Sustainability 09 00215

sustainability
Article
A Decision Support System for Plant Optimization in
Urban Areas with Diversified Solar Radiation
Heyi Wei 1 , Zhengdong Huang 2,3, * and Mu Lin 3
1 Geodesign Research Centre for Plant, Environment and Human, College of City Construction,
Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang 330022, China; weihy@whu.edu.cn
2 Research Institute for Smart Cities, School of Civil Engineering, Shenzhen University,
Shenzhen 518060, China
3 School of Urban Design, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China; mulin@whu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: huangitc@126.com; Tel.: +86-755-2697-9712
Academic Editor: Brian Deal

Received: 7 December 2016; Accepted: 24 January 2017; Published: 6 February 2017
Abstract: Sunshine is an important factor which limits the choice of urban plant species, especially
in environments with high-density buildings. In practice, plant selection and configuration is a
key step of landscape architecture, which has relied on an experience-based qualitative approach.
However, the rationality and efficiency of this need to be improved. To maintain the diversity of
plant species and to ensure their ecological adaptability (solar radiation) in the context of sustainable
development, we developed the Urban Plants Decision Support System (UP-DSS) for assisting plant
selection in urban areas with diversified solar radiation. Our methodology mainly consists of the
solar radiation model and calibration, the urban plant database, and information retrieval model.
The structure of UP-DSS is also presented at the end of the methodology section, which is based on the
platform of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Microsoft Excel. An application of UP-DSS is
demonstrated in a residential area of Wuhan, China. The results show that UP-DSS can provide a very
scientific and stable tool for the adaptive planning of shade-tolerant plants and photoperiod-sensitive
plants, meanwhile, it also provides a specific plant species and the appropriate types of plant
community for user decision-making according to different sunshine radiation conditions and the
designer’s preferences.
Keywords: Decision Support Systems (DSS); solar radiation; Geographic Information Systems (GIS);
urban plants; adaptive planning; plant database
1. Introduction
Urbanization is the most obvious trend in the last 20 years [1]; land use intensity and building
density are increasing due to a shortage of land resources. In the context of this trend, soil conditions,
air quality, and sunshine environment have undergone drastic changes in metropolitan areas, which
have a significant impact on the selection and application of landscape plants [2,3]. Urban plants can
provide many ecological benefits and much aesthetic value, and play an important role in improving
the environment [4–6], biodiversity conservation [7,8], and promoting public health [9].
However, the survival and healthy growth of urban plants is a precondition of both ecosystem
services and human well-being, which are provided by trees, shrubs, and ground cover plants.
In general, landscape plants selected for urban greening and urban forestry are ‘best performers’,
which have a strong adaptability to climate, pollution, drought, pests, salinity, insufficient light,
and to other adverse ecological factors [2,3,10]. Unfortunately, these perfect plants are hard to find.
In addition, the excessive application of a single or a small number of plants will reduce both species
diversity and landscape diversity. The proper solution is based on the principle of ‘put the right tree in
Sustainability 2017, 9, 215; doi:10.3390/su9020215 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2017, 9, 215 2 of 20
the right place’ [11] or ‘matching the plant to the site’ [12,13]. This strategy can achieve a better balance
between the environmental supply and the ecological needs of landscape plants.
According to previous studies, urban plant selection must consider factors such as tolerance to
adverse soil conditions, air pollution, extreme climate, and resistance against pests and diseases [12–15].
Each plant has its natural distribution areas; designers can easily select the appropriate plants
for greening the region by querying the applied manual of landscape plants, and botany-related
sites [16–18]. In addition, these adverse soil conditions can be improved through artificial means [19].
For example, adding sand can increase the permeability of the soil, and lime powder or acid fertilizer
can improve the soil pH. Although these methods are likely to increase maintenance costs, the survival
of the plants is ensured.
Sunshine is an important ecological factor for plant growth, development and reproduction, and is
often overlooked in the microenvironment, which is an important habitat for biodiversity conservation.
