

condition of the air entering the coil lies
on this line.
k. Locate Point 4 where entering air temperature
line crosses Line 3. This is the condition
of the entering air. For mathematical veri-
fication, calculate water content of enter-
ing air as follows:
Page 26/HC-08
II
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QL (outside air) (from Equation 2)

AW =
(0.68) AT
9000 Btu/hr
(0.68)(2500 cfm)
AW = 5.3 'Gt/lb
When outside air is mixed with return

air, water content of the mixture is
5.3 Gr/lb greater than room air. The
water content of air entering the coil
is shown as follows:
W-= 65 Gr/lb + 5.3 Gr/lb

W = 70.3 Gr/lb.
This agrees with the value on the second
chart.
1. Draw Line 5 from the sensible heat factor
to the dot at 80°F, 50% RH.
m. Draw Line 6 parallel to Line 5 from Point 4
,to the saturation line. The condition of
air leaving the coil lies on this line.,
n. Locate the apparatus dew point at Point 7
on the saturation line. Note that an ADP
cf less than freezing will result in icing
of the coil. If ADP < 32°F, increase air
flow rate.
o. Locate Point 8 where the dry-bulb temperature
of the air leaving the coil crosses Line 6.
This is the condition of the air leaving
the coil.
For mathematical verification, calculate
water content of leaving air as follows:
Page 28/HC-08
333
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;
total)
AW = 94 1T )
15000 Btu/lb
(0.68) (2500 cfm)
AW = 8.8 Gr/lb.
The water content of the air leaving the coil

is 8..8 Gr/lb less than that entering the
W = 70.3 Gr/lb -8.8 Gr/lb

W = 61.5 Gr/lb.
This agrees with the value on the second

chart.
13 Read specified values from the chart:
Apparatus dew point: ADP = 51.5°F
Temperature -_,TE _ = 78°F
Temperature of air leaving coil: TL = 61.3°F

Moisture content of air entering coil:
WE = 70.3 Gr/lb
Moisture content of air leaving coil:
W = 61.5 Gr/lb
L
Enthalpy of air entering coil: HE = 29.7 Btu/lb
Enthalpy of air leaving coil: HL = 24.3 Btu/lb
Relative humidity and wet-bulb temperatures
could also be deterinined from each point.
Check
a. QT = (4:5)(AT)(AH)
= (4.5) (2500 cfm) (29.7 Btu/lb - 24.3 Btu/lb)
= (4.5) (2500 cfm) (5.4 Btu/lb)
60,750 Btu/hr.
Page 30/HC-08
336
This agrees closely with the specified
total heat load.
b. Qs v. (1.08) (A) (ST)
= (1.08)(2500 cfm)(16.7 F°)
Qs = 45,090 Btu/hr.
QL = (0.68)(A)(AW)
= C0168)(2500 cfm)(8.8 Gr/lb)
QL = 14,960 Btu/hr.
QT Qs QL
= 45,090 Btu/hr + 14,960 Btu/hr
QT = 60,050 Btu/hr.
These values agree with specified values.
SUMMARY
The psychrometric chart contains information including

dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, specific humid-
ity, relative humidity, and enthalpy of air. If any two
of these quantities are known,'*he other can be read oft:
the chart. Processes are represented by lines connecting
the points representing the initial and final conditions
of the air. The sensible heat, latent heat, and sensible
heat factors are also included on the chart. One of the
most important uses of the chart is .to detomini the appara-
tus dew point for an air conditioner fan coil.
HC-08/Page 31
33
.
EXERCISES,
Students are reqUiredto furnish psychrometric charts.

1. Draw simple diagrams showing the following processes
on the psychrometTic chart:
a.. Comfort heating.
b. Comfort air conditioning.
Complete the following table using the psychrometric
chart.
Wet-Bulb Specific Relative Cnthalpy

Dry-Bulb
Temperature Humidity Humidity
Point Temperature Btu/lb
.F °F t t
1 70 57
70 35
2
30 40
3
4 95 120
26
5 85
3. A heating application requires an air flow rate of

