HMEF5123 Models & Strategies of Teaching - Smay19 (MREP)

HMEF5123
Models and Strategies of Teaching
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

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HMEF5123
MODELS AND
STRATEGIES OF
TEACHING
Dr Sharmini Ghanaguru
Dr Premalatha Bhaskaran Nair
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Table of Contents
Course Guide xi–xv
Topic 1 Teaching and Learning 1

1.1 Defining Teaching and Learning 2
1.1.1 Styles of Teaching 2
1.1.2 Types of Learners 4
1.1.3 What is Teaching and Learning? 5
1.2 Teacher-centred and Student-centred Instruction 6
1.2.1 Teacher-centred Instruction 7
1.2.2 Student-centred Instruction 7
1.2.3 Teacher versus Student-centred Instruction 10
1.3 Inductive and Deductive Approaches to Teaching 11
1.3.1 Inductive Approach to Teaching 11
1.3.2 Deductive Approach to Teaching 13
1.4 Overview of Models of Teaching and Learning 14
1.4.1 Social Family of Models 15
1.4.2 Information Processing Family of Models 16
1.4.3 Behavioural Systems Family of Models 17
1.4.4 Personal Family of Models 18
Summary 19
Key Terms 20
References 20
Topic 2 Social Family of Models I: Partners in Learning 22

2.1 Cooperative Learning 23
2.2 Benefits of Cooperative Learning 24
2.2.1 Effectiveness of Partnership in Learning 24
2.2.2 Partnerships in Action 26
2.2.3 Laboratories and Projects 27
2.3 Group Investigation 28
2.3.1 Model of Teaching 29
2.3.2 Key Concepts in Group Investigation 31
2.3.3 Advantages of Group Investigation 33
2.3.4 Criteria in Selecting „Puzzling Situation‰ 33
2.3.5 Sample Activities Using Group Investigation 34
Summary 36
Key Terms 37
References 37

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Social Family of Models II: Role-playing Model and 39

Jurisprudential Inquiry Model
3.1 What is Role-playing? 40
3.1.1 Role-playing as an Instructional Tool 40
3.2 Benefits of Role-playing 41
3.3 Using Role-playing in the Classroom 42
3.3.1 Key Concepts in Role-playing 42
3.3.3 Criteria in Selecting „Problem Stories‰ 46
3.3.4 Sample Activities Using Role-playing 47
3.3.5 Pedagogical Implications of the Role-playing Model 50
3.4 Overview of the Jurisprudential Inquiry Model 51
3.4.1 Using Jurisprudential Inquiry with Learners 52
3.4.3 Points to Consider When Applying Jurisprudential 55
Inquiry
3.4.4 Advantages of Jurisprudential Inquiry Model 56
3.4.5 Pedagogical Implications of Jurisprudential Inquiry 57
Model
Summary 57
Key Terms 58
References 59
Topic 4 Information Processing Family of Models I: Concept Attainment 60

Model and Picture-word Inductive Model (PWIM)
4.1 The Concept Attainment Model 61
4.1.1 What is a Concept? 61
4.1.2 Concept Formation 61
4.1.3 Concept Attainment 62
4.1.4 Advantages of Using the Concept Attainment 66
Model
4.1.5 Pedagogical Implications of the Concept 66
Attainment Model
4.2 The Picture-word Inductive Model (PWIM) Model 67
4.2.1 How is PWIM Carried Out? 69
4.2.2 Advantages of Using PWIM in the Classroom 71
4.2.3 How Can Teachers Use PWIM in the Classroom? 72
4.2.4 Pedagogical Implications of PWIM 76
Summary 77
Key Terms 77
References 78

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 Information Processing Family of Models II: Advance Organisers 79

and Memorisation Model
5.1 The Advance Organiser Model 80
5.1.1 Principles Governing Advance Organisers 81
5.1.2 Categories of Advance Organisers 82
5.1.3 Phases in Advance Organisers 83
5.1.4 Advance Organisers in the Classroom 84
5.1.5 Advantages of Advance Organisers 86
5.1.6 Pedagogical Implications of Advance Organisers 86
5.2 What is the Memorisation Model? 87
5.2.1 Link-word Method 88
5.2.2 Mnemonics 90
5.2.3 Techniques in Enhancing Memory 93
5.2.4 Advantages of Using Memorisation 96
5.2.5 Pedagogical Implications of the Memorisation 97
Model
Summary 97
Key Terms 98
References 99
Topic 6 Information Processing Family of Models III: Scientific 100

Inquiry Model and Synectics Model
6.1 The Scientific Inquiry Model 101
6.1.1 Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) 101
6.1.2 Inquiry Training Model 104
6.1.3 Pedagogical Implications and Learner Benefits 107
of the Inquiry Training Model
6.1.4 Using the Inquiry Model in the Classroom 108
6.2 The Synectics Model 109
6.2.1 Types of Synectics 111
6.2.2 Synectics Procedure 113
6.2.3 Pedagogical Implications and Advantages of 116
the Synectics Model
Summary 117
Key Terms 118
References 118

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Behavioural Systems Family of Models I: Direct 120

Instruction and Simulation
7.1 Origins of Behavioural Systems Family of Models 121
7.2 Principles of Behavioural Theory 124
7.3 Overview of Direct Instruction 125
7.3.1 Key Concepts in Direct Instruction 125
7.4 Principles for Practice in Direct Instruction 126
7.5 Pedagogical Implications and Learner Benefits in Direct 131
Instruction
7.6 Overview of Simulation Model 135
7.7 Pedagogical Implications and Advantages 137
of the Simulation Model
Summary 138
Key Terms 139
References 140
Topic 8 Behavioural Systems Family of Models II: Mastery Learning 141

8.1 Philosophy and Rationale of Mastery Learning 142
8.2 Development of Mastery Learning 143
8.3 Concepts in Mastery Learning 147
8.4 Guidelines for Effective and Productive Learning 149
8.5 Individually Prescribed Instruction 150
8.6 Objectives in the IPI 151
8.7 Advantages in Mastery Learning 152
Summary 153
Key Terms 153
References 154

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 9 Personal Family of Models 155

9.1 The Non-directive Teaching Model 156
9.1.1 Characteristics and Benefits of Non-directive 158
Teaching Model
9.1.2 TeacherÊs Roles 159
9.1.3 Phases in the Non-directive Teaching Model 160
9.1.4 Advantages of Non-directive Teaching Model 163
9.2 Developing Positive Self-concepts 163
9.2.1 States of Growth 164
9.2.2 Self-concept and States of Growth 168
9.3 Conclusion 168
Summary 169
Key Terms 170
References 170
Topic 10 Assessing Learning Outcomes 171

10.1 Information Processing Family of Models 172
10.2 Social Family of Models: Role-play 180
10.3 Behavioural Systems Family of Models: Mastery 185
Learning
10.4 Personal Family of Models: Non-directive Teaching 188
10.5 Points to Consider When Designing and Implementing 190
Assessment Tasks
10.6 Conclusion 191
Summary 191
Key Terms 192
References 192

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully. It tells you briefly what the course is
about and how you can work your way through the course material. It also
suggests the amount of time to spend in order to complete the course
successfully. Please keep referring to the Course Guide as you go through the
course material as it will help you to clarify important study components or
points that you may have missed.
INTRODUCTION
HMEF5123 Models and Strategies of Teaching is one of the courses offered at
Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth three credit hours and
should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Master of Education (MEd)
programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours can be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 seminar sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), test(s) and examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Compare and contrast a variety of models and strategies of teaching as

described in recent research;
2. Design and develop lesson plans and instructional units for a particular
subject using appropriate models and strategies;
3. Critically evaluate the effects of a number of models and strategies of
teaching on practice; and
4. Engage in reflective practice and inquiry before, during and after an
instructional event.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis of each topic is as follows:
Topic 1 gives you an overview of elements and concepts related to teaching and
learning.
Topic 2 deals with the social family of models where it elaborates on the key
components and application of this family models in the classroom.
Topic 3 elaborates on role-play and jurisprudential inquiry models, which are

part of the social family of models.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 4 discusses concepts and aspects pertaining to the attainment and picture-
word methods, which are models in the information processing family.
Topic 5 further elaborates on the information processing family of models by

focusing on advance organisers and memorisation.
Topic 6 explores other models in the information processing family, which are
the scientific model and the synectics model.
Topic 7 discusses the behavioural models in which the direct instruction model
and the simulation model are explored and analysed.
Topic 8 continues the discussion on behavioural models by focusing on mastery

learning.
Topic 9 analyses the personal family of models while highlighting pertinent

components related to the model.
Topic 10 discusses the assessment of learning outcomes based on the family of

teaching and learning models.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found in the module itself.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to solve
questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation. It may even
require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you
should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it to
real situations. You should, at the same time, engage in higher order thinking
where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of only
having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea to revisit the
details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain additional
information and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Before embarking in this course, you should possess some basic knowledge on
teaching and learning concepts such as factors related to creating positive
learning environments. A general idea of teachersÊ and studentsÊ roles would
help in understanding the mechanism of the various teaching learning models
explored in this course.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
REFERENCES
Joyce, B. R., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2004). Models of teaching (7th ed). Boston,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Lang, H. R., & Evans, D. N. (2006). Models, strategies, and methods for effective
teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Nugent, S. A. (2005). Social & emotional teaching strategies. Waco, TX: Prufrock
Press.
Tileston, D. W. (2004). What every teacher should know about effective teaching
strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCO host, Pro Quest, Springer Link, Books24x7, Info Sci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE

Topic Teaching and
1 Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the meaning of teaching and learning;
2. Identify factors that influence the processes of teaching and
learning;
3. Differentiate between teacher-centred and student-centred
instruction;
4. Differentiate between inductive and deductive approaches to
learning; and
5. Summarise the four families of models of teaching and learning.
 INTRODUCTION
As a teacher, you need to know how your students learn; studies have shown that
each learner has his own learning style. Knowing these learning styles would be
beneficial in identifying and executing the best teaching practices in the classroom
to meet studentsÊ needs and expectations. Similarly, the differences in styles of
teaching also affect the success of the lesson. Let us look at these aspects in detail
to learn more.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Briefly describe your teaching style. Why do you prefer this style? Share
your thoughts on myINSPIRE.

2  TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING
1.1 DEFINING TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teaching and learning are two fundamental aspects that educators should look
into when planning to teach. In the following subtopics, we are going to look into
some factors that affect the teaching and learning process and what one should be
aware of as an educator.
1.1.1 Styles of Teaching

Joyce, Weil and Calhoun (2009) posited that teachersÊ teaching styles are very
much influenced by their own personalities. They identified four variances of
personalities, which are explained in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Four Variances of Personalities
Variance of
Description
Personality
Warmth This refers to the positive effect one gives to the classroom. For
example, expressing positive comments such as "well done"
regularly. The teacher is able to exude positive vibes by motivating
students and giving them frequent assurances during the learning
process.
Gregariousness/ It is the degree to which a teacher involves students in decision
Sociability making. For example, the teacher can take the stand of allowing the
students to make decisions together as a class unit. The teacher and
students become partners in the classroom whereby the students
are empowered and have a voice in the classroom.
Academic Teachers' past learning experiences may influence the way they
learning teach in the classroom. For example, those who struggled as
students are more likely to see learning as a struggle and are less
likely to provide higher-order and open-ended tasks in their
teaching.
Conceptual level Refers to the way teachers process information. Teachers who
develop simpler, linear structures tend to ask lower-order
questions and practise rote learning compared to those who
develop complex networks of concepts.
Source: Joyce et al. (2009)

TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING  3
Meanwhile, Grasha (1996) identified four approaches to teaching – that of a formal

authority, demonstrator, facilitator and delegator. These four approaches are
explained in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Four Approaches to Teaching
Approach Description
Formal This focuses on content and can be very instructor-centred. The
authority teacher defines the theories, principles, concepts or terms that the
students need to learn and organises them into a sequenced set of
goals or objectives. Evaluations are a necessary part of course
planning as they allow the teacher to ascertain the amount of learning
that has taken place.
Demonstrator This approach concentrates on the performance of an academic
procedure. The teacher demonstrates how an expert in the field
would accomplish necessary tasks, and defines the standards that
would indicate mastery in applying these procedures. The teacher
then develops situations in which these steps can be performed and
results observed. The one demonstrating the procedures may be the
teacher, the students, or some combination of both.
Facilitator Teachers who have a facilitator teaching style tend to focus on
activities. This teaching style emphasises student-centred learning
and there is much more responsibility placed on the students to take
the initiative for meeting the demands of various learning tasks.
Teachers typically design group activities which necessitate active
learning, student-to-student collaboration and problem solving.
Delegator Teachers who practise a delegator teaching style tend to place control
and responsibility for learning on students. This teacher will often
give students a choice in designing and implementing their own
complex learning projects and will act in a consultative role.
Source: Grasha (1996)
ACTIVITY 1.2
Suggest two classroom activities for each of the four teaching approaches
as identified by Grasha (1996). Discuss this with your coursemates.

1.1.2 Types of Learners

Of course, teaching style alone is not enough in selecting suitable strategies in the
classroom; knowing the different types of learners is equally important. McCarthy
(1997) identified four types of learners, which are elaborated in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Four Types of Learners
Type Characteristics
Innovative  Primarily interested in personal meaning.
learners  Need to have reasons for learning; ideally, reasons that connect
new information with personal experience and establish that
informationÊs usefulness in daily life.
 Some of the many instructional modes that are effective with this
learner type are cooperative learning, brainstorming and
integration of content areas (such as science with social studies,
writing with the arts and so on).
Analytic  Primarily interested in acquiring facts in order to deepen their
learners understanding of concepts and processes.
 Capable of learning effectively from lectures and enjoy
independent research, analysis of data and hearing what „the
experts‰ have to say.
Common  Primarily interested in how things work; want to „get in and try
sense learners it‰.
 Concrete, experiential learning activities work best for them using
manipulative, hands-on tasks, kinaesthetic experience and so on.
Dynamic  Primarily interested in self-directed discovery.
learners  Rely heavily on their own intuition and seek to teach both
themselves and others.
 Any type of independent study is effective for these learners.
 Enjoy simulations, role play and games.
Source: McCarthy (1997)
ACTIVITY 1.3
Identify the types of learners that you have in your classroom. How did
you identify them? Discuss this with your coursemates.

1.1.3 What is Teaching and Learning?

The traditional method of teaching and learning is a one-way interaction,
empowering mainly the teacher. A paradigm shift has taken place where studentsÊ
needs are also taken into consideration. Educators realise that students do not
come into the classroom with empty heads – they have their own beliefs based on
experiences gained outside the classroom. These should be considered when
planning for the best teaching practice. In addition, there are also four basic
elements of teaching to be considered. Figure 1.1 shows you these four basic
elements.
Figure 1.1: Four basic elements in teaching and learning
Before we go further, let us define teaching and learning. Let us take a look at the
definition of teaching.
Teaching involves planning and implementation of instructional activities

and experiences to meet intended learner outcomes according to a teaching
plan.
How about learning?
On the other hand, learning involves acquiring knowledge, skills and attitude
leading to relatively permanent change to learnersÊ behaviour.
Omrod (1999)
Learning involves three important domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

Each domain plays a crucial role in the mastery of skills or knowledge.

Bear in mind that the effectiveness of teaching and learning is dependent on

several factors. Some of these factors are explained in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4: Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Teaching and Learning
Factor Description
Meaningful This refers to the need for meaningful learning to take place for students
learning to acquire knowledge and skills. Otherwise, they will not be able to
recall what they have learned.
Active This involves students wanting to learn and taking part in the activities
participation planned by the teacher. Through learning how to do, students will be
able to grasp the learnt concepts much faster.
Positive Feedback needs to be provided by the teacher to enable students to
feedback know how they progress. Likewise, students need to provide feedback
on their own learning as well.
Two-way There is a need for two-way interaction between the teacher and the
interaction student. This will enable learners to raise their doubts and for the
teacher to clarify those doubts. Besides, constant checking on studentsÊ
understanding will help the teacher pace his teaching accordingly.
ACTIVITY 1.4
Think of other factors that influence the teaching and learning process.
List them and discuss with your coursemates.
1.2 TEACHER-CENTRED AND

STUDENT-CENTRED INSTRUCTION
Are you aware that instruction is an important aspect involved in the teaching and
learning process? In this subtopic, we will discuss teacher-centred and student-
centred approaches to instruction, and how each can help students achieve
meaningful learning.

1.2.1 Teacher-centred Instruction

In this method, the teacher plays an important role as knowledge provider.
Students focus on the teacherÊs delivery and listen to what is being conveyed.
There are several characteristics of this form of instruction. Among them are
(Cuban, 1983):
(a) Teacher talk exceeds student talk during instruction;
(b) Instruction occurs frequently with the whole class  small-group or

individual instruction occurs less often;
(c) Use of class time is largely determined by the teacher;
(d) The teacher relies heavily on the textbook to guide curricular and
instructional decision making; and
(e) Classroom furniture is usually arranged into rows of desks or chairs facing a
chalkboard with a teacherÊs desk nearby.
1.2.2 Student-centred Instruction

Student-centred instruction refers to students exercising a substantial degree of
responsibility for what is taught, how it is learned and for movement within the
classroom. Some indicators for this method are (Cuban, 1983):
(a) Student talk about learning tasks is at least equal to, if not greater than,
teacher talk;
(b) Most instruction occurs individually, in small groups (two to six students) or
in moderate-sized groups, rather than being directed at the entire class;
(c) Students help choose and organise the content to be learned;
(d) Teachers permit students to determine, partially or wholly, rules of
behaviour, classroom rewards and penalties and how they are enforced;
(e) Varied instructional materials (such as activity centres, learning stations and
interest centres) are available in the classroom so that students can use them
independently or in small groups; and
(f) The classroom is usually arranged in a manner that permits students to work
together or separately, in small groups or in individual work spaces where
no dominant pattern in arranging classroom furniture exists, and desks,
tables and chairs are aligned frequently.

Weimer (2002) then presented the seven principles of student-centred instruction.

These seven principles are further explained in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5: Seven Principles of Student-centred Instruction
Principle Description
Teachers do learning Students do more of:
tasks less  Organising the content;
 Generating the examples;
 Asking the questions;
 Answering the questions;
 Summarising the discussion;
 Solving problems; and
 Constructing diagrams.
Teachers do less telling; This is „messier‰, in that classrooms may be „louder‰, it
students do more may take longer for students to „get‰ concepts and the
discovering teacher learns new teaching methods. Students
progressively take more responsibility for their learning
through discovering and „uncovering‰ what they need to
know.
Teachers do more This is done through effective assignments and activities,
design work (of which are designed to help students:
activities and learning  Increase learning skills (learning „how to learn‰);
experiences)
 Motivate student involvement and participation;
 Discover work that is related to the discipline/real
world; and
 Develop content knowledge, learning skills and
awareness.
Teachers do more Demonstrate to the students how an expert approaches a
modelling learning task and how to solve problem.
Teachers do more to get Use collaborative activities and cooperative groups for
students learning from learning.
and with each other
Teachers work to create Create learning environments that allow students to take
climates for learning responsibility for their own learning.
Teachers do more with Feedback is not just about grades, but also informal; helps
feedback students learn from mistakes.
Source: Weimer (2002)

Do you know that KolbÊs Model of Experiential Learning provides one of the
foundations for how student-centred learning occurs in the classroom? Figure 1.2
shows you this model.
Figure 1.2: KolbÊs Model of Experiential Learning

Source: Kolb (1984)
As shown in Figure 1.2, this model of learning consists of four steps. These steps
are further explained in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: Four Steps of KolbÊs Model of Experiential Learning
Step Description
Action/ The student performs some type of activity related to the lesson or
Activity subject.
Reflection The student reflects on what he did and what happened as a result of the
activity. This can be in one of several forms – free writing, journaling or
group discussions.
Knowledge/ The student uses the results of the reflection to develop knowledge and
Theory theories, which help further the learning process because the learner is
conceptualising his own theory, not just accepting the theory of the
instructor.
Planning Based on the studentÊs theories, he plans what to do next and anticipate
the results of further activity. This process moves the student into the
higher levels of thinking than merely recalling facts or information.

1.2.3 Teacher versus Student-centred Instruction

Generally, teacher-centred instruction is a traditional method of teaching
involving the teacher as the dictator deciding what and how to teach. This method
of teaching is a one-way interaction where the students are passive learners.
On the other hand, the student-centred instruction requires that students be

responsible for their learning. This will lead them to start experiencing the
consequences of decisions they make about learning.
Other differences between these two types of instruction is summarised in

Table 1.7.
Table 1.7: Teacher versus Student-centred Instruction
Teacher-centred Student-centred
Focus is on instructor. Focus is on both students and instructor.
Instructor talks; students listen. Instructor models; students interact with
instructor and one another.
Students work alone. Students work in pairs, in groups or alone
depending on the purpose of the activity.
Instructor monitors and corrects Students talk without constant instructor
every student utterance. monitoring; instructor provides feedback
/correction when questions arise.
Instructor answers studentsÊ Students answer each otherÊs questions, using
questions. instructor as an information resource.
Instructor chooses topics. Students have some choice of topics.
Instructor evaluates student Students evaluate their own learning; instructor
learning. also evaluates.
Classroom is quiet. Classroom is often noisy and busy.
Source: Parkerson & Parkerson (2008)

TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING 11
ACTIVITY 1.5
1. Based on the differences between student-centred and teacher-
centred instruction, discuss the pros and cons of each approach.
Discuss this with your coursemates.
2. Which form of instruction do you think works well in the

classroom? Why?
1.3 INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE APPROACHES

TO TEACHING
Inductive and deductive approaches to learning are both commonly used by
teachers in a learning environment. Both approaches have their own strengths and
are dependent on the role of the teacher.
1.3.1 Inductive Approach to Teaching

The inductive approach, also known as the discovery or inquiry approach, is built
on the idea that knowledge is built from oneÊs experiences and interactions. In this
approach, the teacherÊs role is to guide students to „discover‰ new concepts by
observing patterns, asking questions, or making generalisations (National
Institute, 2005). This approach requires teachers to give many examples of the
concepts to be taught and for students to find the rules.
Scenario 1.1 shows you how Ms Johana begins her lesson using the inductive
approach.
Scenario 1.1:
Ms Johana begins her lesson on nouns by presenting five words that represent
examples of a mystery concept (noun) on the board such as „table‰ and
„duster‰, and another five words that represent non-examples, for example,
„run‰ and „walk‰). She asks her students to think about how the words are
related to each other but not to the non-examples of the mystery concept. Her
students start brainstorming possible characteristics of concepts by comparing
examples and non-examples in groups. They later come up with a list of
characteristics that represent the concept of „noun‰.

The inductive approach focuses on identifying examples and non-examples

leading to the characteristics of a concept. In Scenario 1.1, Ms Johana presents both
examples and non-examples of a concept (noun). Learners are required to study
and identify the characteristics of the concept. This allows them to emphasise
critical and higher order thinking skills into finding the unknown. What is unique
about the inductive approach in teaching grammar is the fact that rules are
presented in a real language context. Learners learn through practice and gain the
rules from the practical examples. The teacher plays the role of providing
meaningful contexts to encourage demonstration of the rule. Besides grammar,
this method is also appropriate to be used to teach other subjects that require
introduction of new concepts.
There are several advantages of the inductive approach. Among them include the
following:
(a) Meaningful learning takes place since learners discover for themselves the
rules related to the concepts; and
(b) It increases learner participation since this approach is learner-centred and
requires learners to be active in inferencing and gathering of information.
Another example of using the inductive approach is presented in Scenario 1.2, in

which Science teacher Mrs Lim is introducing her pupils to different types of soil
and their properties.
Scenario 1.2:
Mrs Lim starts the class by talking about the schoolÊs sports grounds, which are
eroded. She uses real-life examples to direct attention to the water holding
capacity of different types of soil. Mrs Lim poses questions and the pupils state
the types of soil near their houses and in the school garden. Next, she provides
samples of soil. Pupils touch/feel and describe the soil samples in terms of
colour, texture and particle size, and record their observations in a table. Using
the same samples, pupils find out if the different types of soil allow water to
pass through them at the same rate.
Mrs Lim instructs the group leaders to read out their observations and discuss
their groupsÊ findings with the class. Finally, Mrs Lim discusses with pupils
which soil type would be best for planting tomatoes in the school garden or
their gardens at home.

In Scenario 1.2, the teacher does not provide direct answers. Through the question
and answer session, the pupils – with the help of the teacher – explore the different
types of soil and their characteristics. The pupils will finally arrive at their
respective findings, with guidance from the teacher when necessary.
This form of inductive approach will benefit the pupils as they become more
competent in seeking answers and overcoming ambiguities in learning.
1.3.2 Deductive Approach to Teaching

The deductive approach is a teacher-centred approach where the teacher controls
the lesson by illustrating what he wants to teach. This approach – also known as
direct instruction – believes that a highly structured presentation of content is ideal
for learning. In a deductive approach, the teacher would begin the lesson by
introducing and defining a concept (the rules of the concept), and then providing
examples to demonstrate the idea (National Institute, 2005). The teacher thus takes
on the role of knowledge provider.
Let us read Scenario 1.3 where Mrs Lim uses the deductive approach in her
classroom.
Scenario 1.3:
Mrs Lim begins her lesson by writing the phrase „common nouns‰ on the board
(introduction to the lesson). She then defines the term and illustrates it with
examples. She asks her students to come up with a list of common nouns that they
could find in the classroom. Mrs Lim writes the answers provided by the students
on the board. She divides her students into groups and asks each group to
brainstorm on the characteristics related to the concept „common nouns‰. Students
examine the class-generated list and write their own new list of characteristics.
In Scenario 1.3, we can see that the teacher plays an important role in disseminating
knowledge to her learners. The teacher is seen to have control in providing step-
by-step instructions to the students. This method of teaching is traditional in
nature and rote learning is highly emphasised; learners learn the rule and apply it
after they have been introduced to the rule. This approach is suitable for learners
of lower levels.

However, there are several disadvantages of the deductive approach:

(a) Teaching is in isolation;
(b) Little attention is paid to meaning; and
(c) Practice is often mechanical.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Describe how a teacher decides on which approach, inductive or

deductive, is the better choice for a given topic.
1.4 OVERVIEW OF MODELS OF TEACHING

AND LEARNING
In this subtopic, we will look at some models of teaching and learning. As a
teacher, you need to be aware of these models to cater to the needs of your students
with different learning styles. These models are frameworks that serve as guides
to design suitable activities in the classroom. Awareness of the different types of
teaching models will also allow you to analyse and evaluate their strengths and
weaknesses so as to plan and implement appropriate follow-up actions.
Models of teaching and learning are considered blueprints that specify approaches
to instruction with three main focuses:
(a) Goals (help learners develop critical thinking and understanding of
concepts);
(b) Phases (steps to reach specific goals); and
(c) Foundations (supported by theories and research in learning and
motivation).

There are four families of models of teaching and learning. They are illustrated in
Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Four models of teaching and learning
Now let us look at an overview of each of the models. Each family of models will
be discussed in the following topics of this module.
1.4.1 Social Family of Models

The social family of models are based on the social learning theory, which
emphasises that learning occurs within a social context. In this theory, learning
takes place through observation and imitation of actions. Reinforcement of
behaviour is achieved through reward and punishment.
In addition, these models also enable learners to work together to identify and
solve problems, to develop skills in human relations and to become aware of
personal and social values. Table 1.8 lists the models in the social family of models.
These models will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent topics.

Table 1.8: The Social Family of Models
Model Developer Feature

Partners in Learning  David Johnson  Development of strategies to help
 Positive  Roger Johnson learners work effectively together.
Interdependence  Margarita
 Structured Calderson
Inquiry  Elizabeth Cohen
 Robert Slavin
Group Investigation  John Dewey  Development of skills for
 Herbert Thelen participation in democratic process.
 Simultaneously emphasises social
development, academic skills and
personal understanding.
Role Play  Fannie Shaftel  Study of values and their role in
social interaction.
 Personal understanding of values
and behaviour.
Jurisprudential  Donald Oliver  Analysis of policy issues through a
Inquiry  James Shaver jurisprudential framework.
 Collection of data, analysis of value
questions and positions and study of
personal beliefs.
1.4.2 Information Processing Family of Models

The information processing family of models are based on cognitive psychology
where the human brain is seen as an information processor like a computer.
In other words, these models refer to the way people handle stimuli from the
environment, organise data, identify problems, generate concepts and solutions to
problems, and use verbal and non-verbal symbols.
Information processing models are seen as beneficial in the learning process

because students are better equipped with good mental exercises through different
methods and approaches (for example, mastery of concepts and skills). They also
enable students to remember the information for a longer period of time. Table 1.9
provides an overview of the eight types of information processing family of
models.

Table 1.9: The Information Processing Family of Models

Concept Attainment  Jerome Bruner Used to teach concepts and to help
students become more effective at
learning concepts.
The Picture-Word  Emily Calhoun How to acquire print literacy,
Inductive Model particularly reading and writing, and
(PWIM) also how listening and speaking
vocabularies are developed.
Advance Organisers  David Ausubel Provides learners with a cognitive
structure for comprehending material
presented through lectures, readings
and other media.
Mnemonics  Michael Pressley Strategies for memorising and
 Joel Levin assimilating information.
 Richard Anderson
Scientific Inquiry  Joseph Schwab Used to study principles, phenomena
and characteristics of scientific
knowledge.
Inquiry Training  Richard Suchman Based on the assumption that strategies
used by scientists can be used as a
teaching model, especially in the study
of science.
Synectics  William Gordon Focuses on enhancing creative
thoughts.
Inductive Thinking  Hilda Taba Development of classification skills,
hypothesis building and testing and
understanding of how to build
conceptual understanding.
1.4.3 Behavioural Systems Family of Models

The behavioural systems family of models of teaching and learning focus on the
teacher as one who plays a dominant role. It operates on a principle of stimulus-
response. This theory assumes learners are passive and that they start off as a clean
slate. The behaviour of learners can be shaped through positive or negative
reinforcement. There are five types of behaviourist models, as shown in
Table 1.10.