In practice, empirical-based qualitative approaches, which are often adopted by plant planners [20],
are more difficult to put into practice in complex building environments due to limitations’ perception
of the diversity of the sunshine radiation environment. Once plants are cultivated, the solar condition
is difficult to change by artificial means. If the sunshine is inappropriate for the plants, the normal
growth of the plants will be affected [21], while the ornamental value of the plant is decreased, or
even destroyed. Eventually, it will lead to a great waste of plant materials. Therefore, it is necessary
to find an intelligent way to aid the landscape plant selection, and to avoid the shortcomings of the
experience-based approach, especially in high-density building areas.
Advances in digital technology make it possible to simulate solar radiation, and its
spatial-temporal variation pattern maps are also particularly beneficial in adaptation planning for
plant shade-tolerance on an urban scale [22]. In addition, some technologies can also play an important
role in determining the geographic location and for assisting the work of urban forestry managers
and practitioners [23,24]. An urban plant database may also assist the user in selecting suitable plants
by site conditions and user requirements [18]. In general, most of the studies presented above are
significant on a regional scale, particularly areas with buildings and terrain that will lead to the
diversity of solar radiation. Landscape architects should pay attention to this problem, especially in
the process of plant adaptation planning. Combining the sunshine simulation with a digital landscape
plant database is a better solution for urban plant selection, thus forming a decision-making support
platform for plant planners and designers.
In the early years, Decision Support Systems (DSS) were mainly used in clinical medicine [25],
risk management [26], and other related fields [27] to solve complex decision-making problems by
providing a structured language, a model library, a database, and an interactive panel. The biggest
advantage of DSS is that when faced with decision-making problems, it provides a lot of scientific
and rational options through the operation of the model and the retrieval of data information. In the
field of landscape architecture, the adaptability planning of landscape plants is also facing a similar
problem, that is, how to not only satisfy the aesthetic and security needs of stakeholders, but how also
to achieve plant sustainability.
To address the above-mentioned problems, we proposed an Urban Plant Decision Support System
(UP-DSS), which may assist landscape planners in plant selection and configuration in the urban areas.
In Section 2, we introduce our research methodology, which mainly comprises the solar radiation
model and validation, the database design for landscape plants, the logical information retrieval model,
and the structural composition of UP-DSS. In Section 3, we demonstrate the practical application of
UP-DSS for plant adaptation planning. The main issues are discussed in Section 4. Finally, this paper
summarizes the entire research, and explores the direction of future research, in Section 5.
2. Methodology
2.1. Solar Radiation Model
2.1.1. Expression of the Solar Radiation Model

Accumulated temperature is an ecological indicator used to describe the extent of heat abundance
in a region. Generally, the number of days over 10 ◦ C is calculated. The accumulated temperature
can be used to reveal complex connections between regional adaptability and plant health status
in terms of growth, development, and reproduction [28,29]. As is well known, solar radiation is
the sole source of both ground and atmospheric heat. This study mainly focuses on the calculation
of regional solar radiation, thereby guiding different species of the landscape plant selection and
community configuration.
In the comprehensive evaluation model for solar radiation, our research adopted the model of
photoelectric potential evaluation, which is commonly used in Europe and Africa [20,30]. The model
is expressed as:
Z 365
Scon = µ(t) Asol (t)Sint (t)dt (1)
1
In Formula (1), Scon is comprehensive conditions, µ is solar energy conversion coefficient; Asol is
sunshine area; Sint is solar intensity, and t is sunshine duration.
For the specific objective of this study, solar radiation can be directly absorbed by plant chlorophyll
(a/b) into carbohydrates with the participation of water and carbon dioxide. Therefore, we do not
consider the heterogeneity among different plant species, thus µ is equal to 1 and can be eliminated.
The formula is simplified as:
Z 365
Scon = Asol (t)Sint (t)dt (2)
1
Formula (2) is a comprehensive solar radiation evaluation model for this study, which can be
combined with historical meteorological data from weather stations to calculate the sunshine total
radiation of the target area. In our study, the solar analyst module (ArcGIS packages) was used to
calculate the solar radiation through a validated parameter setting.