3000 cfm and a temperature rise of 18 F °. Determine
\the sensible heat ,load.
4.- An air conditioner has an air flow rate of 5000 cfm
and a latent heat load of 30,000 Btu/hr. Determine
the' change in speCifiC'humidity of the air.
5. Anipir conditioner has a total heat load of S0,000
Deter-
Btu/hr: The change in enthalpy is 3.0 Btu/lb.
mine the air flow rate.
'6. The following two air streams are mixed. Determine
the temperature andrelitive humidity of the result.
a. 2000 cfm at a dry-bulb temperature of 52°F and
'speelfic humidity of 30 Gr/lb.
HC-08/Page 33
b. 1500 cfm at a wet-bulb temperature of 70°F and
relative humidity of SW
7. Given the following data for an air conditioning system,
determine the apparatus dew point.
Outside air temperature: DB . 95°F
WB = 74°F
Room condition: DB = 76°F'
RH = SO%
Ventilation air: 1000 cfm
Return-air:
Sensible heat load (total): 42,000 Btu/hr
Latent heat load (total):' 18,000 Btu /hr
8. Determine the condition of the air leaving the ,coil
in the system above.
Blank psychrometric charts.
Pencil.
Straight edge.
Calculator.
For the following problems, use the data and laboratory

as*
materials provided to complete the Data Table.
PROBLEM 1:
Outside air conditions: DB = 98°F
WB = 76°F
A.
Page 54 /HC -08
330
Room conditions: DB = 75 °F
.RH.. 50%
Building sensible load: .Qs = 52,000 Btu/hr
Building latent load: QL = 9000 Btu/hr
Ventilation: Av 1000 cfm
Return air: A R = 4000.cfm
. PROBLEM 2:
Outside air conditions: DB = 100°F
. WB = 80°F
Room conditions: DB = 40%
RH 40%
Building latent load: QL 22,000 Btu/hr
.Building sensible load: Qs = 52,000 Btu/hr
Ventilation: Av 500 cfm
Return air: A R = 2000 cfm
PROBLEM 3:
Identify the system above that is unacceptable for
comfort control. Recommend a change in system uesign
to overcome this difficulty and solve the problem
again.
'HC -08 /Page 35
340
DATA TABLE
, DATA TABLE.
PROBLEM 1: a
;-,
Temperature of air entering coil .

Temperature of*air leaving coil = ,
Specific humidity of air entering coil =

Specific humidity of air leaying coil =
Enthalpy of air entering coil =
Enthalpy of air leaving coil =
Apparatus dew point =
Is this as acceptable system for confort air con-

:
ditioning? Explain._
.4
Page 36/HC-OS
341
a '- 4
o
Data Table: Continued.
PROBLEM
Temperature of air entering coil =

Temperature of air leaving coil =
Specific humidity of air leaving coil =
Enthalpy of air entering coil =
Enthalpy of air leaving coil
Apparatus dew point, =
Is this an acceptable system for Comforvair con-

ditioning? Explain.
_7"
HC-08/Page 37
342
C
PROBLEM 3:
Temperature of air entering coil =

_Temperature_cif air_leaving coil =
Specific humidity of air leaving coil =
Enthalpy of air entering coil =.
Enthalpy of air leaving coil =
Apparatus dew point =
Is this,an acceptable system for comfort air con-

ditioning? Explain.
Page 38/HC-08
343
6
REFERENCES

and Air Conditioning: Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hail, Inc., 1979. a.
Althouse, Andrew D.'; Turnquist, Carl H.; and Bracciano,

Alfred F. Modern Refrigeration and-Air-Conditioning.
Homewood, IL: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc.,
1979.
Honeywell Corporation. The Psychrometric Chart. 1977.
HC-08/Page 39
314
-N.
TEST
psychrometric
Most test questions require the use of
charts.
If the dry-bulb temperature 82°F and the wet-bulb
1.
temperature is 62°F, the specific humidity is ...
a. SS Gr/Ib.
b. 0.0073 lb/lb.
c. 27.8 Btu/lb.
d. 31%. .
2. 1000 cfm of air at 'a dry-bulb temperature of 100°F

3000-
and a wet-bulb temperature of 75°F is mixed with
cfm of air with a dry-bulb temperature of 7.6 °F and
a relatille humidity of 50%. What is the temperature