Table 1.10: The Behavioural Systems Family of Models

Direct Instruction  Tom Good Mastery of academic content and skills in a
 Jere Brophy wide range of areas of study.
 Carl Bereiter
 Ziggy
Engleman
 Wes Becker
Simulation  Carl Smith Mastery of complex skills and concepts in a
 Mary Smith wide range of areas of study.
Mastery Learning  Benjamin Learners can master any topic if it is broken

Bloom down into small chunks and if they are
 James Block given enough time to learn at their own
pace.
Social Learning  Albert Focuses on the management of behaviour:
Bandura Learning new patterns of behaviour,
 Carl Thoresen reducing phobic and other dysfunctional
 Wes Becker patterns and learning self-control.
Programmed  B. F. Skinner Mastery of skills, concepts and factual

Schedule information.
(Task Performance
Reinforcement)
1.4.4 Personal Family of Models

The personal family of models of teaching and learning allow students to increase
their sense of self-worth. The models recognise studentsÊ emotions and are aware
of how emotions affect their behaviour. The models also increase their creative
thinking. There are two types of personal family models, as seen in
Table 1.11.

Table 1.11: The Personal Family of Models
Model Developer Purpose

Non-Directive Teaching Carl Rogers Building capacity for personal
development, self-understanding and
autonomy and esteem of self.
Enhancing Self-esteem Abraham Maslow Development of personal
understanding and capacity for
development.
Before we end this topic, bear in mind that it is important to be aware of the
different types of teaching models. This awareness will guide teachers to create
conducive environment for different types of learners.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
List two models each that represent the following family of models:
(a) Social family of models;
(b) Information-processing family of models;
(c) Behavioural systems family of models; and
(d) Personal family of models.
 Styles of teaching and types of learners affect the teaching and learning
process.
 Teaching involves the planning and implementation of instructional activities

and experiences to meet intended learner outcomes according to a teaching
plan.
 Learning involves acquiring knowledge, skills and attitude leading to

relatively permanent change in learnersÊ behaviour.
 In teacher-centred instruction, the teacher plays an important role as a

knowledge provider. The students focus on the teacherÊs delivery and listen to
what is being conveyed.

 Learner-centred instruction refers to students exercising a substantial degree

of responsibility for what is taught, how it is learned and for movement within
the classroom.
 The inductive approach is student-centred where examples of a concept are

provided, learners are then required to identify the relevant characteristics and
derive the rules of the concept.
 The deductive approach is teacher-centred where the teacher has complete

control of the lesson. Rules are driven at the beginning of the lesson, followed
by examples.
 The four families of models of teaching and learning discussed in this topic are
the social, information processing, behavioural systems and personal models.
 The social family of models are based on the social learning theory.
 The information processing family of models are based on cognitive

psychology where the human brain is seen as an information processor.
 The behavioural systems family of models focus on the teacher as one who
plays a dominant role.
 The personal family of models allow learners to increase their sense of self-
worth and recognise their emotions and are aware of how emotions affect their
behaviour.
Deductive approach Learning styles

Inductive approach Models of teaching
Learning Teaching
Learner-centred instruction Teacher-centred instruction

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nursing practice (2nd ed.). Syracuse, NY: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Cuban, L. (1983). How teachers taught. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style. Pittsburgh, PA: Alliance Publishers.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson
Education.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and

development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
McCarthy, B. (1997). A tale of four learners: 4MATÊs learning styles. How Children
Learn, 54(6), 46-51.
National Capitol Language Resource Center. (2013). Teaching goals and methods.
Retrieved from http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/goalsmethods/gmindex.htm
Ormrod, J. E. (1999). Human learning (3rd ed.). Upper Sadle River, NJ: Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Parkerson, D. H., & Parkerson, J. A. (2008). The American teacher: Foundations of

education. New York, NY: Routledge.
Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Topic  Social Family
of Models I:
2 Partners in
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the significance of partners in learning;
2. Explain the elements related to cooperative learning when
learning in groups;
3. Apply the phases of group investigation in the classroom; and
4. Analyse key concepts related to the group investigation model.
 INTRODUCTION
The social family of models focus on individual and group interactions in the
learning process. Learning is considered meaningful when collaboration between
learners is enhanced through various learning activities. The social family of
models emphasise that learners are to work together to identify and solve
problems, hence the term „partners in learning‰. Partners in learning regard a
classroom as a learning community in which each member plays a role in sharing
knowledge. Cooperation among learners is highly emphasised and is seen as an
efficient way of working together productively in accomplishing shared goals.
In the following subtopic, we will discuss the significance and advantages of

cooperative learning. After that, we will delve into the group investigation
model.

TOPIC 2 SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS I: PARTNERS IN LEARNING 23
2.1 COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students
work together to maximise their own and each otherÊs learning (Johnson,
Johnson & Holubec, 1998). To ensure the success of cooperative learning, the
following elements in Table 2.1 must exist during the group activity.
Table 2.1: Elements that Ensure Success of Cooperative Learning
Element Description
Positive interdependence Each team member is dependent on one another in a
positive manner in achieving the desired goal.
Individual accountability Members of the team are equally responsible to
contribute towards the completion of the task.
Face-to-face interaction Group members may need to work individually or have
face-to-face interaction. Feedback coupled with
constructive criticism will further motivate and
encourage the members to complete the task.
Development and use of Through group discussion and collaboration, learners
collaborative skills are trained to develop group management skills such as
trust building, leadership, decision making,
communication and conflict management.
Group management and Group goals to ensure smooth running of the task will
assessment function as a good benchmark to determine the groupÊs
progress. Throughout the task, group members can
make changes to help them reach their goals. The
experience gained through this will help students
become more focused and goal oriented.
Source: Johnson, Johnson and Smith (1991)
SELF-CHECK 2.1
What are the key elements needed for effective cooperative learning?

24  TOPIC 2 SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS I: PARTNERS IN LEARNING
ACTIVITY 2.1
Discuss the challenges faced in a group work set up in your classroom.

How can you apply these key elements to ensure cooperative learning
is successful in the group activity? Discuss this with your coursemates.
2.2 BENEFITS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

There are many benefits to be gained from the cooperative learning process.
Among them include the following:
(a) The learning climate becomes more positive and effective as cooperative
learning promotes unity (instead of competition) among students;
(b) The aspect of sharing of content and knowledge through various tasks in
groups has immense impact on the quality of learning in general;
(c) Interaction during the learning process not only promotes cognitive
enhancement but also helps develop studentsÊ interpersonal skills;
(d) It provides each individual with the opportunity to establish his voice,
which leads to empowerment and self-esteem; and
(e) It helps students develop skills to face challenges in the real world such as
at the workplace or in dealing with real life issues.
Based on these benefits, partnership in learning is crucial in ensuring a conducive

learning climate in the classroom. However, one needs to consider how effective
partnership can be administered in the classroom in order to achieve the desired
learning outcomes.
2.2.1 Effectiveness of Partnership in Learning

Despite being in a classroom with their peers, there are times when students
faced with group work are unable to perform as expected. As a teacher, you need
to consider ways of helping students work together. To ensure effective learning,
teachers must take into consideration the factors shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Factors that influence effective learning
Let us study the factors closely.
(a) LearnersÊ Cognitive Ability

To develop a positive learning community, each member should be able to
participate actively and productively in the learning process. To ensure the
success of the learning task, the teacher should consider each memberÊs
ability as well as his cognitive level. By identifying and grouping the
learners according to their ability, it will help the teacher to optimise and
maximise the learning opportunity. Each member in the learning
community will then be able to independently perform a task based on his
cognitive level. In addition, through identification of the studentÊs ability,
the teacher can specify certain tasks based on his area of specialisation. In
this sense, the division of labour or task within the group will foster
positive interdependence among members.
(b) Type of Task

The purpose of setting a task is to enable students in the group to work
together. Hence the task must be designed and implemented systematically
to meet the requirements of the learning outcomes. Firstly, the task must
allow for equal or active participation among group members. This can be
achieved by providing tasks that require members to work in parts or as a
whole whereby each member is assigned to complete a specific area of
focus. Kagan (cited in Johnson & Johnson, 1999) developed the numbered
heads procedure, which involves students being given a number and
assigned a task. Each learner will complete the task and after a stipulated
time, the teacher will call out a number. The learner with the given number
will then need to present the findings or answers to the task. The other
learners will then check their own answers to verify the answers provided
by the presenter. Using this procedure, each member is required to
contribute towards the task. This encourages a sense of accountability and
responsibility among members.

The second aspect pertaining to task is the assessment of the completed

task. The mode of assessment will, in some way, determine the motivation
and commitment of the participants in the learning task. According to
Johnson and Johnson (1990), research indicates that cooperative goal
structures benefit learning whereas Slavin (1983) posits that competition
between groups enhances learning.
The teacher can decide on suitable activities that can be carried out in his
classroom based on the group type and manner of working. For example, if
the class consists of a homogenous group, the task should be assessed
based on a cooperative goal structure. Each member works cooperatively
with one another to achieve the learning goal. However if it is a
heterogeneous class, the teacher can assess the learners based on their area
of specialisation. At this point each member would need to work
collaboratively to complete the task. Assessment would be based on a
competitive goal structure where each member of the group will be
evaluated based on his performance.
(c) Role of Group Members

In building an effective learning community, each member should be aware
of his role and responsibility towards the group. To ensure the smooth
running of the task, the teacher would need to establish clear guidelines in
the roles of the group members. For example, if a particular member is
chosen as a leader of the group, the others must support and cooperate with
him. At the same time, the leader should take on a democratic stance,
allowing for each member to raise concerns, opinions or views.
2.2.2 Partnerships in Action

Partnerships in action can be seen through three models in the social family:
group investigation, role playing and jurisprudential inquiry.
These models focus on developing and enhancing studentsÊ interpersonal skills.

The main objective of these models is to cultivate and nurture a positive learning
community for effective teaching and learning. This is realised through the use of
the inquiry approach in which students work cooperatively to address specific
learning concerns.

2.2.3 Laboratories and Projects

This form of work is most common in science related subjects. Since laboratory-
based tasks or projects mostly involves teams, one needs to consider the elements
crucial in enabling cooperative learning. One of the elements is positive
interdependence.
Most of the time, laboratory work involves one or two members actively
participating in the experiment or project, while the rest of the team members
may end up being mere observers or reporters. To promote positive
interdependence and individual accountability, each member in the team must
be given a specific task that will impact the overall performance of the group. For
example, one member may be in charge of instrument calibration, another
responsible for observation and reporting, and so on. Each member must be
aware of his/her role and responsibility in making the project work.
In addition, awarding individual marks for each member based on performance

in the completion of the project will help eradicate non-participatory situations
within the team. To further promote positive interdependence, the individual
marks awarded to each member can contribute towards the overall grade of the
project. Furthermore, getting each member to work on specific parts of the task
can reduce anxiety and stress among individuals. Work shared is work halved in
this context as the group members will be able to pay attention to specific areas.
When each member produces his output, the other members can provide
feedback and help improve the presented work. This form of peer editing creates
positive impact on learning and overall performance of the group. The peer
feedback can also provide information to the teacher on the commitment and
engagement of each member of the group. In addition, the teacher will not be
faced with extensive and tedious grading as the products will be more refined
due the first round of feedback and revision.
During the peer editing process, the teacher can distribute the grading checklist
and marking scheme to the group members. Using this checklist or assessment
tool, members can provide comments and feedback to their peers. This
discussion will help members be aware of the intended learning goals stipulated
in the task. As such, these group members will then be able to review their group
goals and make necessary modifications.
The focus in the subsequent subtopic and the next topic (Topic 3) would be to
explore group investigation, role playing and jurisprudential inquiry and how
these models can be applied in the classroom to promote effective learning.

SELF-CHECK 2.2
Discuss the importance of partnership in learning. Can partnership in

learning be applied to all ages of learners?
2.3 GROUP INVESTIGATION

Group investigation is a form of cooperative learning in which group members are
actively involved in the sharing of knowledge to complete a specific learning task.
Thelen (1960) built upon Dewey's ideas and worked out a more systematic
approach to the classroom application of Dewey's ideas. Thelen called his
approach "group investigation". His major emphasis was upon the points that life
is social, society creates and nurtures individuals and democracy requires the
creation of a democratic culture with appropriate norms and procedures.
Education in a democratic society must, therefore, provide a democratic school
culture and teachers must be nurturers of democratic life. Dewey claims that
learners need to be given the opportunity to make choices and discuss ideas
through group activities. Through cooperation within a group, learners are able to
work together to solve problems and come to a consensus. This form of learning
will enable learners to conduct a critical analysis of their lives and life situation.
Based on this, ThelenÊs (1960) group investigation model is grounded on a teaching
strategy that focuses on a democratic approach using academic inquiry.
ThelenÊs view is that individuals interact with one another to establish social order.
Negotiation and renegotiation are pivotal in determining prohibitions and
freedom for action. Thelen posits the importance of social order that will
eventually impact the culture of the society. As such, in group investigation,
students build learning communities through interaction with one another.
For students in a typical classroom, the climate is structured based on values set by
the teacher. As stated by Thelen (1960), the classroom should focus on the process
of generating social order. The teacher leads the development of social order in the
classroom. This is realised through the academic inquiry process whereby students
are encouraged to exhibit their personal views, opinions and interpretations
pertaining to specific „puzzling situations‰. This „puzzling situation‰ becomes the
stimulus in which the students discuss and investigate the task in their respective
groups. During the inquiry process, the learners develop their critical and
analytical thinking skills, in addition to their interpersonal skills.

2.3.1 Model of Teaching

In teaching based on the group investigation model, one needs to consider the
following components:
(a) Syntax (Phases)

Procedure here refers to how the lesson is structured to highlight the group
investigation elements in the lesson. The procedure consists of stages or
phases in which the teacher administers activities to match the requirement
of the group investigation model. Table 2.2 shows these phases in greater
detail.
Table 2.2: Syntax/Phases in Group Investigation
Phase One Students encounter a puzzling situation (planned or unplanned)
Phase Two Students explore reactions to the situation
Phase Three Students formulate study task and organise for study (define
problem, allocate roles, etc)
Phase Four Independent and group study
Phase Five Students analyse progress and process
Phase Six Recycle activity
These phases can be explained as follows:
(i) In Phase One, students are provided with a „puzzling situation‰. This
„situation‰ can either be planned as stipulated by the curriculum or it
could be unplanned based on the situation. An unplanned situation
would be for instance, how are the learners going to ensure the safety
of their classroom materials since the class door is broken?
The selection of the „puzzling situation‰ will determine the

effectiveness of learning. This will be addressed later in the topic.
(ii) In Phase Two, the students, in groups, explore the task and provide
responses to the given situation. This is an important stage in which
the students begin to share and discuss ideas pertaining to the
situation.

(iii) In Phase Three, the students become even more active participants in
the learning process. At this point, the effective partnership is formed
when the students organise the unravelling of the puzzling situation.
In this phase, students begin to explore the problem in depth in terms
of defining variables and examining causal factors. In addition,
students will allocate roles for each member in the group to help
„solve‰ the puzzling situation. This activity helps to develop the
learnersÊ critical thinking skills and provides opportunities for them
to work cooperatively and collaboratively.
(iv) In Phase Four, the students continue with their designated task,
whether individually or in pairs or smaller groups. This phase allows
students to explore their abilities independently without distractions.
At the same time, working individually or in smaller groups provides
the opportunity for optimal sharing and learning.
(v) Phase Five is an extension of phase four in which members of the

group analyse the process (information accumulated) and the
progress of the task.
(vi) The final Phase Six looks into experiences gained throughout the
process and how the students could use the skills in exploring the
activity or similar activities. During this stage, the students review the
groupÊs overall performance and extend their thinking to a broader
context outside of the classroom.
(b) Social System

The social system refers to the teaching and learning climate whereby the
relationship and level of autonomy of students as well as the involvement
of the teacher is discussed and analysed. In the context of the group
investigation model, the teacher and students act as co-partners in the
learning process. The objective of the group investigation model is to create
and nurture learning communities and effective partnerships, hence there
are ample opportunities for students and the teacher alike to share, discuss,
negotiate and analyse learning.
(c) TeacherÊs Role

This aspect looks into the role of the teacher. In group investigation, the
teacher functions as a counsellor, consultant and friendly critic (Joyce,
2009).

2.3.2 Key Concepts in Group Investigation

ThelenÊs strategy consists of two important concepts when using the group
investigation model – inquiry and knowledge. In the following, we will discuss
the concepts of inquiry and knowledge.
(a) Inquiry
ThelenÊs (1960) concern of the inquiry is to „initiate and supervise the
processes of giving attention to something; of interacting with and being
stimulated by other people, whether in person or through their writing; and
of reflection and reorganisation of concepts and attitudes as shown in
arriving at conclusions, identifying new investigation to be undertaken,
taking action and turning out a better product‰.
Based on the given definition, inquiry involves active interaction with others
in unravelling the academic inquiry. The student is encouraged to reflect on
and analyse the issue as well as investigate ways it can be solved. The teacher
provides the situation (academic inquiry) in which the students would need
to identify and formulate the problem and explore the solutions. Through the
investigation and exploration of the „problem‰, the student becomes
conscious of the method used in the academic inquiry process.
(b) Knowledge
The academic inquiry process allows for expansion of knowledge. When
students are interacting, discussing and exploring the „puzzling situation‰ in
their groups, they gain knowledge. In addition, the students acquire
knowledge in forms of methods in collecting and analysing data to support
their hypotheses. The knowledge gathered from the process adds to the
learner content schemata as well as enhances their formal schemata in which
they are exposed to the methods of exploring and analysing a problem.

Figure 2.2 presents the skills acquired when students are involved in group
investigation based activities.
Figure 2.2: Learner benefits from academic inquiry process
Through the academic inquiry process, students are able to gain knowledge and
skills in various aspects. For instance, during the identification stage of the
problem (phase one and phase two – refer to subtopic 2.3.1), students become
observant in seeking the causal factors related to the issue. Their critical thinking
is developed at this point in seeking out the concerns objectively.
During the gathering data stage (phases three and four), the students work
together in groups and create a system to collect and analyse data. This further
develops their organisational skill in processing information.
During the analysis of data and progress (phase five), studentsÊ analytical
thinking skills are further enhanced. Sharing and discussing within groups will
help each member gain different perspectives and views presented.
When students embark on the next stage (phase six), they are required to study
the outcome of the data and generate plans, leading to cooperation among the
members. Working together as a group generates a variety of ideas that can
enrich the learning process. This also provides opportunities for group members
to present their views and contribute actively towards problem solving.

Reflection is an important component in learning. When students reflect, they are

revisiting their experiences and consolidating the knowledge gained through the
group activity. Students further establish their knowledge base using these
experiences and this leads to them becoming more reflective and thoughtful in
their future actions.
In general, both the academic inquiry process and knowledge gained from group
investigation contribute towards developing a competent learner and active
group participant. This promotes effective group learning and provides a good
base for students to develop their interpersonal skills.
2.3.3 Advantages of Group Investigation

The group investigation model encourages a positive learning climate and
enables students to acquire knowledge in a systematic and effective manner. The
advantages of group investigation are as follows:
(a) Promotes critical thinking, decision making and problem solving skills
when learners work with members of the group;
(b) Creates awareness of the different points of views. This creates
opportunities for discussions and reflection (a higher order thinking skill);
and
(c) Creates a sense of accomplishment and self-worth among group members
during the process of constructing knowledge.
2.3.4 Criteria in Selecting “Puzzling Situation”

The „puzzling situation‰ in the group investigation model relates to a situation
or learning concern that provides opportunities for learners to discuss and share
ideas. The discussion takes on an academic inquiry mode, where students in their
respective groups will investigate the situation and find ways to „solve‰ it. The
form of academic inquiry generally has a structured approach, as seen in the
phases of group investigation. The intensity of the academic inquiry is linked
closely to the „puzzling situation‰. In other words, it functions as a core tool that
stimulates discussions and promotes thinking. Hence it is important the
situations are selected carefully so that the learners are able to obtain the
intended learning skills. The following illustrates the criteria in selecting
„puzzling situations‰:

(a) It can be a formal or informal situation. Most importantly, it must promote

the desired skills and meet the learning objectives.
(b) The puzzling situation must lend itself to academic inquiry and involve the
elements of cooperative learning. The situation must provide opportunities
for learners to explore and analyse the information presented and generate
solutions for the issues concerned.
(c) The aim of the puzzling situation is not merely seeking the „answers‰ to the
problem. The process involved is crucial as it provides rich experiences to
learners in terms of cooperative learning. Hence the „puzzling situation‰
must be presented in a manner in which the learners will be able to
deliberate, discuss and negotiate possibilities in the issue.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Think of a puzzling situation and propose how you would use it for a
group investigation activity in class. Discuss with your coursemates.
2.3.5 Sample Activities Using Group Investigation

A suggested lesson plan is provided based on phases tabulated in Table 2.2.
(a) Phase One: Learners Encounter Puzzling Situation (Planned or Unplanned)

The teacher has an option to either provide a planned „puzzling situation‰ or
work on a situation which is unplanned such as in the following:
(i) Planned Situation

The teacher refers to the syllabus on animals and their habitats, in
particular a topic on the preservation of animals. The teacher then
proceeds to present an example of a planned puzzling situation – Why
are certain animals going extinct?
(ii) Unplanned Situation

The teacher comes to the class and laments that her mobile phone is out
of order. The discussion leads to the significance of mobile phones in
todayÊs world. The teacher then can present the following puzzling
situation: Why are mobile phones so important in our lives today? How
did people communicate before the days of mobile phones?

(b) Phase Two: Learners Explore Reactions to the Situations

In this phase, the teacher gets the students in their groups to explore the
situations. For example, students may discuss types of animals and the
reasons why they have become extinct. At this point, the students engage in
deep discussions, which will enable them to be more critical and analytical in
terms of generating reasons and explanations. With reference to the given
planned situation, students can explore the issues concerning animals such as
conservation efforts as well as survival rates. The discussion can take on
various angles such as role of man in animal extinction, the effect of
technology, the evolution of nature and so forth.
(c) Phase Three: Learners Formulate Study Task and Organise for Study (Define
Problem, Allocate Roles, etc.)
In this phase, the learners are able to work together as a team. They could do
a jigsaw structure in which each member in the team would work on a
specific area of the problem. For example, one member may look into the
types of animals facing extinction. Another might explore the causes for
extinction. The planning and division of work determines the effectiveness of
the group learning. Roles can be allocated based on membersÊ areas of
interest or expertise. Members must remain focused on the scope of the study
and the study plan must be in accordance to the aims of the task.
(d) Phase Four: Independent and Group Study

In phase four, the group members have the option of working individually or
in smaller groups. The manner of working would depend on the groupÊs
plan of study and anticipated aims. At this point, there is individual
accountability when each member contributes to the task. The teacher can
monitor the progress and commitment level of each member.
(e) Phase Five: Learners Analyse Progress and Process

This phase has two focuses. The first focus looks into the progress of the
group learning. The group members will examine the data gathered, provide
analysis and consolidate the findings to reach a consensus. The second focus
is the process in which the group members will relook at the study plan and
make changes when necessary to suit the intended outcomes of the task. Both
aspects require deliberate thinking and discussion amongst group members.
(f) Phase Six: Recycle Activity

The recycle phase is the point of reflection for the group members. The
reflections will further enhance learnerÊs understanding of the knowledge as
well as skills related to the academic inquiry process. The teacher must at this
point emphasise the importance of the process of reaching the intended

outcome. Teacher can guide learners to raise their awareness on the

importance of sharing, discussion and seeking information from each other.
The importance of feedback for self-improvement is also reinforced.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Discuss how reflection can be carried out to facilitate internalisation of

the learning and experiences in the context of group investigation.
Building a community of learners involves active participation of all group

members. In communities of learners, learners appear to learn how to coordinate
with, support and lead others, to become responsible and organised in their
management of their own learning and to be able to build on their previous
interests to learn in new areas and to sustain motivation to learn (Rogoff,
Matusov & White, 1996).
SELF-CHECK 2.4
Explain the key phases related to group investigation.
 Partnership in learning refers to a group of learners working cooperatively to

attain a mutual learning goal.
 To ensure the success of cooperative learning, elements that must be present

are: positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face
interaction, development and use of collaborative skills, and group
management and assessment.
 To ensure effective learning, teachers must take into consideration learnersÊ

cognitive ability, type of task and role of group members.
 Group investigation was posited by Thelen (1960) who believed that

education in a democratic society must provide a democratic school culture
and teachers must be nurturers of democratic life.
 In teaching based on the group investigation model, one needs to consider

the syntax, social system and teacherÊs role.

 Academic inquiry refers to a process that involves investigation, exploring,

and analysing the data pertaining to a learning concern.
 A „puzzling situation‰ functions as a stimulus that generates discussion and

cooperative work amongst learners. The puzzling situation could be either
planned or unplanned but related to a learning concern.
Academic inquiry Partners in learning

Cooperative learning Puzzling situation
Group investigation Syntax
Learning communities
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Active learning:

Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction.
Johnson, D. W, Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. (1998). Cooperation in the

classroom. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson R. T. (1999). Learning together and alone:

Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning (5th ed.). Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1990). Social skills for successful group work.
Educational Leadership, 47(4), 29-33.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of teaching. Boston,
MA: Pearson Education.
Rogoff, B., Matusov, E., & White, C. (1996). Models of teaching and learning:
Participation in a community of learners. Handbook of education and
human development. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Slavin, R. E. (1983). When does cooperative learning increase achievement?

Psychological Bulletin, 94, 429-445.
Thelen. (1960). Education and the human quest. New York, NY: Harper.

Topic  Social Family
of Models II:
3 Role-playing
and
Jurisprudential
Inquiry
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the benefits of the role-playing and jurisprudential
inquiry models;
2. Discuss the strengths of role-playing and jurisprudential inquiry
in terms of enhancing learnersÊ interpersonal skills;
3. Select appropriate activities related to role-playing and
jurisprudential inquiry; and
4. Apply the phases of each model appropriately in the classroom.
 INTRODUCTION
In Topic 2, we looked at partners in learning and the group investigation model.
In this topic, we will explore two other models in the social family of models –
role-playing and jurisprudential inquiry.

40  TOPIC 3 SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS II: ROLE-PLAYING
AND JURISPRUDENTIAL INQUIRY
As in the previous topic, we will look at each model based on its specific features;
its syntax (phases), which refers to the structure of the model; its social system,
which refers to the teaching and learning climate; and the teacherÊs role. In
addition, you will be shown some teaching and learning activities using the
respective models.
3.1 WHAT IS ROLE-PLAYING?

Role-playing involves the acting out of a situation, context or condition in which
each member plays a crucial part. The interactions produced by the members in
the groups can be:
(a) Structured, where team members are required to perform based on scripts
provided; or
(b) Unstructured, where a context is given and members are required to
respond spontaneously.
Role-playing basically involves students dealing with a specific issue or problem

discussed in a group. The activity aims to guide the student to express his
feelings and opinions on a certain issue.
3.1.1 Role-playing as an Instructional Tool

Role-playing is a crucial component in promoting social interaction.
Role-playing attempts to help individuals seek personal meaning within their

social worlds and resolve personal dilemmas with the assistance of the social
groups.
Joyce (2009)
Role-playing provides a good opportunity for learners to explore the types of

personal or interpersonal dilemmas and seek out democratic and appropriate
ways to resolve these dilemmas.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Have you experienced role-playing in your classroom? What benefits
did you gain from the activity? What were the challenges you faced?
Discuss with your coursemates.

TOPIC 3 SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS II: ROLE-PLAYING 41
3.2 BENEFITS OF ROLE-PLAYING

Figure 3.1 illustrates the four benefits of role-playing in the classroom.
Figure 3.1: Four benefits of role-playing
(a) Experience-based Learning

Role-playing provides an opportunity for students to experience situations
that can help them become more sensitive to social issues and norms. In
addition, reactions from the other participants in the role-playing activity
would help raise studentsÊ awareness of social routines and beliefs. This
will enrich their storehouse of experience and knowledge.
(b) Release of Emotions

Role-playing allows students to release their emotions and express their
feelings through enactment. Students are able to apply the experiences
gained to relate to their own personal issues. Role-playing then becomes a
tool that students can use to connect to their personal feelings and
emotions.
(c) Formation of Ideas and New Knowledge

Role-playing provides students with added knowledge pertaining to a
specific event. When students participate in a particular enactment, they
observe and gather ideas from the other participants, gaining different
perspectives.
(d) Revisit of Beliefs and Values

Students have the opportunity to re-examine their beliefs and value
systems. At times, students may experience a situation in which they may
unlearn or relearn certain aspects pertaining to their worldview.

ACTIVITY 3.2
Propose one structured and one unstructured role-play activity. Share
them with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
3.3 USING ROLE-PLAYING IN THE CLASSROOM

Role-playing can be an effective teaching learning tool to stimulate deep thinking
and exchange of ideas.
3.3.1 Key Concepts in Role-playing
Figure 3.2: Three key concepts in role-playing
When using role-playing in the classroom, one needs to consider the following
three key concepts as shown in Figure 3.2:
(a) Problem Stories
Problem stories are a collection of stories that end with a dilemma.

Shaftel (1967)
There are two main benefits of using problem stories:

(i) They focus on a particular problem which students are familiar with;
and
(ii) The problem stories are easily dramatised. The problem can
encompass interpersonal conflicts or social dilemmas.

(b) Enactment
Enactment is a dramatisation of the problem stories.
The students in their respective groups „act out‰ the problem by presenting
the problem through actions and dialogues. Here, the students are given
the opportunity to dramatise and express their feelings pertaining to a
specific issue.
However, the enactment is not to be regarded as a play performance or a

drama activity. Its function is to help students unravel the problem using
dramatisation and ultimately gain understanding of the issue concerned.
(c) Analysis
This aspect determines the quality of learning. During the analysis activity,
students give and share ideas based on what they have observed in their
partnersÊ or peersÊ reactions to the particular issue. The analysis involves
examining reactions and responses, which will be discussed to seek
solutions to the issue concerned.

The model of teaching includes syntax, social system and teacherÊs role as
follows.
(a) Syntax (Phases)

Role-playing involves nine phases.
The nine phases start with a warm-up session that comprises problem
identification, followed by selecting and setting the problem enactment and
finally, a thorough discussion on the issue concerned.