2.1.2. Sunshine Simulation for Specific Plant Types

Landscape plants have a variety of growth and flowering habits, therefore the solar radiation
model should be targeted to describe these differences. For deciduous landscape plants, the demand
of sunshine radiation is most important in the spring, summer, and early autumn, but the effect of
sunshine radiation in winter is weak. However, solar radiation throughout the year is very important
for the growth and development of evergreen plants due to the fact that these have a longer growth
period, although their photosynthetic capacity is very weak in winter [31–33]. At the same time,
flowering plants also have a more special physiological habit, in particular, these plants are sensitive
to photoperiods [34–37].
Therefore, four kinds of solar radiation models were designed to solve these practical problems
according to the physiological and ecological characteristics of the landscape plants, combined with
digital software simulation features (Figure 1).
Description:
The four plant types are shown in this table, A, B, C, and D,
respectively. For flowering plants especially, which are
photoperiod sensitive, the solar duration must match their
demand, apart from the sunshine intensity, to meet their LCP
(light compensation point).
∑ . + . +⋯ .
=
< 12 ≥ 12
Figure 1. Cont.
= d
= d
Figure 1. Solar radiation model for the four different plant types.
Figure 1. Solar radiation model for the four different plant types.
2.2.Model
2.2. ModelCalibration
Calibration
InIndigital
digitalsoftware,
software,the themodel
modelcalibration
calibrationand
andparameter
parametersettings
settingsare
arecritical
criticalfor forpractical
practical
applications.
applications.InInthis
thisstudy,
study,we
weused
usedthe
theSolar
SolarAnalyst
Analystforformodel
modeltesting,
testing,which
whichisisa atool
toolininArcToolbox
ArcToolbox
(ArcGIS,
(ArcGIS,Environmental
EnvironmentalSystemsSystemsResearch
ResearchInstitute,
Institute,ESRI).
ESRI).The
Theparameter
parametersetting
settingitemitemincludes
includesthe
the
geographic
geographicparameters,
parameters,the thedata
dataparameters,
parameters,andandthethemodel
modelparameters.
parameters.OurOurtesttestfocused
focusedon ontwo
two
aspects,
aspects,which
whichareareshadow
shadowrange,
range,and
andsunshine
sunshineradiation
radiationintensity.
intensity.These
Thesedifferences
differencesexistexistbetween
between
digital
digitalsimulation
simulationand andreal-world
real-worldtesting.
testing.Finally,
Finally,the
theoptimal
optimalparameter
parametercombination
combinationisisdetermined
determined
and
andused
usedasasan
aninput
inputtotothe
theselection
selectionmodule
moduleininthethedecision
decisionsupport
supportsystem.
system.
2.2.1.Measurement
2.2.1. MeasurementofofShadow
ShadowRange
Range
InInorder
ordertotomeasure
measurethe theshadow
shadowrange
rangeofofbuildings
buildingsthat
thatisiscaused
causedby bydifferent
differentsolar
solarelevation
elevation
angles, a test building is selected as a sample for parameter calibration (Figure 2). The boundaries ofof
angles, a test building is selected as a sample for parameter calibration (Figure 2). The boundaries
thebuilding’s
the building’sshadow
shadoware aremeasured
measuredusing
usingsurveying
surveyingequipment
equipment(Total
(TotalStations
Stationsininthis
thiscase),
case),and
andthe
the
timeofofthe
time thesurvey
surveyisisalso
alsorecorded.
recorded.These
Theseallow
allowfor
forcalibrating
calibratingthe
theshadow
shadowmodel.
model.
Figure 2. Measurement location and method.

Figure 2. Measurement location and method.
2.2.2. Testing of Solar Radiation Intensity

2.2.2. Testing of Solar Radiation Intensity
This test is mainly for the purpose of detecting the simulation degree of our solar radiation
This test is mainly for the purpose of detecting the simulation degree of our solar radiation model.
model. The test data are used to adjust the scale factor between direct and diffuse radiation for the
The test data are used to adjust the scale factor between direct and diffuse radiation for the Solar
Solar Analyst. In the test tools, our study adopted the Quantum Meter (Model-QMSS-S) which is
Analyst. In the test tools, our study adopted the Quantum Meter (Model-QMSS-S) which is produced
produced by Spectrum Technologies, Inc. for the Photosynthetic Photon Flux (PPF) testing of sample
by Spectrum Technologies, Inc. for the Photosynthetic Photon Flux (PPF) testing of sample test points
test points (Figure 3).