(DB) of the mixture?
87.5°F. `
b. 84°F.
y. 94°F.
d. 82°F.
in Problem
3. What is the specific humidity of the mixture
-2.-?
a. 79 Gr/lb.
b. 75 Gr/lb.
c. 85 Gr/lb.
A. 73 Gr/lb.
and 40%
\ 4. A heating system has input air of 60°F (DB)
relative humidity. It supplies 2.8 Btu/lb, but adds
no water vapor. What is the final temperature of the
air?
a. 62.8°F.
b.. 82°F.
c. 46°F.
d. 72°F.
HC-08/Page 41
ti
5. 1000 cfm of air at a temperature (DB) of 50°F with
a relative humidity of 40% is heated and humidified
to 76°F and a relative humidity of 40%. The latent
heat load is ...
a. 21,760 Btu /hr.
b. 28,080 Btu/hr.
c. 49-0140 BtU/hr.--
d. Zero.
6. The total heat load is 30,000 Btu /hr and the charge
in entropy is 5 Btu/lb. The air flow rate is ..;
a. 6000 cfm.
b. 1333 cfM.
c. 8824 cfm.
d. ,5555 cfm.
7. The air entering an air-conditioner coil has a dry-
bulb-temperature of 78°F and a moisture content of
70 Gr/lb. The sensible heat load is 80,000 Btu/hr
and the latent heat load is 20,000 Btu/hr. The appara-
tus dew point is ...
a. 51°F.
b. 3°F;
c. 55°F.
d. 57°F.
8. The airflow cite in problem 7 is 4500 cfm. The spe-
cific humidity of the air leaving the coil is ...
a. 63.5 Gr/lb.
b. 61.5 Gr/lb.
c. 65.6 Gr/lb.
d. 68.5 Gr/lb.
Page 42/HC-08
316.
9. An air conditioning system has the following specifica-
tions ...
Outside air: DB = 100°F
WB = 78°F
Room air: DB = 75°F
RH - SO%
Air supply: Ventilation = 500 cfm
Return air = 2000" cfm
Building lodd: Sensible: Qs = 40,000 Btli/hr
Latent: 5,000 Btu/hr.
QL,=
The sensible heat factor is ...
a. 0.88.
b. 0.65.
c. 0.76.
-d. 0.72.
10. The Apparatus dew point inproblem 9 is
a. 51°F.
b. *- 53 °F.
c. 55°F.
d. 49 °F.
11. The temperature of the air leaving the coil in problem

9 is ...
a. 60°F.
b. 62°F.
c. 64°F.
d. 66°F.
HC -08 /Page 43
317

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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 210 513 CE C30 785

TITUE Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning. Energy

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available frou EDES.

CENTER FOR OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

601 LAKE AIR. DRIVE

WACO, TEXAS 767.10

ABOUT ENERGY TECHNOLOGY MODULES

representatives from industry,

A module contains the following elements:,

the student learn how to collect and organize data.

Test, which measures the student's achievement of prestated objectives.

MODULE HC-01 Basic Refrigeration Cycle

MODULE HC-02 System Types

MODULE HC-03 Refrigeration Equipment

MODULE HC-04 Residential Heating Equipment

MODULE HC-OS Boilers For Heating Applications

MODULE HC -06 Piping

MODULEAC-07 Air-Handling Equipment

energy is not,discussed in this course, but students should

The Aeating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning' course

for this module includes the first of four field trips to

of a second field trip, during which the refrigeration com-

and maintenance procedures. The laboratory consists of

registgcs, and duct configurations of various system typei.

BASIC REFRIGERATION CYCLE

C Center for Occupational Research and Development, 1981

This work was developed under a contract with the Department of

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyrights

CENTER FOR OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Heat energy always travels from a high temperatui.e re-

The studeAt should have cpmpieted Unified Technical

Upon cdmpletion of this module the student. should be

a. Subcooled liquid zone. e.

f. Constant preisure line.

.Heat rejection in condenser.

* Figure 1 illustrates the basic principles of all refrig-

Figure 1. Principles of Refrigeration.

Heat energy always moves from a region of high tempera-

BASIC REFRIGERATION COMPONENTS

Figute 2 shows the four basic components of a mechanical

Figure 2. Basic Refrigeration Components.

The compressor'is a mechanical device that applies

The condenser rejects heat into the hot region. The

temperature. The condenser operates at-the high,side pres

Hot liquid refrigerant from the condenser flows through

The evaporator absorbs heat energy from the cold region.

BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Figure 3 shows a basic refrigeration system with all

the compressor. The temperature given for each component

The operating characteristies of any refrigeration

'The enthalpy of the

heated vapor zone. Superheated vapor has sufficient energy

Each point on the pressure-enthalpy diagram corresponds

The vertical scale is absolute pressure in pounds per

The horizontal scale is enthalpy (internal energy) in

enthalpy scale is linear, and

Lines ef constant tem-

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