Nota HMEF5033 Comparative Education

Faculty of Education and Languages
HMEF5033
Comparative Education
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HMEF5033
COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION
Prof Dr Kuldip Kaur

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Prof Dr Kuldip Kaur

Moderator: Prof Dr John Arul Phillips

Asia e-University
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, May 2007

Second Edition, April 2013 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2013, HMEF5033

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide vii–xv
Course Assignment Guide xix–xxi
Topic 1: An Introduction to Comparative Education 1

1.1 Introduction to Comparative Education 2
1.2 Proponents of Comparative Education 6
1.3 Defining Comparative Education 13
Summary 16
Key Terms 17
References 18
Topic 2: The Purpose of Comparative Education 20

2.1 The Purpose of Comparative Education 20
2.2 A Brief Review of Literature 24
2.3 Planning 28
2.4 Improvement and Innovation 31
2.5 International Understanding 36
Summary 38
Key Terms 39
References 39
Topic 3: The Scope of Comparative Education 41

3.1 Key Concepts in Education 42
3.2 Education Philosophy 45
3.3 Education Planning 47
3.4 Education Policy 50
3.5 Goals and Objectives 53
3.6 Education Structure 57
3.7 A Case Study 62
Summary 64
Key Terms 65
References 65

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 4: Education Structure in Japan 66

4.1 Contemporary Japan 67
4.2 History of Education in Japan 68
4.3 Structure of Education 70
4.4 Issues Related to Japanese Education Structure 86
Summary 88
Key Terms 89
References 90
Topic 5: Higher Education Policy in Sweden 91

5.1 Higher Education Policy 92
5.2 History of Education in Sweden2 102
5.3 Higher Education Policy in Sweden 104
Summary 110
Key Terms 111
References 112
Topic 6: Educational Planning in South Africa 113

6.1 Examining Education Planning 114
6.2 History of Education in South Africa 120
6.3 Educational Planning in the Rainbow Nation 125
Summary 132
Key Terms 133
References 133
Topic 7: Goals of the Primary School Curriculum 135

7.1 Curricular Goals 136
7.2 Curricular Control 137
7.3 Formulation of the Curriculum 139
7.4 Curricula Content 142
Summary 158
Key Terms 159
References 160
Appendices 161
Appendix 1 163
Appendix 2 169
Appendix 3 177
Appendix 4 182

EOWTUG"IWKFE

vi COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE vii
WELCOME TO HMEF5033
Welcome to HMEF5033 Comparative Education. This is one of the required
courses for the Master of Education (MEd) programme at Open University
Malaysia. The course serves as an introductory guide to the field of comparative
education. You are encouraged to tap into your experiences as a teacher,
instructor, lecturer or trainer to relate to the concepts and principles that will be
discussed. This is a 3-credit course conducted over a semester of 14 weeks.
WHAT WILL YOU GET FROM DOING THIS

COURSE?
Description of the Course
This is an introductory course in comparative education and assumes little or no
prior knowledge of the subject. However, the course will require you to read and
analyse comparative studies in education at an international level. By definition,
comparative education takes an international view of education by comparing
and examining similarities and differences in educational practice in different
countries. Generally, comparative studies of education are focused on the
comparison of educational practices in two or more countries. The course will
take an issues approach to the field by examining how different countries deal
with problems or issues of importance and by determining the merits of the
solutions used to address them. The first part of the course introduces you to key
concepts in the field so that you will have a frame of reference for the readings
that are introduced. In the second half of the course, you will explore issues of
educational importance by examining and analysing educational practices in a
number of countries.
All the concepts, principles and theories of learning are examined in relation to
their application in the classroom. Students are encouraged to discuss the
implications of the various theories on teaching and learning at all levels of
education. The final part of the course deals with finding ways of translating the
theories discussed into teaching methods that will enhance learning.
Aim of the Course

The main aim of the course is to provide you with a foundation on the principles
and theories of learning and their application in the classroom.

viii COURSE GUIDE
Objectives of the Course

The course aims to develop an understanding of the following areas:
1." To learn about the definitions, goals and scope of comparative education as
practiced in the field today, as well as to value the contributions of various
scholars by gaining a historical perspective of the field.
2." To provide a means for analysing the various methodological, theoretical and
topical areas that are interest to comparative education scholars.
3." To examine the relationship between education and economic, social and
historical factors in order to understand the cultural totality of educational
practice.
4." To develop an understanding of how issues in education may be studied, and

to study such issues in order to determine causes, solutions proposed and
related outcomes in order that one may be in a better position for judgement
of oneÊs own education system.
5." To develop an informed understanding of the role of comparative education

in the professional life of educationists for the purpose of planning, policy
development, status improvement, innovation and international understanding.
HOW CAN YOU GET THE MOST FROM THIS

COURSE?
Learning Package
In this Learning Package, you are provided with THREE kinds of course
materials:
1." The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;
2." The Course Assignment Guide (which describes the assignments to be

submitted and the examination you have to sit for); and
3." The Course Content (seven topics and a set of readings).
Please ensure that you have all of these materials at the start of the course.

COURSE GUIDE ix
Course Topics
Topic 1: An Introduction to Comparative Education
This topic examines the development of comparative education as a field, and
describes the contributions of various scholars. It also gives you an overview of
early and more recent definitions of comparative education.
Topic 2: The Purpose of Comparative Education

The second topic in this volume provides an overview of the purpose of
comparative education, and outlines the scope of the field. It also describes in
detail the three goals of planning, improvement and innovation as well as
international understanding.
Topic 3: The Scope of Comparative Education

In this topic, you will get to know and apply the various terms and concepts that
are common to the field and are used when making comparisons between
countries or selected features of education.
Topic 4: Education Structure in Japan

This topic examines how education is structured, as seen in the number of years
of schooling in primary and secondary schools as well as entry into institutions
of higher education.
Topic 5: Higher Education Policy in Sweden

This topic describes the main elements that influence higher education policy in a
country. It also examines the many socio-cultural elements that shape a countryÊs
decisions about higher education.
Topic 6: Education Planning in South Africa

In this topic, we take a look at the many historical, demographic and socio-
economic factors that influence education planning in post-conflict areas. We will
also study how countries have taken steps toward improving the economic and
social status of marginalised groups of people.
Topic 7: Goals of the Primary School Curriculum

This topic takes a closer look at the way in which basic education or the primary
school curriculum is structured in countries around the world. It also describes
the many elements that influence curricular goals, and how countries exercise
control over and articulate curricular content.

x COURSE GUIDE
Selected Readings
As in all graduate courses, you will be required to read widely to enhance your
knowledge of the field. A selection of readings has been added to this volume to
help you begin this process. Bear in mind that you would have to read other
articles and country reports in order to gain a deeper understanding of the field.
Organisation of Course Content

In distance learning, a print module such as this replaces the university lecturer.
This is one of the main advantages of distance learning where specially designed
study allows you to study at your own pace, anywhere and at anytime. Think of
it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a
lecturer might assign something for you to read or do, the module tells you what
to read, when to read and when to do the activities. Just as a lecturer might ask
you questions in class, your module provides exercises for you to do at
appropriate points.
To help you read and understand the individual topics, numerous realistic
examples support all definitions, concepts and theories. Diagrams and text are
combined into a visually appealing, easy-to-read module. Throughout the course
contents, diagrams, illustrations, tables and charts are used to reinforce
important points and simplify the more complex concepts. The module has
adopted the following features in each topic:
" INTRODUCTION
Lists the headings and subheadings of each topic to provide an overview of the
contents of the topic and prepare you for the major concepts to be studied and
learned.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
This is a listing of what you should be able to do after successful

completion of a topic. In other words, whether you are be able to explain,
compare, evaluate, distinguish, list, describe, relate and so forth. You
should use these indicators to guide your study. When you have finished
a topic, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the
learning outcomes or be able to do what is required of you. If you make a
habit of doing this, you will improve your chances of understanding the
contents of the course.

COURSE GUIDE xi
SELF-CHECK
Questions are interspersed at strategic points in the topic to encourage

review of what you have just read and retention of recently learned
material. The answers to these questions are found in the paragraphs
before the questions. This is to test immediately whether you
understand the few paragraphs of text you have read. Working through
these tests will help you determine whether you understand the topic
and prepare you for the assignments and the examination.
ACTIVITY
These are situations drawn from research projects to show how

knowledge of the principles of research methodology may be applied to
real-world situations. The activities illustrate key points and concepts
dealt with in each topic.
The main ideas of each topic are listed in brief sentences to provide a
review of the content. You should ensure that you understand every
statement listed. If you do not, go back to the topic and find out what you
do not know.
Key Terms discussed in the topic are placed at end of each topic to make you
aware of the main ideas. If you are unable to explain these terms, you should go
back to the topic to clarify.

xii COURSE GUIDE
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
At the end of each topic a list of questions is presented that are best solved
through group interaction and discussion. You can answer the questions
yourself. But, you are encouraged to work with your course-mates and discuss
online and during the seminar sessions.
At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of books is provided that is
directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as possible the articles and
books suggested for further reading will be available in OUMÊs Digital Library
which you can access and OUMÊs Library. Also, relevant internet resources are
made available to enhance your understanding of selected curriculum concepts
and principles as applied in real-world situations.
WHAT SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN STUDYING

THIS COURSE?
Seminars
There are 15 hours of seminars or face-to-face interaction supporting the course.
These consist of FIVE tutorial sessions of three hours each. You will be notified of
the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone
number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.
myVLE Online Discussion

Besides the face-to-face tutorial sessions, you have the support of online
discussions. You should interact with other students and your tutor using
myVLE. Your contributions to the online discussion will greatly enhance your
understanding of course content, how to go about doing the assignments and
preparation for the examination.

COURSE GUIDE xiii
Facilitator
Your facilitator will mark your assignments and provide assistance to you during
the course. Do not hesitate to discuss during the tutorial session or online if:
" You do not understand any part of the course content or the assigned
readings
" You have difficulty with the self-tests and activities
" You have a question or problem with the assignments.
HOW SHOULD YOU STUDY FOR THIS COURSE?

1." Time Commitment for Studying
You should plan to spend about six to eight hours per topic, reading the
notes, doing the self-tests and activities and referring to the suggested
readings. You must schedule your time to discuss online. It is often more
convenient for you to distribute the hours over a number of days rather than
spend one whole day per week on study. Some topics may require more
work than others, although on average, it is suggested that you spend
approximately three days per topic.
2." Proposed Study Strategy

The following is a proposed strategy for working through the course. If you
run into any trouble, discuss it with your tutor either online or during the
tutorial sessions. Remember, the tutor is there to help you.
(a)" The most important step is to read the contents of this Course Guide
thoroughly.
(b)" Organise a study schedule. Note the time you are expected to spend on
each topic the date for submission of assignments as well as seminar
and examination dates. These are stated in your Course Assessment
Guide. Put all this information in one place, such as your diary or a wall
calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on
and jot down your own dates for working on each topic. You have some
flexibility as there are 10 topics spread over a period of 14 weeks.

xiv COURSE GUIDE
(c)" Once you have created your own study schedule, make every effort to
„stick to it‰. The main reason students are unable to cope is that they
get behind in their coursework.
(d)" To begin reading a topic:

" Remember in distance learning much of your time will be spent,
READING the course content. Study the list of topics given at the
beginning of each topic and examine the relationship of the topic to
the other nine topics.
" Read the topic overview showing the headings and subheadings to
get a broad picture of the topic.
" Read the topic learning outcomes (what is expected of you). Do you
already know some of the things to be discussed? What are the
things you do not know?
" Read the introduction (see how it is related to the previous topic).
" Work through the topic. (The contents of the topic has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow)
" As you work through the topic, you will be asked to do the self-test
at appropriate points in the topic. This is to find out if you
understand what you have just read.
" Do the activities (to see if you can apply the concepts learned to
real-life situations)
3. When you have completed the topic, review the learning outcomes to
confirm that you have achieved them and are able to do what is required.
4. If you are confident, you can proceed to the next topic. Proceed topic by topic
through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on
schedule.
5. After completing all topics, review the course and prepare yourself for
the final examination. Check that you have achieved all topic learning
outcomes and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).

COURSE GUIDE xv
FINAL REMARKS
Once again, welcome to the course. To maximise your gain from this course you
should try at all times relate what you are studying with the real-world of
classrooms, schools and learners. Look at the environment in your institution
and ask yourself whether they provide opportunities for research. Most of
the ideas, concepts and principles you learn in this course have practical
applications. It is important to realise that much of what we do in education and
training has to be based on sound theoretical foundations. The contents of this
course provide the principles for doing research in education whether it is in a
school, college, university or training organisation.
We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it interesting,
useful and relevant towards your development as a professional.

xvi COURSE GUIDE

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x  COURSE GUIDE

COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE xix
INTRODUCTION
The Assignment Guide provides an outline on how you will be assessed in
this course during the semester. It contains details of the Facilitator-marked
assignments, final examination and participation required for the course.
One element in the assessment strategy of the course is that all students and
facilitators should have the same information about the answers to be assessed.
Therefore, this guide also contains the marking criteria that facilitators will use in
assessing your work.
Please read through the whole guide at the beginning of the course.
ACADEMIC WRITING
(a) Plagiarism
(i) What is Plagiarism?

Any written assignment (essays, project, take-home examinations, etc)
submitted by a student must not be deceptive regarding the abilities,
knowledge or amount of work contributed by the student. There are
many ways that this rule can be violated. Among them are:
Paraphrases: A closely reasoned argument of an author is paraphrased but

the student does not acknowledge doing so. (Clearly, all our
knowledge is derived from somewhere, but detailed arguments
from clearly identifiable sources must be acknowledged.)
Outright Large sections of the paper are simply copied from other sources
plagiarism: and the copied parts are not acknowledged as quotations.
Other These often include essays written by other students or sold
sources: by unscrupulous organisations. Quoting from such papers is
perfectly legitimate if quotation marks are used and the source
is cited.
Works by Taking credit deliberately or not deliberately for works
others: produced by others without giving proper acknowledgement.
These works include photographs, charts, graphs, drawings,
statistics, video clips, audio clips, verbal exchanges, such as
interviews or lectures, performances on television and texts
printed on the Web.
Duplication The student submits the same essay for two or more courses.

xx COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
(ii) How Can I Avoid Plagiarism?
" Insert quotation marks around „copy and paste‰ clause, phrase,
sentence, paragraph and cite the original source.
" Paraphrase clause, phrase, sentence or paragraph in your own

words and cite your source
" Adhere to the APA (American Psychological Association) stylistic

format, whichever applicable, when citing a source and when
writing out the bibliography or reference page
" Attempt to write independently without being overly dependent

on information from anotherÊs original works
" Educate yourself on what may be considered as common

knowledge (no copyright necessary), public domain (copyright
has expired or not protected under copyright law), or copyright
(legally protected).
(b) Documenting Sources

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, summarise or otherwise refer to the work
of others, you are required to cite its original source documentation.
Offered here are some of the most commonly cited forms of material.
" Direct Citation Simply having a thinking skill is no assurance that

children will use it. In order for such skills to
become part of day-to-day behaviour, they must be
cultivated in an environment that values and
sustains them. „Just as childrenÊs musical skills
will likely lay fallow in an environment that
doesnÊt encourage music, learnerÊs thinking
skills tend to languish in a culture that doesnÊt
encourage thinking‰ (Tishman, Perkins and Jay,
1995, p. 5)
" Indirect Citation According to Wurman (1988), the new disease of

the 21st century will be information anxiety, which
has been defined as the ever-widening gap
between what one understands and what one
thinks one should understand.

COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE xxi
(c) Referencing
All sources that you cite in your paper should be listed in the Reference
section at the end of your paper. HereÊs how you should do your Reference.
Journal Article DuFour, R. (2002). The learning-centred principal.

Educational Leadership, 59(8). 12–15.
Online Journal Evnine, S. J. (2001). The universality of logic: On the
connection between rationality and logical ability
[Electronic version]. Mind, 110, 335–367.
Webpage National Park Service. (2003, February 11). Abraham
Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site. Retrieved
February 13, 2003, from http://www.nps.gov/abli/
Book Naisbitt, J., & Aburdence, M. (1989). Megatrends 2000.
London: Pan Books.
Article in a Nickerson, R. (1987). Why teach thinking? In J. B. Baron,
Book & R. J. Sternberg (Eds). Teaching thinking skills:
Theory and practice. New York: W. H. Freeman and
Company. 27–37.
Printed Holden, S. (1998, May 16). Frank Sinatra dies at 82:
Newspaper Matchless stylist of pop. The New York Times,
pp. A1, A22–A23.
ASSESSMENT
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24 7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xxii COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

Topic An Introduction
1 to Comparative
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Review historical developments in the field of comparative education;

2. Differentiate between basic and advanced levels of comparison and
analysis;
3. Examine the contributions of various scholars in the field of
comparative education; and
4. Derive a practical definition of comparative education based on a
review of related literature.
INTRODUCTION
What is comparative education? How do comparative studies in education at an
international level help scholars and educators advance their knowledge of
education within their own country or region? This volume on comparative
education will address questions such as these whilst providing a means for
exploring issues of educational importance.
In this topic, we first discuss past and recent developments in the field with a
view to understand the scope of comparative studies in education. Next, we take
a historical approach to the field by examining the contributions of a number of
scholars in the field. Finally, we discuss various definitions that have been
forwarded by scholars so that you can gain an understanding of the field, and
thereby derive a definition that is both practical and useful for your own
research.

2 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE

EDUCATION
Developments in the Field
The field of comparative education first emerged as a new branch of study in the
19th century, a time many scholars view as the beginning of a new era in
education. It started off as scholars were concerned with the cultural patterns
underlying the educational set up of different countries. This was a time when
more and more people were travelling to different parts of the world and coming
into contact with other cultures. It was also a time when new schools were being
set up by one cultural group for another, e.g. English-medium schools were
being set up in India and Malaysia, while the Dutch were setting up schools in
South Africa.
Over time, the field of comparative education has grown to accommodate

a number of perspectives and methodologies that can be employed to study
problems faced by educationists. Scholars the world over have debated and
written on methodological issues, definitions, aims and theories of comparative
education. The nature of studies in the field has moved from single, within-
country or two-country comparisons to large-scale comparative studies using
collaborative research initiatives. Researchers perceive that the growth of
comparative education has developed due to global economic developments and
competition in education (Crossley & Watson, 2003). Today, the influence of the
field is reflected in the presence of a number of comparative and international
education research centres in universities, journals and books documenting
empirical work in the area and a rise in the number of well-known academics in
the field.
For this reason you will find that comparative studies of education involve a
number of approaches, and assume many different forms. A comparative study
may be anything from a country-by-country description of one aspect of
education to an in-depth discussion on one or more issues confronting education.
Scholars in the field may also examine education-related problems in various
countries and learn from the different solutions that are attempted to address
these problems.
It is only through contact and comparison that the relative value or

worthlessness of the various cultural elements can be clearly and
critically seen and understood.
Hu Shih, Chinese philosopher (1891 1962)

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 3
Depth and Focus of Studies

In their simplest form, comparative studies of education are focused on the
comparison of one aspect of an education system with another. At this level, one
may be interested mainly in identifying the similarities and differences between
the educational practices of two countries or places. For instance, a scholar may
be interested in examining how the Japanese school curriculum is similar or
different to the curriculum in Malaysian schools. Another scholar may wish to
compare the origins of Malay-medium schools in the state of Perak against those
in Sabah. The purpose of such basic or one-unit comparisons may be to learn
from the practices of others, or merely to engage in an intellectual exercise on
cross-border history.
At another level, comparative studies in education can take the form of in-depth
inquiries of issues that are of concern to policy-makers, or investigations that
involve several countries at a time. For example, a researcher may have a theory
of gender discriminatory practices in higher education institutions in Asian
countries. To do this, the researcher may collect data from eighty or a hundred
institutions of higher learning in Asia. The institution-by-institution as well as the
country-by-country analysis will help him/her confirm or disapprove the theory
he/she has built. This exercise could then inform policy decisions on, for
instance, the role of women in the management of higher education institutions.
It may also give other scholars the opportunity to carry out studies to re-examine
or reconfirm a theory on gender discrimination.
Therefore, it is important to recognise the fact that comparative education means

different things to different people. Further, comparisons do not always have to
involve two or more countries; comparisons of situations within a country, or
what is known as intra-country comparisons, can also be made. It is, therefore,
best to view comparative studies in education in terms of a continuum, with
studies comprising basic, one-unit comparisons on one end, and advanced level
studies, or multidimensional international-oriented inquiry on the other. (Refer
to Figure 1.1 for a perspective on the range of comparative studies that may be
carried on in education. Note that basic comparisons can be made either at the
intra-country level or at the inter-country level. The same applies to in-depth
studies requiring critical analysis and evaluation.)

SELF-CHECK 1.1
What do you understand by the following terms?
(a) Educational system;
(b) Within-country comparisons;
(c) Two-country comparisons;
(d) Disapprove a theory;
(e) Comparative studies in education; and
(f) Collaborative research initiatives.
Figure 1.1: Continuum of comparative studies in education1
1 Titles of articles quoted in Figure 1.1 are from the Comparative Education Review, a Journal of
the Comparative and International Education Society.
(http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/CER/index).

ACTIVITY 1.1
Read Abstracts A and B and answer the following questions.
1. How would you classify each of these studies in terms of the level
of analysis and in terms of its focus? Use terms such as basic level,
advanced level, intra-country, inter-country, one-unit comparison
and in-depth analysis in your answer.
2. What are some of the characteristics of each study that helped you
in the classification?
3. What are the objectives of each study?
Abstract A
The Comparative Academic Performance of International

Students in Australia
by
Alan Olsen, Zena Burgess & Raj Sharma
International Higher Education, 42 (Winter 2006): 11 12.
International students do just as well as Australian students. This is the

key finding from a study of the academic performance of 338,000 full-time students
at 22 Australian universities in 2003. The results of the study are important to
international education professionals globally at a time when there have been
allegations that Australian universities were dropping standards to favor foreign
students. The Sydney Morning Herald claimed in June 2005 to have found evidence of
quality falling at universities to cater to international students with poor English
seeking degrees so as to be accepted for migration. The research proved these
allegations to be untrue. Australian students passed 89.4 percent of courses attempted;
international students 88.8 percent. The results suggest that in their recruitment of
international students Australian universities set their standards at about the right
level. Consistent with research globally, the study found a gender difference. Female
students passed 91.6 percent of courses attempted; male students 86.5 percent. Simply,
girls did better than boys.
(www.bc.edu/cihe)

Abstract B
Asian Universities:
Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges
Edited by
Philip G. Altbach and Toru Umakoshi (2005)
This volume offers a detailed comparative study of the emergence of the

modern university in Asia, linking the historical development of universities in the
region with contemporary realities and future challenges. The contributors describe
higher education systems in eleven countries Korea, China, Vietnam, Cambodia,
Malaysia, Phillippines, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, India, and Japan and explore
similarities and differences through two comparative essays. Each case study includes
a discussion of the nature and influence of both indigenous and European educational
traditions; a detailed analysis of development patterns; and a close examination of such
contemporary issues as population growth and access, cost, the role of private higher
education, the research system, autonomy, and accountability.
(www.press.jhu.edu/books)
1.2 PROPONENTS OF COMPARATIVE

EDUCATION
In this section, we take a historical look at comparative education by reviewing
the work of some of the major proponents of the field.
(a) Sir Michael Sadler (1861 1943)

Historically speaking, Sir Michael Sadler (Figure 1.2)
was the first person to attempt a definition of the
subject of comparative education. He was born in
northern England and was educated at Oxford. He
had a deep interest in adult education and moral
education. From 1885 to 1903, he worked at Oxford
University where he produced reports on educational
policy and practice both for local and international
purposes, and advised the government on the
development of educational policy. Later, as a
lecturer at the University of Manchester, Sadler
produced reports on secondary education for local
education authorities. In 1911, he became Vice- Figure 1.2:
Chancellor of the University of Leeds, and stayed Sir Michael Sadler
there until 1923 when he became master of University
College, Oxford.
Sadler viewed comparative education as an examination of the set up and

problems of other countries in order to better understand the workings of
oneÊs own system (Sodhi, 1998). SadlerÊs experiences as an educational
administrator and his work on the Calcutta University Commission led him
to believe in the power of education over conduct and character. Latter-day
researchers have credited him with the development of the problem-
method for educational research and inquiry. Sadler often required
investigators to deal with specific problems and to identify related factors
within the social context where these problems occurred. He also
encouraged them to work on the implications of these problems and to
make suggestions for future action.
However, SadlerÊs most important contribution to the field of comparative

education lies in the publication of eleven volumes known as Special
Reports. These reports document in detail the educational developments in
several European countries during the late 19th century. The reports also
contain extensive historical accounts of educational practice in the United
States and in the various territories occupied by Great Britain. Today,
educationists, historians and sociologists use these Special Reports for the
comparative study of the roots of educational problems in our world.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
List three aspects of SadlerÊs work that could be categorised as
significant contributions to the field of comparative education.
(b) Isaac Leon Kandel (1881 1965)

Isaac Leon Kandel (Figure 1.3) was a student of
Sir Michael Sadler. He was born in Romania to
British parents. He received his bachelorÊs and
masterÊs education in the University of Manchester
and studied comparative and international education
for his PhD degree at Teachers College, Columbia
University, New York. He was author of several
influential works, including Twenty-Five Years of
American Education (1924), Essays in Comparative
Education (1930), The Cult of Uncertainty (1943) and
his landmark work, Comparative Education (1933). Figure 1.3:
Isaac Leon Kandel

Kandel perceived SadlerÊs problem-based definition of comparative

education to be rather limiting as it did not consider a number of other
factors. According to Kandel, a comparative educator who truly wants to
understand various nationsÊ school systems must not be content with only
gathering important factual data pertaining to those systems. To improve a
system, he proposed that educators uncover the causes of educational
problems first and then examine the solutions that a nation uses to address
problems. More importantly, the rationale for selecting particular solutions
should be studied. For these reasons, Kandel required comparative
educationists to have a working knowledge of more than one language, and
to be knowledgeable in a number of subjects. He believed that researchers
should not only know about education, but also be aware of political
developments, anthropology, economics, sociology and geography.
Kandel was a leading proponent of the perspective in comparative

education known as historical functionalism. Fundamentally, this school of
thought espoused that education systems do not operate in a vacuum, but
are inextricably intertwined with other historical, social and political forces.
In KandelÊs view, comparative education is a continuation of the study of
the history of education into the present. Like Sadler, Kandel believed that
educational systems could not be directly transferred from one country to
another (1959). However, he perceived that ideas, strategies and practices
developed in one context could stimulate further action in another, i.e.
nations can learn from each otherÊs experiences.
Today, many of KandelÊs ideas are used in education systems throughout

the world. Among the most common are lifelong learning, parent
participation in public schooling, well-thought out curricula and teacher
effectiveness. These ideas and concerns are contemplated at all levels: basic
education, secondary education and higher education.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Kandel thought that SadlerÊs definition of comparative education was
„limiting‰. What, in KandelÊs view, are some of the factors that Sadler
did not consider in his definition?