Table 3.1 illustrates the nine phases in role-playing.
Table 3.1: Nine Phases in Role-playing
Phase Description
One Warm up the group
Two Select participants
Three Set the stage
Four Prepare the observers
Five Enact
Six Discuss and evaluate
Seven Re-enact
Eight Discuss and evaluate
Nine Share experience and generalise
Source: Shaftel & Shaftel (1967)
(i) The first phase involves an initiation into the activity, where the
problem is introduced and explored. The procedure and features of
role-playing are also explained briefly;
(ii) The second phase is where students are given roles to play. Before
they set off into their task of dramatising their roles, the students
analyse the roles to reach a better understanding of the issue;
(iii) The third phase looks into the setting of the stage in which further
discussion is carried out on the manner in which the enactment will
be staged. This phase helps the students to explore the issues
concerned in depth;
(iv) The fourth phase is focused on the observers. Observers in a role-
playing activity are required to identify particular aspects during the
enactment;
(v) The fifth phase is the practical stage in which the role-playing is
carried out. Members in the group enact the roles and observers take
notes.
(vi) The sixth phase emphasises discussion and evaluation. Students, with
the help of the teacher, will review the enactment and discuss main
issues. Based on the outcome of the discussion, the members will then
plan for the next enactment. The second enactment will be based on
the proposed changes to behaviour pertaining to a particular issue;
(vii) The seventh phase is the re-enactment phase. Roles are revised, and
new steps or alternative suggestions are carried out to address the
issue concerned;
(viii) In the eighth phase, students once again discuss and evaluate the
reactions of the members; and
(ix) The final phase involves sharing experiences and consolidating
knowledge gained from the activity. At this stage, the students relate
the issue to real life situations. They further explore possible and
appropriate ways to address the problems.
(b) Social System

The social system refers to the teaching and learning climate whereby the
relationship and level of autonomy of students as well as the involvement
of the teacher is discussed and analysed.
In the role-playing model, the students have an active role in their learning.
Students are actively involved in the learning process where they work
with one another, sharing and discussing ideas and observations.
Role-playing helps students explore human relation problems and

eventually enhance their critical thinking and problem solving skills.
(c) TeacherÊs Role

As stated by Joyce (2009), the teacher must adhere to the following
principles:
(i) Teacher Should be Non-evaluative

The teacher should accept studentsÊ responses and reactions without
placing any form of judgement. Teacher taking on a receptive
approach would eventually encourage learners to express their
opinions freely.
(ii) Teacher Should Provide Avenues to Explore Learning

The teacher should help students look at an issue from various angles.
Divergent thinking is encouraged, and students should be able to use
the learning experience to explore different perspectives to a
particular problem.
(iii) Teacher Should Effectively Synthesise and Consolidate Learning

Throughout the process of role-playing, students would have
provided extensive responses and reactions. The teacher should then
help students synthesise these ideas.

3.3.3 Criteria in Selecting “Problem Stories”

Problem stories are pivotal components in generating effective learning.
Hence, when planning role-playing activities, the problem stories must be

selected with due consideration.
There are several types of problem stories that can be explored in the classroom.
These problems can take the following forms (Joyce, 2009):
(a) Interpersonal Conflicts

Interpersonal conflicts delve on issues related to two people, for example, a
misunderstanding between two best friends.
(b) Intergroup Relations

They explore concerns related to diversity and differences of outlook
between two or more groups. One example would be the conflict faced by
two groups of learners in a classroom. The first group is considered high
achievers while the other group is labelled as slow learners. Differences in
their academic performance can lead to jealousy and ill feelings amongst
class members.
(c) Individual Dilemmas

Individual dilemmas are more personal in nature, focusing on self-esteem
or other issues. Individual dilemmas can arise when the person faces
contrasting values or belief systems from family or friends.
(d) Historical or Contemporary Problems

These problems are more global and deal with issues related to society. One
example of a contemporary problem would be the impact of technology on
human relationships.
Each problem area explored during role-playing has a significant influence on

learning. The problem selected is not necessarily confined to the subject matter as
it allows learners to diversify and seek other alternatives to solve the concerns.
Hence, the teacher should ensure each role-playing activity has a focus.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Provide an example for each form of problem story.

3.3.4 Sample Activities Using Role-playing

Further elaboration is provided based on the following phases.
(a) Phase One: Warm-up the Group

The teacher introduces the following problem story to the students.
Example of Problem Story 1
Dylan and Johnny are cousins. They are both 13 years old. They study at
the same school. One day, Dylan saw Johnny hitting a younger boy at the
school. When Dylan confronted Johnny about the incident, Johnny
pushed Dylan aside and told him not to interfere.
Dylan felt disturbed and wanted to inform his parents about Johnny. At
the same time, Dylan knew that JohnnyÊs parents are very strict and
would most probably reprimand Johnny severely.
Dylan is in a dilemma. What can he do to help his cousin?
Based on Problem Story 1, the teacher would start the discussion by asking
questions pertaining to the story. The issue is further clarified if needed. The
teacher could also explain specific terms or difficult words.
(b) Phase Two: Select the Participants

The teacher discusses with the students on the selection of roles. The roles are
decided based on the given context. The teacher must ensure the roles are
given specifically to group members who are willing to play the roles in the
task.
The experience would be more meaningful when students are given the
choice to choose their roles. This will reduce anxiety among them and at the
same time increase active participation.
(c) Phase Three: Set the Stage

Role-playing does not require extensive stagecraft like a play production.
Rather, setting the stage here focuses more on the students outlining the
scene. No scripts are required, but the teacher can pose questions such as
„Where is this scene taking place?‰, „What time does this incident take
place?‰ and so on.

(d) Phase Four: Prepare the Observers

Observers are assigned to scrutinise aspects of the enactment so that the
entire class can later examine and analyse it.
The observers take on active roles in evaluating the effectiveness of the role-
playing, the behaviour and actions of the players as well as defining the
ways of thinking and feelings of the players.
Shaftel & Shaftel (1967)
In order to achieve this, each observer will be assigned tasks to ensure that
data is gathered for further discussion. The observers are crucial as they can
help generate meaning on the role-playing activity – for example, they could
select a particular moment and analyse the feelings and actions of the
players, or they could explore alternative ways a player could have presented
the role in the play.
At this point, the teacher helps by providing the observers with prompt
questions such as „As you watch the role-play, note how Dylan tries to solve
the problem‰, „Do you think DylanÊs problem can happen in real life?‰ and
„What would you do if you were Dylan?‰
(e) Phase Five: Enact

This phase is where the students perform their roles. It is spontaneous – each
participant responds based on one anotherÊs actions. The performance is not
structured or scripted in any manner. The main aim of enacting the play is to
ensure the desired behaviour is established, the characters are developed and
a behavioural skill is practised.
According to Shaftel (1967), the performance is to be short. There may be

instances where teachers would need to re-enact the scene to clarify a
misunderstanding of the issues raised during activity. For example, Dylan
could choose to not to tell JohnnyÊs parents. Based on the action, discussion
can be generated on the reasons. Alternatively, major roles can be changed to
explore different angles to the situation.
(f) Phase Six: Discuss and Evaluate

In this phase, the observers and participants will begin evaluating the
presentation and discussing the interpretations, actions and responses of the
players.

The teacher here functions as a moderator, providing thinking questions to

both observers and participants. The teacher can pose questions such as „Did
you agree with DylanÂs action of not informing JohnnyÊs parents?‰, „Why do
you think he reacted in that manner?‰ and „Do you think that is the best way
to solve the problem?‰ Other participants can respond to the questions. The
discussion generated will later develop into the next phase.
(g) Phase Seven: Re-enact

The re-enactment can take place many times. The teacher, together with the
students, will exchange ideas and interpretations based on the previous
discussions and generate new angles for the designated roles. For example, in
the first enactment, Dylan decides not to inform JohnnyÊs parents. However,
for the second enactment, there may be a variation in which Dylan will
inform JohnnyÊs parents about their sonÊs misbehaviour. This revelation can
result in changes and reactions from the other characters.
There may be other views, for instance, Dylan informing the discipline
teacher or Dylan speaking to one of JohnnyÊs good friends. The various
stances help students develop their problem-solving skills as well as explore
the diversity in human behaviour and characteristics. At the same time, they
are also able to examine the roles of each role, for example, family member,
friend, teacher and parents.
(h) Phase Eight: Discuss and Evaluate

In this phase, the teacher will explore and discuss in greater detail the issues
in phase seven. This phase conceptualises the knowledge and experience
gained throughout the phases.
(i) Phase Nine: Share Experience and Generalise

The main aim of this activity is to enable students to relate to problem stories
that are familiar to them. They need to gain further insight on how these
problems can be explored and solved. Through the enactment and
re-enactments, students are able to articulate their own personal conflict or
problems.

3.3.5 Pedagogical Implications of the Role-playing

Model
The role-playing model provides opportunities for the learners to develop their
interpersonal skills.
As stated by Joyce (2009), role-playing helps learners in the following aspects:

(a) Develop skills to analyse personal values and behaviour;
(b) Develop strategies for problem solving especially in interpersonal or even
personal conflicts; and
(c) Develop empathy for others.
These effects help students become better learners. When students participate in
role-playing, they gain awareness of their personal beliefs and prejudices that
may have influenced their actions or behaviour.
The role-playing activity also provides opportunities for students to develop

strategies for problem solving, especially when they are facing interpersonal or
personal conflicts. Through the exploration and discussion of the problem stories,
students will be trained to seek solutions from multiple angles.
The role-playing activities in accordance to the principles of the social family are
aimed at developing learners who have empathy for others. One of the goals of
the role-playing activities is to help students become sensitive to predicaments of
others and eventually become compassionate individuals.
The teacher needs to ensure that the learning activities promote empathy and
help the students analyse their personal behaviours and values systems. In
addition, the learning activities should help students devise problem-solving
strategies when encountering an interpersonal based conflict.
The learning activities would eventually mould and nurture learners to become
more expressive and skilful in negotiation and problem solving.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
What are the phases involved in the role-playing model?

ACTIVITY 3.3
Discuss the importance of each phase (role-playing model) in:
(a) Promoting social and interpersonal skills among learners; and
(b) Developing the learnerÊs interpersonal skills.
3.4 THE JURISPRUDENTIAL INQUIRY MODEL

Jurisprudential inquiry is a method of questioning designed to solve
controversial issues. In jurisprudential inquiry, students take a stance in a legal,
ethical or social quandary and defend it with substantiated evidence.
The jurisprudential inquiry model was created by Donald Oliver and James
P. Shaver with the purpose of helping students to think systematically in
addressing contemporary issues.
Joyce et al. (2009)
The jurisprudential inquiry model takes on a more global approach, whereby

students are required to have critical and substantiated views on areas related to
legal, ethics and social issues.
This model draws on a few assumptions:

(a) The social values raised in the discussion during the inquiry are legitimate;
however, they may contradict one another due to different personal values
systems;
(b) Resolving the differences through negotiations and discussions enable
students to solve or seek resolutions to complex issues; and
(c) The student is regarded as a skilful „judge‰ and is able to analyse both
sides of the argument and assess the evidence available to make
appropriate and well-informed decisions.

3.4.1 Using Jurisprudential Inquiry with Learners

Using jurisprudential inquiry with learners involves a high level of thinking on
complex issues such as social, ethical, political issues and others.
Hence, participants of this inquiry model, that is, the students, would need to
possess the following skills:
(a) Familiar with the value framework;
(b) Able to clarify and resolve issues; and
(c) Knowledgeable in contemporary political and public issues.
The jurisprudential inquiry model requires students to identify problems or

issues to be resolved by formulating defensive stances. According to Oliver (1995),
there are three types of problems as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Three Types of Problems
Problem Description
Value problem Involves clarifying the values or legal principles in conflict and
making a choice between them.
Factual problem Looks into exploring facts related to a conflict.
Definitional Explores controversial issues that analyse the meanings of the
problem words used in a particular conflict.
Now let us look at an example for each type of problem.
(a) Value Problem

The conflict explores the choices to be made pertaining to the issue of
abortion. The victim is a young unmarried girl who is sexually assaulted
and becomes pregnant. The conflict is, the young pregnant victim is not
able to cope emotionally and mentally with the notion of having the
unwanted child. She wants to resort to abortion. At the same time, there are
legal issues involved. How does one resolve this conflict?
(b) Factual Problem

The conflict raised here involves a wife seeking alimony from her soon-to-
be divorced husband. She claims her millionaire husband amassed the
wealth whilst still married to her and hence, she has the legal right to a

certain percentage of the wealth accumulated during their marriage. To

resolve this conflict, facts pertaining to the legality of their marriage
(marriage certificate), total income as well as expenditure of the couple
must be scrutinised to seek a resolution.
(c) Definitional Problem

The term „total freedom‰ or „freedom of expression‰ can be viewed
through many angles. How does one define „total freedom‰ or „freedom of
expression‰? The definition of these terms may vary from one country or
culture to another.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Discuss the significance of each type of problem for learners.

The following illustrates the key areas pertaining to the model of teaching.
(a) Syntax (Phases)

There are six phases in this model as shown in Table 3.3. The initial phases
starts with the orientation of the case followed by identifying issues and
taking positions. The fourth phase explores stances and patterns of
argumentation, allowing the students to further clarify and analyse values
within the conflict. The fifth phase refines the positions with the aim of
seeking resolutions and making decisions. The sixth and final phase tests
the factual validity and predicts the consequences of the decisions made.
Table 3.3: Six Phases in Jurisprudential Inquiry
Phase Description
One Orientation to the case
Two Identifying the issue
Three Taking positions
Four Exploring the stance(s), patterns of arguments
Five Refining and qualifying the positions
Six Testing factual assumptions behind qualified positions
Source: Shaftel & Shaftel (1967)

(i) Orientation to the Case

In the first phase, the teacher introduces the material and reviews the
facts pertaining to a case or claim. The teacher here will need to be
clear and knowledgeable in the subject matter. The case can be based
on a value problem, definitional problem or factual problem.
(ii) Identifying Issues

In this phase, students are required to read and understand the issue
concerned. Next, they would need to synthesise the facts and select
one issue for discussion. During the selection process, the students
would identify values and conflicts presented within the issue. The
phase could also involve the students recognising factual and
definitional questions pertaining to the conflict.
(iii) Taking Positions

This is the stage where the students articulate their ideas, taking a
position or stance in terms of the social value or consequences of the
decisions.
(iv) Exploring the Stance(s), Patterns of Arguments

Phase four explores the stance(s) or patterns of argumentation with a
purpose of establishing the point in which the value was violated.
This can be based on a factual approach in which the student should
refer to documents and factual evidence to support the case.
Students must also present consequences of the position, whether

desirable or otherwise, to further highlight the stance taken. When
defining the patterns of argumentation, students must be able to
prioritise one value over the other and demonstrate lack of gross
violation of the second value.
(v) Refining and Qualifying the Positions

In phase five, students refine and further qualify their positions by
stating the reasons and examining similar situations. This phase helps
learners be more informed in their positions and more confident in
asserting them.
(vi) Testing Factual Assumptions Behind Qualified Positions

The final phase is based on testing factual assumptions and
determining their relevance to the claims. Students explore predicted
consequences to ascertain the factual validity of the claims.

(b) Social System

The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate, which explores the
relationship and level of autonomy of student as well as the involvement of
the teacher.
The teacher provides guidance at the beginning of the activity and

gradually releases control as the students take over the discussions and the
negotiation process. The learning climate is active and dynamic. The
teacher can function as a point of reference if/when discussions reach a
confrontational mode. The teacher involved in this approach must be
competent in anticipating studentsÊ thoughts pertaining to value claims.
The teacher should encourage continuity of thought, enabling students to
justify and support arguments with substantial evidence.
(c) Support System

The support system that helps make the jurisprudential inquiry work is the
type of material. Since the inquiry taken on the case study analysis mode is
based on value claims, it is expected that students should be equipped with
adequate material to help them draw opinions and support to defend their
positions.
3.4.3 Points to Consider When Applying Jurisprudential

Inquiry
Application of the jurisprudential inquiry model is not necessarily a complex
process if one adheres to the following:
(a) This model works well with older students as they are able to relate and
discuss contemporary issues using holistic and global perspectives. The
topics or issues discussed can be challenging for young learners especially
if they lack world knowledge and are not able to support their ideas using
external sources;
(b) This mode of inquiry can be rather confrontational and may lead to a
negative learning environment. One way to reduce the tension is through
generating small groups in which the groups argue their points and take
„time out‰ to re-evaluate their stands or positions. Members in the groups
are required to build the strongest possible case. In the process of
discussion, the members are aware that they can choose a different stance at
the end of the discussion; and

(c) Each conflict or position taken needs time for discussion and analysis.
Teachers should let each case be deliberated on, giving the opportunity for
students to accumulate ideas, reflect on the ideas as well as present their
case in a confident and effective manner.
Negotiation and argumentative techniques require time and need to be

taught gradually and naturally. To help students get used to the inquiry
model, the teacher could initially provide a simple case with some
conflicting but straightforward values. This would enable students to
familiarise themselves with the process of gathering data and using it to
support their arguments.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
Elaborate on the roles of the teacher and students in the jurisprudential

inquiry process.
3.4.4 Advantages of Jurisprudential Inquiry

The following are some advantages of using the jurisprudential inquiry model in
teaching:
(a) Students Develop Empathy or Pluralism

The inquiry process allows students to explore and exchange ideas in a
vigorous manner. Through these discussions, they learn to be more
accommodative and receptive to ideas that are different from their point of
view. Empathy and pluralism are enhanced through these interactions,
creating a more positive learning environment.
(b) Students Gain Facts about Social Problems

The opportunity created through this inquiry helps learners widen their
knowledge base through the accumulation and analysis of data of their
case.
(c) Students Develop the Capacity for Social Involvement and Desire for
Social Action
Students are able to focus on contemporary issues and provide critical
thinking and ideas on resolving social issues through debates.

3.4.5 Pedagogical Implications of Jurisprudential

Inquiry Model
The jurisprudential inquiry model provides many benefits to learners. The
pedagogical implications of this model are as follows (Joyce, 2009):
(a) Framework for Analysing Social Issues

The teacher should prepare the learning environment to enable students to
discuss and analyse the gathered data in an effective manner. Students are
given the opportunity to identify policies, apply social values to policy
stances as well as identify and resolve definitional, factual and value
problems in a systematic and organised manner.
(b) The Ability to Assume Role of the „Other‰

In the process of analysing the social problem, students assume the role of
the other in order to formulate their stance. Students become more skilful in
carrying out forceful dialogue with others in a substantiated manner.
(c) Competence in Social Dialogue

Through the process of analysis, discussion and presentation of their cases,
students will become more confident and well-informed speakers. The
teacher can facilitate and guide the students to achieve the desired
outcomes in terms of what is required of good and effective speakers.
SELF-CHECK 3.5
1. Elaborate, with specific examples, on how jurisprudential inquiry

model can be used in a class of 16-year-olds.
2. What are the key principles involved in planning and

implementing jurisprudential inquiry in the classroom?
 The two models pertaining to social family discussed in this topic are role-
playing and jurisprudential inquiry.
 Role-playing involves the acting out of a situation, context or condition in

which each member plays a crucial part. Dynamic and active participation is
required by both the teacher and students.

 The role-playing model promotes expression of thoughts and develops

interpersonal skills. Role-playing provide opportunities for experience-based
learning, release of emotions, formation of ideas and new knowledge, and a
revisit of beliefs and values.
 Key concepts of the role-playing model are problem stories, enactment and
analysis.
 The nine phases in role-playing are: warm up the group, select participants,
set the stage, prepare the observers, enact, discuss and evaluate, re-enact,
discuss and evaluate, and share experience and generalise.
 In carrying out the role-playing model, teachers should: be non-evaluative,

provide avenues to explore learning, and effectively synthesise and
consolidate learning.
 Jurisprudential inquiry model encourages systematic and organised thinking

process by carrying out case presentations on contemporary issues.
 Conflicts to be explored can take the form of a value, factual or definitional

problem.
 The six phases in jurisprudential inquiry are: orientation to the case,

identifying the case, taking positions, exploring the stance(s) and patterns of
arguments, refining and qualifying the positions, and testing factual
assumptions behind qualified positions.
 The jurisprudential inquiry model provides opportunities for students to

develop empathy or pluralism, gain facts about social problems, and develop
the capacity for social involvement. Students will also gain world knowledge
and build self-confidence as effective and well-informed speakers.
Definitional problem Problem stories

Enactments Role-playing
Factual problem Value problem
Jurisprudential inquiry model

Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Holubec, E. (1998). Cooperation in the classroom.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of teaching. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
Rogoff, B., Matusov, E., & White, C. (1996). Models of teaching and learning:
Participation in a community of learners. In D. R. Olson & N. Torrance
(Eds.), The handbook of education and human development: New models
of learning, teaching and schooling. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Shaftel, F. R., & Shaftel, G. A. (1967). Role playing of social values: Decision-
making in the social studies. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.

Topic  Information
Processing
4 Family of
Models I:
Concept
Attainment
Model and
Picture-word
Inductive
Model (PWIM)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the features of the concept attainment and picture-word
inductive (PWIM) models;
2. Describe the processes of each model;
3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each model; and
4. Apply each model in the classroom.

TOPIC 4 INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS I: CONCEPT ATTAINMENT  61
MODEL AND PICTURE-WORD INDUCTIVE MODEL (PWIM)
 INTRODUCTION
The information processing family of models focus on how information is
processed by learners. These models assist learners to seek, master and organise
information for better understanding. This topic focuses on two models pertaining
to the information processing family of models: the concept attainment model and
picture-word inductive (PWIM) model. Now let us look at each of the models
closely.
4.1 THE CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL

The concept attainment model involves learning a concept or idea by „figuring
out‰ common attributes among examples presented. Based on the work of Jerome
Bruner, it is a teaching strategy that encourages critical thinking. To understand
the concept attainment model, it is important to know what a concept is.
4.1.1 What is a Concept?

A concept is an abstract idea that represents each object in a given category. These
objects have attributes (or characteristics) that are important for its meaning. For
example, a noun is a concept; when a teacher lists down words that are nouns
(„cat‰, „flower‰, „tree‰, etc.), these words become positive exemplars. When
words other than nouns are included in the list („beautiful‰, „because‰, „on‰, etc.),
these become negative exemplars. As the students compare both the positive and
negative exemplars, the attributes are discovered. For example, one of the
attributes for noun is that it is a naming word.
Joyce (2009) posits that there are two types of concept learning: concept formation
and concept attainment. We shall look at them more closely in the following
subtopics.
4.1.2 Concept Formation

Concept formation is a process of sorting out given observations of phenomena
into meaningful classes or concepts. The examples of the concept are later
categorised together. There are three stages to concept formation. These are shown
in Table 4.1.

62  TOPIC 4 INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS I: CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
Table 4.1: Concept Formation Stages
Stage Description
Stage 1 Identify the concept and collect data.
Example: Students find pictures of various types of transportation.
Stage 2 Find a way to classify/group the objects that makes sense.
Example: Students may group the pictures according to several
categories such as air and water transportation.
Stage 3 Provide reasoning for classification.
For example, look at the following words and identify the item that does not
belong.
Pigeon Cat Rat Chair Sparrow
You would recognise that four of the items are living things and one is not. You
will also be able to make distinctions that both the pigeon and the sparrow are
birds, have wings and can fly, while the cat and the rat cannot fly. The comparison
made is known as concept formation where students distinguish the similarities
and differences between the items presented.
Concept formation allows students to examine and think of a way to classify the
objects, which promotes critical and creative thinking.
4.1.3 Concept Attainment

The concept attainment model is used when teaching specific concepts. It refers to
the process of finding out defining attributes of a given category – that is,
identifying examples and non-examples. Both negative and positive exemplars are
then differentiated.

There are three stages dealing with the concept attainment process as illustrated
in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Three stages dealing with the concept attainment process
Source: Joyce and Calhoun (1996)
The concept attainment model is ideal for children of all ages and can be used to
introduce new topics or reinforce important ideas taught in earlier lessons. It also
enables pupils to have a deeper understanding of the concepts taught.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. When would you use the concept attainment model?
2. How does concept attainment promote discovery learning?
Let us look at the first scenario.
Scenario 1
Mrs Wong presents the following list of words labelled „Yes‰ or „No‰ to her
eight-year-old pupils.
Yes No
ship snake
shop spade
shake slate
Pupils are given some time to look at the list of words.
Mrs Wong says, „Now I am going to give you a word. Can you identify if it is a
yes or a no?‰
Mrs Wong writes „shell‰ on the board. Immediately the pupils said „Yes‰.
Mrs Wong continues, „What about these words‰?
Mrs Wong writes „stick, sleep and socks‰ on the board. The pupils say „No‰ to
these words.
„Can you tell me why you said yes to these words?‰ asks Mrs Wong.
In Scenario 1, Mrs Wong follows a set of rules when she introduces concept
attainment to her pupils. These rules are as follows:
(a) Identify the concept to be developed. For example, the /∫/ sound;
(b) Make a list of both positive (yes) and negative (no) examples;
(c) Introduce positive examples that consist of attributes of the concept to be
taught;

(d) Introduce negative examples of attributes of the concept which do not have
the sound /∫/;
(e) Both positive examples (marked Yes) and negative examples (marked No)
are listed on the board;
(f) Present each word and place it under the appropriate column;
(g) Ask pupils to look at the examples under each column and what they have
in common; and
(h) Later, ask pupils to provide examples of words that fall under each category.
You may notice that concept attainment is a constructivist approach to teaching

and learning. This teaching model allows students to use their prior knowledge
and understanding to identify the attributes. Through the process of comparing
and contrasting, learners are able to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant
information related to the concept. It also allows for the observation, classification
and hypothesis of the concept and connecting newly attained concepts with new
information. Table 4.2 show us the syntax of the concept attainment model.
Table 4.2: Syntax of the Concept Attainment Model
Phase Activity
Presentation of Data and  Teacher presents labelled examples.
Identification of Concept  Students compare attributes in positive and
negative examples.
 Students generate hypotheses.
Testing Attainment of the  Students identify additional unlabelled
Concept examples as „yes‰ or „no‰.
 Teacher confirms hypotheses, names concept,
and restates definitions according to essential
attributes.
 Students generate examples.
Analysis of Thinking Strategies  Students describe thoughts.
 Students discuss role of hypotheses and
attributes.
 Students discuss type and number of
hypotheses.
Source: Joyce (2009)

4.1.4 Advantages of Using the Concept Attainment

Model
The advantages of using the concept attainment model include the following:
(a) Promotes thinking process where students are required to establish a
hypothesis about the concept, hence they become independent and analytical
thinkers;
(b) Inculcates discovery learning and higher-order thinking skills;
(c) Helps students make connections between what they know and what they
will be learning;
(d) Students learn how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives,
(e) Students learn how to sort out relevant information;
(f) Extends studentsÊ knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one
example; and
(g) Students go beyond merely associating a key term with a definition.
Concepts are learned more thoroughly and retention is improved.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
How does the concept attainment model enhance studentsÊ long-term

learning?
4.1.5 Pedagogical Implications of the Concept

Attainment Model
The concept attainment model helps learners gain a better understanding of the
content and learning process. The pedagogical implications of the model include
the following:
(a) Nature of Concepts

The characteristics or features of the concept are clearly depicted during the
learning process, which helps students better understand the concept and
subject matter.

(b) Concepts, Conceptual Systems and Their Application

The teacher provides input on how the concepts are derived and how they
are applied in the learning activity.
(c) Concept-learning Strategies

Students will be trained to use strategies that will enable them to learn the
concepts within the subject.
(d) Conceptual Flexibility

Students learn to view data or concepts from various angles. They will be
more aware of various interpretations of the data and be able to seek
associations within the information provided.
(e) Inductive Reasoning

Although the data provided may be overwhelming, it can help train students
to be effective thinkers. Students learn to use the data and arrive at well-
substantiated conclusions.
(f) Tolerance of Ambiguity

Ambiguity in the initial stages of learning will help students be more tolerant
and receptive towards different ways of thinking. This is an important
element to develop critical and creative thinkers so students will not get
demotivated when facing challenges during the learning process.
4.2 THE PICTURE-WORD INDUCTIVE (PWIM)

MODEL
The picture-word inductive model (PWIM) is an inquiry-oriented strategy that
uses pictures to elicit words from pupils by using pictures of objects, actions and
scenes (Calhoun, 1999). Designed by Emily Calhoun, the model is aimed at
primary level, early stage readers (Joyce, 2009).
If you have ever tried to answer questions from young children, you would know
they are almost always curious. This inquiring nature led Joyce and Weil (2009) to
describe them as „natural conceptualisers‰, as they tend to seek meaning by
sorting out and classifying information through observation and interactions.
Their ability to listen and speak at a young age allows them to experiment with
language, cracking the code of language through discovery.

Now read the following scenario:
Scenario 2
Child : What is that?
Father : ItÊs a bird.
Child : What?
Father : A bird.
Child : A bird? Why?
Father : Because it has feathers.
Child : Feathers? Why?
Father : So that it can fly.
Child : You need feathers to fly?
Father : Yes, you need feathers to fly.
In this scenario, the childÊs curiosity is evident when he sees something unfamiliar
(a bird) and wanting to know what it is. His fatherÊs answers lead him to want to
know more about the bird, which leads to a new discovery that birds have feathers,
which they need to fly.
Similarly, Calhoun believes that interaction through reading is an important aspect

of a childÊs learning process.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
What is your understanding of the term „inquiry oriented‰?

Now let us look at Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Picture-word dictionary
One way of making students interact through reading is with the use of pictures,
as shown in Figure 4.2. Parts of the picture are labelled for easy recognition and
reference. This is what PWIM is based on. Besides developing studentsÊ
vocabulary, PWIM can also be used in other subjects such as mathematics, science
and language. It allows students to make generalisations in which they will form
a basis for analysis.
4.2.1 How is PWIM Carried Out?

When using PWIM, it is important for a teacher to introduce images or pictures
that pupils are familiar with. This will allow them to identify and make
associations to something they already know and move on to the unknown. Now
let us look at how Miss Jane applies PWIM in her classroom.

Scenario 3
Miss Jane is an English teacher for a Year One class. She wants to introduce the
topic of family members. She pastes a picture on the board. The picture is a
scene of a living room. She asks the pupils to study the picture. They then take
turns to identify the family members from the picture. As each person is
named, Miss Jane draws a line from the person to a place on the background
where she writes the word, spells it and then asks the pupils to spell and say
the word. They review the words frequently, spelling them, saying them and
tracing the line from the word to the picture. During this lesson, seven words
are „shaken out‰ of the picture: mother, father, grandmother, grandfather,
brother, sister and aunt.
In Scenario 3, Miss Jane introduced a familiar scene and asks pupils to „shake out‰
words from the picture by identifying each family member. A line is drawn from
the person identified out of the chart paper where the word is written, thus
connecting the item they identify to the word already in their vocabulary.
Miss Jane continues her lesson the next day by printing the identified words into
word cards and asking them to read and spell the words one by one. She further
asks the pupils to look at the picture chart to find each word and trace it to the
picture. After a few days, Miss Jane asks her pupils to form simple phrases or
sentences using the words.
By repeatedly carrying out the activity, the pupils are able to make connections
between the items and the associated words. As the pupils are required to identify
and observe the words as they are spelled, their learning is slowly transmitted
from verbal to written form.
Based on Scenario 3, the procedure for carrying out PWIM in the classroom is
shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Procedure for carrying out PWIM

SELF-CHECK 4.4
Identify the procedures for conducting PWIM in the classroom.
4.2.2 Advantages of Using PWIM in the Classroom

Calhoun (1999) identified several advantages of PWIM, which are:
(a) The strategy emphasises phonics, grammar, mechanics and usage of
standard English;
(b) Pictures provide concrete visuals for the learning of new words, phrases and
sentences;
(c) As pupils participate in the activity, they feel a part of the classroom
community;
(d) The picture word chart serves as an immediate reference, or picture
dictionary, that enables pupils to eventually add the words to their own sight
vocabulary. The teacher can choose to emphasise almost any sound and
symbol relationship (introduced or taken to mastery);
(e) The model helps pupils see the patterns and relationships of the English
language, enabling them to apply this learning to newly encountered words;
(f) Pupils hear and see words spelled correctly and participate in correct
spelling and writing; and
(g) With extensive practice, pupils begin to learn how to create sentences and
paragraphs related to the subject.
SELF-CHECK 4.5
1. Which group of pupils would benefit the most if PWIM model is

used in the classroom?
2. What do you think a teacher needs to do before introducing

PWIM model to her students?