(Figure 3).
(a) (b)
Figure3.3.Testing
Figure Testinglocations
locations and
and method.
method. (a)
(a) Test
Test instrument;
instrument;(b)
(b)test
testpoints.
points.
In this test, we selected 30 test points, which were randomly distributed throughout the study
In this
area. The test,
sensor wehead
selected
of the30Quantum
test points, which
Meter were
needs randomly
to be kept 1 mdistributed throughout
from the ground and bethe study
placed
area. The sensor head of the Quantum Meter needs to be kept 1 m from the ground
horizontally to reduce errors due to its operation when recording data. It is necessary to quickly markand be placed
horizontally
the numbertoand reducetest errors due instrument
time. This to its operation whenused
is mainly recording
for thedata.
PPF It is necessary
testing, to quickly
therefore the unitmark
of
thedata
number and test
is µmoles/m /s. 2 time. This instrument is mainly used for the PPF testing, therefore the unit of data
is µmoles/m 2 /s.to unify the units between the measured data (µmoles/m /s) and the simulated data
In order 2
In order
(W/m 2), we to unify theunit
performed units between with
conversions the measured (µmoles/m2 /s) and the simulated data
dataformula.
the following
2
(W/m ), we performed unit conversions with the following formula.
= × (3)
where is the solar radiation intensity, is
R the
= RPPF
t × value
a tested by the Quantum Meter, and is(3)
the coefficient of the unit conversion. For sunlight, the is 0.219, which is from ‘Photons to W/m2’.
where R is the solar radiation intensity, Rt is the PPF value tested by the Quantum Meter, and a is the
2.3. Database
coefficient Construction
of the of Landscape
unit conversion. Plants the a is 0.219, which is from ‘Photons to W/m2 ’.
For sunlight,
2.3.2.3.1. Software
Database Platform of
Construction forLandscape
DatabasePlants
The simulation, analysis and evaluation of the solar radiation relates to the spatial location
2.3.1. Software Platform for Database
attributes of the study area, and the landscape plant species are retrieved based on the evaluation
The simulation,
results. Considering analysis
the actualand evaluation
needs of thea Geographic
of this study, solar radiation relates to
Information the spatial
Systems (GIS) location
based
databaseofis the
attributes a better
studychoice
area,for
andthethe
storage of landscape
landscape plant information.
plant species are retrieved based on the evaluation
results.InConsidering
our research,the theactual
ArcGIS (ESRI)
needs and study,
of this MS Excel packages are
a Geographic used to provide
Information the(GIS)
Systems software
based
platform for the landscape plants database. The list of
database is a better choice for the storage of landscape plant information. landscape plants, together with their
characteristics (attributes),
In our research, is maintained
the ArcGIS (ESRI) and in MS
MS Excel, and linkedare
Excel packages to used
ArcGIS
to as a tablethe
provide forsoftware
plant
retrieval.
platform Other
for the database
landscape software
plantspackages
database.mayThe
be used
list inofplace of MS Excel
landscape for better
plants, performance
together with their
if the plant database becomes larger.
characteristics (attributes), is maintained in MS Excel, and linked to ArcGIS as a table for plant
retrieval. Other database software packages may be used in place of MS Excel for better performance
2.3.2. Plant Types and Classification
if the plant database becomes larger.
Landscape plant types can be divided according to a variety of methods including different
2.3.2. Plant Typesand
growth habits and Classificationcharacteristics. In the application field, planners and designers are
morphological
more concerned about the plant morphology, height, deciduous habits, growth cycle and other
Landscape plant types can be divided according to a variety of methods including different
properties. Common plant types are as follows.
growth habits and morphological characteristics. In the application field, planners and designers
aremore According
concerned to the sizethe
about andplant
heightmorphology,
of the plant body,
height, plants can be divided
deciduous into trees,
habits, growth shrubs,
cycle andand
other
herbs;
properties. Common plant types are as follows.