(c) Nicholas Hans (1888 1969)

Nicholas Hans was born and educated in
Russia, and first taught at the University of
Odessa. In 1919, he left for London and
began his studies in KingÊs College, London.
In 1946, he was appointed lecturer at KingÊs
College, where he later became a Reader in
Comparative Education in 1948. It was here
that he wrote and published on a wide range
of topics, including comparative education,
Russian educational policy and 18th century
educational history. Hans has been credited
with a number of essays on comparative
research, many of which are available at
the Institute of Education at the University
of London. These papers include published
works, unpublished essays and notebooks Figure 1.4: A university
from his time at the University of Odessa. building in Odessa
Source: users.odessa.net
According to Sodhi (1998), Hans perceived that a number of common traits

underlie the customs, traditions, policies and socio-historical factors that
influence educational practice in different countries. These commonalities
may be studied to provide insight into the factors that lead to educational
decision making in a country. Hans was of the opinion that the solutions to
educational problems that have been attempted in one country should
be examined in light of the common educational and socio-historical
backgrounds of other countries under scrutiny.
(d) George Z. F. Bereday (1920 1986)

George Bereday was a professor of comparative education at Columbia
University, New York. In 1964, he wrote Comparative Methods in
Education, a book many scholars view as a seminal work in the field of
comparative education. The book attempts to define the field by method,
and talks about systematic data collection and comparison (Kelly, Altbach
& Arnove, 1982). To conduct research using a systematic form, Bereday
proposed a four-stage procedure, commonly known as the „description-
interpretation-juxtaposition-comparison‰ method. His methodology
emphasised the collection of precise, similar data from each country being
studied, with the overall purpose of constructing theory about schooling
and society.

Like Kandel, Bereday stressed the importance

of multilingualism in conducting comparative
analyses of education. He believed that
scholars of comparative education should
know several languages before they could
adequately carry out a comparative analysis
of several countries. He wrote: „knowledge
of language lets one in on the intimate secrets
of the nation under study‰ (1964:139). He
felt that one of the main objectives of
comparative education was to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the qualities
and shortcomings of different systems of
education in the world. Today, Bereday is
remembered not only for his work on Figure 1.5: Comparative
comparative education methodology, but also Education Review by George
for his role in making the field part of Z. F. Bereday
mainstream education. He was the first editor Source: http://www.journals.
of the Comparative Education Review uchicago.edu
(Figure 1.5), a journal that was first published
in 1977. Since 1981, the George F. Bereday Award has been presented for
outstanding articles published in the Comparative Education Review.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
1. Why did Kandel and Bereday stress the importance of

multilingualism for the purpose of conducting comparative studies?
2. What do you think is meant by „constructing theory about

schooling and society‰?

(e) Philip G. Altbach

Philip Altbach (Figure 1.6) is the director of the Centre
for International Higher Education in the Lynch School
of Education at Boston College. He is also the J. Donald
Monan, SJ professor of higher education. He received
his undergraduate and post-graduate education from
the University of Chicago and today, he is one of the
most distinguished scholars in the field of comparative
and international higher education. He has also been a
Fulbright Scholar in India, Malaysia and Singapore, an
Onwell Fellow at the University of Hong Kong and
Guest Professor at Peking University in China. Figure 1.6: Philip
G. Altbach
Altbach has published widely on higher education, comparative education,
and on publishing and knowledge distribution (see http://www.bc.edu/
cihe/pga for a full list of his publications). His famous book Comparative
Higher Education (1998) has been published in Japanese, Chinese and
Spanish, while several other books have been translated into German,
Indonesian and Turkish. A more recent book by him is Asian Universities:
Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges (2004). Over the
years, AltbachÊs work has addressed many issues in international higher
education. Some of these are academic freedom; student political activism,
which is represented in a landmark work written by an international team;
educational structures and politics of various countries; education and
scientific development; and trends in higher education in USA, India,
Africa and Japan.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Find out more about the Centre for International Higher Education
(CIHE) at Boston College by visiting http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/
avp/soe/cihe/ and answer the following questions.
1. What are some of the activities carried out by this centre?
2. What makes CIHE one of the foremost places for research on

comparative education?
3. Why do you think Philip Altbach is considered by some to be „a

giant among todayÊs comparativists‰?

(f) Saravanan Gopinathan

Saravanan Gopinathan (Figure 1.7) received a BA
(1965) and an MEd. (1972) from the University of
Singapore. He did his PhD in Comparative
Education (1984) at the State University of New
York. He is a specialist in comparative education,
focussing his work on language policy, planning,
bilingualism and higher education. Gopinathan was
founding editor of the Singapore Journal of
Education, and helped set up the Centre for
Teaching Thinking in Singapore.
Figure 1.7:
Saravanan Gopinathan
For some years now, GopinathanÊs work has served as a key reference
for students of education in Singapore and in comparative education
internationally. His research and writing have focused on economic
restructuring and educational reform in Singapore, and on the role of
language and society in university education reform. He has co-edited
Language, Society and Education in Singapore: Issues and Trends (1998)
and The Culture of Change: Case Studies of Improving Schools in
Singapore and London (2000). He believes that although we are faced by
several global trends in economy and technology, a countryÊs educational
policies are often determined by national factors (1996). These factors may
be a countryÊs national economic agenda, its ethnic composition and its
socio-historic profile.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Discuss the following statement by Gopinathan (2005). How is this

view related to the current state of higher education in Malaysia?
GlobalisationÊs effects can be seen in greater internationalisation,

of a trend towards the commodification of education, greater
convergence in views about how education should contribute
to the economy, greater use of choice, competition, [and]
deregulation.

1.3 DEFINING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Complexities Surrounding Definitions
Most educators believe that there is no single or fixed definition of comparative
education. This is primarily because the field is multidisciplinary, and various
writers have given the field their own interpretation of what constitutes a
„legitimate‰ comparison of education systems. Miller (1998) indicates that one of
the difficulties in defining comparative education lies in outlining what is to be
compared and what categories should be investigated when making
comparisons. As indicated in Section 1.1 earlier, almost anything that is of
interest to educationists may be compared. Similarly, Figure 1.1 (Section 1.1)
shows us that categories or topics for an investigation can range from cause-effect
relationships to analyses of history and policy.
Early Definitions
In a field as diverse and as multifaceted as comparative education, it is best to
begin with a definition that provides the most essential elements of the field. The
earliest definitions are attributed to Sir Michael Sadler, who in 1900 spoke of the
practical value behind the study of other educational systems (Higginson, 1979).
In the 1930s, this definition was expanded upon by Issac Kandel who viewed
comparative education as a study of the causes of educational problems, the
identification of differences among education systems and an examination of the
solutions used to address problems. Later, in the 1950s, Nicholas Hans discussed
how lessons learnt from comparisons led one to envisage educational reform,
primarily to accommodate changing social and economic conditions.
It follows that between 1900 and 1960, the definition of comparative education
followed an ameliorative strain: it has evolved from a focus on the value of
comparisons and on the nature of comparative investigations, to a consideration
of how comparative inquiry can inform educational reform in the face of socio-
economic changes.

Table 1.1 presents a number of definitions of comparative education, each

reflecting the views of a researcher and/or scholar in the field.2
Table 1.1: Definitions of Comparative Education
Researcher/Scholar Definitions of Comparative Education

Sir Michael Sadler: A study of the working of foreign systems of education so that
1900 we are better able to understand and study our own education
systems.
Issac Kandel: 1933 A comparative approach to educational problems helps explain

differences between various systems by:
(i) analysing causes of problems;
(ii) identifying differences among various education systems;
and
(iii) studying the solutions attempted to address problems.
Nicolas Hans: 1959 Comparative education not only compares existing systems of
education but envisages reform for the future. Thus,
comparative education helps us to reform education to suit new
economic and social conditions.
George Bereday: Comparative education is focused on social and cultural
1964 contexts to help make sense of similarities and differences. We
can thus deduce lessons from the variations in educational
practices in different countries.
Harold Noah & Max Comparative education is best defined as an intersection of the
Eckstein: 1969 social sciences, education and cross-national study. A problem
in comparative education is the common concern of both social
scientists and educators, but the exclusive concern of neither.
Edward King: Comparative education is characterised by much debate and
1979 diversity relating to both its subject matter and orientation. The
field is held together by the belief that education can bring about
improvements in society, and lessons can be learnt from
developments in other societies.
Robert Arnove, Comparative education is a discipline that systematises our
Philip Altbach & observations for the purpose of shaping the future. It is no
Gail Kelly: 1992 longer possible to identify solutions to educational problems
from within the country; we need to look at other countries,
societies and cultures as well to help us resolve educational
problems.
2 The perspectives attributed to the various scholars have been adapted from those provided by
Crossley & Watson (2003:16-20), Sodhi (1998:1-3) and Noah and Eckstein (1969).

Latter-day Definitions
Let us now turn our attention to definitions that embody a multidisciplinary
perspective when identifying the characteristic features of the field. According to
Noah and Eckstein (1969), „the field of comparative education is best defined as
an intersection of the social sciences, education and cross-national study.
Consequently, a problem in comparative education is the common concern of
both social scientists and educators, but the exclusive concern of neither.‰ In their
view, comparative studies of education involve more that just categories related
to education. Rather, Noah and Eckstein believed that comparativists examine
educational issues from an inter-disciplinary perspective, and rely on the
collective wisdom of social science and education experts.
The above multidisciplinary approach to the field encompasses an international

dimension to the study of education. In fact, many centres of comparative
education carry the word „international‰ in their name. In this module, however,
our focus is on comparative education, i.e. work that involves comparisons
among educational contexts, both at the intra-country level and at an
international level.
The work of Bereday takes a somewhat different dimension of comparative

education. Bereday attempted to define comparative education by method (Kelly,
Altbach & Arnove, 1982). In his definition, systematic data collection and
comparisons were to be made whilst paying heed to „area studies, languages‰ as
well as „the cultural, social and historical backgrounds of the nations‰ whose
education was being compared (Kelly, Altbach & Arnove, 1982: 511 512). This
was therefore an inductive approach to the field, a view that was not shared by
BeredayÊs two students, Noah and Eckstein, who believed in a more deductive
approach using quantitative methodology and hypothesis formation.
Although, there is still a great deal of debate about definitions and methodology,
most scholars adopt a descriptive-inductive approach to comparative studies in
education. Current conceptions of the field are best reflected by the position
taken by Crossley and Watson (2003):

“[Comparative education] is a complex, multifaceted field that is both

difficult to define and challenging to engage with (p. 19)
⁄ Because comparative and international research in education is

influenced by many different intellectual, disciplinary and professional
foundations, it cannot lay claim to any one single theoretical or
methodological perspective‰ (p. 31).
As a concluding note, it can be said that there is agreement among comparativists

that comparative studies in education is characterised by the following features:
(a) Comparison of one or more aspects of education, within a country or
between/among countries;
(b) A quest for similarities and differences;
(c) An analysis of issues and problems; and
(d) Context-based adoption of solutions to problems.
SELF-CHECK 1.5
Read the definitions of comparative education in Table 1.1 again, this
time focussing on the dates and names of researchers.
1. How does the chronological list reflect developments in the field?
2. How has the definition of comparative studies in education

changed over time?
Comparative education is a branch of education that is focused on the

comparison of one aspect of education with another or the comparison of
features present in different educational contexts, places or countries.
Comparative studies in education involve a number of approaches and

assume many different forms.

Comparative education means different things to different people;

comparative studies in education can take the form of intra-country, inter-
country, basic level comparisons, or in-depth analyses of several aspects of
education at a time.
The historical development of comparative education is characterised by the

work of a number of different scholars, beginning from the early part of the
19th century. Today, there are numerous scholars espousing different
dimensions of comparative education in their research.
Definitions of comparative education can be complex or simple, depending

on how researchers view the field. While early definitions focused on the
practical value of comparisons, and on the similarities and differences in
education in different contexts, modern day definitions tend to assume a
multidisciplinary character.
There is some consensus that comparative studies in education are

characterised by the following features:
Comparison of one or more aspects of education, within a country or
between/among countries;
A quest for similarities and differences;
An analysis of issues and problems; and
Context-based adoption of solutions to problems.
Comparative education Multilingualism

In-depth analysis One-unit comparisons
Inter-country Two- country comparisons
Intra-country Within- country comparisons

Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F., & Kelly, G. P. (Eds.). (1982). Comparative education.
New York: Macmillan.
Bereday, G. Z. F. (1964). Comparative method in education. New York: Holt,

Rinehart and Winston.
Crossley, M., & Watson, K. (2003). Comparative and international research in

education. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Gopinathan, S. (2005). Globalization, the Singapore developmental state and

education policy: A thesis revisited. Working paper, National Institute of
Education, Singapore.
Higginson, J. H. (1979). Michael Ernest Sadler (1861 1943). PROSPECTS: The

quarterly review of comparative education, Paris, UNESCO. International
Bureau of Education, vol. 24, no. 3/4, 1994, p. 455 69.
Kandel, I. L. (1959). The methodology of comparative education. International

Review of Education, vol. 5, no. 3.
Miller, S. I. Review of Thomas, R. Murray (1998). Conducting educational

research: A comparative view. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. In Education
Review available: http://edrev.asu.edu/reviews/rev71.htm.
Noah, H. J., & Eckstein, M. A. (1969). Toward a science of comparative

education. New York: Macmillan.
Sodhi, T. S. (1998). Textbook of comparative education (6th ed.). New Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House.
Further Reading
(a) Comparative education review An International Journal

http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/CER/v45n4toc.html
(b) Comparative Education An International Journal

http://www.jstor.org/journals/03050068.html

(c) Discussion Board for articles appearing in Comparative Education

www.cies.ws
(d) MasterÊs Monographs

http://www.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/ICE/masters_monographs_ice.html
(e) Comparative/International Education Journals

http://www.pitt.edu/~iise/journals.html

Topic The Purpose
2 of Comparative
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Evaluate the many purposes of engaging in comparative studies in
education; and
2. Examine the role of comparative education in planning, implementing
improved and innovative strategies, and international understanding.
INTRODUCTION
What is the purpose of comparative education? This topic takes a close look
at the many purposes that are served by comparative studies in education. In
particular, the topic focuses on three broad goals: planning, implementing
improved and innovative strategies as well as international understanding. The
discussion on these areas uses a number of examples to help you see the value of
conducting comparative studies. The contents of the topic illustrate how the goals
of comparative education are realised at the internal and external level, as well as
at the intra-country and international level.
2.1 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE

EDUCATION
In this section we are going to look at the purpose of comparative education
(a) Subject and Process

Comparative education serves many purposes, both as a subject and as a
process. As a field of study, the comparative study of education systems

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 21
help nations plan and implement innovative ideas in schools and colleges.
As a process, comparative education provides a form of intellectual exercise
in understanding the broad policies, assumptions, decisions and philosophy
underlying educational systems from different countries. In this sense, the
general objective of comparative education is to determine the basic
principles underlying different national systems of education, or in fact to
understand the different ways in which educational practice is realised.
This means that as we trace the development of education in a number of
countries, we are able to determine the systematic and scientific purpose of
schooling, tertiary education and the establishment of universities, and
study the ways in which a countryÊs citizens are affected by it. Scholars rely
on ideas borrowed and adapted from education systems in other countries
in order to enhance their understanding of their own educational system.
(b) Comprehensive Analysis

An important aspect of comparative education is that comparisons about
education, or selected aspects of education, are made in consideration of the
social, political and cultural environment in which an education system is
situated. In other words, the purpose is not to compare for the sake of
finding similarities and differences; rather, the purpose is to compare so
that educational practice may be explained in consideration of the many
internal and external factors governing education systems across countries.
For example, factors such as student enrolment, school structure,
composition of students, etc. are considered alongside factors related to
national educational policy, economics, history, social strata and
demography.
Internal factors
External Factors e. g. enrolment,
e. g. national composition
educational policy, of students,
economics, history, teaching quality,
social strata and structure of
demography schools
CONSIDERATIONS

22 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
(c) Effect of Education Policy

Apart from the above factors, the comparative study of educational systems
often includes, as part of its focus, the impact of policy on marginalised or
disadvantaged groups of people. Some of these may be people with
disability, e.g. the blind, the deaf or autistic children; they may also be
women or people who come from language minorities, e.g. the Semelai
from Central Pahang or the Orang Ulu from Sarawak in Malaysia. Since the
education system in most countries is implemented wholly or in great
part by the government, another purpose of comparative studies in
education is to examine how different groups of people are affected by
education polices. Think, for example, of the many people who are denied a
basic right to education, as exemplified in this quote taken from the
education campaign under the United NationsÊ millennium development
goals:
Unfortunately, too many children in the world today grow up

without this chance, because they are denied their basic right to even
attend primary school. A sustainable end to world poverty as we
know it, as well as the path to peace and security, require that citizens
in every country are empowered to make positive choices and
provide for themselves and their families. This can only be achieved if
all the children of the world are given the chance to learn in a high-
quality schooling environment at least through primary school.
(http://www.millenniumcampaign.org/)
When educationists or politicians realise that there is unequal access

to education, policies in country or state are examined to see how
educational equity can be achieved. Figure 2.1 shows a newspaper
report illustrating this in relation to the situation in Bangladesh.

Bangladesh
Vol. 5 Num 693
Poor have little access to better education

Fri. May 12, 2006
Principal Secretary to the prime minister Kamaluddin Siddiqui yesterday expressed

deep concern over the division in education system saying its consequences will be
dangerous if the division between the rich and the poor is not minimised on an
emergency basis.
Kamaluddin Siddiqui said the rich are sending their children abroad or educating
them in the best educational institutions, whereas children of the poor are getting
education at lower standard institutions.
"As a result children of the rich are getting better jobs depriving the poor and this
deprivation will bring dangerous consequences," he cautioned while speaking as
chief guest at a publication ceremony of Halkhata, an annual report on primary
education by Sushikkha Andolon, a citizens' movement on quality education.
http://www.thedailystar.net
Figure 2.1: The Daily Star, Bangladesh
(d) Macro-level Impact

A comparative study of educational practices also helps us to
understand the ways in which countries expand, upgrade and reform
education. Such knowledge is necessary for policymakers and
practitioners to address issues and challenges as well as to solve
problems that are associated with success and failure in schools. This
also helps us build a knowledge base for teacher education and
trainer training whilst taking into account the cultural, philosophical
and economic factors governing education.
(e) Influence of Culture

One other important reason for the comparative study of educational
systems from around the world is to examine the influence of culture
on education. In fact, some researchers believe that education is based
on culture, and the way in which a society develops its education
system says a great deal about its cultural norms and practices. The
psychologist, Jerome S. Bruner, says in his book The Culture of
Education (1996) that how a person conceives of education, is a
function of how one conceives of culture and the aims of culture. More
recently, Bruner has become critical of the „cognitive revolution‰ and
has focused on the building of a cultural psychology that takes proper
account of the historical and social context of participants.

In fact, his arguments are developed with respect to schooling (and education
more generally), as demonstrated in this quote:
⁄ the influence of culture and individual life experiences may

enhance or impede the learning process. Knowledge of the culture
is an essential ingredient for teaching effectiveness, and examples
of specific teaching and learning issues relevant to cultural and
migration experiences [should be] reviewed. (Bruner, 1996: ix x).
To conclude, we can say that there are many purposes of comparative education,
some of which affect education at the macro-level, while others are related
to micro-level considerations. These objectives help us change, reform and
understand internal factors related to schools, such as improvement of teaching
and learning effectiveness, as well to external factors such as policy, planning
and international understanding. Let us now take a more incisive look at the
many purposes of comparative education as espoused by some scholars in the
field.
ACTIVITY 2.1
If you were to conduct a comparative study in education, what purpose
would it serve, and why?
2.2 A BRIEF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Researchers have often seen comparative studies in education as serving a
multipronged purpose. In fact, as you may have noticed in Topic 1, the definition
of comparative education is often accompanied by a statement of the purpose of
conducting cross-national analyses or cross-context inquiries. In the following
pages, we look at how some scholars in the field have defined the objectives of
comparative education.
(a) Understand Our Own

In a comprehensive review of past literature, Crossley and Watson (2003)
propose that the fundamental purpose of comparative education is that
educationists be able to better understand and work on education in their
own country. They argue that as explanation and analysis of education are
key features of the field, comparisons give us the basis for reform and
implementing solutions to problems. They quote Phillips (1999:15) who

says that the purpose of making comparisons is so that we can „properly

defend our position on most questions of importance which require the
making of judgement.‰ In this view we see the need for application: the
process of analysis, comparison, explanation and realisation helps us not
only by applying new knowledge of education systems, but to also
benchmark our own systems and practices against the features of best
practice that we discover.
As a form of summary, Crossley and Watson (2003:19) outline the following

purposes of comparative education:
(i) Gain a better understanding of our own systems;
(ii) Satisfy intellectual and theoretical curiosity about other cultures;
(iii) Better understand the relationship between education and society;
(iv) Explain and analyse similarities and differences;
(v) Understand problems in education;
(vi) Contribute to improvement of educational policy and practice; and
(vii) Promote intellectual understanding and cooperation through
improved sensitivity to differing world views and cultures.
The power of imagination created the illusion that

my vision went much farther than the naked eye
could actually see Nelson Mandela
ACTIVITY 2.2
As outlined by Crossley and Watson, one of the purposes of
comparative education is to „understand problems in education.‰
1. What, in your view, are some of the problems with Malaysian

education?
2. How can you better understand these problems if you study the
educational practices and policies of other Asian countries?

(b) Understand and Affect

The Indian author T. S. Sodhi gives us reason to believe that the goals of
comparative education go beyond the implementation of education ideals
and the application of lessons learned (1998). In his view, there are eight
broad goals of comparative education, as listed below:
(i) Intellectual
As an intellectual activity, comparative education gives us insight and
knowledge which may be used to contribute to the social sciences and
improve pedagogy.
(ii) Planning
Comparative education provides a means for making rational and
progressive plans for formulating educational objectives and how
these objectives may be achieved.
(iii) Practicality
Through a process of comparison and analysis, the field allows us to
implement more practical ideas and to discontinue practices that are
impractical.
(iv) Humanitarian
By comparing the educational patterns of poor and rich countries, and
advanced and less advanced countries, we are able to assist poor
nations to improve livelihood through education.
(v) International
Educational problems in many countries stem from similar causes; we
can therefore institute reform and attempt solutions in one country by
studying how other countries have overcome their problems.
(vi) Innovation
Comparative education helps us keep abreast of developments and
innovations that are taking place in other countries.
(vii) Economics
It is widely accepted that education is closely linked with income and
economic well-being. For this reason, comparisons help us examine
closely how nations can use education to tackle problems such as
unemployment, poverty and lack of productivity.

(viii) Education for International Understanding

One of the chief purposes of comparative education is to bring
nations closer together, both for the purpose of working together
and for the recognition of each otherÊs cultural and educational
values and ideals.
(c) Understand Us and Ours

You will notice that Crossley and WatsonÊs and SodhiÊs lists of goals of
comparative studies cover a wide range of possibilities. The components of
their lists are consistent with those provided by the Canadian educator
Roby Kidd (1915 1982), which read thus:
(i) Become better informed about the educational systems of other
countries;
(ii) Become better informed about the ways in which people in other
cultures have carried out certain social functions by means of
education;
(iii) Become better informed about the historical roots of certain activities
and thus to develop criteria for assessing contemporary developments
and testing possible outcomes;
(iv) Better understand the educational forms and systems operating in
oneÊs own country;
(v) Satisfy an interest in how human beings live and learn;
(vi) Better understand oneself; and
(vii) Reveal how oneÊs own cultural biases and personal attributes affect
oneÊs judgment about the possible ways of carrying on learning
transactions.
(Source: Knoll, J. http://www.iiz-dvv.de/englisch/Publikationen)
ACTIVITY 2.3
Draw a concept map of all the goals of comparative education. What
are three or four main categories of goals that you can identify?