4.2.3 How Can Teachers Use PWIM in the Classroom?

There are various ways a teacher can apply PWIM in the classroom. Some of the
ways are shown in the following.
(a) Development of Sight Vocabulary
Scenario 4
The Year Two pupils are seated on the floor. Mrs Tan pastes a poster of a
childrenÊs playground on the board (see Figure 4.4).
Mrs Tan says, „We are going to get some of the words for this weekÊs
reading vocabulary by shaking words out of this picture. Study the
picture carefully. When I call your name, come forward and point to one
of the items in the picture and say what it is. Then I will write the word
and draw a line from that item to the word.‰
The children study the picture. After a few minutes, Mrs Tan calls out
one name „Mary‰.
Mary walks forward and points at an object and says, „This is a swing.‰
Mrs Tan draws a line from the swing and writes „swing‰ in large print,
spelling out each letter as she writes. Then she asks all the students to
repeat after her. This process continues and at the end of the session, Mrs
Tan lists down eight words from the picture:
See saw Merry-go-round Swing Slide
Sand box Trees Bridges Children
Figure 4.4: Mrs TanÊs teaching aid

Scenario 4 indicates that PWIM is able to improve pupilsÊ sight vocabulary.

Mrs Tan scaffolds her pupils to identify each object found in the picture. This
activity allows pupils to be able to name the words correctly. The repetition
of spelling also enhances pupilsÊ memory of the words. The following day,
Mrs Tan prints out the identified words as word cards. Each pupil gets his
own set of smaller vocabulary cards where he can sort the words by making
references to the picture.
After a week, Mrs Tan conducts the following lesson (refer to Scenario 5).
Scenario 5
„Let us look at the picture again. Can you name each of the objects found
in the picture?‰ says Mrs Tan. The pupils begin naming each object.
Mrs Tan points at one of the trees. „What can you see here?‰ One of the
pupils says, „A small tree.‰
Mrs Tan says, „Very good. This is a small tree.‰ She writes the phrase
„small tree‰ and draws a line towards the tree. „What about this one?‰
(Pointing at a bigger tree).
One of the pupils, Lina answers, „That one is big. Big tree.‰ Mrs Tan
says, „That is a big tree.‰
Mrs Tan repeats the process of writing the phrase „big tree‰ and draws
a line from the phrase to the tree in the picture.
In Scenario 5, Mrs Tan introduces phrases which allow pupils to expand their
vocabulary as well as construct phrases and sentences. Mrs Tan models the
correct sentence form and pupils are able to learn from her and use that
experience to create their own sentences.
Pupils read and spell the words as they are shaken out of the picture.
These words are placed on large vocabulary cards for the teacher to use for
group instruction. Pupils also get their own set of smaller vocabulary cards.
They sort these words and consult the picture dictionary to check their
understanding and refresh the meaning of the words. Pupils keep their word
cards in word banks or word boxes, consulting them as they wish and
eventually arranging them to compose sentences.

(b) Skill in Phonics

Read the following scenario.
Scenario 6
Mr Ibrahim introduced a picture (Figure 4.5) to his students a week ago.
The penguins were chosen because the students had the opportunity to
see one during the school field trip to the zoo recently. Based on the PWIM
model, the students identified a list of words describing the penguins.
Today, Mr Ibrahim asks the students to look at the picture dictionary

again. Mr Ibrahim says, „IÊm going to select some of the words and I am
going to sort out some and put them together. I want you to think about
why I put them together.‰
Mr Ibrahim pulls out five words and places them on the board. Then he
calls on Salleh, who says, „You put all the words that begin with ÂSÊ
together.‰
„How many of you agree with Salleh?‰ Everyone agrees. „Does anyone
have another reason?‰ Sheela volunteers by saying that all the words have
the same ending „ing‰.
Mr Ibrahim ends the lesson by discussing the initial /∫/ sound and the
ending „ing‰ sound. He gives the students homework, which is to find at
least six words that begin with „s‰ and has the „ing‰ ending.
The pupils are required to list them on a piece of paper and drop them in
the picture word box in the morning.

Figure 4.5: Mr. IbrahimÊs teaching aid
In Scenario 6, Mr Ibrahim asks the pupils to analyse the words and develop
phonics concepts inductively. This is achieved by selecting particular words
the pupils identified earlier through the picture dictionary (refer to Table 4.3
for an example).
Table 4.3: Identification of Word Categories
PupilsÊ Identification of Word

Explanation
Categories
fat, fast All begin with „F‰.
All have the same two first letters.
blue, black All have „B‰ at the beginning.
All have „L‰ after the first letter.
All are colours.
slithering, sliding, swimming All begin with „S‰.
All end with „ing‰.
All are action words.

Mr Ibrahim manages to explore beginning and ending sounds and the

structural property of the words. PWIM enables pupils to learn words that
begin with a particular sound and with particular letters representing those
sounds. This will allow pupils to use their critical thinking and to build
generalisations that form the basis of structural and phonetic analysis (Joyce,
2009).
ACTIVITY 4.1
Do you think PWIM is suitable to be used in your classroom? When and

how would you use it? Discuss with your coursemates.
4.2.4 Pedagogical Implications of PWIM

The following are the pedagogical implications of the Picture Word Inductive
Model for both the teachers and pupils.
(a) Self-teaching Capacity

Teachers help pupils become independent by getting them to generate words
and meanings from pictures.
(b) Inquiry Skills Using Language

The teacher provides pupils with the skills to use language to seek for more
information pertaining to the picture.
(c) Skills in Reading

The teacher will be able to provide more reading exercises to help pupils
develop their reading skills.
(d) Conceptual Control Over Reading and Writing

PWIM establishes a strong link between reading and writing. Hence the
teacher can provide activities that promote the link between reading and
writing.
(e) Express Self Through Writing

Pupils would be able to articulate their thoughts through writing during the
activities.
(f) Develop Culture of Reading

Pupils would be able to expand their reading vocabulary and enhance their
language proficiency.

(g) Learn Collaborative Skills

PWIM requires pupils to work together in completing the activities, which
promotes positive interactions and interpersonal skills.
 Based on the work of Jerome Bruner, the concept attainment model involves
learning a concept or idea by „figuring out‰ common attributes among
examples presented.
 The concept attainment model is an inductive teaching strategy that

encourages critical thinking as students discover new concepts when they
compare and contrast sets of exemplars.
 Using the concept attainment model in the classroom involves three phases,
which are: presentation of data and identification of concept, testing
attainment of the concept, and analysis of thinking strategies.
 Aimed at early stage readers, the picture word inductive model is an inquiry-
oriented strategy that uses pictures to elicit words from pupils by using
pictures of objects, actions and scenes (Calhoun, 1999).
 PWIM enhances pupilsÊ sight vocabulary and construction of phrases and

sentences. It also helps pupils learn writing and constructing paragraphs.
 Some of the ways of using PWIM in the classroom include development of

sight vocabulary and skill in phonics.
Attributes Non-exemplars
Concept Picture dictionary
Concept attainment PWIM
Concept formation Shaking words out
Exemplars

Calhoun, E. F. (1999). Teaching beginning reading and writing with the picture
word model. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Education.
Joyce, B. R., & Calhoun, E. F. (1996). Creating learning experiences. Alexandria,

VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Topic  Information
Processing
5 Family of
Models II:
Advance
Organisers and
Memorisation
Model
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the features of advance organisers and memorisation;
2. Describe the processes of each model;
3. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of each model; and

80  TOPIC 5 INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS II: ADVANCE
ORGANISERS AND MEMORISATION MODEL
 INTRODUCTION
This topic focuses on advance organisers and memorisation, which are part of the
information processing family of models. The advance organisers model,
introduced by Ausubel (1963), focuses on the best ways of scaffolding ideas, while
memorisation focuses on the building of connections between concepts.
5.1 THE ADVANCE ORGANISER MODEL

Advance organisers were introduced by Ausubel (1963) who proposed that new
ideas can only be usefully learned if they can be related to what is already known.
The term refers to information given by teachers in advance to help students
organise new knowledge. Ausubel believed that a teacherÊs role is to organise the
subject matter, present information and provide tasks for students to integrate
what they have previously learned (Joyce, 2009).
Now read the following scenario.
Scenario 1
A teacher takes her 10-year-old pupils on a visit to the zoo. Before entering the
zoo, she says, „You are going to see various types of animals in a short while.
There are some animals that roam on land while others can be seen swimming
in the water. Recall what we have learned last week on land and sea animals.‰
The teacher further provides examples of animals from each category.
As they begin their tour, the teacher points out the various types of animals
found. „Do you see here,‰ she asks, „That is a crocodile. As you can see, the
crocodile is moving towards land. There are some animals that can live on land
and in the water as well‰. Then she continues by saying, „Look at the features
of the crocodile. What does it need to be able to live in the water?‰
Scenario 1 shows how the teacher uses an advance organiser by providing ideas
that can be linked to the particular characteristics of the animals. She provided the
intellectual scaffolding to structure ideas and information with regard to the types
of animals found in the zoo. Advance organisers allow the teacher to strengthen
pupilsÊ cognitive structures (the organisation of knowledge in the mind). Ausubel
believed that cognitive structure plays an important role in making meaningful
learning of new material (Joyce et al., 2009, p. 249).

TOPIC 5 INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS II: ADVANCE  81
ACTIVITY 5.1
Define „meaningful learning‰ based on your own experiences. Discuss
your answer with your coursemates.
In order for new knowledge to be meaningful, previous knowledge or schema

needs to be activated. One way of doing this is by using advance organisers prior
to learning (Ausubel, 1978). This strategy provides mental scaffolding to learn new
information (Hassard, 2005).
Meaningful learning requires the following:

(a) Preparation of the learner;
(b) Organisation of the material by the teacher;
(c) What the learner has learned is intellectually linked and understood in the
context of what was previously learned; and
(d) The learner must be ready to comprehend and relate to what is being
presented, rather than to memorise.
5.1.1 Principles Governing Advance Organisers

There are two principles that govern advance organisers. The first is progressive
differentiation, which refers to the way the content is organised. It simply means
that the most general ideas are presented first, followed by more detailed and
specific ideas.
The second principle is integrative reconciliation. It refers to the need for the new
materials/ideas to be related to previously learned knowledge. One example is the
syllabus used in the Standard Curriculum for Primary Schools (KSSR) where the
sequence of the curriculum is organised in such a way that each successive topic
is related to previous topics. Another example is found in Scenario 2 where the
teacher asks her students to recall what they have learned in class about land and
sea animals, and relates this knowledge to animals that can live in both worlds.

5.1.2 Categories of Advance Organisers

There are two categories of advance organisers – expository organisers and
comparative organisers. These are based on studentsÊ familiarity with the material.
(a) Expository organisers are used when the material to be taught is unfamiliar
to students. New schema is built by providing new information, which
represents the intellectual scaffold on which students will hang the new
information (Joyce, 2009). For example, a teacher can introduce the works of
Robert Frost by providing a well-known quote of the poet. Through
discussion, students will be able to gain new information about the poet and
his works. This provides students with new ideas which can be related to the
poem that will be introduced in a later lesson.
(b) On the other hand, comparative organisers are used for familiar material,
whereby new concepts are built upon information already known. It requires
learners to recall previous knowledge by activating the existing schema. For
example, in a literature class, if students have already learned about Robert
Frost and are now about to learn about William Wordsworth, a compare and
contrast double bubble map would help students build upon their existing
knowledge and to learn more about each poetÊs style of writing.
Advance organisers can take many forms such as a simple oral introduction by the
teacher, student discussions, outlines, timelines, charts, diagrams and concept
maps (Brandsford, 2004).
According to University of Pittsburgh research on advance organisers, the

following strategies can function as advance organisers:
(a) Using charts, diagrams, oral presentations or concept maps;
(b) Giving a scenario and asking students to infer rules based on their current
knowledge;
(c) Having students identify the characteristics of a known phenomenon and
then relating it to the new idea/concept. For example, discussing
characteristics of air pollution to introduce the effect it has on the
environment and living things;
(d) Asking students to compare and contrast the new content based on what
they already know; and
(e) Identifying a problem and asking for a reason why it may occur (before
teaching the reason). For example, discussing the origins of a war before
describing its major battles.

ACTIVITY 5.2
1. Describe the different types of advance organisers.
2. In your opinion, which type of advance organiser would benefit

your students for meaningful learning to take place? Discuss with
your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
5.1.3 Phases in Advance Organisers

Teaching using the advance organiser model involves three phases as described in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Three Phases in the Advance Organiser Model
Phase Description
Presentation of Advance  Clarify aims of the lesson.
Organisers
 Present organiser.
 Identify defining attributes.
 Give examples or illustrations where appropriate.
 Provide context.
 Repeat.
 Prompt awareness of learnersÊ relevant knowledge
and experience.
Presentation of Learning Task  Present material.
or Material  Make logical order of learning material explicit.
 Link material to organiser.
Strengthening Cognitive  Use principles of integrative reconciliation.
Organisation  Elicit critical approach to subject matter.
 Clarify ideas.
 Apply ideas actively (such as by testing them).

5.1.4 Advance Organisers in the Classroom

One of the strategies of using advance organisers to teach is PLAN as proposed by
Caverly (1997). PLAN refers to Predict, Locate, Add and Note. This strategy is used
before, during and after reading. Table 5.2 displays the steps on how PLAN is
carried out.
Table 5.2: The PLAN Strategy
P Predict by previewing the text and creating a concept map. A tree trunk with
extending branches is recommended.
L Locate prior background knowledge on the map with checks and new concepts
with question marks.
A Add new branches to the map to represent new knowledge acquired during
reading. Verify, modify and add to prior knowledge. Confirm the new
concepts with question marks.
N Note, after reading, if „the macrostructure of the material is indeed what they
have predicted prior to reading. If the structure is different, they construct a
new map to better represent the authorÊs rhetorical structure‰.
Source: Caverly (1997)
For further explanation of the PLAN strategy, refer to https://mattcox30.weebly.

com/plan-predict-locate-add-note.html
Another form of advance organisers is concept webbing or mapping, which is

pictorial in nature and uses a hierarchical, visual display of graphs to map out the
main concept and the supporting material. Studies have indicated that students
with disabilities who use graphic representations as advance organisers perform
better on tests, due in part to the way the organisers provide retention, recall, and
scaffolding of new ideas and concepts with pre-existing schemata (Robinson,
1998). This form of advance organisers can also assist weak and intermediate
students where the visual organisation increases studentsÊ understanding by
providing a skeletal map that increases their ability to link new concepts with prior
knowledge; therefore, increasing retention and recall (Hassard, 2005).
Atherton (2005) suggested that advance organisers could also be used as

note-taking devices such as gapped handouts (uncompleted handouts), which
leave blanks for students to fill in as the teacher provides instruction. The teacher
can choose to leave large spaces for note-taking or simple blanks where keywords
can be placed. Gapped handouts can also take the form of concept maps, charts,
and tables. Later, these handouts can be used as study guides for tests (Atherton,
2005). Refer to Table 5.3 for an example.

Table 5.3: Gapped Handout
Instruction: Read JonathanÊs daily routine and fill in the following table.
I usually get up late – about 8 oÊclock in the morning. I normally have light breakfast
with my parents around 8.45am and then leave for work at 9.15am. I go to work by bus
and reach my office just before ten.
When I arrive at the office, I always check my email. Then I will do the paper work and
have a meeting with my team from 12.00 till 12.30pm. During lunch hour, I usually
have my meal prepared by my mother. I do not prefer eating at the cafeteria since the
food is not very good.
I usually finish work at about 7 oÊclock and reach home about one hour later. I normally
have dinner with my parents at about 9 oÊclock.
Time Activity
8.00
8.45
AM
9.15
PM
Mayer (1979) proposed the following guidelines for constructing advance

organisers:
(a) Short set of verbal or visual information – This will allow learners to recall
information;
(b) Present organisers prior to learning a larger body of information – The

advance organiser should be introduced first to prepare learners to grasp
information or as a lead-in to a much complex subject matter;
(c) Containing no specific content from the to-be-learned information – The

advance organiser should not include any of the specific information that
will be presented later. It should deal with the subject or content at a more
abstract and general level;

(d) Providing the means of generating logical relationships among elements in

the to-be-learned information – The organiser should enable learners to see
and make the link between the structure of the subject and the information
to be presented later; and
(e) Influencing the learnerÊs encoding process – The link mentioned earlier will
allow learners to enhance their understanding and recall the details
presented later.
5.1.5 Advantages of Advance Organisers

There are several advantages of using advance organisers in the teaching and
learning process, including the following:
(a) To teach both concepts and generalisations. Advance organisers can be

incorporated into the lesson to enable the teacher to present the general
aspects of the content followed by the specific details.
(b) To introduce content of a lesson. The teacher can use advance organisers to
provide a brief oral introduction and initiate student discussions. This
provides students with a clear understanding of what is expected from the
lesson.
(c) To make a clear link between concepts. The teacher could use expository
organisers to help students relate to the features, concepts and ideas of a
specific topic or subject matter.
(d) To organise the material to be taught. For example, by using the PLAN
approach, the teacher can sequence the lesson in an orderly manner enabling
the learners to gradually grasp new concepts.
5.1.6 Pedagogical Implications of Advance Organisers

The following are the pedagogical implications of advance organisers:
(a) Provide the necessary scaffolding for learners to either learn new and
unfamiliar material or to integrate new ideas into relatively familiar ideas;
(b) Engage students in the learning process in a meaningful manner;
(c) Help students identify and organise important information; and

(d) Promote autonomy and motivate oneÊs own learning. Teachers can train
learners to be independent by providing them with appropriate relevant
information which requires students to link the new knowledge.
5.2 THE MEMORISATION MODEL

Memorisation is a technique used in remembering facts and information. Our
everyday lives are governed by memorisation. For example, one would memorise
the things needed to be completed or bought. Remembering things can be achieved
only if one pays attention to the things they are focusing on. For example, you are
unlikely to remember what is on display on the aisle of a supermarket unless you
pay particular attention to the items. As learners, you would likely try to memorise
information and facts in preparing for an examination. However, certain
information will be forgotten once the examination is over.
Joyce et al. (2009) presented three different cues that link to memorisation.
(a) The first is retrieval cues that refer to the comparison made from one item to
the other and rehearse what we have gained. This information becomes
retrieval cues that allow us to sort through our memories to locate
information later. Retrieval cues are normally stored in short-term memory.
(b) Episodic cues, on the other hand, relate to long-term memory dealing with
sequences of experience. For example, relating the bitter taste of bitter gourd
to the medicine taken when one was young, or fearing a dog after a traumatic
episode of being bitten by a dog. Episodic cues play a role in remembering
past events and also allow us to predict the future based on the past.
(c) Categorical cues deal with conceptualising items by categorising. These cues
deal with the ability to differentiate between things into different categories.
Joyce (2009) posited that it is important for one to be able to memorise skilfully
since competence based on knowledge is essential for survival. Therefore, one
should be able to have the ability to increase learning power and the capability of
storing information.
There are various ways to remember what needs to be recalled at a later stage. The
first, which is very common, is through rote learning, which requires one to say
what is to be memorised over and over again until the information is implanted in
the brain. This is not an effective form of memorising and takes a longer time to
remember. Besides, it does not make any link or relationship of the things to be
memorised, hence rote learning may not be meaningful for the learner.

The following subtopics will discuss other memorisation methods such as the link-
word method and mnemonics.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Recall when you were a learner and were given a task to memorise a list of
things. How did you memorise them? Discuss this with your coursemates.
5.2.1 Link-word Method

It is important for more mental activity to take place in order for a richer mental
context. Additional associations need to be linked to memorisation to increase
cognitive activity (Joyce, 2009). One of the ways of achieving this is through the
link-word method. It allows learners to either:
(a) Remember familiar material to link with the unfamiliar items; or
(b) Provide an association to establish the meaning of a new material.
Studies have indicated that learners who are able to master the link-word method
use more elaborate strategies for memorising material as compared to less effective
memorisers.
One example of the link-word method is shown in Figure 5.1, which shows how it
can be used to help young learners to remember the numbers. For example,
number one is linked to the word bun.
one = bun six = sticks
two = shoe seven = heaven
three = tree eight = gate
four = door nine = vine
five = hive ten = hen

Figure 5.1: Link-word memory exercise using numbers

Source: http://www.eudesign.com/mnems/_mnframe.htm
Besides linking numbers to the associated words, they also rhyme for easy recall.
Students can also visualise the numbers with the pictures they represent to create
a strong mental association.
ACTIVITY 5.4
Imagine you are taking a literature class and asked to memorise a list of
American poets. How would you go about memorising them? Discuss this
with your coursemates.
An example of how to memorise a list through the link-word method is shown in

the following.
Name list : Robert Frost, Emily Dickinson, Walt Whitman, Sylvia

Plath, T. S. Eliot, W. B. Yeats, John Milton
Reorganised list : T.S. Eliot, Sylvia Plath, Emily Dickinson, Robert Frost,
John Milton, Walt Whitman, W. B. Yeats
Cue Phrase : Eli, Please DonÊt Freeze My White Yogurt

5.2.2 Mnemonics
Mnemonics is used to help one remember information better. It connects words to
objects, events, actions and qualities that they represent (Joyce, 2009). It can be used
in various disciplines including language, mathematics and science. The word
mnemonics originated from the Greek term mnemonikos, referring to the mind.
Mnemonics are used widely in aiding learners to remember and recall information
easily. An example is shown in the following.
Thirty days hath September;

April, June, and November;
All the rest have thirty-one;
Excepting February alone;
Which hath but twenty-eight, in fine;
Till leap year gives it twenty-nine.
The example is a form of a rhyme used to teach learners the number of days in
each month of the year. Mnemonics come in various forms. Among them are
through the use of acronyms. Look at the following example.
Monkey Nut Eating Means Old Nutshells In Carpet.

The acronym above is used to allow learners to remember the correct spelling of
the word mnemonic. Through the memorisation of the phrase, one would easily
identify and recall the spelling of the intended word by taking the initial letters of
each word.
Other examples of spelling mnemonics are shown as follows:

(a) A Rat In The House May Eat The Ice Cream (ARITHMETIC);
(b) Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move (RHYTHM);
(c) George's Elderly Old Grandfather Rode A Pig Home Yesterday
(GEOGRAPHY); and
(d) Trails Of My Old Red Rose Over Window (TOMORROW).
Source: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples/examples-of-mnemonics.html

Another mnemonic technique uses the initial letters of a phrase to memorise the
order of a list of items. For example, try to recall the names of the planets in the
solar system starting with the one closest to the sun. Through the use of
mnemonics, one could easily memorise and recall the order accurately.
Nevertheless, please be aware that Pluto is now classified as a trans-Neptunian
object, sometimes called a „minor planet‰.
My Very Easy Method: Just Set Up Nine Planets.

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto.
There are also other ways of remembering which is through the use of visuals. For
example, in order to remember the number of days in each month of the year, the
use of fists allows for easy recall. The method involves placing your two fists
together with the thumbs tucked in and counting across the knuckles and spaces
in between (but not counting the space between the hands). If each month is
assigned to a knuckle or space in turn, each knuckle month has 31 days, whilst all
of the space months have just 30 days; except of course for February!
The number of days in each month can also be found by counting across the
knuckles and valleys on the back of each clenched fist from left to right as you can
see in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Remembering the days in the months

Other examples of visual mnemonics are shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Mnemonics for ordering objects in the solar system (left);
and correctly spelling „does‰ (right)
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org
Mnemonics can also be in a form of a poem as shown in the following where

besides enjoying recitation, learners will be able to comprehend parts of speech.
Every name is called a NOUN,

As field and fountain, street and town;
In place of noun the PRONOUN stands,
As he and she can clap their hands;
The ADJECTIVE describes a thing,
As magic wand and bridal ring;
The VERB means action, something done -
To read and write, to jump and run;
How things are done, the ADVERBS tell,
As quickly, slowly, badly, well;
The PREPOSITION shows relation,
As in the street, or at the station;
CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways,
Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase;
The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark!
I need an exclamation mark!'
Through Poetry, we learn how each
of these make up the PARTS OF SPEECH."
5.2.3 Techniques in Enhancing Memory

Joyce (2009) identified the following concepts as techniques in enhancing memory
of learning material:
(a) Awareness
Paying attention to things or ideas is the basic principle in remembering. This
will create awareness which leads to learning.
(b) Association
This is a concept of linking a new piece of information with something
familiar. For example, remembering the spelling of the word „bouquet‰ by
associating to the object „flower‰. Therefore, a teacher can provide the cue A
bouquet of flowers for better understanding of the meaning and spelling.
(c) Link System

This is related to making connections between two ideas. For example, what
would you do if you are asked to remember these words?
cat broom bicycle elephant hat scissors carpet
You may start by visualising an unusual picture such as shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: An unusual picture

The link system is based on the combination of mental images. Imagine a

picture of the first item cat in your mind. Now you need to link the first item
to the second, which is the broom. Now picture the cat holding a broom. The
next step is to link the broom to the next item, bicycle. Picture the cat with
the broom riding a bicycle. Next, imagine an elephant with a hat, holding a
pair of scissors and flying on a carpet. With these mental pictures in your
mind, you will have no trouble remembering the seven items in sequence.
(d) Ridiculous Association

This association is linked by identifying items or objects that are ridiculous,
impossible or illogical. There are several ways of making an association
ridiculous.
(i) Rule of Substitution

Example: If you are to remember a tree and a pair of chopsticks, picture
the tree holding chopsticks on one of its branches.
(ii) Out of Proportion Rules

This works by making small things gigantic or changing big things into
miniatures. Example: Picture a tiny tree growing on a huge pair of
chopsticks.
(iii) Rule of Exaggeration

Example: Picture hundreds of trees running down the street paved
with thousands of chopsticks.
(e) Substitute-word System

This is used to remember abstract words. Take any word or phrase and think
of something that sounds like or reminds you of it. For example, to remember
the parts of a flowering plant:
(i) For the petal, picture a flower pedalling a bicycle;
(ii) For the stamen, use the words steam and men. Picture men emitting
steam from their bodies or surrounded by steam. Hissing noises
associated with the steam or the smell of sweat makes the picture more
vivid. The steam image could be tied more closely to flowers if an
image were made showing a flower wilting in a steam room or growing
out of a steaming teapot tended by a group of men; and
(iii) For the pistil, picture one evil-looking flower with a pistol holding up
a cowering flower.
Source: http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/memory3.html

Table 5.4 highlights examples of techniques you can use to memorise important
information.
Table 5.4: Examples of Memory Techniques
When to Use It Technique Example

For information Acronym  an invented BRASS is an acronym for
involving key words combination of letters with each how to shoot a rifle--
letter acting as a cue to an idea Breathe, Relax, Aim, Sight,
you need to remember. Squeeze.
For information Acrostic  an invented sentence EVERY GOOD BOY
involving key words where the first letter of each DESERVES FUN is an
word is a cue to an idea you acrostic to remember the
need to remember. order of the G-clef notes on
sheet music– E,G,B,D,F.
For ordered or Rhyme-Keys  a two-step Food groups:
unordered lists memory process: 1. Dairy products: one-
1. Memorise key words that bun-cheese on a bun.
can be associated with 2. Meat, fish, and poultry:
numbers (one-bun); two-shoe-livestock
2. Create an image of the items with shoes.
you need to remember with 3. Grains: three-tree-sack
key words. (A bun with of grain hanging from a
cheese on it will remind me tree.
of dairy products.)
4. Fruit and vegetables:
four-door- opening a
door and walking into
a room stocked with
fruits and vegetables.
For approximately 20 Loci Method  Imagine placing To remember presidents:
items the items you want to Place a dollar bill (George
remember in specific locations Washington) on the door.
in a room with which you are Walk into the room and
familiar. see Jefferson reclining on a
sofa and Nixon eating out
of the refrigerator.

For foreign language Keyword Method  Select the In Spanish, the word
vocabulary foreign words you need to "cabina" means phone
remember, then identify an booth. Invent an image of a
English word that sounds like cab trying to fit in a phone
the foreign one. Now imagine booth. When you see the
an image that involves the key word "cabina", you should
word with the English meaning be able to recall this image
of the foreign word. and thereby retrieve the
meaning "phone booth."
For remembering Image-Name Technique  Shirley Temple - her curly
names Invent a relationship between (rhymes with "Shirley")
the name and the physical hair around her temple.
characteristics of the person.
For ordered or Chaining  Create a story Napoleon, ear, door,
unordered lists where each word or idea you Germany
have to remember will cue the Story: Napoleon had his
next idea you need to recall. ear to the door to listen to
the Germans in his beer
cellar.
Source: http://www.iss.stthomas.edu/studyguides/memory.htm
5.2.4 Advantages of Using Memorisation

The following are some advantages of using memorisation:
(a) Provides a memory bridge to help you recall information that otherwise is
difficult to remember;
(b) Involves rearranging or reorganising information, which also helps you to
personalise the information and be a more active learner;
(c) Adds interest to studying by providing you with new ways to work with
information;
(d) When used properly, it allows you to spend less time retrieving information
from your long-term memory;
(e) Helps learners who are below average in verbal ability who might have
greater difficulty with complex learning strategies; and
(f) It is applicable to all age levels.