 According to the plant community structure, plants can be divided into the upper, middle and
• According to the size and height of the plant body, plants can be divided into trees, shrubs,
lower plants;
and herbs;
• According to the plant community structure, plants can be divided into the upper, middle and
lower plants;
• According to the appearance characteristics, plants can be divided into bamboos, vines, palm,
 According to the appearance characteristics, plants can be divided into bamboos, vines, palm,
and aquatic plants;
and aquatic plants;
• According to leaf characteristics and growth habit, plants can be divided into coniferous,
 According to leaf characteristics and growth habit, plants can be divided into coniferous, broad-
broad-leaved, evergreen, and deciduous;
leaved, evergreen, and deciduous;
•  Herbs, according
Herbs, accordingtotothe
thelife
lifecycle
cycleof
ofthe
the plant, can be
plant, can be divided
dividedinto
intoannual
annualplants,
plants, biennial
biennial plants,
plants,
and perennials.
and perennials.
The classification
The of plant
classification types
of plant is quite
types complex
is quite and less
complex andclear
less depending on theon
clear depending different practical
the different
purposes.
practicalTopurposes.
support theTo database construction,
support the database plant type divisions
construction, and attribution
plant type relationships
divisions and attributionare
indicated beloware
relationships (Figure 4). below (Figure 4).
indicated
Figure4.4.Landscape
Figure Landscape plant
plant types
types and
andclassification.
classification.
2.3.3. Table Structure

2.3.3. Table Structure
The ecological adaptability of landscape plants for the planting design is a key principle to
The ecological adaptability of landscape plants for the planting design is a key principle to ensure
ensure the healthy growth of plants. The existing plant listings can be used as a reference to the UP-
the healthy growth of plants. The existing plant listings can be used as a reference to the UP-DSS, but
DSS, but the properties of the plants need to be adapted to the structure of the table. The attributes of
the properties of the plants need to be adapted to the structure of the table. The attributes of the table
the table mainly concern basic naming, ecological habits, morphological characteristics, ornamental
mainly
values,concern basicareas,
distribution naming,
and ecological habits,
so on (Table 1). morphological characteristics, ornamental values,
distribution areas, and so on (Table 1).
Table 1. Structure of landscape plant table.
Table 1. Structure of landscape plant table.
ID Field Field Type Property Description or Value Set
ID 1 CN_name_trade
Field Text
Field TypeChinese name: Trade name.
Property Genericorname
Description Value Set
1 2 CN_name_alias
CN_name_trade TextText Chinese name: Other names
Chinese name: Trade name. Generic name
2 3 Latin_name
CN_name_alias TextText International
Chinese generic name
name: Other names
3 4 Latin_name
Family_name TextText Generic International
name generic name
4 Family_name Text Generic name
5 Genus_name Text Generic name
5 Genus_name Text Generic name
6 6 Plant_type
Plant_type TextText {Tree, {Tree,
Shrub, Groundcover}
Shrub, Groundcover}
7 7 Deciduous_habit
Deciduous_habit TextText {Evengreen, Deciduous,
{Evengreen, Annual
Deciduous, Annual& biennial,
& biennial,Perennial}
Perennial}
8 8 Flowering_habit
Flowering_habit TextText {Long {Long day, Day-neutral,
day, Day-neutral, Short
Short day}
day}
9 Leaf_shape Text {Conifer, Broadleaf}
10
9 Leaf_shape
Fruit_seed
Text
Boolean
{Conifer, Broadleaf}
{Yes, No}
11 10 Fruit_seed
Sunshine_demand Boolean
Text {Yes, No}
{Sun-L, Sun-T, Sun-N, Shade-T, Shade-L}
1211 Trans_coefficient
Sunshine_demand TextText {Sun-L, Transmission coefficient
Sun-T, Sun-N, {0 ≤ Shade-L}
Shade-T, T < 0.2, 0.2, T < 0.4, 0.4, T}
1312 Allergen
Trans_coefficient Boolean Transmission
Text {Yes, No}coefficient {0 ≤ T < 0.2, 0.2, T < 0.4, 0.4, T}
14 Distribution_area Text list of provinces/regions
1513 Allergen
Anti-pollution Boolean
Boolean {Yes, No}
{Yes, No}
1614 Distribution_area
Special_smell Text
Boolean list of provinces/regions
{Yes, No}
1715 Flying_catkins
Anti-pollution Boolean {Yes, No}
Boolean {Yes, No}
18 Ornamental_value Text {Leaf, Flower, Fruit, Shape, Trunk}
16 Special_smell Boolean {Yes, No}
17 Flying_catkins Boolean {Yes, No}
18 Ornamental_value Text {Leaf, Flower, Fruit, Shape, Trunk}
2.4. Logical Information Retrieval Model

2.4. Logical Information Retrieval Model
2.4.1. Boolean Model for Plants Retrieval
2.4.1. Boolean Model for Plants Retrieval
The landscape plants stored in the database have a variety of attributes, which can serve the
practical
The needs through
landscape data
plants retrieval
stored and
in the databasehave
database management. A attributes,
a variety of better retrieval
which logic
canmodel
serve can
the
simplify
practical the operation
needs throughofdataDSS, to facilitate
retrieval the application
and database of non-technical
management. staff. Inlogic
A better retrieval this model
study, can
we
used the the
simplify Boolean model
operation of for
DSS,plant species retrieval
to facilitate and query.