In conclusion, we can say that the many purposes of comparative education

serve national and international interests, and help us plan, reform, improve,
innovate and envision educational ideals. For the purpose of discussion, we
examine in the following sections of this topic, three key goals of comparative
education in detail. They are:
(a) Planning;
(b) Improvement and innovation; and
(c) Education for international understanding.
2.3 PLANNING
Key Strategy to Development
One main purpose of comparative education is to help nations with educational
planning. This is one of the most important aspects of a countryÊs development
activities. It is the means by which a country formulates educational policies,
determines objectives and identifies strategies that will help to meet its human
resource needs. Educational planning is thus directly linked to economic
development and social reform in a country. It is often said that appropriate and
adequate educational planning helps the people of a country deal with problems
related to diseases, over-population, economic decline and under-development.
In turn, proper planning helps build community relations and improves the
social well-being of a people.
Comparative education also plays an important role in determining how one

country can learn from planning activities in another country, especially in the
case of disadvantaged economies. For example, while some countries are
still operating on an agricultural economy characterised by low amounts
of mechanisation, others have moved toward industrialisation and global
marketing. Yet, there are countries that are crafting a national economic agenda
that will help them become more industrialised and more competitive globally. It
follows that if a nation wants to progress toward a higher state of development,
or if it wishes to become more industrialised, the education it provides for its
people must equip them with appropriate or relevant skills and knowledge.
In order to move from one level to another, therefore, educationists, economists,

social scientists and administrators often examine educational issues, problems
and solutions from different countries before they plan and formulate
educational policies and goals for their own country. Nations and governments
often establish what is known as benchmarks, or what they would like to see as

an ideal scenario with regards to their own curricular goals. Thus, they make
plans plans that will help them achieve their ideals. Educational planning is
often accompanied by decisions on educational policies, which, in turn, represent
how a government views its role in providing education for its people.
Planning to Advance Knowledge

Take the case of Central Asia (Figure 2.2), which today houses countries such as
Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Most of the
people in this region work on farms where agricultural practice relies largely on
age-old skills and practices (see http://www.ucentralasia.org/). Even though
petroleum has been discovered in this region, this is true of large sections of the
population.
Today, various aid agencies have responded to the need for educational planning
and reform in Central Asia so that the citizens will become more knowledgeable
about their economic and agricultural practices. As part of this effort, the
University of Central Asia (UCA) was established in the year 2000. The university
curriculum encompasses economics, humanities, education, management and
engineering. The people responsible for the setting up of UCA realised that
proper educational planning is an important aspect of progress; rather than
just teach people how to become better at farming, they have to become
agriculturalists and economists, among other things. If not for proper educational
planning, the people in Central Asia would be denied of skills and knowledge
that could improve their livelihood.
UCA will help mountain people

adapt to the emerging reality of open
societies and market economies, in
which individuals and groups are free
to initiate activities and enterprises
outside the government, as well as
within it. This places a premium on
understanding economics, finance
and an array of associated practical
skills, including accounting and basic
management.
Figure 2.2: Central Asia

Source: http://www.ucentralasia.org

Planning in Plural Societies

Let us consider another aspect of educational planning with respect to
multicultural societies, or what some educators call plural societies. Such
societies are usually characterised by the presence of a number of language
groups, modern-urban and traditional-rural interests, emerging modern
economic classes and religiously dominant groups. In this environment,
„education is increasingly expected to function as the single most influential
force for ameliorating social conflict and facilitating orderly, directed social
change‰ (Bock, 1982:79).
As education plays a central purpose in nation building, careful and prudent

educational planning is called for. This applies to countries with diverse
populations such as Malaysia, Singapore, India and the United States. As
exemplified in Bock (1982), education planning in countries like Malaysia takes
into account the many „historical and cultural forces operating internally, and in
terms of the external conditions of the world system of nations to which the new
nation must adjust‰ (Bock, 1982:80). He quotes Khir Johari, a former Malaysian
Minister of Education:
Our entire educational policy is dictated by the need to mould a single

united nation out of a plural society. Our task is a tremendous one.
Common ideal[s], common ambitions, and common loyalties must be
fostered and not enforced⁄‰ (Speech delivered in Penang Free School
on 17 October 1967, cited in Bock, 1982:80).
This position provides the impetus for planning a school system that is
responsive to the needs of a multicultural and multilingual Malaysian society.
Although the unifying language and the core language taught in all Malaysian
schools is Bahasa Malaysia, many Malaysians to this day have a choice of
attending Chinese-medium, Tamil-medium or Malay-medium schools. In latter
times, educational planning in Malaysia has been responsive to global demands
for scientific and technological knowledge. As Bock puts it, Malaysia belongs to
the world system of nations and must adjust to the global call for labour that
is multiskilled and competent in at least one international language. Thus,
the government has planned and implemented a policy to provide bilingual
education in Malaysian schools: mathematics and science are now taught in
English, while other subjects like history, geography, moral studies and life skills
are taught in Bahasa Malaysia. Thus, educational planning takes into account
both internal factors such as multiculturalism, and external factors such as
globalisation.

ACTIVITY 2.4
What is meant by the following statement?
Planning does not have at all the same meaning in every context;
which concept of planning is appropriate in a given setting depends
very much on the nature of that setting, an observation which has
profound implications for training in educational planning (Weiler,
1982).
2.4 IMPROVEMENT AND INNOVATION

How and Where
Another important purpose of comparative studies of education is to provide a
mechanism for implementing measures that will improve the social and
economic status of a people. Often, this is done by examining how other nations
apply innovative and modern thoughts and ideas in their schools or through the
curricula. According to Freeman and Capper (1999), innovation in education
refers to the maintenance and improvement in the quality of student learning in
an environment of massive change in the teaching and learning context. Freeman
and Capper (1999) outline six broad areas where innovation may be applied, as
follows:
(a) The learning context;

(b) The curriculum to accommodate learnersÊ previous knowledge and
experiences and set them on a course of improved understandings;
(c) Learning activities that achieve learning outcomes;
(d) Assessment that is integrated with desired learning outcomes;
(e) Achievement that is tracked at a formative and summative level; and
(f) Our roles as teachers, from expert content providers to people who can
create and support learning communities, both with our students and
among our peers.

You can see from Freeman and CapperÊs list that innovation through
improvement applies to many areas of schooling. However, it is not always
the case that schools are innovatively designed, or that a country can plan
its education and successfully implement education policies that lead to the
improved status of its people. A countryÊs education system evolves over time,
and improvement and innovation are often brought about through comparisons
concerning the educational provisions of different countries. This can be
illustrated with a few examples, as follows:
Pre-innovation
For many years in the past, education in various countries was focussed on
traditional forms of delivery and interaction. Schooling was seen in the form
of fixed curricula, with textbooks and teachers guiding all teaching-learning
activity. Students could only attend school in specific locations while teaching-
learning methodology, classroom interaction, delivery of materials and the
conduct of examinations relied on strict forms of control. For example, at one
time Malaysia followed a strict system of awarding promotions to secondary
school children. In 1966 in Malaysia, if you failed your Form Three examination
the Lower Certificate of Education or LCE (now called PMR) it would have
been be difficult for you to continue your education in a government-aided or
public school. To repeat the yearÊs learning, you would have had to look for a
private school that offered tuition for LCE and register for the examination as an
independent candidate.
In the past, education in Malaysia was also not completely free in terms of cost;
until the late 1970s, students in many Malaysian secondary schools paid a
monthly fee of RM15 to RM18 to attend school. Of course, with more resources
being devoted to education today, these barriers have been removed and there is
now greater opportunity for Malaysians to participate in formal education. Now
Malaysians from urban and rural areas enjoy free schooling in public schools.
Like many other countries, we also exercise automatic promotion from the
beginning years till the school leaving certificate has been taken.

Implementing Innovative Ideas

Today, most countries have also introduced some form of educational innovation
for the improvement of teaching and learning (see Figure 2.3 for an innovation
model). One example is the use of information and computer technology (ICT) in
education. When the Malaysian education system shifted to English as a medium
of instruction for mathematics and science in 2002, computers were given to
many teachers to be better able to teach science. Another example is the use of
multimodal forms of input for teaching, such as those used in distance education.
Figure 2.3: Freeman & CapperÊs (1999) Educational Innovation Model

Examinations have also evolved into open-book tests, electronically-administered

tests, submissions of video-taped footage and tele-conferencing. For example,
twenty years ago, the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) was a
pencil-and-paper test. All candidates had to go to an examination centre and
respond to questions supplied to them on paper.
Today, in many parts of the world TOEFL is taken electronically, that is, you
may have to go to a computer laboratory to take the test. You would be expected
to have sufficient keyboarding skills and would have to know how to scroll up
and down the screen with a mouse. Such electronic tests are an example of an
innovation in education, making it possible for the TOEFL administrators (ETS)
to use ICT to deliver different versions of the test to hundreds of people in many
parts of the world within a short span of time.
The Need to Compare

All of these innovations lead to the understanding that countries experience
progress in education in the same way that there is progress in the economy and
in living conditions. Much of the improvement and innovation is brought about
by many years or even decades of knowledge building and experimentation.
However, it is the comparison of systems across borders that allows for
understandings to be derived, and for one education system to learn from
anotherÊs innovations, experiments, trials and mistakes. If a nation were to stick
to its own singular ways of doing things, its methods will soon become outdated,
and eventually retard progress. Comparative education is therefore a crucial part
of the process of keeping abreast of international developments in innovative
forms of teaching and learning so that nations can achieve greater success in their
efforts to provide education for their people.

ACTIVITY 2.5
Many of us who live in towns and cities use the computer on a daily
basis. We use it to write letters, to communicate with friends and
workmates and sometimes to pay bills.
How would computer education affect the Semelai from Central

Pahang or the Kelabit from Sarawak in Malaysia? How will they
benefit from the use of computers? Can computer education lead to
better livelihood, improved literacy rates or more effective agricultural
practice? Give reasons for your answer.
Using the computer under the

Semelai children from the Bera e-bario project in Sarawak
district in Central Pahang Source: rogharris.org/atwork.htm
Source: wildasia.net/main/photo.cfm
Tasik Bera Sarawak

Source: members.fortunecity.com/ Source: www.moeswk.gov.my/
tasik/location kaska/sarawak

2.5 INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING

UNESCO Recommendations
A third purpose of comparative education is to promote international
understanding, which refers primarily to amicable cross-border relations through
the exchange of ideas, information, points of view and knowledge among
educationists from different countries. The roots of this dimension of
comparative education are in the Recommendations for Education for
International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating
to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms drawn by UNESCO in 1974
(see http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/77.htm). According to these
recommendations:
(a) „education‰ implies the entire process of social life by means of which
individuals and social groups learn to develop consciously within, and for
the benefit of, the national and international communities, the whole of
their personal capacities, attitudes, aptitudes and knowledge; and
(b) „international understanding,‰ „co-operation‰ and „peace‰ are to be

considered as an indivisible whole based on the principle of friendly
relations between peoples and States having different social and political
systems and on the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. In
the text of this recommendation, the different connotations of these terms
are sometimes gathered together in a concise expression, „international
education.‰
A guiding principle for these recommendations is:
Education shall be directed to the full development of the human

personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further
the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
Interdependence among Nations

The above declaration by UNESCO draws attention to the increasingly
interdependent nature of relationships among nations of our world, and to the
ways in which education can bring about greater cooperation and understanding.
TodayÊs teachers and educators cannot remain isolated within the confines of
their own countries; rather, it is incumbent upon every individual in the field to
be aware of the multicultural, multiracial and multinational nature of our diverse
world.

Teachers and administrators need to have „a sound awareness of other nations

their social milieus, cultures, customs, political and economic processes, education
systems, and so on‰ (Mazurek, Winzer & Majorek, 2000:1). For these reasons, and
using the words of the UNESCO declaration cited earlier, this field aims to
draw comparisons for the benefit of national and international communities by
exercising the principle of friendly relations so that, as we consider our different
social and political systems, we are able to promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship.
The declaration may sound platitudinous, but educationists around the world
have realised the importance of comparative studies to inform teacher education,
educational policy and ways to provide cross-border education. There is a
growing number of initiatives that provide an international dimension to
education and have given vitality to the field.
For example, the Comparative Education Research Centre of the University of

Hong Kong was established in 1994 to encourage participation in and initiate a
wide range of research projects with comparative perspectives. Further away, the
Centre for International Understanding at the University of North Carolina offers
courses in cross-cultural studies and short-term immersion programmes in other
countries. Meanwhile, the Centre for Comparative and International Studies
founded by the University of Zurich and ETH brings together scholars from the
disciplines of political science, history and economics to promote interdisciplinary
cooperation among scholars and experts from across Europe and beyond. No less
important is the work on International Comparative Education at the Stanford
University School of Education, or the work of scholars at the Institute of
Education in London1.
As a medium for international understanding, comparative education has

advanced to include several international agencies. Some of these are the
UNESCO Institute for Education in Germany, the International Bureau of
Education in Switzerland and the International Institute of Educational Planning
in France. A significant development in the field is the growth of an institutional
and intellectual community that supports its growth and provides considerable
knowledge for the promotion of international understanding.
1 For more information on these centres, refer to the following sites: http://www.hku.hk/cerc/;
http://ciu.northcarolina.edu; & http://www.cis.ethz.ch/; http://www.stanford.edu;
http://ioe.ac.uk.

ACTIVITY 2.6
Find out more about the following initiatives:
(a) Education for All (EFA)
(b) Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
1. Name some of the countries targeted by these initiatives.
2. How do these initiatives help these nations improve their economic

and social status?
3. How do these initiatives help promote international understanding?
Comparative education serves many purposes, and scholars are generally in

agreement on the general goals of the field.
When comparisons are made, consideration is given to the many internal and
external factors governing education.
One of the aims of comparative education is to determine the basic principles

underlying different national systems of education, or to understand the
different ways in which educational practice is realised.
The field also seeks to explain how different groups of people are affected by
education policies.
Another aim of comparative education is to understand the ways in which

countries expand, upgrade and reform education.
Comparative studies in education also seek to examine the influence of

culture on education.
Educational planning is a key purpose of comparative education. It is one of

the most important aspects of a countryÊs development activities. It is the
means by which a country formulates educational policies, determines
objectives and identifies strategies that will help meet the human resource
needs in a country.

The improvement of the status of a people and the application of innovative

and modern ideas in schools or through curricula are important goals of
comparative education. This also helps sustain improvement in the quality of
student learning in an environment of rapid change.
Another important aim of comparative education is international

understanding, which refers to amicable relations among nations. This is
often carried out through the exchange of ideas, information, points of view
and knowledge among educationists from different countries.
Comprehensive analysis Macro-level impact

Educationists Pre-innovation
Information and Computer Technology Teaching of English as a Foreign
(ICT) Language (TOEFL)
UNESCO
Bock, J. C. (1982). Education and development: A conflict of meaning. In

Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F., & Kelly, G. P. (Eds.) (1982). Comparative
education. New York: Macmillan.
Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press.
Crossley, M., & Watson, K. (2003). Comparative and international research in

education. London: Routledge Falmer.
Freeman, M. A., & Capper, J. M. (1999). Educational innovation: Hype, heresies

and hopes. ALN Magazine, Vol. 3, Issue 2 December 1999. Available:
www.sloan-c.org/.../magazine/v3n2/freeman.asp
Kidd, R. (1915 1982) cited in Knoll, J. H. Development and fundamental

principles of international and comparative adult education research.
Available: http://www.iiz-dvv.de/englisch/Publikationen.

Mazurek, K., Winzer, M. A., & Majorek, C. (Eds). (2000). Education in a global
society: A comparative perspective. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.
Phillips, D. (1999). On Comparing. In R. Alexander, P. Broadfoot and

D. Phillips (Eds). Learning from comparing: New directions in comparative
educational research, context, classrooms and outcomes, vol. 1. Oxford:
Symposium Books. Cited in Crossley, M., & Watson, K. (2003). Comparative
and international research in education. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Sodhi, T. S. (1998). Textbook of comparative education (6th ed.). New Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House.
Weiler, H. N. (1982). Educational planning and social change: A critical review

of concepts and practices. In Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F., & Kelly, G. P.
(Eds.) (1982). Comparative education. New York: Macmillan.

Topic The Scope
3 of Comparative
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define key terms related to education;

2. Relate key terms in education to underlying historical, economic and
socio-cultural factors;
3. Gain an international perspective of the development of an education
system; and
4. Evaluate the educational philosophy, policy, planning, structure,
goals and objectives of one or more countries.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we will examine how key features of education such as educational
philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals and objectives may be defined, and
how they are articulated or represented within the context of an educational
system. Using examples from a number of countries, the various sections of
this topic also demonstrate how these concepts may be used in making
comparisons between countries, states or schools of thought. More importantly,
comparisons across countries provide an international perspective on how
historical, socio-historical, political and economical factors shape the development
of the education system in a country. As you read the contents of the pages that
follow, think of the ways in which these terms apply to the education context
where you work or where you are studying.

42 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
3.1 KEY CONCEPTS IN EDUCATION

In most countries, the government plays a critical role in providing basic
education to its citizens. The term basic education refers to the many educational
activities that aim to meet basic learning needs of a people. Generally, it
comprises primary and in some cases lower secondary schooling as well as
formal and informal education. (Refer to definitions below for an understanding
of the term „basic education‰.) In addition to the provision of basic education,
the government also oversees wholly, or in part, educational activity in upper
secondary and post-secondary institutions.
The education provided by a government to the general public may be referred

to as public education, national education, government education, state education,
or even free education. It is often based on a national education philosophy
(Figure 3.1), which is then translated into well-articulated education policies,
goals and objectives. The implementation of these policies, goals and objectives
may be done at a national or regional level, but it involves a great deal of
educational planning, and is directly or indirectly realised through the countryÊs
education structure. The philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals and
objectives apply to basic education provided through primary and secondary
schools, as well as to post-secondary colleges, universities or technical schools.
Figure 3.1: The cornerstones of a national education system

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 43
Often when comparativists analyse one or more aspects of a nationÊs education

system, they take into consideration its educational philosophy, planning activities,
policy, goals and objectives as well as its structure. These key features become
useful points of comparison as related issues are discussed. For example, if you
wish to examine how basic education serves the needs of diverse cultures in
India and in Canada, you can examine related policies in the two countries. On
the other hand, if you wish to look at how the curriculum is structured in a
number of places, you may first wish to study the education philosophy as well
as its goals and objectives.
Table 3.1 gives the definitions of formal, non-formal and basic education.
Table 3.1: Definitions of Formal, Non-formal and Basic Education
Education Definition
Basic Education Refers to a whole range of educational activities that take place in
different settings and that aim to meet basic learning needs as
defined in the World Declaration on Education for All. It thus
comprises both formal schooling (primary and sometimes lower
secondary) as well as a wide variety of non-formal and informal
public and private educational activities offered to meet the
defined basic learning needs of groups of people of all ages.
Formal Education Refers to education provided in the system of schools, colleges,
universities and other formal educational institutions that normally
constitutes a continuous „ladder‰ of full-time education for children
and young people, generally beginning at age five, six or seven and
continuing up to 20 or 25 years of age. Formal basic education
usually comprises the primary school grades, but may include
also additional grades (e.g. lower secondary schooling) that are
considered „basic‰.
Non-formal May take place both within and outside educational institutions,
Education and may cater to persons of all ages. Depending on country
contexts, it may cover educational programmes to impart adult
literacy, basic education for out-of-school children, life skills, work
skills and general culture. Non-formal education programmes
do not necessarily follow the „ladder‰ system, may have varying
durations, and may or may not confer certification of the learning
achieved. Refer Figure 3.2 for an example of non-formal education
setting.
Source: http://portal.unesco.org/education/

Figure 3.2: A non-formal education class for adults held outdoors

Source: www.scdp.org.np/
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What do the words philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals

and objectives mean to you?
2. How can each of these words be defined in the context of the basic
education provided in your country?
3. Why is it important to study these key features of education?
This topic gives you a number of definitions and examples of the various terms
related to an education system so that you are able to:
(a) Understand what they mean in the context of educational practice; and
(b) Use them in making comparisons between countries, states or schools of
thought.
It is also important to compare how different countries define their educational

philosophy, planning, policy, goals and objectives as well as structure to get an
international perspective on these features. As you make these comparisons, you
will realise that education in different countries is influenced by a number of
historical, socio-historical, political and economical factors.

Note that subtopics 3.2 to 3.6 contain excerpts of the educational philosophy,
policy, etc. of different countries. To get the full version of each of these
documents you may have to visit the sites that have been identified.
The Use and Abuse of Comparative Education
Although comparative education characteristically

tends to emphasise differences, the basic similarities of
formal education across countries are also of interest.
With increasing speed, beginning about 1860, the
nations of the world have made available the facilities
for formal schooling to ever-larger fractions of their
populations.
The institutional frameworks, the preparation of

teachers, the equipment used, the systems of grading
and examinations, the issuing of certificates and
diplomas all contribute to the basic commonality
of school systems, wherever they are located. Two
main factors have been at work to create this
standardisation: diffusion of educational practices
across national boundaries and ever-greater sharing of
common objectives for expanding resources for formal
education.
Source: Noah, H. J. (1984).
3.2 EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

A countryÊs philosophy of education refers to the values, aspirations and ideals
underlying the nature of its education. It is usually a broad statement of what
education means to the people of a country, how they hope to achieve the
national agenda through education, and how the people of the country can
benefit from the education that is provided by the government. A philosophy
does not reflect an implementation plan, but is the basis for educational planning
and development of educational policy.

Here are examples of statements reflecting the philosophy of education in two

countries.
(a) Malaysia
Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the

potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to
God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are
knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards, and
who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-
being, as well as being able to contribute to the betterment of the family, the
society and the nation at large. (http://www.moe. gov.my)
(b) South Africa
The framework is intended to develop a higher education system that will:
(i) Promote equity of access and fair chances of success to all who are
seeking to realise their potential through higher education, while
eradicating all forms of unfair discrimination and advancing redress
for past inequalities; and
(ii) Meet national development needs and high-skilled employment needs

presented by a growing economy operating in a global environment
through well-planned and coordinated teaching, learning and research
programmes.
(Adapted from www. polity. org.za/govdocs)
Figure 3.3 illustrates school children from a primary school in South Africa.

Figure 3.3: School children from the Crags Primary School, Plattenberg Bay, South Africa
Source: www.awish.net/Africa/willingworkers
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. The statement on the education philosophy of Malaysia contains the
following lines:
(a) Based on a firm belief in and devotion to God.
(b) Who possess high moral standards.
(c) Contribute to the betterment of the family.
What do these lines tell you about the values and ideals of the
Malaysian people?
2. The following lines are extracted from the higher education

philosophy of South Africa:
(a) Promote equity of access and fair chances of success
(b) Eradicating all forms of unfair discrimination and advancing
redress for past inequalities.
How are these philosophical ideals reflective of the history of South

Africa?
3.3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

This refers to an action plan that a country wishes to undertake to achieve the
goals, objectives and strategies that are consistent with its educational
philosophy. It is usually the result of analysis of a countryÊs human resource
needs, and encompasses the formulation and the implementation of programmes
that will meet these needs. Educational planning may include whole-nation plans

(e.g. plans to address ICT needs in the whole country) or regional or sector plans
(e.g. plans to address under-education in rural areas).
Educational planning is reflected in the statements presented below.
(a) Malaysia MalaysiaÊs Ninth Plan (2006 2010)
The country must raise the capacity of its people by:
(i) Undertaking comprehensive improvement of the education system,

from pre-school to tertiary level, from the aspects of curriculum
and teaching to school facilities, with a special focus on raising the
standard of schools in the rural areas; and
(ii) Creating more avenues for skills development, training and lifelong
learning for the labour force at all levels and for all ages, including in
ICT.
(Selections from http://www.epu. jpm.my/rm9).
(b) Nepal NepalÊs Eighth Plan (1991 97)
In keeping with the needs of the country, emphasis has to be given to

improving the quality of education. For this, it is necessary to increase the
number of trained teachers; improve physical facilities of the schools; focus
on curriculum development and provision of textbooks; and engage in
regular and effective supervision of schools.
(Adapted from http://www.moe.gov.np).
Figure 3.4 illustrates a Nepalese school setting.

Figure 3.4: School children in a Nepalese School

Source: www.traveltalker.co.uk/nepal
ACTIVITY 3.1
Focus on the excerpts from MalaysiaÊs Ninth Plan (2006 2010) and
NepalÊs Eighth Plan (1991 97) above. (Note that these Plans were
implemented at different times in the year 2006 in Malaysia and in
the year 1991 in Nepal.)
1. What do you think is meant by each of the following?

(a) Raising the standard of schools in the rural areas.
(b) Creating more avenues for skills development.
(c) Improving the quality of education.
(d) Engaging in regular and effective supervision of schools.
2. Find examples of situations in Malaysia where these four assertions

apply. For example, if you think we need to raise the standard of
schools in rural areas in Malaysia, what would you like to see
changed? What do you think needs to be done in rural schools so
that we can raise the capacity of the Malaysian people, as stated in
the 9th Malaysian Plan?

3.4 EDUCATIONAL POLICY

Education policy refers to a guiding principle or a course of action that steers a
countryÊs educational programmes or decisions. Commonly, a government
devises a policy after deliberation and discussion among lawmakers, educationists,
social scientists and other interested parties. Education policies often circumscribe
a countryÊs national educational philosophy, and usually include a justification
for a course of action that has been/will be taken.
The following statements are related to education policy in two countries:
(a) India
IndiaÊs commitment to the spread of knowledge and freedom of thought

among its citizens is reflected in its Constitution. The Directive Principle
contained in Article 45 enjoins „the State shall endeavour to provide within
a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free
and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years.‰ Article 29 provides that any citizen having a distinct
language, script, special care of the economic and educational interests of
the underprivileged sections, particularly, the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes is laid down as an obligation of the State under article 46.
(http://www.education.nic.in)
Table 3.2 shows the education profile of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
the rest of the population in India.

Table 3.2: The Education Profile of Scheduled Castes (SC),

Scheduled Tribes (ST) and the Rest (Rest) of the Population in India
Source: Business Line, Tuesday, May 16, 2006
(b) Singapore
The bilingual policy is a fundamental feature of the Singapore education

system. It ensures that children learn at least two languages in schools
English and their mother tongue. English is essential as it is the language
of commerce, technology and administration. The learning of the mother
tongue, which could be Chinese, Malay or Tamil, enables the children to
keep in touch with their heritage and cultural values.
(www.education18.com).