5.2.5 Pedagogical Implications of the Memorisation

Model
The memorisation model is aimed at helping students remember facts or
information effectively. As such, it is crucial for the teacher to provide students
with the appropriate learning tools. The pedagogical implications are as follows:
(a) Tools for mastering information and concepts – relevant tools can be
employed in the classroom to ensure that learners with different competency
levels are able to effectively remember and retain information.
(b) Sense of intellectual power – teachers can promote a positive and powerful
learning sense within the classroom through encouraging the learners to be
in control of their own mental activities.
(c) Self-esteem – students gain self-esteem as they progress through the
activities. Recognising their ability to store and retrieve information will
boost their confidence level, making them feel more receptive towards the
learning process.
(d) Active learners – students become active participants in the learning process
in which the information is processed in a meaningful and effective manner.
(e) Self-reliance and independence – students will be able to take responsibility
of their learning as they are made more aware of their mental capacity.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
State the differences between the advance organisers and memorisation
models.
 The advance organisers model is based on the idea that new knowledge can
only be usefully learned if they can be related to what is already known.
 There are two principles that govern advance organisers: progressive

differentiation, which means that the most general ideas are presented first
followed by more detailed and specific ideas; and integrative reconciliation,
which is the need for the new materials/ideas to be related to previously
learned knowledge.

 Expository organisers are used when the material to be taught is unfamiliar to

students. New schema is built by providing new information, which represents
the intellectual scaffold on which students will hang the new information.
 Comparative organisers are used for familiar material whereby new concepts
are built upon information already known.
 Teaching using the advance organiser model involves three phases:
 Presentation of advance organisers;
 Presentation of learning task or material; and
 Strengthening cognitive organisation.
 The memorisation model aids in increasing the capacity to store and retrieve
information. It supports learners who have difficulties in retrieving previously
learned information.
 Three different cues that link to memorisation are retrieval cues, episodic cues
and categorical cues. These cues aid in holding and storing information.
 Methods to aid memorisation are the link-word method and mnemonics,

which can be taught by using rhymes, acronyms, visuals and poems. These
methods are effective since abstract concepts can be changed into mental
picture for easy remembrance.
 To enhance memory of learning material, one can use the following techniques:
awareness, association, link system, ridiculous association, and substitute-
word system.
Advance organisers Meaningful learning

Cognitive structure Mnemonics
Integrative reconciliation Progressive differentiation
Link-word method Scaffolding

Atherton, J. S. (2005). Teaching and learning: Advance organizers. Retrieved from

http://www.learningandteaching.info/teaching/ advance_organisers.htm
Ausubel, D. (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. New York, NY:
Grune & Stratton.
Caverly, D. (1997). Teaching reading in a learning assistance center. In S. Mioduski

& G. Enright (Eds.), Proceedings of the 17th and 18th annual Winter institutes
for learning assistance professional (pp. 27-42). Tucson, AZ: University
Learning Center, University of Arizona.
Hassard, J. (2005). Meaningful learning model. In the art of teaching science.

Retrieved from http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/2.10.html
Education.
Mayer, R. E. (1979). Can advance organizers influence meaningful learning?

Review of Educational Research, 49, 371–383.
Robinson, D. H. (1998). Graphic organizers as aids to text learning. Reading

Research and Instruction, 37, 85-105
University of Pittsburgh. Advance organizers. Retrieved from http://www.cidde.

pitt.edu/using-advance-organizer

Topic Information
Processing
6 Family of
Models III:
Scientific
Inquiry and
Synectics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the scientific inquiry and synectics models;
2. Describe the processes of each of the models;
3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each model; and

TOPIC 6 INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS III:  101
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND SYNECTICS
 INTRODUCTION
This topic focuses on the scientific inquiry model and the synectics model under
the information processing family of models. Firstly, we will look at the scientific
inquiry model that uses a biological method called the Biological Sciences
Curriculum Study (BSCS) and the inquiry training model which was developed
by J. Richard Suchman (1962). Secondly, we will then focus on the synectics model,
which was proposed by William Gordon (1961) to enable learners to learn in a
more interesting manner.
6.1 THE SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY MODEL

The scientific inquiry model is an instructional model that emphasises the scientific
method in teaching activities. It is a framework of interactions between teachers
and learners. The following are five essential components to the scientific inquiry
model:
(a) Students engage in scientifically orientated questions;
(b) Students give priority to evidence;
(c) Students formulate explanations from evidence;
(d) Students evaluate explanation; and
(e) Students communicate and justify their proposed explanation.
(National Research Council, 2002)
The following subtopic will explore the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study
(BSCS) as proposed by Schwab (1965), which works well for both young and adult
learners.
6.1.1 Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS)

The BSCS approach teaches learners to process information using techniques
similar to those of research biologists. It begins by identifying problems leading to
the use of particular methods to solve the problems at hand. This approach
emphasises content and process (Joyce, 2009).

102  TOPIC 6 INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS III:
The BSCS approach uses several techniques to teach science as inquiry including
the following:
(a) Use statements such as: „we do not know, so let us discover how it happens‰.
These statements encourage students to be aware of their lack of knowledge
in the subject matter, thus propelling them to be more active in seeking the
answers.
(b) Use narrative inquiry. The history of major ideas in biology are described
and followed step by step. The students will be able to identify and examine
the scientific procedures used in the study. This will eventually lead to a
structured and systematic form of thinking and learning.
(c) Laboratory work is arranged to induce students to investigate problems. As

this is a science related subject, practical work becomes one of the major
components.
(d) The laboratory programmes are designed in blocks that involve students in
one investigation of a real biological problem. Managing the learning
through sizeable chunks makes learning more effective. Practical work is
divided into phases to enable the students to gradually progress in their
learning.
(e) Use invitations to inquiry where students actively engage in activities

leading to reasoning related to a front-line item of investigation or to a
methodological problem in biology. The teacherÊs role is crucial here in
guiding the students to achieve the learning outcomes. The high order
questions posed can be a stimulus for students to rationalise and substantiate
their learning ideas.
Adapted from: Joyce et al. (2009, pp.163-164)
The strategy for the BSCS model is designed based on the following
understanding:
(a) Knowledge arises from interpretation of data;
(b) As principles and concepts change, so does knowledge;
(c) Knowledge changes for a good reason. There are possibilities for present
knowledge to be revised in the future and that does not mean that the present
knowledge is false; and
(d) The essence of BSCS is to teach the students how to process information
using the four phases in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Phases of the BSCS Approach
Phase Approach
One Area of investigation is posed to the students.
Two Students structure the problem.
Three Students identify the problem in the investigation.
Four Students speculate on ways to clear up the difficulty.
Phase one explores an area of investigation that the students are required to
examine and analyse. In phase two, the students further examine the problem by
scrutinising areas that pose difficulties. The forms of difficulties or challenges
could be in data gathering, data collection or even interpretation. In phase three,
the students speculate about the problem so that the area of difficulty is identified
for further action. The final phase looks into the ways the students clear up the
difficulty (i.e., through redesigning the experiment, exploring the data in different
angles and so on)
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Read the following scenario and identify the procedure of conducting the
BSCS approach in the classroom.
Scenario 1
One morning, Mrs YongÊs 12-year-old students were surprised to find various
potted plants that were stunted and withered on one side of the classroom and
some healthy potted plants on the other side of the classroom. After settling
down, Mrs Yong asked, „What can you see on your left and right side of the
classroom?‰ One student answered, „There are a few healthy potted plants on
my right while the ones on my left are dying.‰ „A very good observation, Lina,‰
answered Mrs Yong. One of the students asked, „Why are the plants dying?
What happened to the plants?‰ „That is a very good question, James.‰ answered
Mrs Yong. „Now this is what I want you to do. In groups, try to answer the
question posed by James. What do you think is the cause of the problem?‰

Scenario 1 shows how Mrs Yong uses the BSCS model. First, she begins by posing
the area of investigation by placing both the healthy and unhealthy potted plants
in the classroom. This leads to studentsÊ curiosity and a few questions were duly
posed. Mrs Yong leads the students to structure and identify the problems. Finally,
students are asked to present their findings on the possible reasons for the plants
withering and how to solve the problem.
Over the years, the BSCS curriculum development team has improvised and
developed the four phases of the BSCS approach. They also introduced the Five Es
(Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration and Evaluation) as a learning
cycle based on the four phases mentioned earlier. This is shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: The 5Es Approach
Phase Approach
Engagement Questions are posed to engage students in activities that draw upon
their prior knowledge.
Exploration Hands-on activities are set for students to understand the concept.
StudentsÊ experiences are drawn upon to understand the concept.
Explanation Students generate the explanation for the concept.
Elaboration Students are guided to apply their learning in a new situation to
reinforce their learning.
Evaluation Students assess their understanding of the phenomenon.
Source: Bybee (2006)
ACTIVITY 6.1
Can the BSCS approach be applied to any subject? Discuss with your
coursemates on myINSPIRE.
6.1.2 Inquiry Training Model

The inquiry training model, which comes under the scientific inquiry model, was
developed by Suchman (1962) to teach students the process of investigating and
exploring unusual phenomena. This model can be applied to any subject and can
be taught to students of all ages. Now let us look at the following scenario.

Scenario 2
After two weeks of holiday, Mr JaimyÊs Year Five students are settling down in
their classroom when they notice their art teacher placing poster paint of three
different colours on the table.
„What are these for?‰ asks one child.

„Are we going to paint something today?‰ remarks another.
„That is right.‰ says the teacher. „We are going to have fun with colours.‰
„But there are only three colours!‰ a child says.
Mr Jaimy gets the children to gather around the table and asks, „How can we
have more colours?‰
„There are three colours here, blue, red and yellow. How can we have more?‰
asked one of the children.
„I cannot answer that,‰ said the teacher.
„Can we mix the colours?‰ asked a girl.
„Why donÊt you try and let me know,‰ says Mr Jaimy.
Soon the students are busy mixing the colours.

„Look!‰ says Linda, „I mixed yellow and blue and see what happened. ItÊs
green.‰
Mr Jaimy began the inquiry training by asking his students to pose questions
which eventually led students to identify the solution to the problem. The students
formulated theories about the situation which they were familiar with but still
found puzzling. Finally, they gained new knowledge on what actually had taken
place.
The inquiry training model exposes students to the scientific process by allowing
them to increase their understanding of science, productivity in creative thinking
and skills for obtaining and analysing information. It requires active participation
among the children who are eager to explore. It also allows students to raise
questions and search for answers based on their curiosity.

The inquiry training model undergoes five phases as shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: The Inquiry Training Model
Phase Activity Description

One Confrontation with the  Explain inquiry procedures
problem  Present discrepant event
Two Data gathering for  Verify the nature of objects and
verification conditions
 Verify the occurrence of the
problem situation
Three Data gathering for  Isolate relevant variables.
experimentation  Hypothesise (and test) causal
relationships.
Four Organising, formulating an  Formulate rules or explanations
explanation
Five Analysis of the inquiry  Analyse inquiry strategy and
process develop more effective ones
SuchmanÊs (1962) inquiry training model is based on the assumptions that:

(a) Students are natural enquirers and can become conscious of and learn to
analyse their thinking strategies;
(b) New strategies can be taught directly and added to studentsÊ existing ones; and
(c) Cooperative inquiry enriches thinking and helps students learn about the
tentative, emergent nature of knowledge and to appreciate alternative
explanations.
Vanaja (2003) posits there is a need for certain rules for the inquiry sessions. This
includes the following:
(a) Type of Questions

The questions are phrased whereby the teacher is only required to respond
with a „yes‰ or a „no‰. Students cannot pose questions that require the teacher
to verify the studentsÊ theories or assumptions. At this point, the teacher may
take caution on the type of questions posed. The BSCS approach emphasises
the content and process. As such, it is crucial that students are given the
opportunity to explore the various interpretations and assumptions derived
from the investigations. Direct answers or verifications from the teacher will
impede the learning process.
(b) Number of Questions

A student may ask as many questions as he or she wishes.
(c) Student Involvement

Any student can test any theory at any time. The students should argue the
merits of one anotherÊs theories and feel free to test all the theories that have
been put forth. If the students feel a need to confer with one another without
the teacherÊs presence, they can do so freely.
As students gain experience in discovery learning, they gain confidence in solving

problems.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Identify the advantages of using the inquiry training model in the
classroom. Discuss with your coursemates on myISNPIRE.
6.1.3 Pedagogical Implications and Learner Benefits

of the Inquiry Training Model
The following illustrates the implications of using this model in the classroom.
(a) Pedagogical Implications

The inquiry training model focuses on content and process. As such, the
model highlights scientific knowledge as the main content in the teaching-
learning scenario. The teacher would focus on facts and aspects related to
science to further enhance the studentsÊ knowledge base. The teacher also
looks into the process of research, especially in biology. The teaching
methods emphasise exploring and experiencing the research process in order
to help the students gain investigative skills.
(b) Learner Benefits

According to Joyce (2009), the learner benefits of using the model in the
classroom include the following:
(i) Creates an Open Mind and Ability to Balance Alternatives

Students as natural inquirers become active learners as they become
aware of the learning process, which entails exploration and
investigation. The learning begins with a state of ambiguity that

students must learn to examine and clarify. This process encourages

students to be more tolerant about the tentative, emergent nature of
knowledge and to appreciate alternative explanations.
(ii) Promotes Cooperative Spirit and Skill

Students also gain new group work strategies that can be taught
directly and added to the studentsÊ existing ones. These can be realised
through group work during practical work and investigation process,
where students are able to enrich their thinking.
(iii) Promotes Commitment to Scientific Enquiry

Students will eventually develop as autonomous learners and are able
to approach future problems with confidence. Their participation in the
activities will encourage them to become more involved in learning
that promotes a scientific based approach.
6.1.4 Using the Inquiry Training Model in the

Classroom
The inquiry training model follows this procedure, which can be applied to other
subjects as well (Joyce, 2009).
(a) Present a discrepant event or puzzling situation.
(b) Describe the procedure: Students are to form explanations for what they see
by asking yes-no questions only. Students may not ask the teacher to explain
the phenomenon to them.
(c) Allow for questions that verify the events and conditions observed. Forestall
causal questions until the next stage.
(d) Allow for questions that enable students to identify relevant variables and
test their hypotheses.
(e) Guide students to state the explanations they have formulated.
(f) Prompt students to analyse their inquiry strategy.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Do you think the inquiry training model is suitable to be used in your

classroom? When and how would you use it?

6.2 THE SYNECTICS MODEL

Introduced by Gordon (1961) the term „synectics‰ refers to a problem-solving
technique that stimulates creative thinking. The word comes from the Greek word
synektiktein meaning the joining together of different items. In teaching, the
synectics model integrates brainstorming to define problems, objectives or needs
(Caruso, 2011). The method illustrates how new insights are produced by looking
at the problem in a different, interesting way.
Synectics uses analogy as the main element in meaningful learning. Analogy

functions by making connections or associations between ideas and concepts.
Joyce (2009) describes synectics as approaching problems by leading students into
an illogical world. This will allow students to invent new ways of seeing things,
expressing themselves and approaching problems. Synectics makes room for
different elements to be brought together in the process of seeking for new ideas
or solutions.
According to Gordon (1961), synectics has four main assumptions:
(a) Creativity is crucial in our daily lives. GordonÂs model highlights that ideas
can be developed through creativity. The model looks into increasing
problem-solving ability, creative expression, empathy and insight into social
relationships.
(b) Contrary to previous belief that creativity is something people are born with,
Gordon posits that creativity can be described and taught. In the classroom,
the teacher uses techniques incorporating metaphors or similes to promote
creative thinking. The creative output of the students can be explained and
described; hence, creativity can be trained or inculcated amongst students.
(c) The same intellectual principles apply to creative invention in all domains or
disciplines. In other words, to generate elements or products based on
creativity, one experiences similar thought processes whether in the arts or
science domain. While the arts domain focuses on aesthetic and personal
based responses, the latter looks into factual content. However, both of these
domains can employ a similar approach. In literature for example, a teacher
could use a metaphor or analogy to compare certain characters in the text.
Similarly, in science, an analogy could be used to provide insight on the
content. For example, the use of direct analogy to teach effects of
deforestation on nature. The teacher can seek responses from students by
getting them to imagine that they are trees being chopped down. The
responses generated by the students can be linked to effects of deforestation;

trees die, trees lack nutrients, the earth becomes exposed to landslides and
so on.
(d) Gordon also emphasises that creativity is not an intensely personal

experience. Creativity from an individual or a group can produce similar
inventions.
Now let us look at the following scenario, in which Mrs Selva is teaching about the
structure of the earth in a science class.
Scenario 3
Mrs Selva brings a layered cake to class and asks her students to look at it. She
explains that the cake is an analogy of the earth. She cuts the cake into half to
reveal its layers. She explains that the four layers of the cake correspond to the
crust, mantle, outer core and inner core of the earth. Students take a slice of the
cake to examine it and compare it to representations of the earth in their
textbooks.
Based on the scenario above, Mrs Selva uses the layered cake (the familiar) as an
analogy to explain the structure of the earth (the new). Gordon (1961) believes that
analogy enables learners to make connections between their experience and the
facts they are learning. This will help students to visualise content easier and faster.
Creativity is a crucial part of the synectics strategy. According to Joyce (2009), the
synectics process is based on the following assumptions on the psychology of
creativity.
(a) We can directly increase the creative capacity of individuals and groups by
bringing the creative process to consciousness. Teachers should make
students aware that creativity can be learned and developed.
(b) Emotional and irrational aspects are highly emphasised leading to new ideas.
It is crucial that the studentsÊ responses are scrutinised and expanded to link
to new learning. Teachers can shape the responses to fit into learning needs.
Therefore, creativity is seen as a conscious process. To make the creative process

work, the link between the familiar and unfamiliar must be established. Old ideas
must be linked to new ideas to enable the students to build on their prior
knowledge.

6.2.1 Types of Synectics

The synectics activities are based on three types of analogies as follows:
(a) Personal Analogy

Try to answer the following question by filling in the blanks in Table 6.4.
Pretend that you are a pair of dirty shoes. What are you thinking?
Table 6.4: Personal Analogy
Describes the object by listing its basic Characteristics:

characteristics
Describes the emotions the object might Emotions:
have in a given situation
Describes how someone feels when Feelings:
using the object
Describes what it feels like to be the ObjectÊs feelings:
given object
Personal analogy places the person at the centre of the problem to gain a new
perspective. It allows students to explore their feelings when they become
part of the object being compared. Based on the example, one may describe
the shoes as something useful and strong. The shoes may feel sad and
unhappy due to its condition. This form of emotional expression allows
students to feel empathy towards the object, leading to a solution to the
problem.
One example of a personal analogy was used by Albert Einstein. He used

these questions to figure out the solution to the theory of relativity:
How would the world appear if I were to travel on a beam of light?

Would it be possible to travel faster than light?
These questions would sound absurd and illogical at that point of time.
However, Einstein managed to identify a solution to the problem.

Gordon (1961) identified the following four levels of involvement in personal

analogy:
(i) First-person Descriptor of Facts

This is the lowest order of identification where students are asked to
associate themselves as part of an object. Students can only respond to
what they think they feel without empathy because they are detached
from the object.
For example, in describing an umbrella on a sunny day, you might say,

„I feel hot when walking along the street.‰
(ii) First-person Identification with Emotion

This level allows students to recite common emotions but do not
present new insights.
Example: Pretend you are an umbrella. What are you feeling?

Possible answers: I feel beautiful. I feel useful.
(iii) Empathetic Identification with a Living Thing

Able to identify emotionally with the subject of the analogy.
Example:
As a giraffe I am very sad. I donÊt feel beautiful. My neck is too long
and I find it difficult to talk to someone face to face. I wish I had a
shorter neck.
(iv) Empathetic Identification with a Non-living Object

The person sees himself as a non-living object and tries to explore the
problem from a sympathetic point of view. Here, students are able to
identify emotionally and kinaesthetically with the subject of the
analogy.
Example:
It is frustrating. Sometimes I feel drenched and other times I feel hot. I
wish to be kept indoors but then people may not be able to see the
colourful design on me.

(b) Direct Analogy

This form of analogy makes comparison between two objects or concepts. It is the
basic mechanism by which an individual tries to see problems in new contexts.
It is clear and straightforward. There is no self-involvement by the students.
Example: Compare a chilli to fire. In what ways are they similar or different?
(c) Compressed Conflict

Compressed conflict is a phrase using two words that appear to contradict
each other, but produce a creatively new concept. The greater the
contradiction, the better the studentsÊ ideas and solution will be.
Examples: correct mistake, open secret.
6.2.2 Synectics Procedure

The synectics model utilises two strategies in teaching: „creating something new‰
and „making the strange familiar‰. Now let us look at each one more closely.
(a) Creating Something New

This strategy focuses on helping students view existing problems in a new
light (Joyce, 2009). It utilises the three types of analogy to help students
develop a new understanding. The procedure of this strategy is elaborated
in the following Table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Syntax for Creating Something New
Phase Description
Description of The teacher asks students to describe situation as they see it
Present Condition now.
Direct Analogy The teacher suggests direct analogies, selects one and
explores (describes) it further.
Personal Analogy Students „become‰ the analogy they selected in phase two.
Compressed Students take their descriptions from phase two and three,
Conflict suggest several compressed conflicts and choose one.
Direct Analogy Students generate and select another direct analogy, based
on the compressed conflict.
Re-examination of The teacher asks students to move back to the original task
the Original Task or problem and uses the last analogy and/or the entire
synectics experience.

An example of how a lesson can be carried out is shown in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6: Example of „Creating Something New‰ in a Lesson
Steps Aspect Description

1 Describe the  Begin with a familiar topic.
topic  Have students write a paragraph describing the topic
individually or collaboratively.
 Share descriptions or descriptive words.
2 Create direct  Form a direct analogy between the descriptive words
analogies and an apparently unrelated category.
 Example: Name a machine, plant, food, flower, animal
that reminds you of as many words as possible.
 Generate a list of analogies, be sure to ask for
explanations for analogy.
 Vote on one particular analogy to pursue further.
3 Describe  Instruct students to view reality from the perspective
personal of the metaphorical object that was selected: How does
analogies it feel to be this object?
 List reactions and explain why students experienced
these feelings.
4 Identify  Instruct students to examine the list of descriptive
compressed feelings and put them together as pairs of words that
conflicts seem to fight, conflict or contrast each other.
 Generate a list and have students explain conflicts.
5 Create a  Instruct students to create another direct analogy.
new direct  Describe a machine, plant, food, flower or animal that
analogy represents both words in the conflict.
 Vote on the best analogy.
6 Re-examine  Compare the last analogy with the original topic.
the original  This is the first time the original subject is discussed
topic
 Describe the original topic again in writing.
7 Evaluate  Discuss the experience and the process with the
students.
 Ask students to explain why certain images were very
powerful to them and why others were not.
 Ask students to describe their response to the process.
Source: coedpages.uncc.edu/theafner/.../synectics.htm - United States

(b) Making the Strange Familiar

This strategy allows students to understand and internalise new or difficult
material. Metaphors are used in this strategy to analyse concepts. Look at
Table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Syntax for Making the Strange Familiar
Phase Description
Substantive Input The teacher provides information on new topic.
Direct Analogy The teacher suggests a direct analogy and asks
students to describe the analogy.
Personal Analogy The teacher asks students to „become‰ the direct
analogy.
Comparing Analogies Students identify and explain the points of similarity
between the new material and the direct analogy.
Explaining Differences Students explain where the analogy does not fit.
Exploration Students re-explore the original topic on its own
terms.
Generating Analogy Students provide their own direct analogies and
explore the similarities and differences.
An example of how a lesson can be carried out is shown as follows.
Table 6.8: Example of „Making the Strange Familiar‰ in a Lesson
Steps Aspect Description

1 Provide  Select new material to be learned.
information  Provide factual information for the topic.
2 Present the  Present analogies with the subject or topic.
analogy
3 Use personal  Ask students to imagine what it feels like to be
analogy to the item in the analogy.
create  List feelings.
compressed
conflicts  Pair words to create conflicts or contrasts.
 Select one pair for further discussion.

4 Compare the  Discuss how the topic or subject represents both

compressed parts of the conflict or contrast.
conflict with the  Describe feelings on each side of conflict.
subject
5 Identify  Identify differences between the subject or topic
differences and the analogy.
6 Re-examine the  Ask students to write about, or discuss original
original subject topic or subject using images and ideas presented
in the analogy.
7 Create new  Encourage students to create their own analogies
direct analogies for the subject or topic.
 Select analogies that are far removed from the
topic or subject.
8 Evaluate  Discuss the process with the students.
 Have students describe what parts of the activity
were helpful to their thinking.
6.2.3 Pedagogical Implications and Advantages of

the Synectics Model
According to Joyce (2009), the following illustrates the implications of using the
synectics model in the classroom.
(a) Pedagogical Implications:
(i) Group Cohesion and Productivity

The synectics-based activities create the environment that provides
opportunities for social cohesion. Teachers can employ the model to
promote group collaboration and synergy.
(ii) Tools for Metaphoric Thinking

The lesson becomes more interesting and challenging when the teacher
uses metaphors and analogies to explore the subject matter.

(iii) Problem-solving Capacity

The teaching scenario implements techniques to develop studentsÊ
ability to seek solutions to a problem. With the use of analogies, the
model provides opportunities for students to seek similarities or
differences between prior and new knowledge as well as assess the
appropriateness of the analogy.
(b) Advantages to the Learners:
(i) Self-esteem
The increased awareness of their creativity will eventually increase
studentsÂ self-esteem. They will feel more involved in the learning
process as their interpretations and views of their perspectives in the
subject matter is taken into account.
(ii) Adventurousness
Learning becomes exploratory in nature. Students will not be restricted
to a rigid form of thinking or responding. When examining the subject
matter, the students will be able to think in a divergent manner making
learning more exciting and meaningful.
(iii) Achievement of Curricular Content

Students will experience meaningful learning and will be able to grasp
the content of the subject matter. The diverse approaches in learning,
which includes studentsÊ prior knowledge and interpretation of the
new knowledge, will help create effective learning towards the
achievement of the curricular content.
ACTIVITY 6.3
What are the differences between the scientific inquiry and the synectics
models? Discuss with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
 The inquiry training model brings students directly into the scientific process.
 Inquiry training enhances studentsÊ understanding of science, productivity in

creative thinking and skills for obtaining and analysing information.
 Inquiry training also creates independence or autonomy in learning.

 Creativity can be enhanced through synectics.
 Synectics can be used as a tool in creative writing, solving problems and

coming up with new innovation (creating a product/design) among others.
 The teacher plays an important role in scaffolding the students when applying
synectics in the classroom.
Analogy Inquiry
Discovery Investigation
Engagement Scaffolding
Explanation Synectics
Exploration
Bybee, R. W., Taylor, J. A., Gardner, A., Scotter, P. V., Powell, J. C., Westbrook,
A., & Landes, N. (2006). The BSCS 5E instructional model: Origins,
effectiveness, and applications. Colorado Springs, CO: BSCS.
Caruso, S. (2011). The synectics approach to creative writing. Retrieved from

http://www.eadulteducation.org/adult-learning/the-synectics-approach-
to-creative-thinking/
Gordon, W. J. J. (1961). Synectics: The development of creative capacity. New York,

NY: Harper & Row.
Education, Inc.
National Research Council. (2002). Inquiry and the national science education
standards: A Guide for teaching and learning. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press

Retrieved from http://www.coedpages.uncc.edu/theafner/.../synectics.htm-

United States
Schwab, J. (1965). Biological sciences curriculum study: Biology teachersÊ

handbook. New York, NY: Wiley.
Suchman, R. J. (1962). The elementary school training program in scientific inquiry.

Report to the U.S. Office of Education, Project Title VII. Urbana: University
of Illinois.
Vanaja Digumarti Bhaskaran Rao. (2003). Inquiry training model. New Delhi,
India: Discovery Publishing House.

Topic Behavioural

Systems Family
7 of Models I:
Direct
Instruction and
Simulation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the key components and principles related to the direct
instruction and simulation models;
2. Discuss the phases involved in direct instruction and simulation;
3. Explain the pedagogical implications and learner benefits of both
models; and
4. Create appropriate learning activities in accordance to the models.

TOPIC 7 BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS I: DIRECT  121
INSTRUCTION AND SIMULATION
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will explore two models in the behavioural systems family –
direct instruction and simulation. Each model will be elaborated based on its
specific features, phases and essential components. In addition, you will also be
shown some teaching and learning activities using the stipulated models. Let us
begin with a brief background on the behavioural systems family of models as well
as its main principles.
7.1 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEMS

FAMILY OF MODELS
The behavioural systems family of models originated from PavlovÊs (1927)
classical conditioning theory and ThorndikeÊs (1911, 1913) theory on reward
learning. PavlovÊs experiment involved food, a dog and a bell (refer to Figure 7.1).
The experiment highlighted the significance of conditioning in which a response
is generated by providing an appropriate stimulus.
Figure 7.1: Stimulus response theory

122  TOPIC 7 BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS I: DIRECT
At the pre-conditioning stage, the dog does not react to the ringing of the bell. The
dog salivates when food is placed in front of it.
During the conditioning stage, the bell is rung a few times before the dog is given
food. After conditioning, the dog would salivate when it hears the bell. This shows
that the bell functions as a substitute stimulus in replacement of the food. The dog
associates the bell to food and thus responds to the substitute stimulus (the bell).
Meanwhile, Thorndike explored the concept of connectionism, or the learning

based on connection between stimulus and response. Thorndike illustrated the
concept using the following laws: the law of effect, the law of exercise and the law
of readiness. The law of effect explores negative and positive reinforcements in
making sure the desired response is generated. The law of exercise works on the
idea that the more stimulus is provided, the more responses are generated. As
such, it is important that the stimulus provided is adequate to produce the
required or anticipated response. Thorndike through his research also discovered
that stimulus-response alone would not be able to yield the desired effect without
the element of feedback. Feedback helps to reinforce the response and enhance
performance.
The law of readiness involves the ability of the physiological (nervous system)
aspect to react and respond accordingly to the stimulus-response patterns. The
readiness helps in forming patterns of behaviour (Saettler, 1990).
Based on these contributions by the proponents of behavioural theory, more

researchers explored the dimensions of behaviourism as a learning theory.
Skinner was one of the researchers who worked on what he called the operant
conditioning mechanism. The mechanism looks into reinforcement or reward
structures to reinforce expected behaviour. The structures fall into the following
categories:
(a) Positive Reinforcement

When a response is rewarded, there is a strong possibility of it being
repeated.
For example, when a student is praised for his work, the student will most
likely produce a similar work performance in the future.
(b) Negative Reinforcement

This involves the removal of a negative condition in order to strengthen the
behaviour.