the application of non-technical staff. In this study, we used
The Boolean
the Boolean modelmodel hasspecies
for plant many advantages,
retrieval andsuchquery.as its simple structure and form. The Boolean
expression is matched
The Boolean model with the data
has many attribute.
advantages, suchIf as
theitsmatch
simpleisstructure
successful,
and itform.
showsTheasBoolean
‘1’. If
unsuccessful, it shows
expression is matched as the
with ‘0’. data
Theattribute.
main searchIf the algorithms for Boolean
match is successful, searches
it shows as ‘1’. are ‘and’, ‘or’,
If unsuccessful,
‘exclusive
it shows asor’ and
‘0’. ‘not’.
The main The application
search of thefor
algorithms Boolean
Boolean model can be
searches arecombined
‘and’, ‘or’,with Query or’
‘exclusive Builder
and
(ArcGIS)
‘not’. The and query functions
application of the Booleanof MSmodel
Excel,canto be
provide
combinedricher options
with QueryofBuilder
plant types
(ArcGIS)for and
landscape
query
design.
functions of MS Excel, to provide richer options of plant types for landscape design.
2.4.2. Steps
2.4.2. Steps and
and Processes
Processes for
for the
the Plants
Plants Retrieval
Retrieval
The realization
The realization of
of decision-making,
decision-making, is based on
is based on the
the set
set of
of steps
steps to
to complete
complete for
for any
any DSSs.
DSSs. InIn this
this
study, the
study, the decision-making
decision-makingof oflandscape
landscapeplant
plantselection
selectionandandconfiguration
configurationisisalso
alsocompleted
completedthrough
througha
specific information retrieval step. Both scientific and reasonable information retrieval
a specific information retrieval step. Both scientific and reasonable information retrieval paths simplify
paths
the user's operation, but they can also improve the efficiency of the system. For our research,
simplify the user's operation, but they can also improve the efficiency of the system. For our research, we have
designed
we three keythree
have designed steps key
to realize
steps the plant selections
to realize the plant and community
selections configurations
and community that are limited
configurations that
by solar radiation for landscape plant adaptive planning in metropolitan areas (Figure 5).
are limited by solar radiation for landscape plant adaptive planning in metropolitan areas (Figure 5).
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Steps
Steps and
and processes
processes for
for plants
plants retrieval.
retrieval.
2.5. Structure of UP-DSS

2.5. Structure of UP-DSS
2.5.1.