ACTIVITY 3.2
1. The information in the above section tells us that both Singapore

and India have made provisions for the needs of diverse groups of
people who form part of their citizenry. To gain an understanding
of how these two countries have addressed issues of diversity, find
out more about educational provisions related to the following:
(a) Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India.
(b) Bilingual policy and mother tongue education in Singapore.
2. Read the excerpt below on policies related to ICT in education in

Malaysia. Have these policies been implemented in your school or
district? Why, or why not?
The concept of ICT in education, as seen by the Ministry of

Education, Malaysia, includes systems that enable information
gathering, management, manipulation, access, and communication
in various forms. The Ministry has formulated three main policies
for ICT in education.
(a) The first policy is that of ICT for all students, meaning that
ICT is used as an enabler to reduce the digital gap between
the schools.
(b) The second policy emphasises the role and function of ICT in
education as a teaching and learning tool, as part of a subject,
and as a subject by itself. Apart from radio and television as a
teaching and learning tool, this policy stresses the use of the
computer for accessing information, communication, and as
a productivity tool.
(c) The third policy emphasises using ICT to increase

productivity, efficiency and effectiveness of the management
system. ICT will be extensively used to automate and
mechanise work processes such as the processing of official
forms, timetable generation, management of information
systems, lesson planning, financial management, and the
maintenance of inventories.
Chan Foong-Mae, unpan1.un.org/intradoc

3.5 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

In order to implement educational plans and to realise educational policy,
educationists and administrators of a country normally devise a list of goals and
objectives. One way of differentiating between goals and objectives is to see them
as part of a hierarchy. Goals are statements of a vision, specifying what is to be
achieved. On the other hand, objectives are statements of the specific activities
required to achieve the goals. The following comparison is offered by Lewis
(1996):
(a) Goals are broad; objectives are narrow.
(b) Goals are general intentions; objectives are precise.
(c) Goals are intangible; objectives are tangible.
(d) Goals are abstract; objectives are concrete.
(e) Goals cannot be validated as is; objectives can be validated.
It is important to remember that statements reflecting educational goals are often

accompanied by objectives. In the following example (Figure 3.5), note that the
goal is stated in general terms while the objective is more specific.
Figure 3.5: The goal and the objective stated

Here are some statements reflecting educational goals and objectives:
(a) European Union
Ministers of education agreed on three major goals to be achieved by 2010

for the benefit of the citizens and the EU as a whole:
(i) To improve the quality and effectiveness of EU education and training
systems;
(ii) To ensure that they are accessible to all; and
(iii) To open up education and training to the wider world.
To achieve these ambitious but realistic goals, [EU Ministers] agreed on

thirteen specific objectives covering the various types and levels of
education and training (formal, non-formal and informal) aimed at
making a reality of lifelong learning. Systems have to improve on all
fronts: teacher training; basic skills; integration of Information and
Communication Technologies; efficiency of investments; language
learning; lifelong guidance; flexibility of the systems to make learning
accessible to all, mobility, citizenship education, etc.
(http://europa.eu.int/comm /education /policies)

(b) United States of America
The Congress declares the following as the National Education Goals:
SCHOOL READINESS: By the year 2000, all children in the United States
will start school ready to learn. The objectives for this goal are that:
(i) All children will have access to high-quality and developmentally

appropriate pre-school programs that help prepare children for
school; and
(ii) Every parent in the United States will be a childÊs first teacher and
devote time each day to helping pre-school child learn, and parents
will have access to the training and support they need.
(Adapted from: www.ed.gov/legislation)
Goals are general directions, somewhat nebulous,

that are not specific enough to be measured. Think of
the word „go.‰ It has no end.
Objectives, on the other hand, are specific and

measurable. They can be output objectives, or they
can be attitudinal or behavioural; but most of all,
they can be measured. They are concise and specific.
Think of the word „object.‰ You can touch it. It is

there, it is actual and it is finite. Think of the goals
as the treasure at the top of a stairway, and the http://www.buythemonk
objectives as the stairs. ey.com/images/wedding
/staircase
(http://www.geocities.com/wallstreet)

ACTIVITY 3.3
Read the following pairs of statements and identify the statements that
reflect goals and those that reflect objectives.
1. (A) To improve literacy rates across the country by assuming a

national leadership role through the Ministry of Education.
(B) To allow all Canadian teachers to acquire deepened

knowledge of literacy through a one-year or two-year
training programme.
2. (A) To build the best system of support for children with

disabilities and special needs so that they can participate
more fully in their communities.
(B) To remove administrative and physical barriers that hinder

children with special needs and providing greater access
to all forms of learning services such as computers and
counselling.
3. (A) To improve access to information through public library

initiatives designed to simplify user access to a broader range
of information.
(B) To make Malaysia the best educated and most literate

country in Southeast Asia.
4. (A) To provide young Australians with the skills and knowledge

for the advancement of learning and the dissemination of
knowledge.
(B) To provide adequate funding for instruction and research in

engineering and technology.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES REGULATING THE NATIONAL EDUCATION

SYSTEM OF THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY
The general goals of the National Education System are:
1. To raise all individuals as citizens who are committed to the principles and
reforms of Atatürk and to the nationalism of Atatürk as expressed in the
Constitution, who adopt, protect and promote the national, moral, human,
spiritual and cultural values of the Turkish Nation, who love and always
seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and
responsibilities towards the Republic of Turkey which is a democratic,
secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on human
rights and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the Constitution, and
who have internalised these in their behavior;
2. To raise them as constructive, creative and productive persons who are

physically, mentally, morally, spiritually and emotionally balanced, have
a sound personality and character, with the ability to think freely and
scientifically and have a broad worldview, that are respectful for human
rights, value personality and enterprise, and feel responsibility towards
society;
3. To prepare them for life by developing their interests, talents and

capabilities and providing them with the necessary knowledge, skills and
attitudes and the habit of working with others and to ensure that they
acquire a profession which shall make them happy and contribute to the
happiness of society ⁄
Figure 3.6: General principles regulating the national education system

of the Republic of Turkey
Source: http://www.meb.gov.tr/
3.6 EDUCATION STRUCTURE

The education structure refers to the way in which teaching and learning in
schools and tertiary institutions are organised in a country. Generally, the
structure tells you more about the following:
(a) The order or sequence in which institutions providing basic education are
to be attended, e.g. attending primary school before secondary school or a
post-secondary institution;

(b) The number of years one spends at each level, e.g. six years or seven years
at the primary school; and
(c) The pathways to admission and graduation, e.g. attending primary school
at the age of seven or how one can qualify for admission to an institution of
higher education such as a university.
Let us now take a look at the educational structure of China and Brunei.
(a) China
ChinaÊs education mainly comprises of the following stages:
(i) Pre-school
Children of 3 to 5 years old receive pre-school education at
kindergartens.
(ii) Primary School

For children of 6 to 11 years old. Primary schools are generally run by
local government. Some are run by enterprises and individuals.
(iii) Secondary School

For teenagers of 12 to 17 years old. Secondary schools are generally
run by local governments and educational departments. Secondary
schools include common middle schools, vocational schools and
specialised secondary schools. Common middle schools include junior
schools and senior schools, each with three-year period of schooling.
Some junior middle school graduates are accepted by senior middle
schools while some go to vocational schools and specialised
secondary schools, with a schooling period of three to five years.
(iv) Higher Education

Including two to three years short higher education, undergraduate
education and graduate education.
(http://www.china culture.org/gb)

(b) Brunei
The formal school system in Brunei Darussalam has adopted a 7-3-2-2

pattern.
(i) Primary Education

In Brunei Darussalam it takes seven years, including one year at
pre-school level. Primary education is divided into three stages:
pre-school, lower primary and upper primary.
(ii) Lower Secondary

The duration of schooling at lower secondary level is three years. At the
end of the third year, students sit for the Penilaian Menengah Bawah
(PMB) or Lower Secondary Assessment examination. On completion of
the PMB examination, students have the following options:
To pursue two to three years of upper secondary education leading

to the Brunei Cambridge General Certificate of Education (GCE „O‰
Level) examination or the GCE „N‰ level examination; or
To pursue craft and basic technical level courses at technical or

vocational institutions or enter the employment market.

(iii) Upper Secondary

Based on performance in the PMB examination, students will be
channeled into a Science, Arts or Technical stream. The duration of
schooling at this level is either two or three years. At the end of
the second year, high academic achievers may sit for the Brunei-
Cambridge GCE Ordinary level (GCE „O‰ Level) examination.
Pre-tertiary and Higher Education

Those students with adequate and relevant „O‰ Level passes may
proceed to do a two-year Pre-University course leading to the Brunei-
Cambridge Advanced Level Certificate of Education examination (GCE
„A‰ Level). Others may decide to opt for employment or undertake
education and training programmes at the Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah
Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, technical colleges,
vocational schools, the nursing college or study abroad.
(http://www.moe.gov.bn/organisation)
Figure 3.7: The picture above shows three Brunei girls of a water village, waiting for a
water taxi to take them to the Muslim afternoon school.
Source: http://www.wunrn.com.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Examine the brief description of the Indonesian and Malaysian

education structure presented below:
Indonesian Education
Malaysian Education
The Indonesian education system
Primary education consists of 6
recognises two different paths of
years (Year 1-6) while secondary
education: school education and
education consists of 5 years of
out-of-school education.
schooling (Form 1-5). Primary
Indonesia adopts a 6-3-3-4 school
education is offered in three
education system, which consists
tracks: national, Tamil and
of 6 years of primary, 3 years of
Chinese. Students from Tamil
junior secondary, 3 years of senior
and Chinese primary schools
secondary and 4 years of tertiary
often spend an extra year
education. Basic education
(Remove Class) at the secondary
consists of primary and junior
level. At the end of Form 5,
secondary school education.
students take the Sijil Pelajaran
Senior secondary schooling
Malaysia (Malaysian Certificate
consists of two streams: general
of Education) examination,
and technical/ vocational.
before graduating from
(Adapted from: secondary school.
http://www.ginie. org / cstudies
(Adapted from: http://en.
/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm)
wikipedia.org /wiki/
Education_in_Malaysia)
1. What are some of the key differences that you can identify between
the two systems?
2. Make a list of questions you would like to ask an Indonesian

education expert about the structure of education in his/her
country.

3.7 A CASE STUDY

Let us now examine the various features of an education system with respect to
one country, the Republic of Seychelles. As shown in the map (Figure 3.8),
Seychelles is made up of 115 tropical islands located in the Indian Ocean. It has a
population of about 90,000 and the official languages of its people are Creole,
English and French. Education in the Republic is compulsory through grade 10
and is offered through public and private schools. To get a more comprehensive
view of the education system in Seychelles, read the appended article entitled
Education
in Seychelles: An overview by Marie-Therese Purvis (2004: 46-51; Source:
http://www.seychelles.net/smdj). The article (Appendix 1) gives you a
description of the education system in Seychelles, its main characteristics and its
major achievements.
Seychelles culture is a mixture of French and African (Creole) influences. Creole

is the native language of 94% of the people; however, English and French are
commonly used. English remains the language of government and commerce.
About 88% of the adult population is literate, and the literacy rate of school-aged
children has risen to well over 98%. Increases are expected, as nearly all children
of primary school age attend school, and the government encourages adult
education.

Figure 3.8: Seychelles

Source: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/

ACTIVITY 3.5
CASE STUDY: REPUBLIC OF SEYCHELLES
After you have read the article, make notes on some of the key features
of education in the Republic of Seychelles. Use the following questions
as a guide.
1. Why does the author begin with an outline of historical events?
2. Which lines give you information about the philosophy or

fundamental principles that guide education in Seychelles today?
3. How is the education structure in Seychelles different or similar to

that in your own country?
4. What are some of the policies that were implemented with respect
to reforms introduced in the 1990s? How are these similar or
different from the policies introduced in the 1970s and 1980s?
5. What are some of the main concerns raised by the author?

Elaborate on the comments related to education quality, language
policy, teacher supply and assessment.
6. Would you have difficulty teaching in Seychelles? Why, or why
As governments play a key role in providing basic education to its people,

they are also responsible for the formulation of a nationÊs educational
philosophy, planning activities, policy, structure, goals and objectives. These
features are common to education in most countries and are useful for
drawing comparisons about educational practice in different countries.
A countryÊs philosophy of education refers to the values, aspirations and

ideals of its people. It is a reflection of what education means to the people of
a country, how it is related to the national agenda and how the people of the
country can benefit from education.

Educational planning refers to an action plan that a country wishes to

undertake to achieve the goals, objectives and strategies that are consistent
with its educational philosophy. Planning is usually congruent to a countryÊs
human resource needs.
Educational policy refers to a guiding principle or a course of action that

steers a countryÊs educational programmes or decisions.
Goals and objectives help a nation to implement educational plans and realise
educational policy. Goals are statements of a vision, specifying what is to be
achieved while objectives are statements of the specific activities required to
achieve the goals.
Education structure refers to the way in which teaching and learning in

schools and tertiary institutions are organised in a country. Specifically it
shows the way institutions providing basic education are ranked, the number
of years one spends at each level and/or the pathways to admission and
graduation from school or an institution of higher education.
Aspirations Goals
Comparativists Ideas
Education philosophy Objectives
Education planning Policies
Excerpts Values
Purvis, M. T. (2004). Education in Seychelles: An overview. Seychelles Medical

and Dental Journal, Special Issue, Vol. 7, No 1, 46 51. Available from:
http://www.seychelles.net/smdj.

T op i c Education
4 Structure
in Japan
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe, in detail, the education structure of a country;
2. Discuss issues that are related to the implementation of education
structure; and
3. Compare the education structure of a country with that of your own
country.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we examine in some detail the education structure of Japan, a
leading industrial nation on the Asian continent. As you read this topic, you will
find that Japan has an education structure that is similar to countries such as
Malaysia: schooling is conducted at the pre-school, primary, lower-secondary,
upper-secondary (or pre-university) as well as the tertiary level. You will also
note that education comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology or Monbukagakusho (MEXT for short).
While the Ministry may be seen as a governing body at the national level, there
are number of prefectures and municipalities that help with administration at the
local level. As in all countries, there are a number of issues that may be raised in
relation to Japanese education. Some of these are: pressure induced by excessive
competition; strict regulation to ensure student discipline; and a lack of
instruction that deals with different levels of ability. As always, it is important to
view these issues within the framework of Japanese societal norms as well as the
socio-political developments within the country.

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 67
CASE STUDY: JAPAN 1
4.1 CONTEMPORARY JAPAN

Japan (Figure 4.1) lies to the east of
China, North Korea and South Korea
and is located in the North Pacific
Ocean. The country consists of four
main islands Hokkaido, Honshu,
Shikoku, and Kyushu and more than
3,000 other islands. About 75% of the
land area is mountainous, with Mount
Fuji or Fujisan rising to 3,776 meters
above sea level.
Figure 4.1: Map of Japan

Source: 1blueplanet.com countries_maps
Japan has a population of 127,463,611 (2006 estimate) with most of its people
(84%) being of Shinto and Buddhist faith. The main language spoken is Japanese,
with English becoming increasingly more common in big cities. The chief of state
is Emperor Akihito, a constitutional monarch, while the head of government is
the prime minister who is elected through legislative elections. Tokyo is JapanÊs
largest city with a population of 12 million (2006 estimate). It became the nationÊs
capital in 1869, and is today the countryÊs industrial and economic hub. Tokyo is
also the centre for Japanese culture and education. The Japanese economy
remains one of the strongest in the world. Japan is a member of the Group of
Eight or G-8, an informal group made up of seven of the worldÊs leading
industrialised nations and Russia. Japan exports cars, electronic devices and
computers while its imports include food, petroleum and wood products.
1 The information used in this topic is a synthesis of findings from reports by the Library of
Congress, the Case Study Project (TIMSS) and the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher
Education. Other sources of information are websites belonging to UNESCO and the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan.

68 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN
Did You Know?

Japan has a small group of Indigenous
People. The Ainu are a people descended
from the first inhabitants of the country.
Under an 1899 law, the Government pursued
a policy of assimilation, imposing mandatory
Japanese-language education for the Ainu.
www.state.gov/g/drl/rls
4.2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN

Pre-World War II By the Imperial Rescript on
beginning of the 20th century, Education (1890)
the education system in Japanese values
Japan was largely localised Confucian
in character and was based on principles
Japanese values. At that time, Centralised
the Japanese were considered control
highly educated with the first national public school
system established in the 1870s (Ellington, 2003). The
educational philosophy was guided by the Imperial WW II
Rescript on Education (1890) which stressed Confucian
principles. The society was guided to honour the
hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the
country, the pursuit of learning and morality. United States
Education Mission
(1946)
Things began to change during the early twentieth
New structure
century, with German and Christian influences being
Non-elitist
exerted on education at the tertiary level. Although
9 years of
egalitarian and universal primary education was
compulsory
available, the same could not be said of higher schooling
education, or what was known as the higher- Moral studies
secondary school system. The latter was highly abolished
selective and elitist, with few opportunities made Social studies
available to women. Until the end of World War II, introduced
Japanese education was controlled by a centralised TeachersÊ
government. unions
School boards
elected

Post-World War II The end of World War II marked a Ministry of

crucial time in Japanese education history; the old Education, Japan
system collapsed and new ideas were introduced to (1952)
Japanese education by the United States Education Moral education
Mission (1946). As a result, education was restructured re-introduced
to be less elitist and compulsory schooling for all Japanese ideas
Japanese was extended to nine years. Further, the School boards
curriculum and content of textbooks were reviewed to appointed
be less focused on morality and more on social studies.
In addition, teachersÊ unions were established while University Control
school boards were to be locally elected. It was at this Law (1969) and
thereafter
time that a new 6-3-3 structure aimed at democratising
Education
education was introduced, a structure which is used in
reforms
Japanese schools till today.
However, when Japanese sovereignty was restored in 1952, the Ministry of

Education of Japan regained control. Moral education was re-introduced and
Japanese ideals were brought back into the curricula. Instead of school boards
being elected, they were now to be appointed. Another important period in the
history of Japanese education was the 1960s when the country was besieged by
student riots. This gave way to the University Control Law (1969) and the
introduction of education reforms in the early 1970s.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. What are the main differences between the pre-war and post-war
education structure in Japan?
2. Why do you think moral studies were re-introduced by the

Ministry of Education in 1952? What does this suggest to you about
the culture or tradition of the Japanese?
3. The Japanese introduced the 6-3-3 school structure after World War
II. What is the school structure used in your country today? When
was it first introduced?

THE FLAG OF JAPAN
DESCRIPTION: The flag of Japan is white with a large red disk (representing
the sun without rays) in the centre
ADOPTION DATE: 13 August 1999
HISTORY: The flag is called Hinomaru (disk of the sun). The

sun recalls the name of Japan (the Land of the Rising Sun)
and worship of Amaterasu Omikami (the Sun Goddess), the
most venerated goddess in the Shinto religion. The colours
also reflect the spirit of Shinto. White is for purity and
integrity, red for sincerity, brightness and warmth.
www.countrywatch.org/flags
4.3 STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION

Today, Japanese education at all levels comes under the jurisdiction of the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (also known as
Monbusho or Monbukagakusho or MEXT). The Fundamental Law of Education
(1947) spells out the goals of and the governing principles for education at all
levels in Japan.2 This document was revised in 2003 and submitted as the New
Fundamental Law of Education. The other two statutes which play a role in the
regulation and management of education activity in the country are the School
Education Law and the Social Education Law.
This Monbukagakusho sets education standards and is responsible for the

formulation and implementation of national education policy. Three levels
of government administration help administer the various financial and
supervisory educational services in the country. These are the national,
prefectural and municipal levels. The first level of education activity is carried
out at the national level, referring to work that is carried out at the ministerial
level or within the Monbukagakusho. Beneath the Monbukagakusho is the upper
tier of local government made up of prefectures and the lower tier of local
government made up of municipalities (See Figure 4.2). There are 47 prefectures
and over 3,400 municipalities in Japan.
2 More information on management and organisation of education may be obtained from the
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA, England) and from the Monbukagakusho
website.

Figure 4.2: Educational governance in Japan
The Japanese hold several important beliefs about education,

especially compulsory schooling: that all children have the ability to
learn the material; that effort, perseverance, and self-discipline, not
academic ability, determine academic success; and that these study
and behavioural habits can be taught. Thus, students in elementary
and lower-secondary schools are not grouped or taught on the basis
of their ability, nor is instruction geared to individual differences.
Source: http://countrystudies.us/japan.
According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 10.5% of government spending

goes to education (2004 estimate). Most children below the age of five (85 %) are
enrolled in pre-primary school. Practically all children of primary school-age are
enrolled in school. In addition, more than half of the population of tertiary age
(54 %) is enrolled in higher education institutions. The literacy rate of the people
in the country is high (see Table 4.1) and Japanese students have generally
recorded high levels of academic achievement by international standards. As
many Japanese view educational excellence as an important life goal, children
and young adults attend extra classes or juku to prepare for examinations. The
Japanese education system reflects local cultural and philosophical ideals.
Learning and education are highly valued with a strong emphasis on moral and
character development. Schooling is aimed at developing the right attitudes and
values such as effort and self-discipline and is attuned to the basic values of
Japanese culture and society.

Table 4.1: Literacy Rates in Japan
2000 2004
Population Gender
Average (%)
Male/Female 90.8
Adult
Male 94.7
(15+)
Female 86.8
Male/Female 97.9
Youth
Male 98.2
(15 24)
Female 97.5
Source: UNESCO Institute of Statistics
In terms of schooling at the primary and secondary level, the education structure
in Japan follows the 6-3-3 structure introduced during the post-World War II
period. This means that there are six years of primary or elementary school, three
years of lower-secondary school and three years of upper-secondary school. At
the tertiary level, students usually attend four years in university or college3.
Children below the age of five attend pre-school; however the amount of time a
child spends in pre-school varies. The government provides free and compulsory
basic education for nine years, that is, in the primary and lower-secondary
schools. (Refer to Figure 4.3 for an overview of the Japanese education structure).
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Based on the statistics given earlier, what can you say about access
to education for Japanese children?
2. What parallels can you draw between JapanÊs economic

development and access to education in the country?
3. What appears to be the underlying philosophy that shapes

attitudes to education in the country?
3 The duration of courses for medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine is usually six years. Time
spent in vocational colleges varies according to programme.

Figure 4.3: The Japanese education structure

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan

ACTIVITY 4.1
Examine the education structure of Japan as depicted in Figure 4.3.
1. What similarities do you see between the education structure of

Japan and that of Malaysia?
2. How is the Malaysian and Japanese tertiary education structure

different?
In the following pages, we take a closer look at five levels of schooling in Japan:
(a) Preschool;
(b) Primary (also known as Elementary);
(c) Lower-secondary;
(d) Upper-secondary; and
(e) Higher Education.
„Teaching music is not my main purpose. I want to

make good citizens. If children hear fine music from
the day of their birth and learn to play it, they
develop sensitivity, discipline and endurance. They
get a beautiful heart.‰
Shinichi Suzuki (1898 1998), Japanese violinist and

teacher who introduced millions of children to his
„Suzuki Method.‰
(a) Preschool: Yohchien/Hoikusho

Most children in Japan attend preschool, which may be either run by the
government or privately run. According to Article 78 of JapanÊs School
Education Law, the main objectives of education at the early childhood
stage are:
(i) To cultivate everyday habits necessary for a sound, safe and happy
life to effect a harmonious development of the physical body;

(ii) To make children experience in the kindergarten a group life and to

cultivate willingness to take part in it as well as the germ of the spirit
of cooperation and independence;
(iii) To cultivate the germ of right understanding of and right attitudes

toward the surrounding social life and happenings around themselves;
(iv) To guide the right use of the language and foster an interest in fairy
tales and picture books; and
(v) To cultivate their interest in expressing themselves through music,

dances, pictures and other means.
Source: UNESCO-APEID, 1996
Most pre-schools are private, and come under one of two categories: the
kindergarten or Yohchien and the day care centre or Hoikusho. Activities
in each of these two pre-school categories are governed by different
Ministries. The kindergarten is guided by the School Education Law, which
means that it comes under the aegis of the Monbukagakusho. Guidelines
for teaching and learning in kindergarten are given in the Course of Study
for Kindergartens. Children from the ages of 3 to 5 can attend kindergarten
for 4 hours a day. Meanwhile, babies and young children below the age of 5
attend day care for about 8 hours a day. These centres follow the Guidelines
of Education and Care in Day Care Centres issued by the Ministry of Health
and Social Welfare. As indicated by UNESCOÊs Institute of Statistics, 85% of
Japanese children were enrolled in pre-schools in the year 2004. As shown
in Figure 4.4, this is twice as many the number of children who were
enrolled in pre-schools in 1991.
Figure 4.4: Enrolment in pre-school education over 14 years

Source: UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2004

ACTIVITY 4.2
Read the following excerpt on early childhood education (ECE) in

Malaysia, paying close attention to the first line and to the objectives.
Then compare the objectives given below to those of the Japanese pre-
school.
1. Do you think the objectives of ECE in Malaysia give enough

attention to childrenÊs developmental needs?
2. What are some of the key considerations for drawing up objectives

for ECE?
Early childhood development programmes are instrumental in

preparing the nationÊs young to participate in nation building.
In Malaysia there are two types of institutions that cater to this
need: childcare centres and pre-schools. The childcare centre is
defined as any premise where four children or more from a
household are received to be looked after for a fee. The centre
admits children below four years of age and is categorised into
(i) Home Based Centre and (ii) Institutional Centre. The former
receives less than 10 children, while the latter receives more
than 10 children. These centres offer childcare services ranging
from half-day to full day basis. The objectives of the childcare
centre are as follows:
(a) Assisting working parents so that their children get good
care.
(b) Enhancement of standard of living of the family.
(c) Provide opportunities for people who love children to
work in the childcare centres.
(d) Encouraging involvement of the society in the caring and
nursing of the children.
(Sahara, 2000)
The word ‰courage‰ in

Japanese writing

(b) Primary School: Shogakkou

In Japan, education at the primary level is compulsory and free for all
schoolchildren. Formal schooling begins at age six, with primary education
offered from Grade One to Grade Six. A high percentage (99%) of primary-
age children are enrolled in school.
In response to education reform and the need for curriculum review,

the Monbukagakusho introduced the Course of Study for Primary Schools
in 1989. As a result, the public school curricula are nationally designed
with a heavy emphasis on Japanese language and moral education. From
an early age, students learn about the complexities of written Japanese and
about the different registers in spoken language.
Other academic subjects that are emphasised are arithmetic, science

and history. There is also a „daily life‰ course which focuses on character
development and teaches children the importance of communal effort and
teamwork. Children also learn art, handicraft, music, homemaking and
physical education. The curricula are represented in government-approved
textbooks which are published by the Monbukagakusho. These textbooks
are distributed free of charge to students from Grades One to Nine. Apart
from this, primary schools generally have 30 to 40 students in a class. Most
schools have good facilities such as teaching materials and audiovisual
equipment for academic work. For co-curricular activities, most schools are
equipped with a gymnasium and/or a swimming pool.
A significant feature of the first six years of basic education is that it is seen
to be important in shaping childrenÊs attitudes and moral character. Every
opportunity is used to teach children about cooperation, about proper ways
to interact in society and about the importance of working as a unified
group. Therefore, moral education is not only studied as a subject, but is
also part of daily life. The statistics indicate that after completing primary
school, almost all primary schoolchildren advance to the lower-secondary
level (UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2004).
SELF-CHECK 4.3
1. At what age do Japanese children begin and end basic education?
2. Based on the information above, prepare an outline of the primary

school curriculum.