For example, a student is not given homework if he has performed well in

his class discussions. The student views homework as a negative aspect and
in order to make sure he does not get homework, he presents the expected
behaviour (active class participation). Wolfgang (2001) suggests that
negative reinforcement be used sparingly in the classroom as their effects are
short term.
(c) Extinction or Non-reinforcement

When a particular response is not given attention or reinforced, it is hoped
the negative behaviour can be eradicated.
One example would be when the teacher ignores a student for misbehaviour
with the hope that the student will eventually stop distracting the class.
(d) Punishment
When a particular reward or benefit is removed to weaken the behaviour.
For example, when students come late for class, they are sent to detention,
resulting in them losing their break time.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Consider the following example and determine whether it is an example
of negative reinforcement or punishment:
Rahoul did not complete his homework. As a result, the teacher told him
to write an essay on merits of working hard. Rahoul also had to complete
the homework and submit it to the teacher.
Self-Check 7.1 clearly indicates a punishment as Rahoul had not performed the
expected behaviour (completing his homework). Hence, he was punished where
he was given extra work (writing an essay), in addition to completing his
homework.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Discuss examples of negative reinforcements in the classroom. Share

ideas on how these negative reinforcements are significant in modifying
behaviour.

7.2 PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

According to Joyce (2009), behavioural theory highlights four main principles:
behaviour is observable and identifiable; maladaptive behaviours are acquired;
behavioural goals are specific, discrete and individualised; and behavioural theory
focuses on the here-and-now.
(a) Behaviour is Observable

The theory stresses that all behaviour can be observed, identified and
explained. The theory believes that with the right conditions and adequate
time, one can learn the right behaviour or unlearn the undesired behaviour.
The role of stimuli is pivotal in ensuring the desired outcome. Theorists
believe that this approach involves a continuous and deliberate study of the
students, as well as careful planning of the learning environment, choice of
stimulus and expected responses. Teachers should also be open to constant
modification to the stimulus based on studentsÊ responses.
(b) Maladaptive Behaviours are Acquired

Students may develop aversion to a particular learning experience, which
can impede their progression in learning. For example, if the student has an
aversion towards Mathematics, he may tune out when learning the subject.
It takes time to eradicate the maladaptive behaviour but more importantly,
it should not be ignored. The teacher would need to pay attention to these
aversions so that the students are able to overcome the learning obstacles.
(c) Behavioural Goals are Specific, Discrete and Individualised

Learning goals play an important part in developing positive behaviour. The
behavioural goals must be specific to enable the teacher to plan and design
appropriate instructional materials to meet the intended learning outcomes.
The goals should be discrete in nature to ensure that the behaviour
modifications are made on the particular learning response. If the goals are
connected, the teacher would not be able to identify which aspect needs to
be modified in order to generate the right learning response or behaviour.
Each individual is unique, with different personality traits that respond or

react differently to a stimulus. Hence, procedures to encourage positive
behaviours should be customised to the specific individual.
However, group training can be made possible when the learning

procedures have taken on a self-paced mode. Each member in the group can
progress at their own pace based on the specific learning goals.

(d) Behavioural Theory Focuses on the Here-and-now

Past behaviours or performances have no or little impact. Behaviourists
believe that the focus is on attending to the behaviour at present, not
stressing on causal factors or variables, which may have caused the learner
to experience failure in learning. Behavioural theory looks at behaviour
modification with a positive view where past failures or mistakes are not
highlighted.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Discuss the four principles of behavioural theory and suggest how

teachers can use them to create a conducive learning environment.
7.3 OVERVIEW OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION

According to Joyce (2009), direct instruction plays a limited but important role in
a comprehensive education programme. Critics further claim that direct
instruction should be used with caution, in terms of frequency and manner of use.
The two major goals of direct instruction, as stipulated by Joyce (2009), are the
maximisation of student learning time and the development of independence in
seeking educational goals.
7.3.1 Key Concepts in Direct Instruction

According to Rosenshine (1979), direct instruction has the following
characteristics: an academic focus, a teacher-centred focus, little student choice of
activity, use of large groups instead of small groups for instruction, use of factual
questions, and controlled practice in instruction.
(a) Academic focus here means that the learner only focuses on completing the
assigned academic tasks. The teacher prepares or uses only learning
materials that would directly help the student complete the task.
(b) A teacher-centred focus highlights the importance of the teacher as the main
agent in the teaching and learning process. The teacher sets the learning goals
and makes sure students are aware of them. During the learning process, the
teacher actively assesses studentsÊ development. The teacher would provide
scaffolding in terms of demonstration or modelling to assist the students to
complete the tasks.

(c) Since this model uses the teacher-centred approach, there is little student
choice of activity. Students merely follow what the teacher has set out for
them to do.
(d) The teacher tends to use large groups instead of small groups for instruction
as it helps to optimise academic learning time. Most importantly, to ensure
optimal use of learning time, it would be effective to place students of the
same learning capacity within the same group. In this way, the teacher is able
to focus on relevant and appropriate learning tasks.
(e) This approach stresses on the use of factual questions. Since the aim is to
maximise learning time, the questions posed by the teacher are directly
related to the subject matter. Factual questions provide a good base for
students to obtain and reinforce their understanding.
(f) Practice is an important component in this approach. The controlled practice

in instruction helps the students learn effectively. The teacher provides
scaffolding during the initial stages of learning. The controlled practice
during instruction will help the students understand the key ideas, with
limited diversions in learning.
7.4 PRINCIPLES FOR PRACTICE IN DIRECT

INSTRUCTION
The main aim of direct instruction is to maximise learning time and help students
become independent learners. Practice is an important concept in this model. As
stated by Joyce (2009), there are five principles pertaining to designing and
implementing practice.
(a) The first principle is designing the levels of assistance or guidance. The
designing and planning of practice must be done meticulously so that the
students can produce minimal or no errors and reach mastery levels. At the
initial stage, when a new skill or concept is introduced, the teacher leads the
students through each step to ensure that few errors are made. After this
highly structured practice, students are allowed to practise on their own
while the teacher monitors them. When students are able to practise with
accuracy, they are ready for independent practice.
(b) The second principle is based on the length of the practice sessions. The
longer the practice session, the longer it takes for the students to forget what
they have learnt. According to Joyce (2009), the sessions must be intense and
highly motivated to achieve optimal learning outcomes.

(c) The third principle is the need to monitor the initial stage of practice, when
students are still in the process of accumulating and assimilating the new
knowledge or learning the skills. Thus the teachers must carefully guide
students at this level and provide immediate corrective feedback to help
reinforce learning. The teacherÊs feedback will also help the students gain
confidence and motivate them to progress to the next level.
(d) The fourth principle looks into the distribution of practice. Regular and
systematic intervals of practice will help students gain and retain
information.
(e) The final principle is the timing of the practice sessions. In the initial stage,
the practice session should be close together. This is because the students are
still getting accustomed to the new knowledge. It would be more effective if
the practice sessions are given frequently to help the students gain
confidence in completing the task. At the independent stage, the practice
sessions should be slightly further apart to enable the teacher to assess
studentsÊ ability to work on the task independently.

The following describes the syntax of the direct instruction model:
(a) Syntax (Phases)

Direct instruction has five phases of activity (see Table 7.1) – orientation,
presentation, structured practice, guided practice and independent practice.
For effective implementation of the phases, careful and detailed diagnosis of
studentsÊ knowledge or skills must be carried out.
Table 7.1: Five Phases of Direct Instruction
Phase Activity
One Orientation
Two Presentation
Three Structured Practice
Four Guided Practice
Five Independent Practice
Source: Joyce, Weil & Calhoun (2009)

Let us now discuss the syntax or phases of activity in detail.
(i) Orientation
In this phase, the teacher establishes the content, objectives and
procedures of the lesson. The following techniques can be employed:
 Provide activities that stimulate studentsÊ prior knowledge;
 Discuss the lesson objectives with the students to help them

understand the direction of the lesson;
 Provide clear directions or instructions on how the lesson is to be

conducted to give the students an idea of what is required of them;
 Explain the learning materials that will be used during the lesson.
This is helpful especially if the students are not familiar with some
learning resources; and
 Present an overview of the lesson. This will help students gain a

better perspective of the lesson and heighten their readiness
towards learning the new material.
(ii) Presentation
In this stage, the teacher explains or demonstrates the new concepts or
skills. New learning starts at this point. The teacher must provide clear
and explicit explanation to help the students gain understanding.
According to Rosenshine (1985), to facilitate effective learning, the

teacher must do the following:
 Present materials in small steps so that students can master each

new input gradually. Too much information provided at one go can
cause cognitive overload, causing loss of attention and reduction in
learning.
 Provide many varied examples of new concepts or skills. It is

important that the examples convey the key aspects of the learning
input and provide a rich and relevant experience to the students.
 Conduct modelling or give narrated demonstrations of the learning

tasks. Students learn through observations. When the teacher
models or demonstrates the concept, the students gain a better
picture of it. This is especially effective when the concepts are
abstract in nature or the skills are too complex.

 Check studentsÊ understanding of the newly learnt concept. This

can be done using questions where the teacher can ask students to
repeat the key ideas learnt or recall the steps or procedures in the
learning.
(iii) Structured Practice

The teacher plays a dominant role here. She provides practice examples
guiding the students all the way. Students usually can work in groups.
The teacher provides feedback as the students explore the examples.
Most importantly, the corrective feedback based on the practice
examples is a crucial feature in this phase. The feedback helps the
students reinforce their learning and use the new knowledge in the
subsequent phase.
(iv) Guided Practice

The students are given the opportunity to work on the learning items
with some support from the teacher. The teacher at this stage gets to
assess the studentsÊ ability to perform the learning tasks. The teacher
monitors and guides the students when necessary.
(v) Independent Practice

The students work independently on the learning items. The main aim
of this phase is to reinforce new learning and ensure retention of the
knowledge. The students will also gain fluency in the learning process.
Feedback is provided at the end of completion of particular learning
tasks. The teacher provides more than one learning task at this stage to
enable the students to retain knowledge.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
State the importance of each stage in helping students master new

content and skills.

(b) Social System

The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate whereby the
relationship and level of autonomy of students as well as the involvement of
the teacher is discussed and analysed.
In the context of direct instruction, the teacher is the authoritative figure. The
modelÊs social system is highly structured whereby each activity is
determined by the teacher and conducted based on the aims of the learning
goals. The students do not have any control over the choice of activities as
the teacher sets the teaching-learning goals.
(c) TeacherÊs Role

This aspect looks into the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning context.
As stated by Joyce (2009), effective teachers employ the following strategies:
(i) Setting a Framework

The teacher needs to establish a framework for the lesson and orient
the students to the new materials. An effective teacher will articulate
the aims, purposes and procedures of the lesson to help the students
gain a preliminary idea of new learning idea.
(ii) Providing Clear and Lucid Explanation

The effectiveness of the lesson relies heavily on the teacherÊs ability to
present the content in a clear and organised manner. According to
Rosenshine (1985), effective teachers spend more time explaining the
material than non-effective teachers.
(iii) Posing Convergent Questions as Opposed to Divergent Questions

As stated earlier in this topic, teachers using the direct instruction
model need to pose factual questions. Rosenshine (1985), further claims
that effective teachers ask more questions to check studentsÊ
understanding than less effective teachers. However, in addition to the
quantity of questions, one should also consider the quality. The teacher
should present questions that are able to assess studentsÊ level of
comprehension.
(iv) Giving Feedback

Once the teacher has posed questions and the students have
responded, the teacher would need to provide feedback. The feedback
given provides the students with valuable input to ensure that they
have achieved the learning outcomes. Feedback can motivate the
students to progress in their learning especially when they are faced
with challenging learning items.

(v) Provision of Learning Activities

As this model emphasises the importance of practice, an effective
teacher would need to provide well-designed activities that would
provide rich learning opportunities for the students. The activities must
be planned and implemented in accordance to phases whereby there is
a gradual release of power from the teacher to the student. The
activities designed should take on initially a highly dependent mode
where the teacher fully guides or scaffolds the students, before moving
on to a more independent level allowing the students to practise the
new input with little or no teacher guidance.
PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND

7.5 LEARNER BENEFITS IN DIRECT
INSTRUCTION
The main aim of the direct instruction model is to maximise learning time by
getting the students actively engaged in a focused content area. In doing so, this
model believes that through extensive and organised practice sessions, students
will be able to accurately complete the learning tasks and achieve success in
learning.
There are some pedagogical implications and learner benefits derived from using
the model. They are as follows:
(a) Pedagogical Implications:
(i) Mastery of Academic Content and Skills

The initial process of learning begins with focusing on academic
content. As such, the students are constantly guided on achieving the
learning goals. The differentiated levels of practices, guided to
independent levels, further help students to gain mastery of content
and skills.
(ii) Student Motivation

Feedback is provided at every stage of the lesson. This is to help the
students reflect on their learning process as well as enhance their
motivation.

(iii) Self-paced Ability

The practice examples sessions are self-paced and based on the mastery
levels. By participating in the practice sessions, students are trained to
work progressively and develop academically in a systematic and
organised manner.
(b) Advantages to the Learner
Self-esteem
Once students have achieved the learning goals, would possess the mastery
of skills or content. This will increase their self-esteem as they feel
empowered with a sense of accomplishment.
ACTIVITY 7.3
The following sample lesson plan illustrates teaching the topic „Telling
Time‰ using the direct instruction model. Identify the instructional and
nurturant effects derived from the lesson. Discuss your ideas with your
coursemates.
Lesson Plan: Telling Time
Objective
Pupils will be able to tell time to the hour, half hour and quarter hour
using analogue clocks.
Standard
State Mathematics Standard. Measurement: The pupil will tell time to
the nearest five-minute interval and to the nearest minute using
analogue and digital clocks.
Guided Practice, Check for Understanding and Provide Feedback
(a) Show a variety of times on the clock face (hours, half-hours and
quarter-hours) and ask pupils to give the time in several different
ways.

(b) Ask pupils for times when they usually do things such as wake up,
leave for school, do their homework, eat meals, go to bed. Write
the times and activity on the board (keep them to whole, half and
quarter hours). Have a pupil come up and show the time on the
clock face.
(c) What time am I? Have a pupil come up, whisper a time to the teacher,
then illustrate the time using their arms as the long and short hand;
other pupils must tell the time being illustrated. Check for
understanding and provide feedback and clarification as needed.
(d) Give theAsk pupils for times when they usually do things such as
wake up, group a story problem to apply what they have learned.
For example:
Spongebob and Patrick began fishing for jellyfish at 3:00. They

fished until 3:15. They rested for 15 minutes, then fished for 15
more minutes before going home. What time did the clock show
when they went home? Illustrate using the clock face if necessary.
Check for Understanding and Provide Feedback

Give pupils the Telling Time worksheets. One group of exercises has
clocks with hands and pupils must write the time. Another has the
clock and time and pupils must draw the hands. There are also two or
three story problems. Pupils work independently on the worksheet
while the teacher checks their work and gives feedback as needed.
Extended Practice
Tell pupils to finish their Telling Time Worksheets for homework.
Ask pupils what they learned today (telling time by the hour, half
hour and quarter hour). Tell them that tomorrow they will tell time
in minutes and in 5-minute intervals, and learn to figure out how
much time has passed.
Assessment
The worksheets serve as the assessment.
• Give story problems with differentiated levels of difficulty.
• Pair pupils who are having difficulty with those who have
reached understanding.
• Work individually with pupils who are having difficulty
understanding using the clock face to illustrate.

Source: Adapted from a lesson plan by Molly B. F. Walls, George Mason

University, Fairfax, VA/Randolph Elementary School, Arlington, VA, 2002
SELF-CHECK 7.3
1. What are the phases involved in the direct instruction model?
2. State the significance of each phase in optimising studentsÊ academic

learning time.

7.6 OVERVIEW OF SIMULATION MODEL

Simulation refers to playing the roles of persons engaged in real life pursuits in the
classroom. The simulations should be as realistic as possible to help students
develop the skills and concepts necessary for the performance of a specified area.
Students through the simulation also learn the consequences of their actions or
errors. They will become more aware of the results in real life, hence making them
more knowledgeable and skilled in managing the specified area of study.

The following illustrates the key areas pertaining to the model of teaching.
(a) Syntax (Phases)

Table 7.2 illustrates the four phases of the simulation model.
Table 7.2: Phases of Simulation
Phase Activity
One Orientation
Two Participant Training
Three Simulation Operations
Four Participant Debriefing
Source: Joyce, Weil & Calhoun (2009)
The four phases are explained in the following:
(i) Orientation
The teacher introduces the topic by presenting the key concepts that
will be incorporated in the simulation activity. The teacher will proceed
to explain the simulation as well as the gaming procedure.
(ii) Participant Training

Students take on an active role. Prior to participation in the activity, the
students are presented with the rules, roles procedures, scoring, types
of decisions as well as activity goals so that they can engage effectively
in the simulation activity. The teacher assigns roles to the students. The
students participate in abbreviated practice sessions.

(iii) Simulation Operations

During the activity, the teacher can provide feedback to help students
understand the mechanism of the simulation. There are opportunities
for students to clarify their misconceptions and evaluate their
performances.
(iv) Participant Debriefing

During the debriefing, the teacher can focus on the following:
 Describing events and studentsÊ perceptions and reactions;
 Analysing the process;
 Comparing the simulation to the real world; and
 Appraising and redesigning the simulation.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Elaborate on how the fourth phase in simulation can help learners. Discuss
with your coursemates.
(b) Social System

The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate whereby it explores
the studentsÊ level of autonomy as well as the involvement of the teacher.
The teacherÊs roles are as follows:
(i) To Explain
The teacher needs to explain the rules and procedures to make sure that
the students are able to follow the simulation activity in a systematic
and organised manner. This is an important learning feature as in real
life, rules are made to facilitate the implementation of a process.
(ii) To Referee
Since simulation is a rule-driven activity, the teacher would need to act
as a referee to ensure the participants follow the procedure. In addition,
the teacher should also monitor and control learner participation to
achieve the intended learning goals.

(iii) To Coach
The simulation activity is considered as practice sessions to help the
students develop their content knowledge or skills. It is crucial for the
teacher to coach and guide the students, where possible, in achieving
their learning goals. However, caution must be taken not to take the
role too seriously as the students are allowed to make mistakes. The
key point here is that the participants learn from their mistakes.
(c) Support System

The support system involves the learning materials or resources used in the
simulation activity. Most of these simulations are computer-based
simulations. However there are many other resources, namely in the social
studies domain, which can be used to project or stimulate real-life situations.
7.7 PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND

ADVANTAGES OF THE SIMULATION
MODEL
The simulation model provides many benefits to learners. The following presents
the pedagogical implications and advantages to learners as stated by Joyce (2009):
(a) Pedagogical Implications
(i) Self-teaching Capacity

The simulation activity provides opportunities for students to engage
in self-learning. The experiences gained help students identify their
mistakes or shortcomings. For example, when the student is
experiencing a simulated driving experience, the turns of the wheel and
the consequences of the movements provide input. This becomes a
learning point.
(ii) Curricular Knowledge and Skills

The simulation activity attends to focused content and skills. Hence, by
completing the simulation activities, students will gain knowledge and
master the skills.
(iii) Self-confidence as Learners

The simulation activity allows students to experience learning in an
independent manner. The students become more confident when they
are able to master the content or the skills.

(b) Advantages to Learners
(i) Responsiveness to feedback – The simulation activity is based on

actions and responses. As such, the actions and reactions are learning
opportunities. The participant becomes more responsive to the
feedback given by the simulator or the teacher.
(ii) Independence as learners – The simulation model gives accountability

to the students to experience learning through trial and error. As such,
the students feel empowered and there is a degree of independence
generated during these activities.
(iii) Sensitivity to cause-effect relationships – The main aim of the

simulation model is to raise studentsÊ awareness of real-life
endeavours. The activity develops the studentsÊ sensitivity towards
cause and effect relationships. Students become more alert of the
repercussions of their actions in their daily life.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1. Explain with specific examples, how instructional and nurturant
effects can be created using the simulation model.
2. State the key principles involved in planning and implementing the

simulation model.
 The main aim of direct instruction is to maximise learning time and help
students become independent learners.
 The direct instruction model has the following characteristics: an academic

focus, a teacher-centred focus, little student choice of activity, use of large
groups instead of small groups for instruction, use of factual questions, and
controlled practice in instruction.
 The practice sessions in the direct instruction model must be carefully designed
to meet the learning outcomes. The practice sessions are designed according to
levels of guidance ranging from guided to independent levels.

 The principles pertaining to designing and implementing practice are: levels

of assistance, length of practice sessions, the need to monitor the initial stage
of practice, distribution of practice and timing of sessions.
 The five phases of direct instruction are orientation, presentation, structured

practice, guided practice and independent practice.
 In direct instruction, the teacher is the authoritative figure. An effective teacher

sets a framework, provides clear and lucid explanation, poses convergent
questions, gives feedback and provides well-designed learning activities.
 Simulations provide opportunities for learners to anticipate real life

endeavours. This pseudo experience will create awareness on types of
responses and reactions.
 The four phases of simulation are orientation, participant training, simulation

operations and participant debriefing.
 The teacher, using the simulation model in the classroom has to guide and help
the learners develop their skills in terms of exploring their responses.
 Simulation activities provide opportunities for students to engage in self-

learning, gain knowledge and mastery of skills being taught, and develop self-
confidence as learners. Students also learn to be responsive to feedback and
sensitive to cause-effect relationships in the real world.
Academic learning time Positive reinforcement

Direct instruction Punishments
Guided practice Reward structures
Negative reinforcement Simulation

Education, Inc.
Rosenshine, B. V. (1979). Content, time and direct instruction. In Peterson, P. L.,

& Walberg, H. J. (ed.). Research on teaching: Concepts, findings and
implications. Mc Cutchan, Berkeley, CA.
Wolfgang, C. H. (2001). Solving discipline and classroom management problems:

Methods and models for todayÊs teachers. New York, NY: John Wiley and
Sons.

Topic Behavioural
Systems
8 Family of
Models II:
Mastery
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Elaborate on the concepts in mastery learning;
2. Explain the significance of individually prescribed instruction
(IPI) as a mastery learning model;
3. Describe the characteristics of the objectives in the IPI model; and
4. Apply the principles of mastery learning in the classroom.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will examine and explore the key concepts pertaining to mastery
learning, which comes under the behavioural systems family of models. Mastery
learning focuses on individualised instruction and learner-centred techniques.
As such, there is a special emphasis on individually prescribed instruction (IPI),
which is a structured and systematic programme catered to meet studentsÊ
individual requirements.

142  TOPIC 8 BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS II: MASTERY LEARNING
8.1 PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALE OF

MASTERY LEARNING
The philosophy of mastery learning is based on a set of teaching-learning beliefs.
There are two assumptions in the belief system:
(a) Virtually all students can learn all important academic content to a level of
excellence; and
(b) The primary function of schools is to define learning objectives and to help
all students achieve them.
Benjamin Bloom (1976), the main developer of the theory and practice of
mastery learning explains the stages pertaining to the belief system in mastery
learning. The first stage, according to him, assumes that some students are good
learners. They are able to cover a substantial amount of content matter and
complex material as compared to poor learners. The belief on the differences
between good and poor learners results in a formation of an educational system
that explores ways to help these two diverse groups of learners.
The second stage, Bloom describes, is one where he believes that all students
can eventually learn and retain equally complex or difficult material, but that
some will learn much faster than others. This belief would suggest an
educational system where the important content is taught to everyone (with
some taking longer than others to learn), and then the faster learners get lots of
enrichment.
The final aspect in the set of beliefs is that favourable learning conditions can
expedite the learning rate amongst students. Bloom states „most students
become very similar with regards to learning ability, rate of learning, and
motivation for further learning – when provided with the favourable learning
conditions‰. Hence, the two assumptions in the belief system form the basis of
mastery learning: all students possess equal capacity to achieve the expected
learning outcomes, and the implementation of learning objectives enables
students to reach their capacity.
Adapted from Dolan, Ford, Newton, & Kellam (1989)
In the following subtopic, we will explore individually prescribed instruction (IPI),

which will illustrate the importance of learning objectives as well as the steps to
enable mastery learning.

TOPIC 8 BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS II: MASTERY LEARNING  143
8.2 DEVELOPMENT OF MASTERY LEARNING

To trace the development of mastery learning, one would need to examine the
work of John B. Carroll (1963) who highlighted the importance of aptitude in
influencing studentsÊ learning rate. He believed that every child had the potential
to learn – the only difference is the time taken to master the learning item. Carroll
(1971) further elaborated on the meaning of aptitude. Aptitude is a trait related to
studentsÊ academic performance. Students with good aptitude will possess good
learning capacity and perform well in their studies.
This is in contrast to the conventional teaching and learning process, whereby the
teachers set out one learning task to be completed by all students within a
stipulated item period. The different learning abilities of the students are not taken
into consideration, resulting in little learning especially from students who are
unable to complete the task on time.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Aptitude is a key factor in learning. It can enhance or impede learning.

Discuss this in regard to difficult students in the classroom. Share your
findings with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
To optimise learning time, Carroll (1989) developed the following formula:
LR = ” (time spent on learning / time needed to learn)
LR stands for learning rate, or the time taken by the student to learn a particular
item. Carroll identified two factors that could affect the learning rate: perseverance
of students and opportunity to learn.
The first factor, perseverance of the student, is dependent on the studentÊs ability
and inclination towards learning itself. If the student is interested and motivated,
he would be able to persevere towards the learning goals. The second factor,
opportunity to learn, is dependent on the studentÊs access to learning and time
allocated to learn.

There are a few key areas in instruction that one needs to consider when aptitude
is used as a guide to design and implement teaching:
(a) Vary Styles of Instruction

Aptitude focuses on how to implement effective teaching. Each student
responds to learning in a different manner. To achieve maximum results,
teachers need to implement teaching strategies that cater to studentsÊ needs.
A variety of effective ways to teach should be considered (Block, 1977).
(b) Quality of Instruction

The effectiveness of learning very much depends on the quality of
instruction. Teachers who are able to disseminate knowledge in a clear and
lucid manner will help students achieve the learning objectives effortlessly.
(c) Organisation of the Curriculum

To ensure maximum learning, teachers must be able to structure and
organise the curriculum to meet the requirements of the learning objectives.
This includes classroom management issues such as student grouping,
seating arrangements and use of relevant and appropriate learning
resources.
ACTIVITY 8.2
Discuss how a teacher can use these guidelines when aptitude is

considered in the classroom. Provide examples to substantiate your
ideas. Share them with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
Bloom (1976) developed a specific strategy to guide teachers to generate and

implement differentiated instruction for students. This strategy is labelled as
„mastery learning‰.
This strategy requires the teacher to organise concepts and skills into instructional
units. Formative assessments are designed and implemented at the end of each
unit to help provide feedback to students and teachers on the learning progress of
each student.

The formative test helps learners identify their weaknesses or areas that need
improvements. As for the teachers, these diagnostic test data will be used to
generate corrective actions to help the learners to work on areas they have not
mastered yet. A point to note here is that the corrective actions, which are in the
form of learning activities, must be designed to cater to studentsÊ individual
learning needs.
Bloom also suggests that subsequent formative assessments are provided to ensure
that the students thoroughly master the content. The first assessment task serves
to help students practise and master the content, while the second test is used to
help verify if the corrective actions are significant in improving the studentsÊ
learning competency. In addition, it provides a motivational element as the
students have more opportunities to practise on the learning items.
Figure 8.1: Mastery learning instructional process

Source: Guskey (2005)
Figure 8.1 illustrates the process in which individualised learning takes place. The
first formative assessment provides two options: enrichment activities and
corrective activities. The enrichment activities help students who have already
mastered the skill to move on to the next level, while the corrective activities help
provide additional support to students who are not able to master the skill. The
corrective activities are conducted at least twice to enable the students to
confidently learn and practise the intended learning items.

In summary, Bloom uses the following principles in designing the instructional

procedures:
(a) Mastery of the subject is defined by a set of objectives, which are in

accordance to the requirements of the unit or syllabus. Learning is objective
driven to enable students as well as teachers to be aware of the significance
of the teaching-learning process.
(b) Learning is conducted in manageable portions. For example, large units are
divided into smaller chunks in which each subunit is accompanied with
learning objectives. All these subunits and the related learning objectives
form the overall unit itself.
(c) For each learning unit, the appropriate instructional strategy is identified.
This helps the teachers conduct the lessons effectively.
(d) Each unit has a brief diagnostic test to provide formative evaluation and
identify learning problems. Students are given feedback to guide them to
progress in their lesson.
(e) The diagnostic test results or the data from the formative evaluations will be
used to design and implement supplementary lessons to help students who
need them.
(f) Learners can progress to the next level after they have mastered the present
level. The focus is on the mastery of the level, not its completion.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Discuss what suitable formative assessment tasks can be given to
students facing a specific learning problem. Define the learning problem
and provide relevant examples of the assessment tasks. Share your
findings with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.

8.3 CONCEPTS IN MASTERY LEARNING

The following concepts are crucial in mastery learning and require special
mention:
(a) Feedback, Correctives and Enrichment

Feedback is used to diagnose studentsÊ learning concerns and at the same
time prescribe intended learning items for the students to master. However,
providing feedback alone will not guarantee success in learning. The
corrective activities based on the feedback will offer guidance and support to
help students deal with their weakness in the specific learning area. Bloom
(1976) posits the importance of variations in the teacherÊs teaching to enable
the students to decrease variation in results.
(i) Correctives must be qualitatively different from initial teaching. Merely

replicating what was taught earlier will not help the students master
the required skill. The learners should be given additional materials
and more time to explore and learn the material at their own pace. One
of the most effective corrective activities is one that allows students to
use varied learning styles and techniques. Guskey (2001) suggests that
teacher collaboration in producing corrective activities can help in
reducing teacher work overload in preparing the materials.
(ii) Corrective activities must be accompanied with enrichment activities.

This is to ensure that the learning needs of students at all competency
levels are attended to. The notion of mastery learning is to guide,
motivate and if possible expand the studentsÊ learning capacity.
(iii) Feedback, corrective and enrichment activities can be implemented in

many ways. Teachers can use conventional methods, such as the paper-
pen method by conducting quizzes, essay writing and so on. In
addition, performance-based tasks, skills demonstrations and oral
presentations can be also carried out.
(iv) To enable optimum learning, it is encouraged that the class be divided

into two separate groups: enrichment and corrective groups. If
possible, one teacher can attend to one group while another teacher
guides and monitors the progress of the other group. In realistic
conditions, this may not be possible. Therefore, having two different
groups based on their competency will help the teacher manage the
class more effectively.