(c) Lower-secondary School: Chugakkou

At the lower-secondary level, children attend three years of free and
compulsory education. The subjects taken for grades seven, eight and nine
are stipulated under the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools,
which was implemented during the 1992 to 1993 school year. These subjects
include Japanese language, moral education, mathematics, social studies,
science, music, fine arts, health, industrial arts, homemaking and physical
education. A foreign language such as English is also included as an
elective.
Typically, students in lower-secondary schools are expected to attend a

minimum of 1,050 periods of study for each year of junior high school (Jichi
Sogo Centre, 1991). Each period translates to about 50 minutes, which
means that if junior high school students have to attend school 200 days a
year, they would be carrying out academic study at school for 4 to 5 hours a
day, at the very least (See Table 4.2). Subject specialisation does not take
place at the lower-secondary school level.
Table 4.2: Number of School Hours in Japanese Lower-secondary Schools
Subjects Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9

Japanese language 175 140 140
Mathematics 105 140 140
Science 105 105 105 140
Moral Education 35 35 35
Music 70 70 35
Fine Arts 70 70 35
Health and Physical Education 105 105 105 140
Industrial Arts or Homemaking 70 70 70 105
Social studies 140 140 70 105
Special Activities 35 70 35 35
Elective Subjects 105 140 105 210 140 280
Total Minimum Required 1,050 1,050 1,050
Source: Jichi Sogo Centre, 1991

For most students, the aim of lower-secondary education is to secure

a place in a prestigious or reasonably good upper-secondary school.
To qualify for upper-secondary schools, students take several short tests
and two main examinations each semester. These main examinations
prepare students for the Upper-Secondary Entrance Examination which
they have to take to qualify for the upper-secondary or college level. These
standardised upper-secondary school entrance examinations are administered
either at the prefectural or national level.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1. What do you think is the Malaysian equivalent of the Course of

Study for Lower-Secondary Schools?
2. What do you think is the Malaysian equivalent of the Upper-

Secondary Entrance Examination?
3. Does the Japanese lower-secondary school child spend more time

on academic subjects than a Malaysian child?

In the News...
Identity Crisis and Schools by Jason Miks (29 June 2006)
The children [in Japan] are shuttled from school classes to cram class and
then to club activities like basketball or kendo. They are exhausted. A friend
of mine who teaches in a language school here said that many of the
students at her branch look like they are about to fall asleep in class. Indeed
one child did.
Working the kids longer isn't the right way forward, and getting them to be
good citizens isn't going to happen by changing school textbooks to gloss
over the past. If the government wants young people to be proud citizens
then it should provide opportunities for them to do what proud citizens do.
Instead of encouraging token gestures and empty words, perhaps schools
and parents should be easing some of the incredible pressure on their
children to achieve academically and get them involved in their communities
through voluntary work.
(d) Upper-Secondary School: Koutougakkou

Most lower-secondary school graduates advance to upper-secondary
schools although this third tier is not part of compulsory schooling in
Japan. Private schools may also be attended at this level. The role of upper-
secondary schooling, that is, Grades 10, 11 and 12, is to prepare students for
university placement and/or employment. Thus, this tier may be viewed as
a „pre-university stage‰ in Japanese education. Upper-secondary schools
follow curricular guidelines provided by Monbukagakusho and may
belong to any of the following categories:
(i) Regular or academic track (futsu); or

(ii) Vocational track which prepares students for commercial (shogyo); or
(iii) Industrial (kogyo) work.
Entrance into academic upper-secondary schools is more competitive than

into the vocational track. In the academic track, students take courses such
as Japanese language, English, mathematics and science. The vocational
track includes anything from ICT to fish farming. Students are admitted
to upper-secondary schools on the basis of their scholastic record and
performance in examinations in lower-secondary school. An informal
ranking system is used for upper-secondary schools based on the number

of graduates who get admitted into prestigious universities. Thus, students

aim to get admission into highly-ranked upper-secondary schools so that
they can then be prepared for admission into highly-ranked universities.
Like the primary and lower-secondary schools, the upper-secondary
curriculum has been guided by the Course of Study for Upper-Secondary
Schools since 1994. One of the focal areas of this curriculum is the
importance of family life and the role of the family in society. For this
reason, home economics is offered as a course to both males and females.
Another change that was instituted in 1994 was in social sciences; where
there was a single course in social studies, the upper-secondary schools
now offer history, geography and civics. Like lower-secondary schools,
teachers in upper-secondary teachers teach courses in their areas of
specialisation.
ACTIVITY 4.4
1. Find out more about options that exist in Malaysia for post-
secondary students who wish to pursue a vocational or technical
education track.
2. Conduct a brief survey among your friends or family to find out

whether most Malaysians are aware of institutions that provide
vocational/technical training.
3. What are the admission criteria for such institutions?
(e) Higher Education

Japan has an extensive tertiary education system with a large number of
state and private universities. The country also has one of the highest
university enrolment rates in the world: in the year 2004, 54% of the
population of tertiary age was actually enrolled in tertiary education
(UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2004). Notably, in 1991, this figure stood at
30% (Figure 4.5). As the society becomes more advanced, the number of
institutions offering graduate programmes (MasterÊs and PhD levels) is also
expected to grow. There are, however, very few foreign students enrolled in
Japanese universities and colleges.

Figure 4.5: Enrolment in tertiary education over 14 years

Source: UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2004
For most courses, the term of study in universities is four years; exceptions are
courses such as medicine, dentistry and veterinary science. According to the
School Education Law in Japan, the purpose of universities is to conduct teaching
and research in depth in specialised academic subjects as well as to provide
broad knowledge as a centre of learning and to develop intellectual, moral and
practical abilities.
Higher education in Japan consists of four categories of institutions:

Universities;
Junior colleges; Colleges of technology;
Colleges of technology; and
Specialised training colleges.

(a) Universities
As shown in Table 4.3, there were
702 universities in Japan in the year 2003.
Of these, 526 or 75% were private
universities. The number of new graduates
from universities entering the job market in
the year 2003 was 299,987. In the same
year, the number of teachers graduating
from universities was 17,464 (less than
6%)4. It has been noted that there is an
upward trend in the growth of tertiary
institutions in Japan.
Figure 4.6: University of Tokyo

Source:
www.ism.ac.ru/IR/ujapan
Table 4.3: Number of Universities in Japan
Universities
Total National Local Private Percentage
of Private
1955 228 72 34 122 (%) 53.5
60 245 72 33 140 57.1
65 317 73 35 209 65.9
70 382 75 33 274 71.7
75 420 81 34 305 72.6
80 446 93 34 319 71.5
85 460 95 34 331 72.0
90 507 96 39 372 73.4
95 565 98 52 415 73.5
99 622 99 66 457 73.5

2000 649 99 72 478 73.7
01 669 99 74 496 74.1
02 686 99 75 512 74.6
03 702 100 76 526 74.9
Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2004
4 These statistics are available from http://www.mext.go.jp/english/statist

The university system is guided by the Standards for the Establishment of

Universities (revised by MEXT in 1991). All universities have to define their
educational and research agenda and actively strive to contribute to the
enhancement of education and research in the country.
Entry into JapanÊs top-ranked universities (Figure 4.7) is highly competitive,

with public national universities being regarded as the most prestigious. All
students seeking entrance to university must take the University Entrance
Examination. Many students attend special intensive classes called Juku in
order to prepare for this examination. Others wait a year or two and take
the examination only when they are ready. Additionally, many universities
have their own entrance examination and evaluation methods to determine
whether a candidate can cope with a course after admission.
Another pathway to universities is offered by the University Entrance

Qualification Examination. Typically, this is taken by students who have
not graduated from upper-secondary school, but seek admission to a
university. As Japan has a very large number of institutions providing
higher education, it is possible to be highly selective, and to provide a
diverse range of courses and specialisations.
Top Japanese Universities
1. University of Tokyo
2. Kyoto University
3. Osaka University
4. Tokyo Institute of Technology
5. Tohoku University
6. Keio University
Figure 4.7: Top Japanese universities

(b) Junior Colleges

The statistics for junior colleges are presented in Table 4.4. There were
525 junior colleges in Japan in the year 2003, of which 88% were private.
However, of the 71,146 graduates in 2003, 65,951 (93%) were female.
Further, of the total number of graduates from junior colleges, 21,080 (30%)
graduated with an education or teacher training degree.
Table 4.4: Number of Junior Colleges in Japan
Universities
Percentage
Year Total National Local Private
of Private
1955 264 17 43 204 (%) 77.3
60 280 27 39 214 76.4
65 369 28 40 301 81.6
70 479 22 43 414 86.4
75 513 31 48 434 84.6
80 517 35 50 432 83.6
85 543 37 51 455 83.8
90 593 41 54 498 84.0
95 596 36 60 500 83.9
99 585 23 59 503 86.0

2000 572 20 55 497 86.9
01 559 19 51 489 87.5
02 541 16 50 475 87.8
03 525 13 49 463 88.2
Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2004
(c) Colleges of Technology

In terms of the statistics for Colleges of Technology, there were 58 colleges
offering engineering and mercantile marine courses in 2003. However, only
a small number of these were privately owned. Besides that, of the 10,000
graduates in that year, only 1,894 (less than 20%) were female.
(d) Specialised Training Colleges

The last group of higher education institutions falls under the category of
specialised training colleges offering advanced courses. Courses are related
to medical technology, health, business, home economics and agriculture.
In 2003, there were 3,439 such colleges, and 91% of them were private.
There were about 335,784 graduates from these colleges, half of whom were
females (53%).

SELF-CHECK 4.4
Examine the statistics on the four categories of higher education
institutions in Japan.
1. Which category had the highest number of graduates in 2003?
2. Where did the largest number of teachers graduate from in 2003?
3. What is the difference between Colleges of Technology and

Specialised Training Colleges?
4.4 ISSUES RELATED TO JAPANESE

EDUCATION STRUCTURE
We now turn our attention to the impact of the education structure in Japan
on employment and student life. To begin, the emphasis on equal access to
basic education provides the opportunity for all its citizens to attain lifelong
knowledge and skills. The fact that the Japanese education structure is well-
defined helps students (and their parents) plan their careers. At the higher-
secondary and tertiary level, students are dedicated to the course of study they
have chosen. The large number of tertiary institutions also provides all Japanese
with the opportunity to pursue higher education. In addition to this, there exists
an effective system of job placement in Japan to help new graduates work in their
areas of specialisation. Finally, the close link between school values and Japanese
societal norms fosters strong and cohesive communities.
However, as with all education systems, there are several issues that need
attention, and Japanese education is no exception. Some of the issues that have
raised concern among educationists are:
(a) A lack of instruction that deals with different levels of ability;
(b) Pressure induced by excessive competition; and
(c) Strict regulation to ensure student discipline.
As always, it is important to realise that although all countries plan and

implement educational goals based on a number of factors, the education system
affects different groups of people in different ways.
Let us take a closer look at the issue of a lack of instruction that deals with
different levels of ability. This may also be interpreted as a lack of personalised

or individualised instruction in Japanese schools. Many children face difficulty as

they are unable to conform to the strict demands laid by a highly rigid education
structure. For example, there is little room for instruction for slow learners as
teaching for some subjects is lecture-oriented. Japanese teachers and educators
have also raised the issue of a lack of flexibility in the lower-secondary school,
where students are exposed to examination-oriented teaching and learning.
Teachers, in turn, are expected to cover all curricular requirements within an
allotted time. Additionally, students find that there is little opportunity to take
subjects that are of interest to individuals. Although flexibility, creativity,
internationalisation (kokusaika), individuality and diversity were the focus of
JapanÊs education reform in the 1980Ês, change has been slow. As a result, the
school-refusal syndrome (toko kyohi) or excessive absenteeism has been
observed in some lower-secondary schools.
Another major issue that has been raised is excessive competition in Japanese
education (Ellington, 2003). For almost every Japanese child, schoolwork remains
the focus of daily life. As mentioned before, children attend out-of-school extra
classes called juku to become more proficient in academic subjects. From a young
age, children are socialised into believing that educational excellence is
important and that they have to aim for the best universities. Young children are
made aware of the importance of college or university entrance examinations,
thus adding a serious tone to the nature of school life and study habits.
The third issue, strict regulation to ensure student discipline, is one that has
surfaced in recent times. In many upper-secondary schools, there is a great deal
of supervision by school authorities to ensure that all students behave in an
appropriate manner. There are strict codes that govern dress codes, hairstyles
and leisure activities outside of school.
However pressing these issues may be, you will note from the article in
Appendix 2 (in the Appendices section) that Japanese school children and
undergraduates remain highly motivated and continue to perform well in
international tests. It appears that the „secret‰ to Japanese education lies in
emphasising effort over ability, engaging students in the study of concepts,
building strong classroom relationships and using instruction as a way of
unifying the students in a class.

For the future, the National Council on Educational Reform, Japan, has
emphasised the following: internationalisation of education, the use of
information technologies, individuality, lifelong learning and adjustment to
social change. The Council has recommended that a number of areas be explored
for the future of Japanese education. These are:
(a) Organising a system of lifelong learning and reducing the emphasis on the
educational background of individuals;
(b) Improving and diversifying higher education;
(c) Enriching and diversifying elementary and secondary education;
(d) Improving the quality of teachers; adapting to internationalisation;
(e) Adapting to the Information Age; and
(f) Conducting a review of the administration and finance of education.
As you can see from the above list, Japanese education in the 21st century is
poised to improve and diversify further, whilst maintaining social values that are
an inherent part of Japanese society.
Contemporary Japan is economically progressive and has a population that

is highly homogenous in nature. Japanese society places a high value on
educational excellence at all levels of schooling, and the Japanese education
system is considered to be highly prestigious.
The Second World War marked an important turning point in the history of
Japanese education. Prior to the war, education was more restrictive and less
accessible to the population. However, many changes and reforms were
introduced from the 1950s to the 1980s to make education serve the needs of
contemporary society.
Japanese education comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education,

Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. The Fundamental Law of Education
(1947) spells out the goals of and the governing principles for education at all
levels in Japan. The School Education Law and the Social Education Law also
play a role in the regulation and management of educational activity in the
country.
Three levels of government administration national, prefectural and

municipal help administer the various financial and supervisory
educational services in the country.
Japan practices nine years of compulsory basic education. Children attend

college or university after 12 years of schooling. The five levels of schooling
in Japan are Pre-school, Primary, Lower-secondary, Upper-secondary and
Higher Education.
Some of the issues related to Japanese education:

(a) A lack of instruction that deals with different levels of ability;
(b) Pressure induced by excessive competition; and
(c) Strict regulation to ensure student discipline.
For the future, the National Council on Educational Reform, Japan, has
emphasised internationalisation of education, the use of information
technologies, individuality, lifelong learning and adjustment to social change.
A number of strategies have been outlined for further diversification and
modernisation of the JapanÊs education system.
Academic track (Futsu)

Commercial (Shogyo)
Industrial (Kogyo)
Lower-secondary school (Chugakkoa)
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports Science and Technology/
Monbukagakusho (MEXT)
Municipalities
National
Prefectures
Pre-school (Yohchien/Hoikusho)
Primary school (Shogakkou)
Upper-secondary school (Koutougakkoa)

Bunge, F. M. (Ed.) (1983). Japan: A country study. London: National Committee

of Inquiry into Higher Education.
Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. (1993). Education at a glance:

OECD indicators. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, p. 116.
Ellington, L. (December, 2003). Beyond the rhetoric: Essential questions

about Japanese education. FPRI Newsletter, Vol. 8, No. 7. Available from:
http://www.fpri.org/footnotes/087.200312.ellington.japaneseeducation.html.
Goedegebuure, L., Kaiser, F., Maassen, P., Meek, L., Vught, F. A. Van, & Weert, E.
de (Eds.). (1994). Higher education policy: An international comparative
perspective. Oxford: Pergamon.
Jichi Sogo Centre. (1991). Education system in Japan. Tokyo: Japan Shipbuilding
Industry Foundation.
Murray-Harvey, R., Slee, P., Saebel, J., & Taki, M. (2001). Life at school in
Australia and Japan: The Impact of stress and support on bullying and
adaptation to school. AARE 2001Code: MUR01081.
Okamoto, K. (1992) Education of the rising sun. Tokyo: Monbukagakusho.
Sahara Ahmad (2000). Education for all: 2000 assessment report of Malaysia.
Educational Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Education,
Malaysia.
Treml, J. N. (2001). Bullying as a social malady in contemporary Japan.

International Social Work, 44, 107 117.

T op i c Higher
5 Education Policy
in Sweden
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe, in detail, key aspects of higher education policy;
2. Discuss various factors that influence policy development in higher
education; and
3. Compare and contrast the higher education policies in two or more
countries.
INTRODUCTION
One of the main areas of focus in an education system is policy, both in terms of
formulation and implementation. In order to better understand the many factors
that influence education policy, this topic focuses on higher education policy. The
topic begins with an overview of some of the reasons for the importance
accorded to higher education policy, as well as of the main areas in higher
education that are linked to policy development. The topic describes how policies
affect funding, planning, development, regulation, monitoring, accreditation and
quality assurance. In order to understand how governments formulate higher
education policy, as well as how they respond to national labour and economic
needs or how they accommodate global trends in the field, let us now examine
the case of higher education in Sweden. This European country presents a unique
higher education model that is both centralised in terms of governance, and
autonomous in terms of how students plan and choose their programme of
study. The various activities included in this topic are aimed at providing you
with the basic skills for examining the impact of higher education policy in your
own country and in other countries.

92 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN
5.1 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY

Policy
The word policy refers to a written principle or rule to guide decision-making at
the institutional or national level. Often a policy directs the course of action at the
national level or within an organisation. For example, if the policy in your school
or institution is to encourage the use of ICT, then the school administrators and
instructors will find the resources to equip the institution with the necessary ICT
infrastructure. As part of everyday practice, teachers or lecturers will actively
strive to use computers for making instructional plans, for sending out notices
for school/college events and so on. Similarly, a country that believes in ICT will
enact policies that facilitate the use of ICT for education, administration, health
and other services.
Higher Education Policy

This topic focuses on higher education policy as a way to understand how
universities, colleges and other post-secondary institutions operate within an
education system. Education policy is also a window to understanding how
governments respond to national labour and economic needs, and how they
accommodate global trends in the field. Of late, higher education policy has
received much attention for a number of reasons, chief among which are
massification, diversification, internationalisation and marketisation (Lee and
Healy, 2006).
To begin, countries in all parts of the world have seen an increase in the demand
for higher education (HE). As a response to greater demand, the number of
universities as well as the number of programmes that are offered has increased.
In Malaysia, the number of universities in existence today far exceeds that of
twenty years ago. To cater to the needs of the masses, so to speak, government
policies have moved away from an exclusive-selective stance to a more inclusive-
open stance. Policies have also been revised in order to provide people from all
parts of the country greater access to HE. This is referred to as the massification
of HE.
Higher education is everybodyÊs rite Anon.

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 93
Secondly, HE is a hugely dynamic field. At the global level, the character of

programmes offered at tertiary level has changed. Colleges, academic departments
and courses have become more diverse as people become increasingly more
specialised in their professions. Programmes have also become more varied as
institutions of higher education compete with one another to offer what is deemed
necessary for the modern world. In Malaysia we have seen the development of
HE policies that have led to the expansion of private sector education. Today,
Malaysians have access to degree programmes offering a diverse range of subjects
from tourism to petroleum engineering. All of this may be characterised as the
diversification of HE.
Thirdly, we see a growing trend in the internationalisation

of education. Students from Asia can get a degree from Cross-border
education refers to
an Australian or a Canadian university without having
higher education
to go to those countries. Education is now a commodity programmes or
that can be exported and imported. Internationalisation educational services
has led to universities setting up branches in foreign in which the learners
lands, and offering services beyond their geographical are located in a
borders. A case in point is the Open University Malaysia country different
which offers its programmes to students in Yemen from the one where
and in Bahrain. In tandem to this, AustraliaÊs Monash the awarding
University has branch campuses in West Malaysia and institution is based.
in South Africa, while Curtin University has opened up
UNESCO (2005)
in Miri, Sarawak. Initiatives such as these are a result of
www.unesco.org/ia
the Malaysian governmentÊs policies on cross-border
education.

SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. What is meant by higher education policy?
2. Based on the discussion above, how have higher education policies
affected choice and access to HE in your country?
Internationalisation is a growing trend in HE worldwide and has several benefits,

as indicated in a report by The Observatory (2002):
Branch campuses deepen universitiesÊ commitment to international

provision, moving away from dependence on local partners for
delivery and towards a corporate presence. ⁄ branch campuses offer
a number of advantages, including firmer corporate control, higher
local profile and an innovative way to stand out in a crowded
marketplace.
Fourthly, HE has moved away from being solely state-owned and state-directed
to a more market-driven enterprise. In Malaysia, during the 1970s, the setting up
of universities appeared to be a responsibility to be carried out only by the
government. Today universities and university colleges in Malaysia are also
owned by individuals, private companies and foreign organisations. We also
have corporate sector universities such as Universiti Teknologi Petronas
Malaysia and University Tenaga Nasional which, among other things, offer
programmes that are suited for the needs of their own organisation. Thus,
liberalisation policies have led to the marketisation of education. This has, in
turn, allowed HE to serve the needs of the public and the private sector, with
some organisations seeing education as an opportunity for investment or
business.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. Write your own definitions of the following words as they relate to

higher education: massification, diversification, internationalisation
and marketisation.
2. What are some of the reasons for the occurrence of these phenomena?
3. Based on the discussion above, make a list of higher education

policies that are related to these four key areas.

Wed 12 July 2006 NZ and Malaysian VCs discuss collaboration
A 10-strong Malaysian Vice-Chancellors delegation led by MVCC chair

Professor DatoÊ Dzulkifli Abdul Razak met with NZVCC representatives led by
Professor Roy Sharp in Wellington this morning. On the agenda for discussion
were the respective internationalisation policies and strategies of the Malaysian
and New Zealand universities and governments, along with collaboration
opportunities around academic and research exchange. Research links were
discussed around identified areas of possible co-operation. Two-way student
mobility was another avenue explored with the Malaysian delegation making the
point that an increasing number of university courses in Malaysia were now
taught in English.
(www.scoop.co.nz/stories)
Scope of HE Policy
Higher education policy refers, collectively, to all principles, rules and
procedures that govern, direct, guide, regulate, monitor and manage activities in
tertiary institutions in a country. In most countries higher education institutions
(HEIs) are bound by a number of Acts or laws that prescribe procedures or
processes related to the way HEIs should be governed, where their funding
should come from or how degrees should be awarded (this is not a
comprehensive list). In order to better understand the scope of this subject, let us
first take a look at the key areas covered by government policy on HE.1
According to the work of Goedegebuure, et. al (1994) and Lee & Healy (2006),
there are at least four broad areas that are covered by HE policy, as detailed
below.
(a) Policies on Funding

Funding is regarded as the most powerful instrument used by the
government to direct or transform HE. It refers to the amount of money
given to HEIs, and the way in which money is disbursed to them. Of late,
the trend in many countries has been to reduce government funding in
public institutions of higher learning. Due to this policy, many HEIs have to
seek their own sources of funding, and/or set up a department that will
1 Note that the discussion in this section is restricted to government policy on HE, and does not
cover policies that come under the jurisdiction of independent bodies (such as Malaysian
Qualifications Agency) or those drafted by individual HEIs.

engage in entrepreneurial work to bring in funds. As a result of this policy,

the cost of education has gone up for the consumer, often leading to an
increase in the fees charged to the student.
In Malaysia, public universities (IPTAs) receive almost all their funding

from the state, while research grants and funding for special projects may
be sourced from corporate bodies or international organisations. In addition
to this, HE policy also determines the degree to which financial responsibility
and control over spending rests with the government or with the institution
itself.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Discuss the following quote with respect to HE in Malaysia.
Today virtually every country has three higher education ambitions. First is a
demand for greater levels of access, and in every part of the world access to
higher education is rising rapidly. ⁄ The second ambition in every country is to
improve the quality of higher education. ... A third common ambition of
universities worldwide is to improve equity, that is, to offer scholarships and
fellowships to the able students from impoverished families or disadvantaged
regions.
(Heyneman, 2006)
(b) Policies on Planning and Development

In many countries there is often a The Malaysian government
policy on how and who should be has made it an explicit
involved in planning HE activities. policy to become an Asian
These activities include criteria for hub for higher education.
admission to universities, development of
– Sachi Hatakenaka (2004)
new programmes, fee structure, spending
patterns, staffing as well as changes in the
curriculum.

While some planning activity is centralised, i.e. carried out at the

Ministerial level, other activities are carried out by the institution itself.
For example, in Vietnam, the policy on admission criteria to HEIs is
centralised. In planning for greater access to higher education for people
from rural, remote and mountainous areas, policies have been put in place
to admit students from these areas under special admission criteria. A
student from the suburbs or towns has to have higher scores in the
university entrance examination than someone who comes from rural or
mountainous areas. According to Ngo (2006), „[There exists] a special
policy [in Vietnam] for ethnic minority children from remote mountainous
areas: they can be admitted into affirmative action classes in some higher
education institutions without taking entrance examinations. During the
period of 1999 to 2004, a total of 4,284 ethnic minority children benefited
from this policy.‰ (p. 231).
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. What do the following terms mean to you?
(a) Criteria for admission to universities

(b) Development of new programmes
(c) Fee structure
(d) Spending patterns
(e) Staffing
(f) Changes in the curriculum
(g) Affirmative action
2. With respect to your country and your university, which of these

areas do you think are centralised and which are determined by the
institution?
3. What would you like to see changed in terms of the policies related
to each of the areas listed above?

(c) Policies on Regulation and Monitoring

The government often acts as the main agent for regulating or monitoring
activities in HEIs in order to bring about uniformity. Monitoring refers to
ongoing supervision, observation or testing to make sure that what is
expected of an HEI is achieved. Regulation by the state is often done
through a policy statement on standards to be adopted for a number of
processes. In Malaysia, HE is regulated by five legislations: Education Act,
1995; University and University Colleges (Amendments) Act, 1995; Private
Higher Education Act, 1996; National Council of Higher Education Act,
1996; and National Accreditation Board Bill, 1996. Prior to 1996, there were
only two Acts regulating education in Malaysia, namely the Education Act,
1961 and the University and University Colleges Act, 1971, both of which
were revised in 1995.
Let us look at some examples of regulation and monitoring. A number of

policy decisions regulate the activities of student unions in Malaysian
universities. Students in Malaysian HEIs are not allowed to form
organisations that are affiliated to political parties. In India, the maximum
number of foreign students admitted in a single Indian university is
restricted by the Indian government. A large number of foreign students
in India would be financially beneficial, but too many foreign students
means that fewer Indian citizens will get a place in local universities.
Such activities may be monitored by requesting enrolment records from
universities, by conducting spot checks or even reacting to complaints
made by students or lecturers.
It is the policy of the University of California that all

faculty have access to affordable, quality child care on
or near campus. It is the policy of the University of
California that child care facilities be included in the
plans in much the same way as the needs for parking
and food service facilities are and that funding for
adequate child care facilities be included in the capital
plans for the campus.
Source: www.universityofcalifornia.edu

(d) Policies on Accreditation and Quality Assurance

Accreditation of programmes of study is often carried out to ensure quality
in practice and to ascertain that an educational programme meets defined
standards. Accreditation refers to the recognition or the granting of
approval for a programme of study against a set of criteria and/or specific
requirements. On the other hand, quality assurance covers many areas,
such as: the standard and quality of courses of study offered at HEIs; the
level of achievement specified for graduation; facilities provided for the
conduct of lectures, research, laboratory work as well as consultation with
academics; and the qualifications of academic staff.
A unique feature of accreditation and quality assurance in Malaysia is that

public and private HEIs are governed by different bodies. The National
Accreditation Board or Lembaga Akreditasi Negara (LAN), which was
established in 1996, oversees all activity in private HEIs. The Quality
Assurance Division (QAD) of the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia,
which was established in 2001, governs activity in public universities.
The establishment of a new entity which merges the LAN and the QAD
was approved by the Government on 21 December 2005. This new entity,
called the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA), is responsible for
quality assurance of higher education for both the public and the private
sectors.
The MQA was established on 1 November 2007 with the coming in force of
the Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007. It was officially launched by
the Honourable Minister of Higher Education, Dato' Mustapa Mohamed,
on 2 November 2007.
The main role of the MQA is to implement the Malaysian Qualifications

Framework (MQF) as a basis for quality assurance of higher education and
as the reference point for the criteria and standards for national
qualifications. The MQA is responsible for monitoring and overseeing the
quality assurance practices and accreditation of national higher education.

The establishment of the MQA saw LAN dissolved and its personnel
absorbed into the MQA.
With the vision to be a credible and internationally recognised higher

education quality assurance body and the mission to inspire the confidence
of its stakeholders through best practices, the MQA is set to chart new
boundaries in higher education quality assurance.
Source: www.mqa.gov.my
ACTIVITY 5.3
Read the contents of Figure 5.1 and answer these questions.
1. How is quality assurance defined by the Ministry of Higher

Education (MOHE)? How would you interpret this definition, in
light of your work as a teacher, school principal or college instructor?
2. What is the rationale given for ensuring that „quality is being

maintained and enhanced‰ as indicated in paragraph 1?
3. What are some of the „mechanisms to ensure the quality‰ of

programmes in universities as indicated in paragraph 2?
4. What evidence is there for the „internationalisation of the labour-

market, international mobility of teachers, researchers, students and
competitive educational programmes‰ as indicated in paragraph 3?

MOHE Malaysia
Definition of Quality Assurance
Quality assurance comprises all those planned and systematic actions (policies,
strategies, attitudes, procedures, and activities) necessary to provide adequate
confidence that quality is being maintained and enhanced and the products and
services meet the specified quality standards. In higher education, quality
assurance is the totality of systems, resources and information devoted to
maintaining and improving the quality and standards of teaching, scholarship and
research, and of students' learning experience.
Rationale for Quality Assurance
Universities have traditionally used several mechanisms to ensure the quality of
their programmes. Use of external examiners, movement of academics around
institutions, involvement of professional associations in the accreditation of
awards, national and international peer evaluation for staff appointment and
promotions as well as allocation of research grants by competitive assessment have
had discernible effect on the exchange of information and the maintenance of high
academic standards. However, mechanisms that work in an elite system are no
longer sufficient in mass education. Democratisation of higher education has led to
a rapid expansion of the numbers of students and higher educational institutions.
There has also been increased internationalisation of the labour-market,
international mobility of teachers, researchers, students and competitive
educational programmes and thus the need to be able to assess the equivalence of
qualifications, standards and credits. It is no surprise that societal concern for
quality in higher education has increased. Demands for transparency in public
expenditure and the necessity of defining priorities in education in relation to other
socially desirable activities have focused the attention of higher education policy-
makers on adopting formal methodological approaches to provide guarantees of
quality.
The National Accreditation Board was legally established in 1996 to certify
minimum standards and accreditation of programmes conducted in private
colleges and universities. The Quality Assurance Division (QAD) in the Ministry of
Education was established in December 2001 as the national agent responsible for
managing and coordinating the Quality assurance system for public universities.
Source: Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia (apps.emoe.gov.my/qad)
Figure 5.1: Definition and rationale of Quality Assurance by MOHE Malaysia
Let us now examine higher education policy in Sweden, a country which has a
long history of higher education.

5.2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN SWEDEN 2

Universities have been in existence in Sweden
as far back as 1477 when the University of
Uppsala (Figure 5.2) first opened its doors to
Scandinavian scholars. Almost two centuries
later, in 1666 the University of Lund was
established. By the beginning of the 19th century
several private colleges and professional schools
of higher learning were already in existence.
The first period of marked change in Swedish

higher education was the post-Second World
War period. At that point in time, the growth
in the economy and the welfare system led to
greater demands in education. The education
system was expanded, causing enrolments in
secondary schools to grow at a fast rate. Figure 5.2: University of Uppsala
Although there were already a large number of Source:
higher education institutions, these proved terragalleria.com/europe//sweden
insufficient for the increased number of people
seeking higher education at the post-secondary
level.
The turning point in Swedish higher education, however, was the higher
education reform movement beginning in 1977. The need for more graduates in
the fields of medicine, engineering and natural sciences paved the way for reform
in Swedish higher education. These reforms also incorporated national planning
and regulation policies by the government. The Swedish parliament drafted
policies on HE goals, length of programmes, location of programmes and
financing. A new structure was soon introduced whereby private colleges and
schools were taken over by the government and incorporated into one system
called högskolan. For the next decade and a half, the government continued to
determine the curricula for all programmes. New post-secondary programmes
such as those for teacher education were introduced in what became known as
2 The information on Sweden given in this topic is based on reports by C. Salerno (2002) for the
Center for Higher Education Policy Studies, University of Twente, and by S. Hatakenka (2004)
for the Higher Education Policy Institute, as well as the work of G. Svanfeldt (1994) on Higher
Education Policy in Sweden. See the Reference section for a full citation.

„academic colleges‰. More reforms were introduced in 1983, aimed at reducing

bureaucracy and giving more autonomy to institutions of higher education.
Policies were devised to create „aesthetic schools‰ to cater to fields such as art,
music and theatre.
Figure 5.3: Map of Sweden
Today, all education matters in Sweden (Figure 5.3) come under the Ministry of
Education, Research and Culture or Utbildnings och kulturdepartementet. All
universities and colleges are financed by the Ministry of Education, Research and
Culture, except for the University of Agriculture which is financed by the
Ministry of Agriculture.
The country practices 9-year compulsory schooling followed by 3 years in

upper-secondary school (which includes both academic and vocational tracks).
There are now 39 universities and institutions of higher education here, for
both undergraduate and postgraduate education. Göteborg University is the
largest university not only in Sweden, but also in Scandinavia. It has about
51,000 students and 5,500 employees. The oldest university, Uppsala, is a

research university with more that 30,000 students enrolled in three disciplines:
humanities and social sciences, medicine and pharmacy, and science and
technology. Education and research takes place at all higher education institutions.
In the pages that follow, we will look at higher education policy in Sweden, with
particular reference to reforms instated in 1977 and after 1993.
5.3 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

Background
Higher education policy in Sweden today promotes a perspective aimed at equity
and „aggressive expansion‰ (Salerno, 2002:18). This is in response not only to
economic developments in the region, but also to the high demand for HE in the
country. Fifty years ago, only 2% of the population was expected to go through
HE; today this figure has gone up to 30% (Salerno, 2002). In addition to this
expansion policy, Sweden aims to make its HEIs more diverse in terms of culture
and ethnicity, and to get a higher representation of women in HE. Figure 5.4
shows almost twofold increase in the number of students in undergraduate
education during 1991 2004 period.
Figure 5.4: Students in undergraduate education autumn

semesters 1991 2004, head counts
Source: web2.hsv.se/publikationer

The 1977 Reforms

Let us now look at the development of higher education policy in Sweden. We
will begin with major policy changes that were introduced during the 1977 HE
reforms.
(a) Centralisation and Unification

Before 1977, Sweden had four HE sectors, i.e. universities, university
colleges, institutes and vocational schools. These four sectors were thought
to be too disparate in terms of their focus, the programmes they offered and
the way they were financed. The 1977 reforms were aimed at assimilating
all four sectors so that there would be greater regulation and control of their
activities by the government. Hence, the policy was aimed at centralisation:
administration of all HEIs would come under the Ministry of Education,
while a single central body would oversee all forms of curriculum planning
in all HEIs.
This policy was formulated to achieve the following aims:

(i) Create a more level playing field so that different kinds of
institutions would have equal standing.
(ii) Promote a culture of cooperation among HEIs.
(iii) Provide students from diverse backgrounds equal HE access and

opportunity.
(b) Vocational Education

Prior to 1977, vocational
education was concentrated
in just one sector, that is,
vocational schools. As part
of educational reform, it
was decided that all
students should benefit
from vocational education.
The 1977 reforms therefore
introduced vocational skills
training into almost all
undergraduate programmes
to prepare all students for Figure 5.5: Vocational education
the workplace. Source:
www.vetinfonet.det.wa.edu.au

According to the Swedish Agency for Advanced Vocational Education,

vocational courses combine a practical orientation with in-depth theoretical
knowledge in areas such as engineering, trade and tourism, agriculture or
forestry, information technology and health care (www.ky.se/engelskainfo).
The incorporation of training in such areas provides students with practical
skills that are useful for entry into the workplace.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
1. Draw a concept map of all the changes that were introduced in

Swedish HE between the Second World War and 1977.
2. How did higher education in Sweden change soon after World War
II?
3. In what way did the reforms of 1977 mark a turning point in

Swedish HE?
4. Describe centralised governance of all HEIs under the högskolan

introduced in 1977. Do you think this is similar or different from
public university governance in Malaysia?
5. What do you understand by the terms centralisation and unification?
6. For what reason(s) was vocational education thought to be of

benefit for students in tertiary institutions?
The 1993 Higher Education Act

About a decade after the implementation of the 1977 reforms there was
dissatisfaction among many Swedes. The inclusion of a vocational bearing in HE
courses meant that individual talent and preferences were not accommodated.
Further, centralisation did not help reduce the financial burden on the public
sector, while research, competition and growth in HE was not stimulated.
Criticism aimed at the single HE system (the högskolan) denounced it as too
narrow, fragmented and vocationally-oriented (Salerno, 2002).

As a result, the non-social democratic government of 1991 began work toward

new reforms in HE. This led to the enactment of the Higher Education Act in
1993, which paved the way for more reforms in HE. Under this Act, or the
Högskoleförordningen, the stated purpose of HE was to provide education
and carry out research and development. Other areas of emphasis were quality
of practice, effective use of resources, gender equality and the development of
international partnerships in the field.
Some of the reforms that were introduced after 1993 as a result of the Higher
Education Act are described below.
(a) Autonomy and Decentralisation

One of the main policy changes that occurred with the passing of the
Higher Education Act of 1993 was related to autonomy and deregulation
of individual HE institutions. The main areas of autonomy that were
introduced were self-management of resources, finance and programme
design. Universities and other HEIs were also given more freedom in terms
of assessment and the awarding of degrees. This was in direct opposition to
the reforms of 1977, which emphasised central control and national
planning under the högskolan.
(b) Teacher Education

Between 2000 and 2001, teacher education reform took place in Sweden. In
a bill that was passed in 2001, eight teaching degrees were consolidated and
only one teaching degree was offered for the entire public school system.
Under this policy, programme specialisation was allowed for different age
groups and subject areas but all students were to spend the first one and a
half years on a common programme of study. More emphasis was to be
given to teaching methods, special education and teaching practice.
(c) Lifelong Learning

In 1998, HE was designed to provide education for employees engaged
in full-time work by allowing them to earn credits toward a degree or
diploma. Later, in 2001, the Open Higher Education Bill opened more
pathways to HE. Policy changes were also made to provide more people
access to HE, to provide for lifelong learning, to create programmes and
degrees that were aligned to studentsÊ vocations and to include ICT in HE
(Salerno, 2002). In order to cater for such diversification, HEIs were given
the flexibility to implement admission requirements that commensurate
with the type of programmes that were offered.

Broader recruitment
The expansion of the number of places in higher
education that has taken place during the last fifteen
years has resulted in somewhat broader recruitment.
During the period from 1993 to 1994 up until 2003 to
2004, the proportion of students beginning studies in
higher education from working class background rose
from ˇ8 to 24 percent of all new enrolments, while at the
same time the proportion whose parents were senior
salaried employees declined from 33 to 28 percent.
Lifelong learning
Lifelong learning comprises all the different forms of
learning and individual experiences during an entire
lifetime. Higher education can be regarded as one arena
for lifelong learning. Half of the students in higher
education are older than 25, just over one-fifth older than
30, ten percent have reached 40 and four percent are 50 or
older. Lifelong learning is therefore offered to a relatively
large extent by the higher education institutions. Lifelong
learning in higher education is linked to a large extent
with the participation of women. In every age group in
the population from 30 and upwards, there are twice as
many women studying in higher education as men.
http://web2.hsv.se/publikationer/rapporter/2005/
Regulation and Monitoring of Swedish Higher Education

The responsibility for all HE policy in Sweden rests with the Swedish Riksdag
(Parliament) and the Ministry of Education, Research and Culture. Together, they
make decisions on regulation and monitoring, on funding and on the objectives
and guidelines for HE. An important central government agency that assists the
Ministry with regulation and monitoring is the National Agency for Higher
Education or Högskoleverket. The Agency takes care of all matters related to
assessment, supervision, reviews, research and evaluation. As university education
in Sweden is free, i.e. no tuition fee is charged for HE, all academic and non-
academic staff who work in HEIs are employees of the state.
Open Education and the Degree Ordinance

A unique feature of Swedish HE policy is the freedom of choice with regards to
courses and degrees. In Sweden, all education is provided in the form of courses,
which may or may not be directly linked to degree programmes. Students make
their own choices about how they can combine courses to earn a degree. All HEIs

have a system of credits (poäng), whereby a student earns one (1) credit for every
week of successful full-time study. During one academic year a student can earn
40 credits. Based on this centralised system, the completion rates for different
degrees differ from student to student. Under the Swedish Degree Ordinance,
the government has prescribed how general and professional degrees may be
awarded.
Sweden also has what is known as „Contract Education‰ which is also referred to
as commissioned education. Contract education may be given to an organisation
or individual at an agreed upon price that covers the cost of education. The price
and content of the programme of study is presented in the form of a contract,
which is guided by regulations concerning commissioned education.
In 2005, the Swedish government proposed a new higher education programme

and degree structure to facilitate international comparison of its degrees. This
will most likely pave the way for more structured system where the HEI, and not
the student, makes key decisions about courses and degree programmes.
ACTIVITY 5.4
Make a list of all the changes in policy that have resulted from the
Higher Education Act of 1993.
1. To what extent are these related to the massification, diversification,

internationalisation and marketisation of HE?
2. To what extent do these changes reflect an improvement in terms of

access to and flexibility in HE?
Conclusion
Of late, the Swedish government has encouraged the internationalisation
of education, both in terms of the number of foreign students admitted into
Swedish HEIs and the number of Swedish students who study abroad. In fact,
under the education financial support policy for every Swede, many students are
able to get study grants to study in places like the UK and the USA. The move
toward internationalisation is also thought to benefit the country in terms of
benchmarking its programmes, and to allow for greater cross-border cooperation
among SwedenÊs European counterparts.

Additionally, a professional masterÊs degree has been introduced for working

adults as part of SwedenÊs efforts to promote lifelong learning. Educationists
continue to find ways to provide access to better and more varied education,
both to individuals and to public and private organisations. In a move to further
diversify educational opportunity, attempts are also being made to provide for
the needs of the industry and the workforce as new content and professional
expertise develops in the country.
ACTIVITY 5.5
The paragraph below outlines a major challenge for higher education in
Malaysia. What changes would you recommend to higher education
policy in order to address this challenge?
Increasingly, Malaysian public universities are being assessed in

terms of the employability of their undergraduates and, in this
respect, the Government has emphasised that employability must
be viewed in the context of global job market and not just limited to
Malaysia. It is inevitable that the rapidly changing employment
situation for graduates and for society, at large, will have major
implications for how Malaysian universities conduct their business
henceforth.
(Source: Morshidi Sirat, 2006:130)
The word policy refers to a written principle or rule to guide decision-making

at the institutional or national level. Often a policy directs the course of action
at the national level or within an organisation.
By studying education policy we can understand how universities, colleges

and other post-secondary institutions operate within an education system. It
is also a window to understanding how governments respond to national
labour and economic needs, and how they accommodate global trends in the
field.
Some of the reasons for examining the formulation and implementation of

higher education policy are massification, diversification, internationalisation
and marketisation.

In most countries, HEIs are bound by a number of Acts or laws that prescribe
procedures or processes related to the way HEIs should be governed, where
their funding should come from or how degrees should be awarded.
Some of the key areas that are covered by HE policy are funding, planning,
development, regulation, monitoring, accreditation and quality assurance.
As depicted in the example of Sweden, there are a number of historical, social

and economic factors that influence higher education policy in a country.
Often, higher education policy goes through a period of reform as weaknesses
or shortcomings are discovered in an existing system.
The ultimate aim of higher education policy is the achievement of goals as

stated by the national educational philosophy, as well as the national agenda
as dictated by national economic and labour needs. However, global trends
also inform the direction to be taken by higher education, which, in turn,
influences higher education policy.
(Utbildnings och kultur departementet) Lifelong learning

Broader recruitment Marketisations
Diversification Massification
Higher Education (HE) Ministry of Education, Research
and Culture
Higher Education Institution (HEI)
Vocationally-oriented
Internationalisation

Goedegebuure, L., Kaiser, F., Maassen, P,. Meek, L., van Vught, F., & de Weert, E.
(1994). International perspectives on higher education policy. In
L. Goedegebuure, F. Kaiser, P. Maassen, L. Meek, F. van Vught & E. de Weert
(Eds). (1994). Higher education policy: An international comparative
perspective. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Hatakenaka, S. (2004). Internationalism in higher education: A review. Available

from: http://www.hepi.ac.uk/pubdetail.asp.
Heyneman, S. P. (2006). Global issues in higher education. The Challenges

of Globalization. Electronic journal, February 2006. Available from:
http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/.
Lee, M. N. N., & Healy, S. (2006). Higher education in South-East Asia. Bangkok:
UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education.
Morshidi Sirat (2006). Malaysia. In Lee, M. N. N., & Healy, S. (2006). Higher
education in South-East Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional
Bureau for Education.
Svanfeldt, G. (1994). Higher education policy in Sweden. In L. Goedegebuure,

F. Kaiser, P. Maassen, L. Meek, F. van Vught & E. de Weert (Eds). (1994).
Higher education policy: An international comparative perspective. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. (2002). International branch

campuses: Scale & significance. Available from: http://www. obhe. ac.uk/
products/reports/publicaccesspdf.

Topic Educational
6 Planning in
South Africa
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe, in detail, activities related to education planning;
2. Discuss various factors that influence education planning in a country;
and
3. Compare and contrast education planning activities in two or more
countries.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we will take a close look at
educational planning with particular reference
to South Africa. A study of this country gives us
a unique opportunity to examine the various
considerations that are brought to bear in the
planning of curricula in post-conflict contexts.
Thus, the education agenda of post-apartheid,
Africa-centric democratic South Africa is studied
against several key aspects of planning, viz:
(a) The importance of planning;
(b) Human capital and national development

needs; and
Figure 6.1: South African Coat
of Arms with the motto (c) The socio-historically induced challenges
„Diverse people unite‰ faced by the new government.
Source: www.southafrica.pl

114 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA
To give you a comprehensive picture of planning activities in the country, three

documents are examined:
(a) The statements on education as stated in the new Constitution of South

Africa;
(b) Lifelong Learning through a National Curriculum Framework; and
(c) Curriculum 2005.
As you read the discussion based on these documents, draw connections

between the content of these documents and the importance of planning with
respect to human capital and national development needs as well as the rationale
for planning activities.
6.1 EXAMINING EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Significance
In any country, educational planning is critical to the success of basic and
advanced education provided for a people. It is usually done at a national level
and involves many aspects of education: curricula, structure, policy, staffing,
teacher training and funding. Planning also involves formulating goals,
objectives and implementing policies. In most countries, the key player in the
planning process is the government, and the planning process involves
economic, social and legal dimensions.
Here are some reasons why educational planning is considered to be of great

importance:
(a) There is a strong link between educational planning and national

development
An education system is expected to deliver a number of outcomes that
help a population grow intellectually, economically and socially. To cite an
example, a ten-year education master education plan was launched in 2005
for the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, Southern Philippines.
This includes a basic education development plan, and allowing the citizens
access to resources and effective education management. By launching
a long-term educational plan such as this one, the government aims to
improve the economic standing of this Mindanao community and to create
greater social integration with neighbouring Christian communities.

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 115
(b) Educational planning reflects the national agenda, such as economic goals
and social integration policies
For example, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia was set up in the 1970s because
of the nationÊs need to train people for the agricultural sector. Similarly,
as a response to the dominance of ICT at the end of the 20th century,
the Multimedia University was established. For the purpose of social
integration, the Sekolah Wawasan was considered for implementation in
some parts of West Malaysia.
Where no plan is laid, where the disposal of time is

surrendered merely to the chance of incidence, chaos will
soon reign. Victor Hugo (1802 1885)
(c) Planning and delivery of education reflects the ideological position of the
political forces within a country
The planning of curricula and the expected outcomes of education are often
based on the ideology ascribed to by the ruling party. If a government
wants a highly skilled workforce, there is more investment in the education
system both in terms of funding and attention paid to expected outcomes.
However, if the ruling party wants a labour force that is able to work in one
or two sectors (e.g. agriculture or mining) then the exposure and
experiences for learners will be limited. For example, in the late 1800s, the
French established schools in Ivory Coast to train clerks and interpreters to
help manage the country. To create an „elite‰ African political group that
would identify with France and French culture, higher education was
offered to a small group of Ivorians (there were only four Ivorian university
graduates by 1945). Today, the education system in Ivory Coast is an
adaptation of the French education system, mainly because the new
government worked on the model developed by the French. Similar trends
may be observed in other countries that were under foreign rule at one
time.
(d) Educational planning involves a process that requires the cooperation of

many key institutions in a country
You may have noticed that the Ministry of Education in our country
frequently calls upon groups of content experts, religious scholars,
economists, psychologists and social scientists when making key decisions
in the planning process. All of these groups have to participate in the
planning process and cooperate to fulfil national goals. This also refers to
the need for the parties involved in the planning to believe in the goals

of the mission. There is greater success in the implementation of an

educational plan if planners share a common understanding of the goals
that they hope to achieve.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
In your own words, state the reasons why educational planning is

critical to the success of basic and advanced education provided for a
people.
Scope
Educational planning involves a great deal of research, communication and
advocacy on the part of the planner. The planner may be the government, the
Ministry or the Curriculum Development Centre, but all these three functions
have to be carried out diligently and carefully in order to ensure success of an
educational plan. Take for instance the move to use English for science and
mathematics instruction in Malaysia. Prior to implementation, the planners had
to amass a large knowledge base on the subject. They had to evaluate the existing
programme, hold discussions at various levels and conduct research on the
implementation of such programmes in other contexts.
The second area, communication, refers to how the information is passed from
one level to another, both within the planning community and among the
receiving community, that is teachers, students and administrators. Thus, when
plans for the shift to English for science and mathematics had been drawn up,
everyone in the country had to be informed. Training had to be conducted at
many levels and key personnel from the Ministry of Education had to be
summoned to help with the implementation of this new plan.
Finally, educational planning has to be accompanied by a keen sense of

advocacy. This means that groups of planners have to work with the public to
bring about change that is desired. To use our earlier example, the move to use
English for science and mathematics was advocated through a change in
education policy at the national level and by training teachers in the wider use of
the English language. Thus, educational planning involves an upward process,
that is, changes in policy, and a downward process, that is, working with people
on the ground such as students and teachers.

ACTIVITY 6.1
Find out more about the Education Planning and Research Division
(EPRD) of the Ministry of Education, Malaysia.
(a) What are some of the activities carried out by this division?
(b) To what extent do the various responsibilities of EPRD include

research, communication and advocacy?
Needs-based Planning
Educational planning often begins with the identification of a peopleÊs needs
(Weiler, 1982). It is a direct reflection of what people in a country expect in terms
of economic, social and political development over time. Let us examine closely
the two main ways in which education planning addresses the needs of society.
(a) The Need for Human Capital Development

As far back as the year 1928, scholars such as Pigou argued for the need to
invest in humans so that it will increase productivity and improve the
economic value of a peopleÊs skills and knowledge. Thus, human capital
development refers to improving the quality and level of education, skills
and experience of people so that they can better serve themselves and the
economy of a country. This has been discussed by Gopinathan, (2005) with
reference to educational planning:
„A key strategy in ⁄ developmental states was the implementation of

policies in education and training designed to boost stocks of human
capital. The enhancement of labour productivity was seen, in the earlier
context of low innovation capacity, to lie in expansion of education⁄ These
developmental states created centrally planned, universally available,
standardised and state driven education systems, which created the
national subjectivities necessary for affiliation to the statesÊ modernisation,
project. The return of investment on education was such that the states
could justify the expansion and diversification of education as high priority;
wealth generated by economic growth justified further investment in
education.‰

(b) The Need for National Development

Education planning addresses the need for national development at
many levels. This area of education planning is particularly crucial when
you think of nations that are at a post-war stage or those that have
recently achieved independent status for self-government. National
development also becomes a key consideration when we talk about
countries that have plural societies, i.e. multilingual or multicultural
groups, and places where there is a great deal of income disparity.
Education planning for national development often involves building a
curriculum and formulating policies aimed at national integration,
bridging the rich-poor divide and increasing access to education for rural,
poor and marginalised sectors.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
What is the relationship between human capital development and
national development?
Let us take the example of a country like Qatar. In 1970, less than 15 percent
of the population between the ages of 40 and 75 was literate. However, due
to the national development agenda and greater access to education, by
2003 the literacy rate for men was 81% and 85% for women, even though
education was not compulsory. In the 1985 to 1986 academic year, about
1,000 Qataris received government scholarships to pursue higher education
in other countries. According to the national report on the development of
education in the State of Qatar (prepared by Ministry of Education, Qatar in
1996):
„The role of education has become immensely great to the

extent that it has brought about a rapid change in the shape of
life; equally rapid as the other aspects of life in this century
resulting from the scientific and technological achievements
particularly in the field of communication. Thus, development
of education has become imperative so as to be capable of
serving its own goals and strategies‰
Source: (/www.ibe.unesco.org).