(b) Instructional Alignment

Instructional alignment refers to the clarity and consistency in instructional
components. The teaching-learning components are as presented in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: Instructional alignment in mastery learning
The teacher plays a key figure in ensuring the effectiveness of the process.
First, the teacher must be able to identify relevant and appropriate skills or
content matter that the students must master. These are presented as learning
goals or learning standards. The instruction or the delivery of content must
be clear and organised for the students to learn effectively. The feedback
should be purposeful and significant to help the students realise their
weakness. The teacher should also be able to generate relevant and suitable
corrective activities to overcome studentsÊ learning problems. The evaluation
of students must be deliberate to provide each student the opportunity to
maximise learning.
ACTIVITY 8.4
Read the following statement by Bloom (1978). Based on the statement,

discuss how critical and creative thinking can be promoted in the
classroom using the mastery learning approach. Share your findings with
your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
I find great emphasis on problem solving, applications of principles,

analytical skills and creativity. Such higher mental processes are
emphasised because this type of learning enables the individual to
relate his learning to the many problems he encounters in day-to-day
living. These abilities are stressed because they are retained and
utilised long after the individual has forgotten the detailed specifics of
the subject matter taught in the schools. These abilities are regarded as
one set of essential characteristics needed to continue learning and to
cope with a rapidly changing world.

8.4 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE AND

PRODUCTIVE LEARNING
Block (1977) and his colleagues developed a set of ideas and practices for
individualising instruction. Through their research, they discovered four
important guidelines that can create an effective and productive learning climate.
The guidelines are as follows:
(a) Be Selective in Varying Techniques

The researchers found that by merely presenting a wide array of ways to
learn will not necessarily help the students. More important is the use of
effective ways of learning. In other words, teachers must be selective and
scrutinise techniques and approaches that will yield positive results in
learning.
(b) Support Instruction with Feedback and Corrective Activities

The teacher does not necessarily need to provide individual based
instruction to produce results in learning. What is crucial is the quality
and/or suitability of feedback or corrective activities to support the
instruction. For example, Block (1977) found small group study sessions to
be more effective among primary, secondary and college students.
Individual-based correctives are more suited for older students as the
younger students have yet to develop autonomy and responsibility
necessary in this form of learning.
(c) Start Small

The researcher suggests for teachers to start small, experimenting with small
chunks of the content or skills. In this way, the teacher is able to assess the
manageability of the process and explore ways to optimise learning.
(d) Respect the Ecology of the Classroom

In the attempt to bring something new or innovative to the classroom,
sometimes one fails to see the classroom environment. Changes proposed
can be more smoothly implemented if one considers the limitations and
possibilities within the classroom.
ACTIVITY 8.5
Block and his colleagues developed a set of ideas and practices for
individualising instruction many decades ago. Can these ideas and
practices be applied in todayÊs classroom? Justify your views and share
them on myINSPIRE.

8.5 INDIVIDUALLY PRESCRIBED INSTRUCTION

Supporters of mastery learning, like Bloom and Block, believe that modification of
group instruction would allow students more time to learn and receive adequate
individual instruction. As such, many modern approaches or techniques were
generated to provide individualised instruction. One example of this method is
individually prescribed instruction (IPI), developed by the Learning Research and
Development Centre of the University of Pittsburgh in 1964.
According to Scanlon (1968), IPI is not a new set of ideas but a re-examination and
reassembly of many curriculum developments. IPI allows the teacher to monitor
each studentÊs progress but more importantly, it allows each student to monitor
his own behaviour in a particular subject.
Scanlon highlights that IPI is based on a set of objectives that relate to the
diagnostic instruments, syllabus/curriculum and teaching techniques. The
following are the objectives of IPI:
(a) Allow students to master learning at individual paces;
(b) Ensure active participation during learning;
(c) Foster self-initiated and self-directed learning;
(d) Promote student evaluation of progress towards mastery; and
(e) Provide instructional materials and techniques catered to studentsÊ needs.
There are some assumptions pertaining to the learning process using IPI.
According to Joyce (2009), the assumptions are as follows:
(a) The difference in studentsÊ performance is based on the amount of time each
student takes to practise and master the skill.
(b) Specific and highly individualised conditions must be planned and
organised so that each student can work in a systematic manner based on his
pace towards the learning goal.
(c) Self-directed learning can become crucial materials to promote independent
and active learning.
(d) Each student must be able to master or at least meet the prerequisites of a
specific unit or learning item before proceeding to the next level.

(e) When the student is able to proceed to the next level, both teacher and
student must be aware of the evaluation outcomes. This information will
help in generating individual instructional prescriptions to help the student
overcome challenges in learning.
(f) A reduction in unrelated workload can help ease the teacherÊs burden. This
will eventually create productive teachers focused on designing and
implementing individualised instructional materials.
(g) The student is accountable to conduct his own study plan. However, the plan
must adhere to the learning goals.
(h) Cooperative and collaborative learning are encouraged among students.
ACTIVITY 8.6
Explore the assumptions stated in subtopic 8.5. What are the possible
challenges teachers face when administering IPI? Discuss this with your
coursemates.
8.6 OBJECTIVES IN THE IPI

According to Joyce et al. (2009), IPI planners ensure the quality of objectives to
ascertain the success of the programme. Hence, there are a few points to consider
when one develops objectives for the learning process.
(a) Explicit and observable objectives  the objectives generated must inform the
students exactly what they need to do or perform. The objectives should
consist of terms that are observable or measurable, such as „describe‰, „list‰,
„explain‰ and so on.
(b) The objectives must be grouped into meaningful streams of content. For
instance, in Mathematics, the objectives for the topic on „numbers‰ should
contain types of numbers (even, odd and so on). However, there may be a
possibility of having objectives sharing two different topics or content
matter. Objectives should be linked and are relevant to one another.
(c) The objectives should be sequenced in a systematic manner, having the

simple objectives first and then followed by the more difficult objectives.

(d) The objectives for each unit should also provide opportunities for students
to explore the subsections so that they can gradually work on smaller parts
of the whole unit.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What are the key concepts in mastery learning?
2. What are the general features of the objectives in the IPI model?
8.7 ADVANTAGES IN MASTERY LEARNING

Mastery learning offers many benefits to learners and teachers. As stated by Kazyu
et al. (2005), the advantages are as follows:
(a) Students have the prerequisite skills to move to the next unit, which helps
them have a firm foundation of the concepts before they progress to the next
level. By acquiring the prerequisite skills, the learners are not only able to
move fluidly to the next phase of learning, they also gain confidence in their
learning capabilities.
(b) Teachers become better prepared to teach as they need to do a task analysis
prior to teaching. The task analysis helps the teacher create a meaningful and
effective teaching session.
(c) Meaningful teaching and learning – The mastery learning approach requires
specific learning objectives. This will help create a more focused and
meaningful learning environment. In addition, the teachers will also be able
to assess the effectiveness of the session by referring to the achievement of
the lesson objectives.
(d) Students are less likely to face failures – The cycle of failure (especially for
low competency students) can be broken when the students are given
adequate scaffolding and support throughout the learning sessions. The
variety of tasks specifically designed to overcome the shortcomings of their
learning can be used to help students progress at their own pace without
feeling anxious or frustrated.

 Two assumptions form the basis of mastery learning: all students possess equal
capacity to achieve the expected learning outcomes, and the implementation
of learning objectives enables students to reach their capacity.
 Mastery learning involves a detailed and organised learning procedure which

emphasises mastery of skills and achievement of learning objectives.
 Crucial concepts in mastery learning are feedback, corrective activities and

enrichment; and instructional alignment.
 Teachers can follow four guidelines to create and effective and productive
learning climate: be selective in varying techniques, support instruction with
feedback and corrective activities, start small, and respect the ecology of the
classroom.
 Individually prescribed instruction (IPI) allows the teacher to monitor each

studentÊs progress but more importantly, it allows each student to monitor his
own behaviour in a particular subject.
 The learning objectives in IPI should be observable and measurable, grouped

into meaningful streams of content, sequenced in a systematic manner, and
provide opportunities for students to explore the subsections.
Aptitude Individualised learning

Corrective activities/Correctives Individually prescribed instruction (IPI)
Enrichment activities Learning rate
Feedback Mastery learning
Formative assessment Objectives

Block, J. H. (1977). Individualised instruction: A mastery learning perspective.

Educational Leadership, 34, 337-341.
Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. New York,

NY: McGraw-Hill.
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64,

723-733.
Carroll, J. B. (1971). Learning from verbal discourse in educational media: A review

of literature. Research Bulletin, 71 (6)1, Educational Testing Service.
Carroll, J. B. (1989). The Carroll model: A 25 year retrospective and prospective

view, Educational Researcher, 18(1) 26-31.
Dolan, L., Ford, C., Newton, V., & Kellam, S.G (1989). The mastery learning
manual. Retrieved from http://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-
institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-prevention-and-earlyintervention/
publications/mlm.pdf
Guskey, T. R. (2001). Mastery learning. In Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.),

International encyclopedia of social and behavioral sciences (pp. 9372-9377).
Oxford, England: Elsevier Science.
Guskey, T. R. (2005). Formative classroom assessment and Benjamin S. Bloom:

Theory, research and implications. Annual Meeting of American Educational
Research Association (p. 12). Montreal Canada: University of Kentucky.
Education.
Kazu, I. Y., Kazu, H., & Ozdemir, O. (2005). The effects of mastery learning model
on the success of the students who attended „Usage of basic information
technologies‰ course. Educational Technology & Society, 8(4), 233-243.
Scanlon, R. G. (1968). The expansion of an innovation.Audio-visual Instruction,

13 (9), 946-48, November.
Warren, A. D. (2013). Mastery learning: A basic introduction. Eastern Kentucky

University. Retrieved from: http://ollyusofalhaj.ipgkti.edu.my/sumber/
resosbestari/PENDEKATAN/pbi/6%20%20ML-Warren.pdf

Topic Personal
Family of
9 Models
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the foundation of the personal family models;
2. Explain the non-directive teaching model;
3. List the characteristics of the non-directive teaching model; and
4. Discuss the importance of developing positive self-concepts for
conceptual growth.
 INTRODUCTION
The personal family of models is based on humanistic psychology that focuses on
the learner. This model allows students to gain self-confidence and a realistic sense
of self by building empathetic reactions to others (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2009). In
this model, teachers see students as partners who have the authority to decide
what they will learn and how. A core belief of this model is that academic
achievement can be increased by tending to studentsÊ psyches (Devi, 2010).
In the following subtopics, we will look at the non-directive teaching model, which
is a model under the personal family, as well as aspects pertaining to developing
positive self-concepts.
ACTIVITY 9.1
What do you understand by the term „non-directive?‰ Discuss with your
coursemates.

156  TOPIC 9 PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS
9.1 THE NON-DIRECTIVE TEACHING MODEL

This subtopic will highlight the non-directive teaching model by focusing on the
ways a teacher could use this model to tap into studentsÊ learning potential.
The non-directive teaching model is based on the work of Rogers (1959) who
believed that human beings are wired to want, and have the capacity for,
self-actualisation, but for a person to grow, they need the right environment. In the
classroom, this means that meaningful learning is significantly increased when
learning is student-centred and non-threatening.
The non-directive teaching model focuses on the need for positive relationships in
the learning process. Now, let us look at Scenario 1.
Scenario 1:
Daniel is an eight-year-old pupil who creates problems in the classroom. He has
lost focus and becomes a constant clown in class, being laughed at by other pupils.
Many teachers have complained about Daniel who likes to make jokes at othersÊ
expense. The following is the conversation between Daniel and his discipline
master.
Mr Joseph : Daniel, can I speak with you for a while?
Daniel : Okay.
Mr Joseph : How are you getting on in class?
Daniel : I am doing fine.
Mr Joseph : How about the reading class?
Daniel : I have given the best but sometimes my friends like to laugh at
me.
Mr Joseph : What did you do to make them laugh?
Daniel : I do not know. It is the words I say, I guess.
Mr Joseph : Do you think they are enjoying the jokes you make or
otherwise?
Daniel : What do you mean?
Mr Joseph : Just because your friends are laughing does not mean that the
joke is funny.

TOPIC 9 PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS  157
Daniel : I should stop making jokes then. But then, I will not have any
friends to talk to. I thought if I make jokes, I will have more
friends.
Mr Joseph : It is fine to make people laugh. Just make sure they are not
making fun of you. Likewise, you should not make fun of
them.
Daniel : Now I realise why some of the teachers are not happy with my
jokes.
Mr Joseph : What do you normally joke about?
Daniel : Mostly about my friends.
Mr Joseph : Why do you joke about them?
Daniel : To have more friends. I thought the more I joke about them,
the more they will like me.
Mr Joseph : Do you think your friends like to hear those jokes?
Daniel : I guess they are angry with me now for making fun of them.
Perhaps I should stop making jokes altogether and focus on the
teacher teaching instead.
Mr Joseph : Do you know that it is possible to make people laugh without
getting into trouble?
Daniel : Perhaps I should start answering the questions posed by the
teacher and if I think of something funny about the lesson,
well, I might say it.
Mr Joseph : That is a good idea, Daniel.
Based on the scenario given, you will notice that Mr Joseph did not provide any
solution for Daniel. The whole interview focuses on Daniel, with Mr Joseph merely
playing the role of a facilitator. The teacher manages to keep DanielÊs frame of
reference and allows Daniel to express his feelings. Mr Joseph also manages to
make Daniel realise the problems he is facing in class.
As you can see, Mr JosephÊs role is that of a facilitator who has a counselling
relationship with his pupil. He guides Daniel to explore his problem and to explore
new ideas on how to solve the problem. This is evident at the end of the
conversation, when Daniel comes up with the solution to his problem by focusing
on the teachersÊ teaching and saying something funny about the lesson instead.

The relationship between Mr Joseph and Daniel are seen as partners in learning
where the teacher is not being biased or stating his preference in solving the
problem. Both the teacher and the pupil share ideas openly and communicate
honestly with each other.
ACTIVITY 9.2
How can one create a „partners in learning‰ environment? Discuss this
with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
9.1.1 Characteristics and Benefits of the Non-directive

Teaching Model
There are several characteristics of the non-directive teaching model. They are as
follows:
(a) The teacher shows warmth and responsiveness, expressing genuine interest
in the student and accepting him as a person;
(b) It is characterised by permissiveness in regard to the expression of feeling.
The teacher does not judge or demoralise;
(c) The student is free to express feelings symbolically but is not free to control
the teacher or to carry out impulses into actions; and
(d) The relationship is free from any type of pressure or coercion. The teacher avoids
personal biasness or reacting in a personally critical manner to the student.
The personal family of models offers the following benefits:
(a) Increases studentsÊ self-worth. Through the interactions, students will feel
that their needs are addressed. Their concerns are identified and this will
enable them to feel more accepted.
(b) Helps students recognise their emotions and become more aware of the way
emotions affect other aspects of their behaviour. The personal model enables
the students to be aware of the consequences of their actions.
(c) Helps students develop goals for learning. Students will be able to identify
their learning concerns and develop strategies or techniques to overcome
these concerns. This will eventually help them enhance their competence
level.

(d) Increases the studentsÊ openness to new experiences. The personal model
gives students the opportunity to explore and analyse their concerns. There
are no ready-made solutions. Students need to self-assess and seek solutions
independently.
9.1.2 Teacher’s Roles

According to Joyce et al. (2009), the roles of the teacher in the non-directive
teaching model are as follows:
(a) See the world as the students see it;
(b) Create an atmosphere of empathetic communication;
(c) Mirror studentsÊ thoughts and feelings;
(d) Use reflective comments to raise studentsÊ consciousness of their own
perceptions and feelings, thus helping them to clarify ideas;
(e) Accept all feelings and thoughts, even those that other students may be afraid
of or view as wrong. Recognition of both positive and negative feelings are
important for emotional development and positive solutions;
(f) Act as facilitators; and
(g) Develop partnerships with students.
The teacher plays an important role in making students understand their own
needs and values so that they can learn to direct their own learning. The teacher
should respect his studentsÊ abilities in identifying their own problems and to
formulate solutions. The teacher does not interpret, evaluate or offer advice;
instead he reflects, clarifies, accepts and demonstrates understanding (Joyce et al.,
2009). Therefore, this model focuses on facilitative learning. As you can see in
Scenario 1, Mr Joseph directs Daniel to take responsibility of his own problem by
posing questions such as these:
What do you normally joke about?

Why do you joke about them?
Do you think your friends like to hear those jokes?

Mr Joseph successfully developed empathetic communication where he was able

to mirror his students' thoughts and feelings in clarifying their ideas. This model
highlights equal partnership between teacher and student. The teacherÊs goal is to
help students understand their own needs and values so that they can effectively
make their own educational decisions.
ACTIVITY 9.3
A student in your class seems to be constantly distracted during your

lessons. He is quiet in class but does not appear to be participating
actively in class. Discuss how you would address this concern using the
non-directed teaching model. Share your ideas with your coursemates on
myINSPIRE.
9.1.3 Phases in the Non-directive Teaching Model

There are several phases in the non-directive teaching model. These phases are
important in building equal partnership between the teacher and the student.
Before we look at the phases in detail, let us read Scenario 2.
Scenario 2:
Sarah : Excuse me Mr Singh. Can I have a word with you?
Mr Singh : Sure, take a seat. What can I do for you?
Sarah : I am just upset with my grades for the English paper.
Mr Singh : Oh, yes. You got an E for this paper. Why are you upset?
Sarah : I am not a stupid girl you know. ItÊs just that I could not focus
during the test.
Mr Singh : Why were you not able to focus? Is something bothering you?
Sarah : I could not get enough sleep. That is the reason I lost my focus.
Mr Singh : Why couldnÊt you get enough sleep?
Sarah : I always worry about my grades and cannot concentrate on my
studies. I am not as good as my other friends who score better
grades than me. Maybe, something is wrong with the way I
study.
Mr Singh : When do you normally revise your homework?

Sarah : Mostly at night. I get distracted by the loud noises my

neighbours make. My parents cannot help either. They are not
good in English so they are not able to guide me.
Mr Singh : What about your friends? Did you ask for their help?
Sarah : I am actually quite shy to ask for their help. I am worried that
they will think I am a nerd.
Mr Singh : Why do you think so?
Sarah : I do not know. Just my feelings.
Mr Singh : You will never know how they feel unless you try asking them.
Sarah : I do not know. I always have a problem starting a conversation.
I would rather keep quiet than make stupid remarks.
Mr Singh : How would you feel if I pair the students in your class so that
you will have a partner on the next assignment?
Sarah : That would be okay I guess.
Mr Singh : Do you think you will be able to talk to your partner about the
assignment?
Sarah : I think I can work on that but promise me that you will not tell
anyone about my problem.
Scenario 2 illustrates how Mr Singh helps one of his students uncover the emotions
underlying a problem by allowing the student to direct the flow of thoughts and
feelings. If students are able to express themselves freely, the problems and their
underlying emotions will emerge (Joyce et al., 2009). This process is facilitated by
reflecting the studentsÊ feelings thereby bringing them into awareness and sharper
focus.

There are five phases in the non-directive teaching model, as shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Phases in the Non-directive Teaching Model
Phase Process Explanation

1 Defining the situation Teacher encourages free expression of
feelings.
2 Exploring the problem Student is encouraged to define problem.
Teacher accepts and clarifies feelings.
3 Developing insight Student discusses problem.
Teacher supports student.
4 Planning and decision Student plans initial decision-making.
making Teacher clarifies possible decisions.
5 Integration Student gains further insight and develops
actions that are more positive. Teacher is
supportive.
Action outside the interview Student initiates positive actions.
Now let us look into each phase in detail.
(a) Defining the Situation

In this phase, the student is allowed to express himself freely. In the
beginning, the teacher lays out the freedom for the student to explore
feelings, an agreement on the general focus of the interview, an initial
problem statement, some discussion of the relationship if it is ongoing, and
the establishment of procedures for meeting. The teacher does interpret,
evaluate or give advice advice but he reflects, clarifies, considers, explains
and demonstrates understanding.
(b) Exploring the Problem

In this phase, the teacher encourages the student to express their feelings,
either negative or positive. The teacher should probe further to explore the
problem expressed by the student. What is important is for the teacher to
accept the studentsÊ responses.
(c) Developing Insight

This is achieved through discussion of the problem and exploring the
feelings of the student. Here, the teacher further supports the student in
developing insights leading to creating innovative ideas.

(d) Planning and Decision Making

This phase allows the student to move ahead and make decisions on how to
overcome the problem. The teacher merely clarifies the alternatives but the
student makes the final decision.
(e) Integration
In phase 5, the student develops actions to solve the problem. The student
provides a solution and the teacher supports the decision.
9.1.4 Advantages of Non-directive Teaching Model

There are several advantages of the non-directive teaching model. Among them are as
follows:
(a) The teacher helps students to explore new ideas;
(b) Students have the freedom to make decisions and choices;
(c) Teacher and student are partners in learning;
(d) The teacher nurtures and moulds students to be more positive and
productive in the learning process; and
(e) The teacher encourages students to think and reflect on uncertain feelings
and become better and be positive.
9.2 DEVELOPING POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPTS

This subtopic will introduce you to developing positive self-concepts, which is a
concept related to the personal family of models. According to Baumeister (1999),
the term „self-concept‰ is defined as the individualÊs belief about himself including
the personÊs attributes and who and what the self is. Developing positive self-
concepts is important as it allows students to take responsibility for their own
learning.
The importance of developing positive self-concepts is based on the results of a

study conducted by Joyce et. al. (2009) on 2,300 teachers, with the focus on their
level of interaction with their environments. Findings of the study indicated that
teachersÊ attitudes could influence the climate in classrooms. Joyce et. al. (2009)
states that this aspect focuses on positive self-concepts of learners based on the
following:

(a) Students are capable of responding to a great variety of teaching and learning
environment;
(b) Students are able to master skills and strategies as they develop skills in
learning how to learn; and
(c) The school climate has a strong influence on studentsÊ performance.
Positive self-concepts highlight that all students are capable of learning if they are
given the opportunity and are supported by the environment in school and in the
classroom. One of the factors leading to positive self-concept is states of growth.
9.2.1 States of Growth

States of growth refers to how the environment plays a role in satisfying learnersÊ
development. Now let us see how the environment provides opportunity for
educational growth.
Based on JoyceÊs study, the environment plays an important role in developing

positive self-concepts. Active people are said to view the environment as a set of
possibilities for satisfying interaction. They are also seen as proactive. On the other
hand, less active people are less aware of the possibilities while the least active
people expend energy protecting them from what they see as a threatening or
unpleasant environment (Joyce et al., 2009).
Developing positive self-concepts are important and vital in the teaching process.
Teachers should aim towards developing studentsÊ self-concepts to enhance their
personal growth. Joyce et al. (2009) provided clear distinctions on the personality
types of learners. They are:
(a) Gourmet Omnivore

This personality type refers to individuals who not only reach out for
opportunities in their environments but who generate or initiate those
opportunities for themselves and others. They are people who are active and
able to use the environment positively. They are aware of the „possibilities
for growth, identify high-probability events and work hard at squeezing
them for their growth potential‰ (Joyce et al., 2009).

They are capable of initiating ideas, easily adapt to changes and adopt new
forms of learning. They are also capable of balancing their personal and
professional lives. They bring ideas gained in their personal lives into the
classroom. Students of this nature are active participants and energetic
learners. They will enrich the social environment of the classroom with their
passion and curiosity.
(b) Passive Consumer

This type of personality is characterised as amiable, conforming and highly
dependent on their immediate social context. Passive consumers are people
who are generally inactive and dependent on others. If they are with active
consumers, they tend to be active as well. On the other hand, if they are with
passive consumers, they tend to be passive. Students of this nature will strive
in environments that push them to explore and interact with the
surroundings.
(c) Reticent Consumer

This category involves learners who are reluctant to interact positively with
their cultural environment. They push away opportunities for growth and
are very reluctant people. They reject opportunities for involvement in
decision making. Students of this nature are likely to withhold from
participating in classroom activities. They have a tendency to blame their
environment – the rest of the school depresses them professionally; their
neighbourhood and home depress them personally (Joyce & Calhoun, 2010).
These three personality types reveal that there will always be a mix of behaviours
in the classroom. How does this impact the teacherÊs ability to foster positive self-
concepts in all students? According to Joyce et al. (2009), the omnivores are self-
actualising; the passive consumers feel competent but dependent; and the reticent
consumers feel that they live in a threatening world. Thus, it would appear that
the omnivores are the only ones who will develop positive self-concepts.
Individuals with positive self-concepts are said „to evaluate themselves positively,
and are likely to make favourable inferences about themselves and be accepting of
their identity‰ (Judge, Erez & Bono, 1998). These personalities help teachers plan
and execute a conducive learning environment to cater to the needs of the different
types of learners. Joyce et al. (2009) strongly feel the need to build a learning
community that can benefit all the different types of personality.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Describe the three personality types by Joyce et al. (2009).

In order to build a conducive environment to cater to studentsÊ different needs,

teachers can develop a learning community that benefits all personality types. The
learning community plays an important role since it influences the way students
feel about themselves and the way they interact and learn. Therefore, the learning
environment should be flexible enough for learners to foster growth. To achieve
this, the teacher can implement the following:
(a) Have high expectations for all students and push all towards excellence;
(b) Have model activity and openness and encourage students to reach out to
the world;
(c) Create a cooperative learning environment where students work in groups
to share ideas, discover knowledge, and actively gather and interpret
information;
(d) Incorporate studentsÊ interests into learning activities; and
(e) Provide continuous and positive feedback to students.
Two important developmental theories are closely linked to the development of

states of growth. They are conceptual development and self-concept.
(a) Conceptual Development

Conceptual development refers to the ways one perceives and describes the
world around them using concepts. Look at the following scenario and
compare traveller A and traveller B who have recently visited a foreign
country together.
Traveller A
Jaimie : How was your trip? Did you enjoy yourself?
A : You are not going to believe the type of people I met there.
Jaimie : What do you mean?
A : It was horrible. The people were unfriendly, the streets were
dirty and the way they prepared their food was...
Traveller B
Jaimie : How was your trip? Did you enjoy yourself?
B : I had a fantastic time over there. The view was beautiful and
the food was rather interesting. I even managed to learn how
to cook a few local dishes.

Traveller A did not enjoy his trip to the foreign country. He could not get
along with the foreign culture and found fault with it. On the other hand,
traveller B enjoyed himself and took the trouble to learn how to cook a few
local dishes. He had wonderful things to say about the country compared to
traveller A.
From this exchange, we can conclude that traveller A has a low conceptual
level while traveller B has a higher conceptual level. According to Joyce et
al. (2009), people with a low conceptual level are suspicious of different
environments and tend to find fault with it. On the other hand, the new
sights, sounds and smells fascinate those from the high conceptual level; they
are open to new experiences and are capable of dealing with those
experiences, which will lead to their personal growth.
(b) Self-concept
Self-concept is closely linked to MaslowÊs theory of personal growth. He
believes that self-concepts are accompanied by self-actualising behaviour.
This refers to the capability of a person to interact productively with the
environment. Joyce et al. (2009) believes that strong self-concepts are linked
to „self-actualising‰ behaviour. Some of the characteristics of self-actualisers
are:
(i) Acceptance and Realism

Self-actualised people have realistic perceptions of themselves, others
and the world around them.
(ii) Problem-centring
Self-actualised individuals are concerned with solving problems
outside of themselves, including helping others and finding solutions
to problems in the external world. These people are often motivated by
a sense of personal responsibility and ethics.
(iii) Spontaneity
Self-actualised people are spontaneous in their internal thoughts and
outward behaviour. While they can conform to rules and social
expectations, they also tend to be open and unconventional.
(iv) Autonomy and Solitude

Another characteristic of self-actualised people is the need for
independence and privacy. While they enjoy the company of others,
these individuals need time to focus on developing their own
individual potential.

(v) Continued Freshness of Appreciation

Self-actualised people tend to view the world with a continual sense of
appreciation, wonder and awe. Even simple experiences continue to be
a source of inspiration and pleasure.
(vi) Peak Experiences

Individuals who are self-actualised often have what Maslow termed
peak experiences, or moments of intense joy, wonder, awe and ecstasy.
After these experiences, people feel inspired, strengthened, renewed or
transformed.
9.2.2 Self-concept and States of Growth

Developing positive self-concept focuses heavily on both self-concept and states of
growth in developing studentsÊ learning potential. Studies by Joyce et al. (2009)
have indicated the correlation between self-concepts and states of growth. This is
seen as a strong tool to develop a cooperative learning community, which will
allow learners to reach out and learn to the maximum of their capacity.
Understanding both self-concept and conceptual growth allows teachers to find

the best possible method of teaching their students. This will lead teachers to create
productive environment and to prevent students from being deprived of the
opportunities to learn.
ACTIVITY 9.4
How can a teacher decide which method is the best choice for a given
topic? Discuss with your coursemates.
9.3 CONCLUSION
The personal family of models allows learners to take charge of their own learning.
The activities catered for the learners are student centred. The opportunity and
ability to learn is very much dependent on the learning community that provides
the opportunity for learning to take place. This will allow learners to be able to
acquire a greater range of skills and strategies for their own personal growth.

 The personal family of models focuses on empathic reactions of learners. In

this model, teachers see students as partners who have the authority to decide
what they will learn and how.
 In the personal family of models, learners have the authority to build their own
learning and teachers play the role of a facilitator to guide studentsÊ learning.
 The non-directive teaching model emphasises positive human relations in the

learning process.
 The five phases in the non-directive teaching model are: defining the situation,
exploring the problem, developing insight, planning and decision making, and
integration.
 Positive self-concepts highlight that all students are capable of learning if they
are given the opportunity and are supported by the environment in school and
in the classroom.
 The environment plays an important role in developing positive self-concepts.

Different types of learners view and interact with their environment differently
– omnivores are self-actualising; the passive consumers feel competent but
dependent; and the reticent consumers feel that they live in a threatening
world.
 People with a low conceptual level are suspicious of different environments

and tend to find fault with it. Meanwhile, people with a high conceptual level
are open to new experiences and are capable of dealing with those experiences,
which will lead to their personal growth.
 Some of the characteristics of self-actualisers are acceptance and realism,

problem-centring, spontaneity, autonomy and solitude, continued freshness of
appreciation, and having peak experiences.

Conceptual development Passive consumer

Empathic Personal growth
Facilitator Reticent consumer
Gourmet omnivore Self-concept
Non-directive teaching States of growth
Baumeister, R. F. (1999). The self in social psychology. Philadelphia, PA:

Psychology Press (Taylor & Francis).
Devi, K. R. (2010). Chapter 3: Theoretical constructions of models of teaching.