ACTIVITY 6.2
Read the following excerpt from the Ninth Malaysia Plan.
Consideration should also be given to shortening the length of time in

secondary school from 7 years to 6 years for university admission and
to 4 years for school leaving i.e. a school leaving certificate after
4 years secondary education to replace SPM and an additional 2 years
for university matriculation. A standard university matriculation
programme should be adopted to replace STPM.
How will this plan affect MalaysiaÊs overall education structure?
In the following pages, we take a look at post-apartheid educational planning

in the Republic of South Africa. Educational planning often begins with the
identification of a peopleÊs needs As you read about South AfricaÊs attempts to
charter a new course for education, consider how they relate to:
(a) The importance of planning; and
(b) Human capital and national development.

CASE STUDY: SOUTH AFRICA
6.2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA
Traditions
Historically speaking, the Koi and the
San of South Africa had a strong
tradition of informal education. At the
village level, adults were involved in the
transmission of skills and cultural values
through a largely oral tradition. The
education of young people was carried
out through stories of heroism, bravery
and treachery. There was also emphasis
on skills needed for agriculture and other
occupations associated with survival.
Figure 6.2: The San and Koi originally
occupied parts of South Africa
European Rule Source: www.sudafrica.co.za
However, a great deal was to change
with the advent of colonialism and with the arrival of the French, Dutch and
British on the shores of South Africa. From the 1800s, European schools were set
up, leading to instruction in Christianity and literacy and numeracy skills. Many
English schools were established, as were schools that used Afrikaans1 as a
medium of instruction. The country was rich in resources and coal and diamond
mines were opened in many parts of the country. From the late 19th century,
groups of men were taken away to work in the mines, leaving women in charge
of homes. The traditional informal education system was then disrupted among
communities affected by such moves.
However, at that point in time, there was already a system of segregated and
unequal education in the country. While schooling for the Europeans
was free, compulsory and expanding, education for Africans and other non-
Europeans was neglected. There were insufficient facilities for schooling, teachers
and educational materials due to a serious lack of funding.
1 The language, Afrikaans, has its roots in 17th century Dutch but has been influenced by English,
Malay, German, Portuguese, French and some African languages. Until the 19th century
Afrikaans was a spoken language in Africa and Dutch was used as the formal and written
language. It became an official language in 1925. Although less emphasised, it is spoken by
people of all races in South Africa today.

Ethnic identity defined the degree to which

educational opportunity was to be provided. Under
the apartheid system there were four ethnic
classifications: Blacks, Coloureds, Indians and Whites,
and the government decided how and what kind of
education was to be provided for each ethnic group.
They lived separately, and the education they
received prepared them for different roles in society.
www.theafrican.com
Apartheid In 1953, prior to the
The 1950s marked a crucial period in South African apartheid governmentÊs
history when apartheid (meaning separateness in Bantu Education Act, 90%
Afrikaans) became entrenched as a system of of black South African
government. It all began in 1948 when the National schools were state-aided
Party (NP) won the elections and over the next 45 and were mission schools.
The Act demanded that
years worked on a social engineering model that
all such schools register
affected two generations of Africans. Under this
with the state, and
system, there were a different set of rules for the removed control of
Africans and the Europeans not only in terms of African education from
schooling but also in terms of where they lived and the churches and
how they should travel from one place to another. provincial authorities.
This control was
The NP also gave the Afrikaans language new status centralised in the Bantu
in schools, and after that, all high-school graduates Education Department, a
were required to be proficient in both Afrikaans and body dedicated to
keeping it separate and
in English. Many of the local people lost their land
inferior. Almost all the
and their homes as entire villages were removed and
mission schools closed
relocated in less desirable areas. down. The 1953 Act also
separated the financing of
Bantu Education education for Africans
In 1953, The Bantu Education Act was passed in from general state
South Africa. In a move to use most government spending and linked it to
resources for European education, far less attention direct tax paid by Africans
was paid to the quality and facilities of schools for themselves, with the
the others. Less than 10% of the per capita income result that far less was
was spent on Black education. Teachers in Black spent on black children
than on white children.
schools had little training while the curriculum and
textbook content was designed to prepare the people From: South Africa
only for menial jobs. Ethnic identity defined the History Online
degree to which educational opportunity was to be
provided.

In reference to Bantu education, Parsons (1982) asserts:
Black schools no longer studied the same syllabuses as non-Black schools,

but followed new Bantu education syllabuses based on officially recognised
Bantu languages. English, which had been the most common medium of
instruction, was stopped in primary schools and limited in secondary schools.
The Bantu Affairs Department had to approve teachers, and also controlled
the local school boards consisting of parents and officials which managed
the everyday running of schools.
The Soweto Uprising

Bantu education was greeted with a great deal of
resentment as Black children were deprived of
reaching their full intellectual and social potential.
The contrast between Black and European schools
was stark: where there were 18 students in a
European classroom, there were 40 in a Black
classroom. Few teachers in Black schools were
certified to teach while very low standards were
maintained for graduation from schools. South
Africans endured Bantu education for almost
20 years before they took their troubles to the road in
a big way. By then, many of their leaders had been
jailed or killed, or had simply „gone missing.‰
Figure 6.3: Famous

picture of a fatally-
wounded Hector
Pieterson, aged 13, on
June 16, 1976.
www.southafrica.info

In 1976, when compulsory Afrikaans language instruction was enforced in high

schools there were mass protests. In the violence that followed in Soweto2 in
Johannesburg, hundreds of people died, many of them schoolchildren. Thus, the
path was laid for calls for freedom for the Africans, and the term Liberation before
Education became a motto for the people involved in the struggle.
„I will reform Black education so that Natives will

be taught from childhood to realise that equality with
Europeans is not for them.‰ Hendrik Verwoerd, the
National Party's minister of Native Affairs in 1951.
African Rule
It was only in the 1990s that apartheid was considered outdated and non-racial
education was considered for implementation in South Africa. Other aspects of
government began to change as pressure mounted for Black rule in South Africa.
AfricaÊs most famous prisoner, Nelson Mandela, was released from prison in
1990, and led the country to its first free elections in 1994. The country began to
assume a new identity, and informally referred to itself as the Rainbow Nation
of Africa. The new government embraced a culturally diverse people with
11 different official languages and a very rich history.
2 Soweto is an acronym for South West Township, an area located on the south-western part of
Johannesburg designated for Black homes.

ACTIVITY 6.3
1. Trace the events that led to the Soweto uprising in 1976. What was
the main reason for the uprising?
2. Do you think the African community was justified in rejecting

Bantu Education? Give a reason for your answer.
3. Read the following statement by Desmond Tutu, a South African

freedom fighter who won the Nobel Prize for Peace. Find out what
he meant by „gutter education.‰
I wanted to become a doctor, a physician, and I was admitted to

medical school, but my family did not have the money for fees. So
I ended up becoming a teacher. I stopped being a teacher when
the South African Government introduced a deliberately inferior
education for Blacks called Bantu education, and I felt I wasnÊt
ready to collaborate with this apology for an educational system.
Our children, the 1976 kids who revolted against apartheid in
Soweto, called it „gutter education,‰ and it was gutter education. I
left teaching. (2004)
South AfricaÊs Languages (2001)

Zulu (23.8%) Xhosa (17.6%) Afrikaans (13.3%) Sepedi (9.4%)
English (8.2%) Setswana (8.2%) Sesotho (7.9%) Xitsonga (4.4%)
Others Ndebele, Pedi, Swazi, Venda (7.2%)
Three other languages added in 2004: Gujarati, Hebrew and Latin
www.safrica.info/

6.3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN THE

RAINBOW NATION
Figure 6.4: Map of South Africa
Let us now examine educational planning in democratic South Africa (Figure 6.4)
after the new government took control. According to Gilmour, Soudien &
Donald (2000), the total population in 1994 was 40.6 million, 75% of whom were
Black Africans. The Asians numbered 3.5 million (9%), Coloureds 1 million (3%)
and Whites 5 million (13%). There were almost 8 million primary schoolchildren
and 3.5 million secondary schoolchildren. The new government had inherited an
education system that was deeply divided. There were 19 different education
departments under apartheid, segmented according to race and geography.
The plan to formulate a new policy framework and to restructure education

began with the setting up of the National Education and Training Forum in 1993.
A substantial amount of resources 23% of the national budget were set aside
for education. Compulsory education with a single core syllabus for all South
Africans from age seven to sixteen was introduced. The first instance of
integration of government-run primary and secondary schools at the national
level was in 1995.

Below is a description of the various measures that were taken to provide equal
and fair access to education to all South Africans, irrespective or creed or colour.
Additionally, in the spirit of change for the better, these measures were taken to
ensure that education would produce „A prosperous, truly united, democratic
and internationally competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens
leading productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination
and prejudice.‰ (Vision stated in the White Paper on Education and Training,
1995).
(a) The New Constitution

Foremost, education parity was provided for in the new constitution of the
democratic Republic of South Africa. Section 29 of the Constitution states:
EDUCATION
29. (1) Everyone has the right
(i) to a basic education, including adult basic
education; and
(ii) to further education, which the state, through
reasonable measures, must make progressively
available and accessible.
(2) Everyone has the right to receive education in the

official language or languages of their choice in public
educational institutions where that education is
reasonably practicable. In order to ensure the effective
access to, and implementation of, this right, the state
must consider all reasonable educational alternatives,
including single medium institutions, taking into
account:
The historic
(i) equity;
inadequacy of school
education, especially
(ii) practicability; and for black communities,
had the effect that a
(iii) the need to redress the results of majority of the adult
past racially discriminatory laws population, both in
and practices. and out of formal
employment, had no
schooling or
inadequate schooling.
Curriculum 2005

These statements have guided all educational and training activity since
1994. You will note that there is a provision in the constitution for not only
basic education, but also for adult and further education. The latter was
considered important as, under apartheid, many adults were not able to
take part in literacy-oriented activity, and many qualified Africans had
been denied access to tertiary education.
In addition to this, the plan also included a provision for instruction in the
pupilsÊ own language, which may be in any one of the eleven officially
recognised languages in the country. Note too that the constitution states
that whenever the need arises, the state has to redress the results of past
racially discriminatory laws and practices. Obviously this means that the
new government has assumed a great deal of responsibility; it has to take
steps to remedy or make compensations for far-reaching inequities that
were caused by years of apartheid rule.
(b) Lifelong Learning through a National Curriculum Framework (1996)

The first major statement on curriculum was formulated in 1996 and was
called the National Curriculum Framework. This Framework was informed
primarily by principles contained in three other documents:
(i) The White Paper on Education and Training 1995
(ii) The South African Qualifications Act No. 58, 1995
(iii) The National Education Policy Act 1996
The National Curriculum Framework gave a rationale for major changes in

the education system and emphasised the need to transform teaching and
learning in all schools. It also recommended a shift to a new instructional
paradigm, from the aims-and-objectives approach to the outcomes-based
approach. This was in response to the growing concern that traditional
methods of teaching and training would not produce graduates of the
quality and standards necessary for the future. The National Curriculum
Framework provided a philosophical base for policy makers and
educationists. It became a set of principles and guidelines on organisational
structure for curriculum development at the national, provincial,
community and the school level.

In addition to this, South Africa embarked on a plan to incorporate lifelong

learning into the education agenda. Years of under-education, inadequate
infrastructure and a lack of resources had left large number of adult
learners with inadequate skills for the job market. Educational planning
included the establishment of the Adult Basic Education and Training
(ABET) programme which focused on building partnerships with
businesses and community groups for the purpose of human capacity
building in a variety of areas. In 1995, the Minister of Education described
the goal of ABET in the following terms:
ABET should provide a general basic education, promote critical

thinking and empower individuals to participate in all aspects
of society, and promote active learning methods, and, ABET
should lead to nationally recognised certificates based on clear
national standards assessed as learning outcomes.
In addition to ABET, the Further Education and Training (FET) programme

provides both academic and applied learning tracks. Under this initiative,
South Africans have access to lifelong learning, higher education and
training, as well as employment in a number of areas. To provide for
greater diversity in education FET provides three tracks of education:
academic, vocational and occupation-specific.
For adults, classes in basic literacy, in technical and in vocational subjects

have also been made available. The University of Cape Town and
Witwatersrand University offer courses for those who wish to become adult
education instructors. Thus, educational planning followed the principle of
a people-driven approach to development to help South Africans reach
their maximum capacity and thereby meet the needs of the country.

SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. What do you understand by the phrase a single core syllabus for all
South Africans?
2. What was the rationale for making provisions for adult basic
education in the Constitution of South Africa?
3. Why was lifelong learning form a critical component of the

National Curriculum Framework of 1996?
4. How will technical and in vocational education help human capital

development?
5. To what extent is social integration reflected in the planning of

education for the new South Africa? Justify your views with
evidence from the documents discussed above.
The national flag of the Republic

of South Africa was first used on
27 April 1994. The design and
colours are a synopsis of principal
elements of the countryÊs flag
history. Individual colours, or
colour combinations were different
meanings for different people and
therefore no universal symbolism
should be attached to any of the
colours.
The central design of the flag, beginning at the flag post in a „V‰ form and
flowing into a single horizontal band to the outer edge of the fly, can be
interpreted as the convergence of diverse elements within South African
society, taking the road ahead in unity. The theme of convergence and unity
ties in with the motto of the National Coat of Arms, „Unity is Strength.‰
www.infoplease.com/ipa

(c) Curriculum 2005

The new curriculum based on the outcomes-based approach became known
as Curriculum 2005 and was first implemented in schools in 1998. It was
called Curriculum 2005 because a final decision on its implementation in
the upper grades was to be made in the year 2005, i.e. a decision on
implementation in Grade 10 in 2006, in Grade 11 in 2007, and in Grade 12 in
2008.
Outcomes-based education or OBE focuses on what the learners should

know and can do at the end of a course of learning and teaching, instead of
the means which are to be used to achieve those results. Under the planned
Curriculum 2005, learnersÊ progress was to be measured against agreed
criteria; formal assessment would employ criterion-referencing in a
transparent manner. All learners who met the agreed criteria for specified
learning outcomes would receive the appropriate credit or credits. Learning
support and feedback were crucial aspects of teaching: if a learner could not
achieve what was expected, he/she would receive the necessary assistance
to meet the required standards. As stated by the then Deputy Director-
General of Education, Dr Chabani Manganyi,
„The new curriculum will be based on the principles of

co-operation, critical thinking and social responsibly, and
should empower individuals to participate in all aspects of
society. This could best be achieved by a national curriculum
which provides a general education as a platform for lifelong
learning. (March 1997)‰
To achieve these aims, the curriculum was organised along eight newly
created Learning Areas, which were:
(i) Language, Literacy and Communication;
(ii) Mathematical Literacy, Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences;
(iii) Human and Social Sciences;
(iv) Natural Sciences;
(v) Technology;

(vi) Arts and Culture;

(vii) Economic and Management Sciences; and
(viii) Life Orientation.
(For a detailed description on each of these areas, refer to Appendix 3.)
ACTIVITY 6.4
Find out more about Outcomes-based Education in South Africa. How

successful has it been in grooming young South Africans for the 21st
Century?
Postscript
An important aspect of educational planning is time time to think deeply about
a plan for educating an entire nation, time to train teachers and administrators to
effectively operate in the new system and time to conceive of a plan that will
work for all sectors of the population. Although the South African model, i.e.
Lifelong Learning through OBE, was conceptualised after months of discussion
with experts from all over the world, there has been a sense that it was
implemented too hastily. Some experts have felt that many South Africans
needed more time to understand the goals of the curriculum in order to deliver it
effectively (Gilmour, Soudien & Donald, 2000).
In addition to this, there is still tension between practicality and accessibility;

while some quarters feel that English should be the medium of instruction in all
schools, others feel that there would be greater accessibility if the studentsÊ
mother tongues were used. Some parents prefer that their children be taught
in English, but the choice of a language of instruction often rests on the
geographical location of a school. As you can see from the newspaper report
below, this is an ongoing debate in South Africa.
To conclude, the South African model for Lifelong Learning through OBE was
aimed at providing equity in education. The three documents analysed above
show that there has been a concerted effort to provide for marginalised groups
so that they too can build on the competencies necessary for the workplace. To
reiterate, the principle of a people-driven approach to development was followed
in educational planning to help South Africans reach their maximum capacity
and thereby meet the needs of the country.

JOHANNESBURG, 23 June 2006 (IRIN) With South Africa still struggling to improve
education standards, a new report has called on the government to consider using local
languages as a medium of instruction in schools.
The „Report of the Public Hearing on the Right to Basic Education‰ by the South African
Human Rights Commission (SAHRC), examined the host of challenges facing
educational transformation in the country. Among the many problems from poverty to
classroom violence it noted a glaring problem: 42 percent of children in rural schools
had difficulty understanding their teachers.
„An inadequate command of language, whether by the teacher, the learner or both,
constitutes a serious barrier to effective schooling and education,‰ said the report, which
synthesised the views gathered from public hearings held in 2005.
(http://www.irinnews.org/)
Educational planning is critical to the success of basic and advanced

education provided for a people. It is usually done at a national level and
involves many aspects of education: curricula, structure, policy, staffing,
teacher training and funding.
Educational planning is significant for a number of reasons, such as:

There is a strong link between educational planning and national
development.
Educational planning reflects the national agenda, such as economic goals
and social integration policies.
Planning and delivery of education reflects the ideological position of the
political forces within a country.
Educational planning involves a process that requires the cooperation of
many key institutions in a country.
Educational planning often begins with the identification of a peopleÊs needs,

such as the need for human capital development and national development.

The educational history of a country is often linked to the political and

economic forces that are prevalent at a given time. Thus, education planners
take these factors into consideration when planning a new curriculum or a
new approach to education in a country.
Planning takes a great deal of time and care has to be taken to ensure that
plans that are implemented are relevant and consistent with the needs of the
people in a country.
Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET)

Apartheid
Curriculum 2005
Education Planning and Research Division (EPRD)
European Rule
Ninth Malaysia Plan
Outcomes-based approach
Post-conflict context
Sekolah Wawasan
Soweto
The Bantu Education Act

Gilmour, D., Soudien, C., & Donald, D. (2000). Post-Apartheid policy and
practice: Educational reform in South Africa. In Mazurek, K., Winzer,
M. A. & Majorek, C. (Eds). (2000). Education in a Global Society: A
Comparative Perspective. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.
Gopinathan, S. (2005). Globalization, the Singapore Developmental State and

Education Policy: A Thesis Revisited. Working paper, National Institute of
Education, Singapore
Parsons, N. (1982). New history of South Africa, London: Macmillan.
Pigou, A. C. (1928). A study in public finance. London: Macmillan and Co.
Weiler, H. N. (1982). Educational Planning and Social Change: A Critical

Review of Concepts and Practices. In Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F. & Kelly,
G. P. (Eds.). (1982). Comparative Education. New York: Macmillan.

Topic Goals of the
7 Primary School
Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Provide an overview of the various factors that influence the design of
curriculum for basic education at the primary school level;
2. Discuss various factors that influence the development of curricular
goals of basic education; and
3. Compare and contrast curricular goals of basic education in a number
of countries.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will focus on curricular goals, as depicted in the primary school
curriculum in a number of countries. Hence, we deviate from the structure of
earlier topics where the focus was on a case study or a single country. We will
examine curricula in public schools, or basic compulsory education provided
in a number of places, and not private education. In the pages that follow, you will
read about how countries from different parts of the world organise and articulate
their curricula goals, exercise curricular control and formulate core parts of the
curriculum. In addition to this, we will compare the different ways in which
national systems of education treat curricular content, and how they define various
learning areas.

136 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM
7.1 CURRICULAR GOALS 1

In almost all societies, the public school curriculum is driven by economic needs
as well as social issues such as cultural integration and national unity. You will
find that the goals of personal, national and social development are addressed
either implicitly across the curriculum or are explicitly included in religious,
moral or ethics education and/or in subjects such as health education.
For example, the Malaysian education philosophy stresses the need for its
citizens to be intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced.
There is also a call for the people to believe in God, possess high moral standards
and contribute to the betterment of the family. For this reason, the Malaysian
public school curricula aim for intellectual development (e.g. thinking skills and
learning how to learn through mathematics, science, history, etc.) as well as
spiritual development (e.g. good behaviour through religious and moral
education). The former reflects an implicit approach to intellectual development
while the latter is an explicit way to achieve personal or spiritual development
goals.
Another aspect of curricular goals is relevance, that is, the curriculum must help
a people achieve life-goals which they see as relevant to their culture and
livelihood. Let us take the example of Maori medium education in New Zealand.
As most Maoris speak their own language, and practice their own cultural norms
and traditions, the New Zealand government could not offer them a curriculum
that was originally developed for the English speaking community. A translation
from English could not accommodate cultural differences between Maoris and
the European community in New Zealand. To circumvent this problem, a specific
curriculum was developed for Maori medium education to meet the specific
needs for Maori language groups or Iwi. The New Zealand Ministry of Education
considers this move to be significant to providing education that is relevant to
the needs of Maori society.
1 The information in this topic has been adapted from a study by J. Métais (2003), conducted for the
International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks (INCA) project carried out by
the National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales.

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 137
7.2 CURRICULAR CONTROL

The curriculum of a country is characterised by specific input, that is, curriculum
content, and output, that is, childrenÊs achievement. In most countries, education
planners aim to secure a minimum entitlement for all children, meaning that
there is basic or core content that all children have to be exposed to. Obviously,
this has other purposes, such as ensuring equity in all parts of the country,
adequate preparation for secondary school or for adult life and even to facilitate
continuity for those who change schools. For these reasons, the fundamental
curriculum framework, guidelines and outcomes are often centralised at national,
regional or local government level.
In some countries, schools and districts are given greater autonomy to modify the
curriculum as deemed necessary. For example, South Korea practices
decentralised curricular control. Schools are encouraged to modify the national
curriculum or to develop new subjects to meet the needs, circumstances and
interests of schoolchildren and the local community. This is done to enable
schools and local authorities to devise curricula which are more appropriate for
children and thus contribute to increased diversity of educational programmes.
Very often, there are minimum targets set for schools so that the core content is
covered by each school. However, all over the world, there is a trend toward
greater adaptation to suit the needs of people in smaller localities or specific
language groups.
As you will note from Table 7.1, most countries have given the responsibility of
curricular control to their respective Ministry of Education. However, in
countries such as Canada and Australia, provincial or state departments play a
major role in making decisions about the curriculum.
One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant

teachers, but with gratitude to those who touched our
human feelings. The curriculum is so much necessary
raw material, but warmth is the vital element for the
growing plant and for the soul of the child.
~ Carl G. Jung (1875 1961)

Table 7.1: Locus of Curricular Control
Country Agency
Malaysia Ministry of Education, on the advice of the Curriculum Development Centre
Canada Provincial Departments or Ministries of Education
England The Secretary of State for Education and Skills, acting on the advice of the
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA)
France Ministry of Education, advised by the national curriculum council
Germany Ministers of Education and Culture and the Curriculum Development
Department of the Federal Institute for School and Adult Education
Hungary Ministry of Education through the Centre for Curriculum Development at
the National Institute of Public Education
Ireland The Minister for Education and Science, on the advice of the National
Council for Curriculum and Assessment
Japan Courses of Study are prepared by the Ministry (MEXT) and reviewed by the
Central Council for Education
Italy Ministry of Public Instruction (MPI)
Australia State/territory Ministers of Education advised by curriculum bodies e.g. the
Queensland Studies Authority (QSA), the Tasmanian Office of Education,
the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA), etc.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. What does the term „curricular goals‰ mean to you?
2. What do you understand by the following: implicit and explicit

treatment of curricular goals?
3. What do you think is the minimum entitlement in terms of

curriculum content in Malaysian primary schools?
4. Do you think Malaysia exercises centralised or decentralised

control of the curriculum for primary schools? Give a reason for
your answer.
5. Examine Table 7.1 closely. How is Malaysia similar to or different

from other countries in terms of locus of curricular control?

7.3 FORMULATION OF THE CURRICULUM

Generally, the curricula in primary schools aim to achieve two ideals:
(a) Equip learners with core essential skills which children need as the basis for
future learning, e.g. reading, writing, and mathematics; and
(b) Provide access to a broad and balanced curriculum, e.g. content areas (such
as history, science, etc.), art, music, physical and moral education.
In some countries, core essential skills such as literacy and numeracy are given
more attention in the primary school than are knowledge-oriented subjects. For
example, Ontario, Canada, puts a strong emphasis on reading, writing and
mathematics at the primary school-level. However, there is acknowledgement of
the importance of Canadian and world history, geography, civics and economics,
the arts, and health issues and physical education in providing well-rounded
education. In Singapore, children in Primary 5 and Primary 6 (aged 10 to
12 years) follow a slightly broader curriculum from that of Primary 1 to
Primary 4 (aged 6 to 10 years).
In France, the revised 2002 curriculum brought about an increased emphasis on

literacy. Teachers are now expected to ensure that basic literacy activities such as
reading, writing and speaking are included in all subject areas. For the pre-
primary (age 5 to 6) and lower primary (age 6 to 8) years, at least two-and-a-half
hours in a day are devoted to reading and writing across the curriculum. For
upper-primary (age 8 to 11) years, children are expected to spend two hours a
day on reading and writing skills. This concentration on literacy skills aims to
provide children with a good grounding in the core essential skills.

Another approach to curricula formulation is the provision of holistic learning

and the creation of learning areas rather than subjects. A case in point is
Hungary, where the curriculum has been restructured to include cross-curricular
work instead of subject-based learning.
In the Netherlands, the curriculum review of 1985 resulted in reduced content.

The curriculum now emphasises three learning areas:
(a) Communication
Dutch language, mathematics and English, emphasising a set of core
objectives and output standards;
(b) Content
Orientation of mankind, nature and the world (including geography,
history, technology and science), which are again guided by global core
objectives; and
(c) Personal Development

Art, music and physical education (PE). Greater autonomy is given to
schools for these areas, although a number of global objectives are
specified.
Another latter-day development is that most curricula are now formulated in

terms of learning outcomes or attainment targets. As shown in Table 7.2, this is a
common practice in Australia, Ontario in Canada, England and New Zealand.
(You may also recall that the Outcomes-based Curriculum of South Africa is
designed in this way.) Other countries such as Singapore, Japan and Korea
formulate curricula in line with the skills and objectives to be achieved for the
various subjects being taught.

Table 7.2: Curriculum Formulation and Requirements
How Curriculum Learning

Country Specific Strategies
is Organised Outcomes
Singapore In subjects, with some Programmes for literacy,
integration. Eight core skills numeracy/mathematics
and values specifically target the early
primary years
Australia Eight Key Learning Areas Six Yes Literacy and numeracy for the
cross-curricular areas New (national) whole primary phase
essential learning (Tasmania)
New Basics (Queensland)
Canada Subjects and some „clusters‰ Ontario Programmes for literacy and
numeracy/ mathematics
education, which target the
early years of primary
education
England Three core and seven Yes Literacy and numeracy for the
foundation subjects; key whole primary phase
skills, cross-curricular themes
and religious education
France Subjects and clusters. From Since 2002, emphasis on
age 8- 11, some separate literacy across the curriculum
subjects. Integrated arts; and promotion of modern
science technology and foreign languages throughout
maths; humanities primary
Japan Subjects, increase in range
from Year 3 (age 8+)
Korea Integrated clusters in early
years; subjects from Year 3
New Seven essential learning areas Yes Programmes for literacy,
Zealand and eight groups of essential numeracy/ mathematics
skills education specifically target
early primary
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.

ACTIVITY 7.1
Consider the three learning areas of communication, content and

personal development.
1. Examine the Malaysian primary school curriculum and categorise

the various subjects offered under each of the three learning areas
above.
2. What portion of instructional time is devoted to each of these

learning areas?
3. Read the contents of Table 7.2. Then create a new row for Malaysia
and provide details (in relation to the Malaysian primary school
curriculum) for the following:
(a) how curriculum is organised;

(b) learning outcomes; and
(c) specific strategies used in the formulation of programmes for
different learning areas.
7.4 CURRICULA CONTENT

Primary school education in most countries aims to provide a foundation for
secondary schooling. The following list of learning areas is found in the primary
school curriculum of many countries around the world:
(a) Languages and literacy: mother tongue, national/ regional/ foreign

language;
(b) Mathematics, science and technology;
(c) Humanities, religious/ moral education and citizenship: social studies/
civics, history, geography;
(d) The arts: art, music; and
(e) Physical education: sports, personal/ social/ health education.

Although there are many commonalities in the content of the curriculum across
different countries, it is important to realise that there is also a great deal of
variation. The way the curriculum is organised and the weight given to each
learning area may be different between countries. In the sections that follow, we
take a more detailed look at each of these areas and examine how they are taught
in different places.
(a) Languages and Literacy

Language and literacy instruction is one of the most significant parts of a
curriculum. As a learning area, it is not only seen as a vehicle for learning
other areas and subjects, but is also viewed as a matter of social and
political importance. Often languages are assigned different roles, according
to their cultural and political significance. Thus, a language may be
classified as follows: a national language, a medium of instruction, mother
tongue or second/foreign language. Malaysia offers a unique example of
language and literacy education as several languages are taught at the
primary school level: Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese and Tamil, English and
Arabic.
Let us consider the Malaysian example:
(i) There are primary schools that use Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese and
Tamil language as a medium for instruction.
(ii) Bahasa Malaysia is classified both as a medium of instruction and as a

national language.
(iii) In schools where Bahasa Malaysia is a medium of instruction, English

is accorded the position of second language.
As you can see from the Malaysian scenario, a great deal depends on how a
country wishes to project itself, and how cultural and political expectations
weave into the provision of language and literacy education in public
schools.

ACTIVITY 7.2
Consider the following. In some Malaysian schools, three different
languages are taught: the national language, the mother tongue and
English.
1. How would you classify the role of English in Tamil-medium

schools or in Chinese-medium schools?
2. What about the role of Arabic in Malay-medium schools?
3. How many different writing scripts are involved in the Malaysian

education system?
Figure 7.1: Alphabets in different languages

Let us take now a closer look at language and literacy education with
respect to other countries around the world. A summary is shown in
Table 7.3.
(i) National language instruction. A national language may be included

in the school curriculum for the purpose of social cohesion and
inter-cultural integration. In Switzerland, children learn one of the
countryÊs four national languages i.e. French, German, Italian and
Rhaeto-Romanic [Romansch] although 64% of the Swiss speak
German. Almost all primary age children learn a second national
language for one to three years, and the introduction of a second
foreign language such as English is encouraged. All primary school
teachers have had language training and several schools are
piloting the teaching of some subjects (such as geography, history,
mathematics and sport) through the medium of a foreign language.
Specialists are developing curricula and textbooks for teaching
English at primary school which have, indirectly, influenced the
curriculum and language teaching methodology. There is limited
evaluation of the outcomes of foreign language teaching but the
teacherÊs competence in the foreign language appears to be a crucial
factor for success.

Language distribution in Switzerland

www.swissworld.org/eng/swissworld
German
German is by far the most widely spoken language in Switzerland: 64% of the
people speak German.
French
French is spoken in the western part of the country, the „Suisse Romande.‰ Four
cantons are French-speaking: Geneva, Jura, Neuchâtel and Vaud. Three cantons
are bilingual: in Bern, Fribourg and Valais both French and German are spoken.
Italian
Italian is spoken in Ticino and four southern valleys of Canton Graubünden.
Rhaeto-Rumantsch (Rumantsch)
Rumantsch is spoken only in the trilingual canton of Graubünden. The other two
languages spoken there are German and Italian. Rumantsch, like Italian and
French, is a language with Latin roots. It is spoken by just 0.5% of the total Swiss
population.
The many foreigners resident in Switzerland have brought with them their own
languages. The 2000 census showed that speakers of Serbian/Croatian were the
largest foreign language group, with 1.4% of the population. English was the
main language for 1%.
(ii) Medium of instruction. A regional or national language may be used

as a medium of instruction for some or all of the learning areas in the
curriculum. In Wales and Ireland, provision is made for part of the
curriculum to be taught through the medium of Welsh and Gaeilge
respectively. In other schools, children learn these languages but
receive most of their education through the medium of English. In
Singapore, the common language is English and children learn their
mother tongue (Mandarin Chinese, Malay or Tamil) as a second core
subject.

(iii) Regional language or minority language or mother tongue

instruction. Instruction in a third language may be included if it is
different from the national language or the medium of instruction.
In Hungary, Ireland, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain and Wales,
minority languages take on a more significant role. In Hungary,
for example, all 13 minorities have the right to education in their
mother tongue. Indeed, the language of instruction for language and
literature, history, geography and culture must be the mother tongue
but, at the same time, minority children must have the opportunity
to become acquainted with the Hungarian language and culture.
Similarly, children who do not belong to the given minority have the
opportunity of acquainting themselves with the culture of the local
minority.
In New Zealand the education system is bilingual throughout. Maori

language has to be provided to all children or parents who request
it. Demand may therefore mean that this subject is offered from
the beginning of primary education. There are Maori schools and
all curriculum statements are available in both English and Maori.
Additionally, in Singapore and Hungary, primary school children
generally receive moral, values and/or cultural education in the
mother tongue, as it is generally accepted that such subjects are most
appropriately taught and understood in the mother tongue.
(iv) Foreign language. A foreign language may be included to enhance

the peopleÊs ability to connect with people in other places/regions.
In Italy, a foreign language is usually offered from Year 2 or 3 (from
age 7 or 8) while in Korea, recent changes to the compulsory
curriculum have led to the ruling that a foreign language is
compulsory from the start of Year 3 (nine-year-olds). In the
Netherlands, English is a compulsory subject at primary level, at least
in the final two years (age 10 12).
In New Zealand, a language other than English or Maori is

increasingly offered to children aged 10 onwards, although this is
not mandatory. The recent Curriculum Stocktake (formal reflection on
the revised curriculum) has highlighted the need to balance two
competing forces, namely, the desire for a New Zealand which
includes people with understanding of languages other than
their own, and the tendency within (what schools perceive as)
an overcrowded and unattainable curriculum, to push aside non-
compulsory foreign and international languages.

Table 7.3: Teaching of Languages and Literacy in various countries
National Language(s)
Country Other Languages Offered
and/or Mother Tongue
Australia English Languages other than English
(LOTE), not necessarily from Year 1
Canada English (French in some provinces)
England English (literacy) Not compulsory at primary level, but
encouraged from key stage 2 (age 8)
France French (includes literature from age 8) Foreign languages (formerly
Regional language in some areas compulsory for age 10 and 11 only;
from 2002, compulsory throughout
primary)
Germany German Modern foreign language from
Year 3
Hungary Hungarian or mother tongue (up to 13 Modern foreign language
recognised) language and literature
Ireland Language (Irish (Gaeilge)/English)
Italy Italian Modern foreign language from
Year 2/3
Japan Japanese language and literature
Korea Korean language English from Year 3
Malaysia National language (Malay) English (as a second language)
Mother tongue (Chinese/Tamil)
Netherlands Dutch (compulsory Frisian in English from later years at least
Friesland)
New Languages (English, Maori) Optional foreign languages (separate
Zealand curriculum guidelines)
Singapore English and mother tongue (Mandarin
Chinese, Malay or Tamil)
Spain Castilian (and regional) language and Foreign languages from Year 3.
literature Proposals to be compulsory from
age 6.
Sweden Swedish/Swedish as a foreign English; a second foreign language
language for pupils from the Sami (schools decide when to introduce
population this)
Switzerland French/German/Italian/Rhaeto- French/German/Italian/English
Romanic
USA Language arts (English grammar,
reading and writing)
Social sciences also includes literature
Wales English/Welsh (as a first or second Proposed foreign languages for 7 to
language) 11 year-olds will be introduced from
2003

(b) Mathematics, Science and Technology

All primary level curricula feature mathematics or numeracy as a separate
subject, except in France, where it is taught as part of science in upper
primary (from age eight). Numeracy has received special attention in many
countries, particularly after the publication of the findings of the Third
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). At primary level, the
study of science usually incorporates aspects of biology, physics, chemistry
and sometimes astronomy and geology. The place of technology in the
curriculum varies. In some countries, it is integrated with science as the
application of science; in others, it embraces craft and domestic science; in
yet others, it includes information and communications. Only in England
and Wales is design explicitly included. Refer to Table 7.4 for details on
country-related instruction in this area.
Table 7.4: Teaching of Mathematics, Science and Technology
Country Sciences Technology ICT

Australia Science Technology Integrated/Included in
most curricula
Canada General General A separate subject in some
science/technology science/technology provinces
France „Discovering the world:‰ „Discovering the world‰ ICT is intended to be used
includes sciences. From includes technology. as a tool in the teaching and
age eight Integrated From age eight learning of all subjects
science (Science, Integrated science
technology and
mathematics)
Hungary Man and nature (natural Life management and Informatics (computing
studies, physics, practical studies studies and library use)
chemistry, biology, (technology, home
health studies). Our earth economics, career
and environment orientation)
Japan Science (from Year 3) Home economics and Included in Home
general studies Economics and in Integrated
Studies
Korea Years 1 to 2 Intelligent life Practical arts (technology In 2001, computer education
Years 3 to 6 Science and home economics) became compulsory
Netherlands „Orientation on mankind „Orientation on mankind Computers are increasingly

and the world‰ includes and the world‰ includes used, but schools determine
environment and nature technology how
study
Singapore Science from Year 3 Information literacy skills
included

(c) Humanities
The most common subjects that fall under humanities are history and
geography, literature, moral or religious education, civics, social studies
and health education. As shown in Table 7.5, most countries include social
studies as a core part of the curriculum. Let us examine in greater detail
how different countries treat the study of religious education and
citizenship education.
(i) Religious education. Countries which proscribe religious education

may consider values and issues in moral education or ethics
classes (Japan and Korea), or across the curriculum (France and
New Zealand). In Singapore, character education (values education)
aims to ensure the holistic education of the child with an emphasis on
strengthening the instincts for the community and the nation. One
approach has been direct instruction through relevant subjects
and programmes, such as the „National Education‰ programme or
through social studies and civic and moral education (CME). A
second approach cuts across the curriculum. For example, primary
school children develop a concern for living things, and an awareness
of their responsibility for the quality of the environment (through
science), endurance, sportsmanship and fair play (through physical
education, sports and games), and appreciation for local and ethnic
art and music and a sense of pride in their national and cultural
heritage (through the arts).
However, in the USA, New Zealand and most regions of France, state
schools are secular and religious education is prohibited. Similarly, in
Japan and Korea, only private schools (which otherwise generally
follow the compulsory curriculum for publicly-funded schools), may
offer religious education. In New Zealand, religious denominations
who run their own formerly private schools, have integrated into the
state sector so-called „integrated schools‰, while state-subsidised
Roman Catholic schools in Australia are permitted to provide
religious instruction.
In England, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Spain and Wales, religious

education is a statutory element of the school curriculum. Although
schools must provide religious education, individual children (or their
parents) may seek exemption, in which case children undertake an
alternative programme or private study. The Italian Government has
recently approved financial support for private (Catholic) schools, and

the Minister is stressing Roman Catholic religious values, for example,

by requiring state schools to display the crucifix and to celebrate
Roman Catholic feast days.
(ii) Citizenship education. Civics education has been a long-established

part of the humanities or social studies curricula in many countries,
such as Canada, France and the Netherlands. However, there has
been a renewed interest in this area, which has led to the recent
introduction of specific (or revised) citizenship courses in Australia,
England, Ireland, Singapore and Wales.
In Australia, the Commonwealth Government initiative,

„Discovering Democracy‰, made the study of citizenship
compulsory for all children from the mid-primary to upper
secondary years (age 9 to 18). Since 1999, children have begun to
learn about democracy and citizenship and are examined each
year to test their knowledge of the history and workings of
government and the nationÊs democratic foundations. They study
topics such as the history of the Australian constitution, the role of
parliament, cabinet and the courts, freedom of speech, religion, the
role and responsibility of the governor general and the history of
indigenous Australians.
England has recently introduced a broad programme of

citizenship and personal, social and health education to primary
schools. A non-statutory national framework has been provided
which sets out what children might be expected to know and be
able to do, but leaves details of content and delivery to schools.
The aim is for seven-year-olds to know the difference between
right and wrong; consider simple social and moral dilemmas;
learn to share and cooperate; be able to recognise their likes,
dislikes and justify their opinions; name and manage their
feelings; and understand that bullying is wrong. By 11 years
of age, children should study current affairs, basic law and
democracy and discuss topical issues, as well as understand
puberty and the consequences of racism and bullying.

In Singapore, the character development programme (see also

Religious education above, and Personal, social and health
education and well-being below) was introduced in 2001 as a
reaction to the fact that technological advancements had brought a
knowledge explosion and easy access to good and bad ideas
and influences. In addition, globalisation had led to families
relocating and breaking away from their roots. The programme
aims to guide schools in providing a balanced programme for
each child in three domains: leadership, citizenship, and personal
and social development. Under the citizenship domain, activities
are organised to help children acquire values such as loyalty and
commitment to the nation.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Examine closely the information in Tables 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5.
1. How do the various countries compare in terms of languages and

literacy, mathematics, science and technology and humanities,
religious and moral education and citizenship are taught?
2. How would you describe teaching of these three learning areas as

practised in Malaysian primary schools?
Table 7.5: Teaching of Humanities, Religious and Moral Education and Citizenship in
various countries
Religious and Moral

Country Humanities Citizenship
Education, Ethics
Australia Studies of society and the „Discovering Democracy‰
environment (SOSE) for primary, since 1999
Canada Social studies includes Social studies may include
history, geography civics. Citizenship
education is part of the
core curriculum
England History and geography Religious education Non-statutory citizenship
(RE) (parents may guidelines
request exemption)
France Discovering the world RE forbidden except „Living together‰ (civics)
(sciences technology and in Upper Rhine, From age 8: civics
history-geography) From Lower Rhine and
age 8: integrated history and Moselle
geography; civics

Germany Sachunterricht (economics, Religious education Sachunterricht includes

social studies, history, social studies
geography, science and
technology)
Hungary Man and society includes Man and society includes

social studies, economics, civics
human studies, history
Ireland Social, environmental and Religious education Included in SESE
scientific education (SESE)
Italy History, geography and Catholic religion Included in social studies
social studies (Optional)
Japan Social studies Moral education Included in social studies
Korea Social studies (includes Moral education „We are the first graders‰
history and geography) induction programme
Netherlands „Orientation on mankind „Orientation on mankind
and the world‰ includes and the world‰
geography, history
New Social sciences Included in social sciences
Zealand
Singapore Social studies Civics and moral Civics and moral
education (taught in education From 2001,
mother tongue) citizenship is part of the
character development
programme
Spain Knowledge of the natural, Catholic religion Included in knowledge of
social and cultural (Optional. Children the natural, social and
environment may do private cultural environment
study)
Sweden Social sciences includes Social sciences Social sciences includes
geography, history includes religious civics
studies
USA Social sciences includes Social sciences Social sciences includes

history, geography, includes ethics and multiculturalism and
literature values, religion contemporary issues
Wales History and geography RE (parents may Non-statutory citizenship

request exemption) guidelines

(d) Arts Education

Countries all over the world have varied ways of including activities under
the learning area called „the arts‰. In Canada, France, Hungary, Ireland
and Spain, art(s) education includes at least the disciplines of visual
arts (drawing, painting, crafts, etc), music and the study of drama; and
sometimes includes dance and occasionally media studies. For example, in
Singapore and Sweden, crafts are linked to the arts, but in other places they
may be classed as technology. Conversely, drama may be included in
language or language arts courses, while dance may be taught as part of
physical education. Where there is pressure to focus on particular areas, for
example, literacy and numeracy, the time dedicated to the arts tends to
decrease.
(e) Physical Education and Sports

Physical education is part of the curriculum in all countries and may be
combined with health education. Spain is one country where physical
education is an examination subject at the secondary level. England has
recently introduced a broad programme of citizenship and personal, social
and health education (PSHE) to primary schools. In Ireland, social, personal
and health education (SPHE) was introduced as a statutory new curriculum
area with the 1999 primary school curriculum, and in Wales, a programme
of personal and social education (PSE) has recently been introduced and
has recently become compulsory. In Japan, health and personal welfare are
taught as part of several subjects. For example, health is an important
element of physical education, family life is taught in home economics and
moral character and social relationships are taught in moral education. A
more detailed perspective on education for personal, social and physical
well-being in various countries is presented in Table 7.6.

(f) Cross-curricular Areas

In addition to core learning areas, education constantly needs to pay
attention to new topics or areas of social concern, such as international
understanding, education for the world of work, computer or information
technology, health education and environmental studies. As a result, the
curriculum in many countries complements the compulsory (and optional)
subject areas with cross-curricular studies. Although these areas are known
by different names, skills derived from this area are considered important
as foundations for learning.
Table 7.6: Teaching of the Arts and Physical Education in various countries
Health and Personal

Country The Arts Physical Education
Welfare
Australia The arts (includes dance, Health and physical Combined as health
drama, graphic education (HPE) and physical
communication, media, education (HPE)
music and visual arts)
Canada The arts Physical education Social studies may
include personal and
social education
England Art and design; music Physical education Non-statutory
personal, social and
health education
(PSHE) guidelines
France Art (including music). Physical education
From age 8: Artistic and sports
education (music and art)
Germany Art and music Sport
Hungary Arts (singing and music, Physical education
dance and drama, visual and sport
arts, motion picture and
media studies)

Ireland Arts education Physical education Social, personal and

health education
(SPHE)
Italy Art education and music Physical education
education
Japan Music and art Physical education Included in PE, home
economics, and moral
education
Korea Years 1 to 2 „pleasant life‰ Fine arts includes
Music and fine arts physical education
Netherlands Art orientation (drawing, art Art orientation „Orientation on
and crafts, music, drama/ includes movement mankind and the
promoting and developing world‰ includes
the use of language, promotion of self-
movement) reliance and healthy
behaviour
New Zealand The arts Health and physical Health and physical
well-being well-being
Singapore Art and crafts Physical education Health education
Spain Artistic education; Physical education
Knowledge of the natural,
social and cultural
environment
Sweden „Practical arts subjects‰: „Practical arts „Practical arts
music, crafts (textiles, subjects‰ includes subjects‰ includes
woodwork and metalwork) physical education health education
Switzerland Discretionary Discretionary Discretionary
USA Art and music Physical education Health
Wales Art and music Physical education Personal and social
education (PSE)
guidelines (statutory
from September 2003)

ACTIVITY 7.3
Read the following statements on the integrated approach to the

Malaysian primary school curriculum. What are the implications of an
integrated curriculum at the school level? How does it affect teaching
and learning activities on a daily basis?
The elements of knowledge, skills and values are incorporated to bring

about the integrated development of the intellectual, spiritual, emotional
and physical aspects of the individual. The concept of integration is
manifested as follows:
(a) Integration of skills in a subject. For example, in language

teaching, the four skills are speaking (oral skill), listening (aural
skills), reading and writing. Two or more of these skills can be
integrated in a lesson.
(b) Integration of skills across a number of subjects. Drawing, for

example, is one of the activities that can be adopted on Mathematics.
(c) Assimilation of various content in subjects. Elements of science, for

example, are assimilated in the teaching of language.
(d) Integration of values in subjects. Cleanliness and safety, for

example, are given emphasis during practical session.
(e) Elements taught across the curriculum include language. The

environment, science and technology, patriotism, thinking skills
and study skills.
(f) Integration of the curriculum and co-curriculum. Here, co-

curricular activities are reinforced in the formal classroom learning
situation.
(g) Integration of knowledge and practice. For instance, knowledge

acquired can be put into practice outside the formal classroom
situation.
(h) Integration of past experiences and the newly acquired experience

of pupils.
(http://www.ppk.kpm.my/cdc3a.htm)

Ofe Motiki
Francistown, Botswana
Mphemelang Ketlhoilwe, a lecturer at the University of Botswana, says that

environmental education is important nationally and globally.
He said as the world is facing environmental problems like pollution,

deforestation, rapid population growth and poverty, something ought to be
done.
Kethoilwe said the Environmental Heritage Foundation (EHF) of Botswana in

Francistown hosts the workshop on the development of resource materials for
teachers and students. The aim of the workshop is to produce a guidebook for
students and teachers about environmental issues and how to bring awareness
to students about the importance of the environment they live in.
(allafrica.com/stories/)
All countries (except Scotland) have a statutory curriculum, prescribed by

national or sub-national authorities.
In countries with a tradition of centrally determined curricula, there is a

strong trend towards increasing local flexibility within prescribed time
allocations.
There is a tendency towards increasing review of curricula to reflect changing

needs, and most countries have undertaken major reforms of the primary
curriculum within the past 15 years. This has been accompanied by a trend
towards the creation of specialist curriculum (or curriculum and assessment)
agencies, separate from Ministries.
In most countries, there are greater expectations in terms of skills and

dispositions, which are perceived as relevant to lifelong learning, employment
and social participation.
Curricula designed during the past fifteen years increasingly stress the role of
transferable skills and, in some cases, reduce prescribed content.
There is a trend towards formulating curricula in terms of learning outcomes.

Language learning has traditionally been strong and many have two or more
official languages. A foreign language is often a compulsory part of the
primary curriculum (especially for older pupils).
There is an increasing trend towards offering one or more foreign languages,

and/or extending provision for younger pupils.
Citizenship is part of the curriculum in many countries, either as a separate

subject, or within the humanities.
There is also a tendency to increase the emphasis on personal, social and

health education.
Bilingual
Citizenship
Civic and Moral Education (CME)
Explicity
Foreign language
Holistic learning
Implicity
Integrated approach
Learning areas
Medium of instruction
Mother tongue
National language
Personal and Social Education (PSE)
Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE)
Social, Personal and Health Education (SPHE)
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)

Métais, J. (2003) for the International Review of Curriculum and Assessment

Frameworks (INCA) project carried out by the National Foundation for
Educational Research in England and Wales on behalf of the Qualifications
and Curriculum Authority.

APPENDICES

2 APPENDIXES

APPENDIX 1 (TOPIC 3)

164 APPENDICES

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166 APPENDICES

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174 APPENDICES

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176 APPENDICES

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178 APPENDICES

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180 APPENDICES

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182 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 4 (SELECTED READINGS)

APPENDICES 183

184 APPENDICES

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186 APPENDICES

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188 APPENDICES

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190 APPENDICES

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290 APPENDICES

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292 APPENDICES

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294 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 295

296 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 297


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Faculty of Education and Languages

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Prof Dr Kuldip Kaur

Moderator: Prof Dr John Arul Phillips

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, May 2007

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2013, HMEF5033

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1: An Introduction to Comparative Education 1

Topic 2: The Purpose of Comparative Education 20

Topic 3: The Scope of Comparative Education 41

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 4: Education Structure in Japan 66

Topic 5: Higher Education Policy in Sweden 91

Topic 6: Educational Planning in South Africa 113

Topic 7: Goals of the Primary School Curriculum 135

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

WHAT WILL YOU GET FROM DOING THIS

Aim of the Course

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Objectives of the Course

4." To develop an understanding of how issues in education may be studied, and

5." To develop an informed understanding of the role of comparative education

HOW CAN YOU GET THE MOST FROM THIS

1." The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;

2." The Course Assignment Guide (which describes the assignments to be

3." The Course Content (seven topics and a set of readings).

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 2: The Purpose of Comparative Education

Topic 3: The Scope of Comparative Education

Topic 4: Education Structure in Japan

Topic 5: Higher Education Policy in Sweden

Topic 6: Education Planning in South Africa

Topic 7: Goals of the Primary School Curriculum

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Organisation of Course Content

This is a listing of what you should be able to do after successful

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Questions are interspersed at strategic points in the topic to encourage

These are situations drawn from research projects to show how

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

WHAT SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN STUDYING

myVLE Online Discussion

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HOW SHOULD YOU STUDY FOR THIS COURSE?

2." Proposed Study Strategy

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(d)" To begin reading a topic:

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(i) What is Plagiarism?

Paraphrases: A closely reasoned argument of an author is paraphrased but

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(ii) How Can I Avoid Plagiarism?

" Paraphrase clause, phrase, sentence or paragraph in your own

" Adhere to the APA (American Psychological Association) stylistic

" Attempt to write independently without being overly dependent