Retrieved from shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/418/8/08_
chapter3.pdf
Education.
Joyce, B. & Calhoun, E. (2010). Models of professional development. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Corwin/SAGE.
Judge, T. A., Erez, A., & Bono, J. E. (1998). The power of being positive: The relation
between positive self-concept and job performance. Human Performance,
11(2/3), 167-187.
Mujibul Hasan Siddiqui. (2013). Non-directive teaching model: An effective way

of counseling. Global Research Analysis, 2(4), 51-53.
Rogers, C. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships

as developed in the client-centered framework. In (ed.) S. Koch, Psychology:
A study of a science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the person and the social context.
New York: McGraw Hill.

Topic Assessment
of Learning
10 Outcomes
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the types of assessment for each model family;
2. Explain how to assess the learning outcomes for each family of
models;
3. Explain how to assess the learning outcomes based on the
selected teaching models; and
4. Discuss key considerations when designing and implementing
assessment tasks.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will explore the various ways of assessing the learning outcomes
in relation to the different types of teaching models. Two important elements are
seen as pertinent for evaluation to take place in the teaching and learning process:
learning outcomes and assessment.
Learning outcomes refer to the descriptions of what the learner is expected to learn
in a defined period of learning. Assessment is the evaluation of the learning
outcomes.
Assessment tasks are developed to provide feedback to the learners and to gauge
the teaching process of the teacher. Assessment criteria may be developed from
the learning outcomes or from the assessment tasks. Now let us look at each family
of models mentioned in the earlier topics and examine how one can assess learning
outcomes.

172  TOPIC 10 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING OUTCOMES
10.1 INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY OF

MODELS
This family of models focuses on the areas of knowledge and cognitive skills. The
cognitive perspective emphasises meaningful learning which is reflective,
constructive and self-regulated (Dietel, Herman & Knuth, 1991). With the
emergence of globalisation, studentsÊ learning capacity is highly challenged and
the focus now is on assessing higher-level cognitive skills and information
processing. Bloom et al., and Anderson and Krathwohl have provided some
suggestions on how this can be achieved (as cited in Huitt, 2004).
Table 10.1 presents the taxonomies related to the cognitive domain. BloomÊs
Taxonomy is based on the six levels of processing, understanding as well as
applying knowledge in the learning process. Anderson and Krathwohl in Huitt,
2004 further refined the taxonomy based on BloomÊs levels of cognitive domain.
The levels as stipulated by both versions begin from an elementary level (such as
knowledge based, remembering or retrieving) to more advanced levels such as
evaluating and creating. These taxonomies are relevant to the models of teaching
and learning as they explore the various levels of processing information.
Table 10.1: Taxonomies of the Cognitive Domain
Anderson and KrathwohlÊs

BloomÊs Taxonomy 1956
Taxonomy 2000
Knowledge: Remembering or retrieving Remembering: Retrieving, recalling
previously learned material. Examples of verbs or recognising knowledge from
that relate to this function are: memory. Remembering is when
memory is used to produce
know define record definitions, facts, or lists, or recite or
identify recall name retrieve material.
relate memorise recognise
list repeat acquire
Comprehension: Grasping or constructing Understanding: Constructing meaning
meaning from material. Examples of verbs that from written or graphic messages,
relate to this function are: through activities like interpreting,
exemplifying, classifying, summarising,
restate identify illustrate inferring, comparing and explaining.
locate discuss interpret
report describe draw
recognise review represent
explain infer differentiate
express conclude

TOPIC 10 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING OUTCOMES  173
Application: Using learned material, or Applying: Carrying out or using a

implementing material in new and concrete procedure through executing or
situations. Examples of verbs that relate to this implementing.
function are:
apply organise practice Applying refers to situations where

relate employ calculate learned material is used through
develop restructure show products like models, presentations,
translate interpret exhibit interviews or simulations.
use demonstrate dramatise
operate illustrate
Analysis: Breaking down or distinguishing the Analysing: Breaking material or

parts of material into its components so that its concepts into parts, determining how
organisational structure may be better the parts relate or interrelate to one
understood. Examples of verbs that relate to this another or to an overall structure or
function are: purpose. Mental actions included in
this function are differentiating,
analyse differentiate experiment organising and attributing, as well as
compare contrast scrutinise being able to distinguish between the
probe investigate discover components or parts. When one is
inquire detect inspect analysing, he/she can illustrate this
examine survey dissect mental function by creating
contrast classify discriminate spreadsheets, surveys, charts, or
categorise deduce separate diagrams or graphic representations.
Synthesis: Forming parts together to create a Evaluating: Making judgements

coherent or unique new whole. Examples of based on criteria and standards
verbs that relate to this function are: through checking and critiquing.
Critiques, recommendations, and
compose plan propose reports are some of the products that
produce invent develop can be created to demonstrate the
design formulate arrange processes of evaluation. In the newer
assemble collect construct taxonomy, evaluation comes before
create set up organise creating as it is often a necessary part
prepare generalise originate of the precursory behaviour before
predict document derive creating something.
modify combine write
tell relate propose

Evaluation: Judging, checking and even Creating: Putting elements together to

critiquing the value of material for a given form a coherent or functional whole;
purpose. Examples of verbs that relate to this reorganising elements into a new
function are: pattern or structure through generating,
planning or producing. Creating
judge argue validate requires users to put parts together in a
assess decide consider new way or synthesise parts into
compare choose appraise something new and different a new
evaluate rate value form or product. This process is the
conclude select criticise most difficult mental function in the
measure estimate infer new taxonomy.
deduce
Source: Anderson et al. (2001)
ACTIVITY 10.1
With reference to Table 10.1, examine the similarities and differences

between BloomÊs taxonomy and its revised version by Anderson et al.
(2001). Discuss this with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
Table 10.1 exemplifies the use of the taxonomies to assess learning outcomes in a
more organised and systematic manner. The taxonomies can be incorporated with
the models of teaching and learning and eventually help the teacher to establish
congruence between curriculum, instructional methods and assessment
techniques.
The revised taxonomy by Anderson and Krathwohl further illustrates the
components of knowledge and cognitive processes of the learners.
According to Krathwohl (2002), the revised taxonomy has four main knowledge
dimensions as discussed in the following:
(a) Factual knowledge consists of basic elements that the students must know in
order to understand the learning item. This includes knowledge of terminology
as well as specific details and information related to the learning item.
(b) Conceptual knowledge explores the interrelationships between the basic

elements and the overall idea. This includes knowledge of categories,
principles, generalisations, theories and models. Basically, the student who
is able to achieve conceptual knowledge can establish good overall
understanding of the main components pertaining to the learning item. The
student is also able to link and seek out associations between the key
components.

(c) Procedural knowledge highlights the application of the knowledge learnt.

This is seen through how students put their theoretical knowledge into
practice. This domain examines the knowledge of subject related skills, use
of techniques or methods and appropriate use of procedures.
(d) Metacognitive knowledge explores studentsÊ awareness of their own

cognitive abilities. Metacognitive knowledge unravels studentsÊ thought
processes during the learning process, resulting in the student becoming
more sensitive to their learning styles, preferences and inclinations.
Table 10.2 presents the knowledge dimensions based on Krathwohl's (2002)
revised taxonomy.
Table 10.2: The Knowledge Dimension
The Knowledge
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Dimension
Factual Knowledge
Conceptual
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive
Knowledge
Source: Krathwohl (2002)
The earlier taxonomy table can be used to illustrate and categorise the instructional
and teaching-learning activities implemented to meet the lesson objectives. The
taxonomy could also be used to classify assessments used to evaluate student
learning.
The following is an example of how a teacher could use the table above when
planning and implementing a lesson in class about ancient Roman civilisation.

In Mrs WongÊs history class, her students are required to:

(a) Identify parts of the Roman town;
(b) Explain how good roads and better ships help a trader during the Roman
times; and
(c) Analyse and write a short paragraph about home life during the Roman
times and how it is different from today.
The
Knowledge Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Dimension
Factual Objective
Knowledge one
Conceptual Objective Objective

Knowledge two two
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive Objective Objective

knowledge three three
The first objective is placed in Cell A1 as it requires the learners to remember

(identify) the parts of the Roman town. This is the factual knowledge domain
where learners can be assessed on their ability to recall and list down the parts of
the Roman town.
The second objective is placed in Cell B2 as learners would need to conceptualise

the interrelationship between good roads and better ships in order to develop
trade. This objective assesses learnersÊ ability to seek links and explain the impact
of trade development. Hence, learners would need to understand the key concepts
(good road, better ships) and analyse how these concepts help in trade matters.
The third objective looks into metacognitive knowledge where learners would
need to possess the knowledge of home life during Roman times and analyse how
it is different in todayÊs world.

Now, read the following scenario of a lesson and identify the strategies adopted
by the teacher. Note the assessment that is incorporated into the lesson.
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT LESSON PLAN
Instructional Objective(s): The pupil will state the critical attributes of prime
and composite numbers.
State Content Standard / Benchmark / Grade Level Expectation:The pupil will

find the prime factorisation for any number between 1 and 50 and express in
exponential notation.
Prerequisite Knowledge or Behaviours Needed:

Skills: Experience with Concept Attainment
Concepts Basic multiplication and division
Prior exposure to prime and composite numbers
Critical attribute
Behaviours: Raising hands to contribute to the lesson
Working with partners and in table groups
Why is the Content of TodayÊs Lesson Relevant for Your Students?

Understanding the distinction between prime and composite numbers provides
the background knowledge for advanced mathematics.
Materials: List of YES/NO examples

YES NO
2 4
3 6
4 8
7 9
11 10
12 12
17 14
19 15
23
29

Model of Teaching: Concept Attainment
Procedures
Stage One: Presentation of Data and Identification of Concept

1. Get pupils to scrutinise the list.
2. Get them to compare and contrast the positive and negative exemplars.
3. Get learners to make notes based on the commonalities within the positive
exemplars.
4. Pupils generate and test hypotheses.
5. Pupils state the definition according to the essential attributes.
Stage Two: Testing Attainment of Concept

1. Provide more sets of exemplars and get the learners to assess if the
exemplars belong to positive category.
2. Pupils share their ideas pertaining to the sets of positive exemplars.
3. Explore their thinking further by asking questions pertaining to what they
find common in the positive exemplars.
4. Proceed with more sets until the pupils arrive at a preliminary agreement
on the characteristic or feature of the positive exemplars.
5. Provide the concept and discuss the concept with the pupils.
Stage Three: Analysis of the Thinking Strategies

1. Pupils describe their thinking process as to how they arrived at the
concept.
2. Pupils discuss the hypotheses generated.
How will you address student learning styles during this lesson? Describe all
that apply.
Visual Recording examples on board
Auditory Verbal discussion and presentation
Kinaesthetic Scratch paper available if pupils want to experiment with
numbers at their tables

Assessment Criteria:
What tangible evidence will demonstrate your pupilsÊ learning today?

Pupils will write down their recounting of the lesson as it unfolded.
How did the class go through their own assessment of the ideas that
emerged?
As homework, they will use the YES/NO examples used in class and
add 5 to 6 more.
What will be considered quality work?

Accurate recounting of todayÊs class process. Correct responses for
homework in each column.
Source: http://www.sagepub.com/delloliostudy/case_study_lesson_plans/
CaseStudyLP5.2.doc
The above scenario depicts how a teacher uses the concept attainment model in a
mathematics class. Now let us look at each stage carefully.
The first stage explores the factual knowledge capacity of the learners. In order to
seek the commonalities or differences between the sets of exemplars, the pupils
would need to present and apply their understanding pertaining to the attributes
of the given numbers. In addition, they would also need to apply conceptual
knowledge when comparing and contrasting the sets of exemplars. The conceptual
knowledge would be at a preliminary form in which the learners would merely
look at general attributes between the two sets of exemplars.
In stage two, pupils are given the opportunity to put into practice their new
knowledge by getting them to categorise exemplars accordingly. This develops
their procedural knowledge when they are able to use their knowledge of criteria
or attributes. The final stage explores their metacognitive knowledge when the
learners explore their own thinking process in arriving at the definition and
concept.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Identify the specific learning objectives in the lesson discussed. Using

KrathwohlÊs (2002) revised taxonomy, categorise the learning objectives.
Discuss this with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.

10.2 SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS:

ROLE-PLAY
Role-play is one of the models under the social family of models. The main purpose
of the social family model is to develop the learnerÊs interpersonal skills through
the exploration of a particular learning issue. Role-play provides opportunities for
students to practise their interpersonal skills through sharing and discussing
„problem stories‰.
One example of a lesson plan is shown below.
Specific Content: Bullying

Length of Lesson: 30 minutes
Instructional Objective(s): The student will be able to:

(a) Participate in role-plays that illustrate effective ways to deal with
bullying;
(b) Express opinions pertaining to bullying;
(c) State the causes and repercussions of bullying;
(d) Provide plausible suggestions to overcome bullying incidents in the
school; and
(e) Distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication, and identify
and practise elements of effective listening and speaking. Examples
include recognising the impact of variations of facial expression, posture
and volume on oral communication.
Long-Term Unit Objective: The student will participate in collaborative

problem solving using discussion, compromise and consensus rather than face
stress due to bullying.
Previous Lesson: The previous lesson explored student discipline concerns such
as tardiness, smoking and drug abuse in school. Students have discussed and
explored these issues at length.
Following Lesson: After this lesson, students should have some time to think
about and practise what they learned from role-playing. A discussion should
occur the next day about their role-playing and what they learned about
bullying.

Prerequisite Knowledge or Behaviours Needed:
Concepts:
Role-Playing – The students will need to know the rules and aims of the role-
playing activity.
Bullying – In order to role-play and have a proper discussion about bullying,
students will need to know the causes and consequences of bullying.
Behaviours:
Listening to others – This lesson includes dialogue and discussion, so the
students will need to be able to listen to each other.
Taking turns – This lesson requires student participation through both
discussion and role-playing and students will have to be able to take turns and
understand that not everyone can talk or role-play at the same time.
Materials: White board marker pens, newspaper article on bullying
Model of Teaching: Role-Playing
Procedures
1. Warming up the class

Show to the class a newspaper report on a bullying case in school. Discuss
with students the details of the incident, its causes and repercussions. Let
the class brainstorm episodes of bullying that they have experienced for a
few minutes and write responses on the board.
2. Choosing the first set of participants

After a few minutes of brainstorming, choose one episode of bullying that
you feel is best to role-play first. Pick the first set of volunteers and have
them come up to the front of the room.
3. Establishing the problem, characters and setting

Before the players can begin role-playing, explain the characters and
setting. Review the characters and setting with the class and make sure
they know who is in the scene and when and where it is taking place.
(a) Who are our characters?
(b) Where is this scene taking place?
(c) When is this scene taking place?

5. Preparing the Observers

Set the expectations for the students observing and explain what you
want them to look for during the role-play.
Teacher says: As we watch the role-play, remember to look at
how they choose to handle the situation and deal with bullying.
Remember not to call out or interrupt during the role-play. We
will have a chance to talk about what we saw when the scene ends
and I call, „Cut!‰
6. Role-Playing the first scene

Once the scene is set up and the characters and setting are described, let
the participants improvise and role-play the situation. Remind the
students that the scene should reflect how they would normally react
when someone is being bullied or is bullying.
Teacher says: Okay, our first two players are ready to role-play. I
will tell you when to stop the scene. Right now, just do and say
what you might under these circumstances. Here we go.
Let the students role-play for a few minutes until the first solution has
been illustrated.
7. Stopping action for discussion and evaluation

After the first solution has been acted out, stop the action to discuss
what the students heard and saw in the role-play. Lead the discussion
by asking the students thought-provoking questions.
(a) Did our players set up this problem well?
(b) Did they leave anything out?
(c) What do I usually say when someone is bullying?
(d) What do I say when someone is being bullied?
(e) How else could this problem have been handled?
Let the students talk about what they saw and heard as the scene played out.
Encourage the students to think of alternative solutions to deal with bullying.
8. Revising scene with new players

After the students have discussed for awhile and brainstormed
alternative solutions, choose different students who have proposed new
solutions to come up and role-play the scene. Encourage students to think
about ways that they could solve the problem before someone bullies.

The scene will need to be set for these new players by reviewing the
characters and setting.
(a) Where are you?
(b) What are you doing as the scene begins?
(c) What will you need to say to show how your solution works?
(d) What will you need to do to show how your solution works?
Let the new players role-play the situation until the revised solution has
been illustrated.
9. Stopping action again for discussion and evaluation

Once the second solution has been acted out, stop the action to discuss
what the students heard and saw in this role-play.
(a) What was different about how the players handled it this time?
(b) Do you think what the players did this time helped?
(c) Do you think that this solution worked better?
(d) Are there any other ideas?
Encourage students to continue brainstorming new ideas and solutions

and then have the students role-play the new solutions and discuss them.
Depending on the time available, this cycle may be done several times
with alternative solutions.
10. Generalising about the experiences

Once the students have exhausted all the solutions, guide the students in
deciding what they learned as a result of the role-play by asking the
following questions:
(a) Which of the solutions to this problem do you think is best?
(b) Why is this best?
(c) For whom is it best?
(d) Who will be unhappy with this solution?
(e) How do you choose if you cannot make everybody happy?
(f) If you were _____ (a person in the scene), how would you choose?
(g) If you were _____ (another person in the scene), how would you choose?

Closure: Tell the students that they all did an excellent job during the lesson.
Briefly recap what happened during the lesson: „By role-playing, we found
many solutions that worked out well, and the observers paid careful attention
to what was happening in each scene.‰ Remind the students that you will expect
them to use what they learned today and be more aware of the consequences of
bullying.
Source: http://www.sagepub.com/delloliostudy/case_study_lesson_plans/
CaseStudyLP10.2.doc.
This lesson presents opportunities for the students to examine and explore various
angles and perspectives to a common school issue. The discussion and exchange
of ideas that the students gather throughout the activity will help them be aware
of social issues such as bullying as well as develop their interpersonal skills.
To assess learning outcomes, one needs to consider the objectives of the lesson. The
objectives of the sample lesson and suggested assessment techniques are as shown
in Table 10.3:
Table 10.3: Example of Lesson Objectives and Assessment Techniques
Lesson Objective Assessment Technique

Participate in role-plays that illustrate Involve the observers to take note on the
effective ways to deal with bullying. playersÊ responses and reaction during the
role-play. The teacher can also observe and
make notes as the players act out the scenes.
Express opinions pertaining to bullying. Evaluate learnerÊs logical and reasoning
skills by assessing the opinions given. A
holistic rubric or banding scheme on
„expression of ideas‰ can be used as a guide.
State the causes and repercussions of Examine the number of plausible causes and
bullying. repercussions generated by the students.
Then, ascertain the level of student
knowledge and understanding.
Provide plausible suggestions to overcome Assess studentsÂcritical and creative thinking
bullying incidents. by examining the quality of suggestions.
Distinguish between verbal and Refer to a checklist consisting on the aspects
nonverbal communication, and identify mentioned and make brief commentary to
and practise elements of effective help students on the areas concerned
listening and speaking. For example,
recognising the impact of variations of
facial expression, posture and volume
on oral communication.

ACTIVITY 10.3
Can you think of other ways in which the teacher can assess students in
a role-play activity? Discuss with your coursemates on myISNPIRE.
10.3 BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF

MODELS: MASTERY LEARNING
The mastery learning model emphasises the mastery of content and skills. As such,
it is only obvious that assessment would play an integral role in the teaching and
learning process. The following lesson plan is based on the mastery learning
model. The lesson plan is designed for a group of young pupils where English is
learnt as a second language.
Lesson Topic: Similes

Strategy: Mastery Learning
Subject Area: Language Arts
Common Standard/State Standard:

 Identify letters, words and sentences.
 Pupils adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (for example,
conventions, style and vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety
of audiences and for different purposes.
 Pupils employ a wide range of strategies such as similes as they write and
use different elements appropriately to communicate with different
audiences for a variety of purposes.

Preparation:
(a) Get visuals of objects, animals and so on (for example, tree, fox and
flower).
(b) Choose a sample simile poem to read with the class. For example,
„Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star.‰
(c) Get information or reading material on the concept of simile.
Behavioural Objectives:
 Pupils will brainstorm words that relate to a given picture or visual.
 Pupils will fill in the blanks in the poem (for example, school is like a circus).
 Pupils work together to write a poem using similes.
 Pupils will understand where punctuation goes in a poem.
 All words must be spelled correctly in the poem.
Motivation (Teacher-created):
 Points may be awarded to pupils who are working well together.
 Pupils may get stickers for good behaviour.
Model (demo)
1. Teacher will demonstrate examples on the board with own name.
2. Explain similes and proper punctuation on board.
3. Write simile poem together with the pupils.
Guided Practice Learning Tasks (Checking for understanding – group):

1. Teacher will walk around room to assist pupils and monitor students
when they walk around room.
2. Pupils will work together to help correct punctuation, spelling and so on.
3. Pupils will come up to the board and read the poems.
4. Pupils will have to write simile poem for post test.
Independent Practice (Monitor/adjust – individual):

1. Independent simile poem will be assigned for homework assignment.
2. Feedback and scaffolding provided when necessary.

DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
Disabilities:
 Edit length of poem
 Edit subject matter of poem
Gifted:
 Simile poems based on nature, school and family
 Produce longer poem (two stanzas)
ASSESSMENT
Informal:
 Observe what the pupils wrote for poems
 Observe all similes are used appropriately in poem
 Observe cooperative learning and teamwork
Formal:
 Homework assignment
CLOSURE:
 Pupils will have the option to present poems to the class
 Teacher will ask pupils what they learned and collect poem
 Make sure pupils understand concepts
 Assign homework assignment
Source: http://sarahperkinsclassroom.weebly.com/mastery-learning.html
This sample lesson plan is designed to help pupils gain knowledge on similes as
well as to apply similes in a poem. The lesson plan utilises the principles of mastery
learning in terms of providing pupils with guided and independent practice, as
well as differentiated tasks to help pupils of different competency levels.
The assessment tasks are mostly informal, conducted by the teacher to assess
pupilsÊ involvement and participation in the learning tasks. As the pupils progress
to the next level, the teacher provides feedback to help them do so.

In mastery learning, assessment plays an important role in determining the

achievement of the learning objectives. In the informal assessment mode, the
teacher observes the students completing the tasks. Students are required to work
self-paced based on their abilities. This is a crucial point as the students must be
trained to be independent and accountable for their learning. As the teacher
facilitates the group work and individual work, the teacher will, at the same time,
assess studentsÊ progress.
The formal assessment task can be regarded as reinforcement for the students to
enable them to enhance their understanding of the subject matter.
ACTIVITY 10.4
1. Suggest ways in which a teacher can assess studentsÊ participation and
involvement during team work using a specific assessment tool.
2. Discuss the cognitive domains of the learning outcomes stated in

the sample lesson plan.
10.4 PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS:

NON-DIRECTIVE TEACHING
The personal family of models focuses on oneÊs self (the student) and the role of a
teacher is to guide students to self-awareness and self-understanding. As such,
studentsÊ needs are given importance to achieve better learning. To further
understand how to conduct non-directive teaching in the classroom, read the
following scenario.
Lesson Topic: Reading a short novel

Strategy: Non-directive teaching
Learning Outcome: To read and understand the plot of the novel.
Mr Atkinson entered his class and addressed the 15-year-old students with a
question.
„As you are well aware, you have to complete reading this novel and I know
that all of you hate reading long texts. Why is that? Maybe I can help you.‰
The students then gave their reasons. Among their reasons: the text was too
long, they had no time to read and they felt the text was too difficult.

Mr Atkinson then asked, „What do you think is the best way of reading this
book?‰
The students thought for a while and one of them suggested: „Why donÊt we
work in groups? That way, we can divide the chapters and then share what we
have read. We will be able to save time.‰
Mr Atkinson smiled and said, „That is a good idea. Is there anyone who
disagrees with the suggestion?‰
All the students agreed and they started to divide themselves into groups of
four. The class monitor allocated the chapters to each group and everyone
started to read their respective chapters quietly. After a while, one student
asked her friends on how to present the chapters they have read. A few
suggestions were raised and finally everyone agreed to do their presentation
using the mind map. Mr Atkinson showed them how to create a mind map.
Mr Atkinson went around monitoring each group and from time to time,
discussions occurred between the students and the teacher where clarification
was needed.
As the students presented the chapters using mind maps, Mr Atkinson

provided feedback to help them further understand the text.
This scenario indicates one way of using the personal family of models in the
classroom. The method of teaching is based on studentsÊ flexibility of learning and
group work. Mr Atkinson plays the role of a facilitator and guides his students
when needed.
ACTIVITY 10.5
In your opinion what would be the best method of assessing
Mr AtkinsonÊs students? Discuss your ideas with your coursemates.

Mr Atkinson uses the non-directive teaching model to help his students to read the
novel. Since the students are not keen on reading, Mr Atkinson lets his students
make the decision on the best method of achieving the learning objective. The
students decide how to read (group work) and divide the tasks (allocating the
chapters for reading). The students also make decisions on the ways of presenting
the plot of the story, which is through the use of graphic organisers. Mr Atkinson
plays the role of a facilitator where scaffolding is provided when needed. Despite
having his students taking the lead in the learning process, Mr Atkinson needs to
find out if the learning outcome is achieved. This is done through several ways.
The best method of assessing the non-directive model is through self-evaluation.

The students are evaluated based on the progress through their completion of the
task, that is, through questions and answers that demonstrate their understanding
and through their success at overcoming obstacles related to the reading task.
These forms of assessment are qualitative in nature.
As the students identify the problems and seek solutions to overcome the problem,
they are already on the way to meaningful learning. Through observing and
facilitating, the teacher is able to ascertain the level of studentsÊ achievement of the
task. The assessment is ongoing, as the teacher needs to observe the studentsÊ
personal development in facing the situation and seeking ways to overcome the
situation. However, for the purpose of evaluation, the teacher can regard their final
product, which is the mind map presentation, as the culmination of their learning
experiences. What is most important here would be the studentsÊ post learning
experience. After generating a solution for their reading problem, the students
should be able to be more positive and responsive in future reading tasks.
10.5 POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN DESIGNING

AND IMPLEMENTING ASSESSMENT
TASKS
The main aim of teaching is to ensure that students experience optimum learning
and achieve the learning goals. As such, it is crucial that assessment tasks given
during or at the end of the learning session provide valuable information. Hence,
there are some points to consider when designing and implementing assessment
tasks to help create a meaningful learning climate.

Among them are student factors such as proficiency levels, age, learning styles and
their familiarity with the assessment structure. The validity and reliability of
assessment should also be considered. For example, learning outcomes should be
in accordance with the syntax or features of the teaching model. Besides, one
should also look into the types of assessment (for example, summative or
formative) to create a meaningful assessment.
Assessment should function as a tool to provide data to help students progress to

the next level. As such, assessment should not merely be an instrument to assess
learning but also function as a tool for learning.
Finally, one needs to consider quality based feedback to enable meaningful

assessment to take place. Corrective and comprehensive feedback will help
students make sense of the assessment data. This way, students will not regard the
assessment score or grade as just an end outcome of their learning. Instead, they
will be able to reflect on their learning and work towards improving areas of
weakness.
10.6 CONCLUSION
This topic has highlighted some of the ways different models of teaching can be
applied in the classroom and the ways of assessing learning. One point you must
take note is that the teaching models can be used and incorporated in various
ways. You also need to be aware that several models can achieve the same
objectives (Joyce et al., 2009). The challenge for an educator is to find the best
possible strategies to help studentsÊ learning process.
 Teaching models can be assessed based on their specific principles and guiding
concepts.
 Teachers should be flexible in providing alternative assessments to students to

enable them to achieve meaningful learning.
 The assessment techniques or approaches must be in accordance with the

learning outcomes or learning objectives of the lesson.
 Several teaching models can achieve the same learning objectives.
 Teaching strategies should be aligned to the assessment process.

Assessment Lesson plan

Behavioural systems family of Mastery learning
models
Models of teaching
Information-processing family of
models Non-directive teaching
Knowledge dimensions Personal family of models
Learning objectives Social family of models
Learning outcomes
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer,

R. E., Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M. C. (2001). A taxonomy for
learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
Dellolio, J. M., & Donk, T. (2007). Case study lesson plans. Retrieved from
http://www.sagepub.com/delloliostudy/case_study_lesson_plans/CaseSt
udy LP5.2.doc
Dietel, R., Herman, J., & Knuth, R. (1991).What does research say about
assessment? Naperville, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory
(NCREL). Retrieved from http://methodenpool.uni-koeln.de/portfolio/
What%20Does%20Research%20Say% 20About%20Assessment.htm
Huitt, W. (2004). Bloom et al.Ês taxonomy of the cognitive domain. Educational

Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
Education.

Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of BloomÊs taxonomy: An overview. Theory

Into Practice, 41(4), 212-218.
Winking, D. (1997). Critical issue: Ensuring equity with alternative assessments.

Retrieved from www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment/
as8refer.htm.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


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Models and Strategies of Teaching

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Teaching and Learning 1

Topic 2 Social Family of Models I: Partners in Learning 22

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Topic 3 Social Family of Models II: Role-playing Model and 39

Topic 4 Information Processing Family of Models I: Concept Attainment 60

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Topic 5 Information Processing Family of Models II: Advance Organisers 79

Topic 6 Information Processing Family of Models III: Scientific 100

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Topic 7 Behavioural Systems Family of Models I: Direct 120

Topic 8 Behavioural Systems Family of Models II: Mastery Learning 141

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Topic 9 Personal Family of Models 155

Topic 10 Assessing Learning Outcomes 171

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Accumulation of Study Hours

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Compare and contrast a variety of models and strategies of teaching as

Topic 3 elaborates on role-play and jurisprudential inquiry models, which are

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Topic 5 further elaborates on the information processing family of models by

Topic 8 continues the discussion on behavioural models by focusing on mastery

Topic 9 analyses the personal family of models while highlighting pertinent

Topic 10 discusses the assessment of learning outcomes based on the family of

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

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Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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1.1 DEFINING TEACHING AND LEARNING

1.1.1 Styles of Teaching

Table 1.1: Four Variances of Personalities

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Meanwhile, Grasha (1996) identified four approaches to teaching – that of a formal

Table 1.2: Four Approaches to Teaching

Source: Grasha (1996)

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1.1.2 Types of Learners

Table 1.3: Four Types of Learners

Source: McCarthy (1997)

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1.1.3 What is Teaching and Learning?

Figure 1.1: Four basic elements in teaching and learning

Teaching involves planning and implementation of instructional activities

How about learning?

Learning involves three important domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

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Bear in mind that the effectiveness of teaching and learning is dependent on

1.2 TEACHER-CENTRED AND

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