2.5.1. Workflow of UP-DSS
Workflow of UP-DSS
The
The UP-DSS
UP-DSS is is aa GIS-based
GIS-based platform
platform for
for the
the adaptation
adaptation planning
planning of
of landscape
landscape plants
plants under
under the
the
restriction of diversified sunshine radiation environments in specific urban areas. It consists
restriction of diversified sunshine radiation environments in specific urban areas. It consists of several of
several keywhich
key parts, parts,include
which the
include the database
database (including(including building/terrain
building/terrain data and data and landscape
landscape plant
plant data), the
data), the model base (the solar radiation model and the logical information retrieval model), and the
Sustainability
Sustainability 2017,
2017, 9,
9, 215
215 10
10 of
of 20
20
outputbase
model of (the
decision-making
solar radiationresults. In the
model and addition,
logical UP-DSS canretrieval
information be used for urban
model), and thevegetation
output of
conservation; therefore,
decision-making plant
results. In investigation
addition, UP-DSS and maintenance
can be is also
used for urban an important
vegetation part oftherefore,
conservation; UP-DSS
(Figure 6).
plant investigation and maintenance is also an important part of UP-DSS (Figure 6).
6. The workflow and technical route

Figure 6. route of
of Urban
Urban Plants
Plants Decision
Decision Support
Support System
System (UP-DSS).
(UP-DSS).
2.5.2. The Modeling Process of UP-DSS

UP-DSS Based
Based on Model Builder
on Model Builder in
in GIS
GIS
In order toto achieve
achievethe
thepurpose
purposeofofthetheautomatic
automatic retrieval
retrievaland
andmatching
matching of landscape plants
of landscape for
plants
‘right tree in the right place’, a modeling process is designed using the Model
for ‘right tree in the right place’, a modeling process is designed using the Model Builder Builder in ArcGIS
(Figure 7). The modeling process includes data conversion,
(Figure 7). conversion, model selection, parameter calibration,
solar radiation simulation,
radiation simulation, classification,
classification, and
and information
information retrieval from
retrieval from the
the plant
plantdatabase.
database.
Figure 7. The modeling process and steps of UP-DSS based on Model Builder in ArcGIS (ESRI).
Figure 7. The modeling process and steps of UP-DSS based on Model Builder in ArcGIS (ESRI).
We first determine the scope of the study area by extracting the building information from the
Wuhan Building Census data through the clip tool in ArcToolbox, which is converted from vector
We first
Sustainability determine
2017, 9, 215 the scope of the study area by extracting the building information from the
11 of 20
Wuhan Building Census data through the clip tool in ArcToolbox, which is converted from vector
format to raster format, and which finalizes the building data for the study area. Before the sunshine
simulation, we we carried
carried out
outthe
theparameter
parametertest
testand
andmodel
modelcalibration;
calibration;these
these data
data will
will bebe provided
provided in
in the Supplementary Materials. After determining the optimal parameters of a
the supplementary material. After determining the optimal parameters of a solar radiation model,solar radiation
model, the sunshine
the sunshine simulation
simulation wasby
was run runthe
by the Solar
Solar Analyst,
Analyst, after
after whichthe
which thedata
data conversion
conversion and
reclassification was completed. Finally, the plant information was retrieved and the whole modeling
process waswas complete.
complete.
2.5.3. The Graphical

2.5.3. The Graphical User
User Interface
Interface (GUI)
(GUI) of
of UP-DSS
UP-DSS
In
In order
order toto allow
allow the the user
user to
to operate
operate thisthis system,
system, we
we used
used the
the C#
C# language
language to to develop
develop the
the
Graphical UserInterface
Graphical User Interface(GUI)
(GUI)ofofUP-DSS
UP-DSS in in
anan ArcEngine
ArcEngine 10.010.0 environment.
environment. The has
The GUI GUIthree
has three
main
main operational
operational steps (Figure
steps (Figure 8). the
8). Firstly, Firstly, the landscape
landscape planner the
planner chooses chooses
checkthe check
items items
for the for the
ecological
ecological functions, ornamental values, and types of plants depending on
functions, ornamental values, and types of plants depending on the practical needs and planning the practical needs and
planning ideas. Secondly,
ideas. Secondly, to load the tosolar
load radiation
the solar radiation
pattern ofpattern
planningof planning
areas, whichareas, which the
includes includes the
sunshine
sunshine
intensity and sunshine duration, specific values and the area ratio of different levels will be
intensity and sunshine duration, specific values and the area ratio of different levels will be
dynamically
dynamically displayed
displayed in in the
the right
right box. The user
box. The user can
can operate
operate the
the solar
solar radiation
radiation map,
map, such
such asas moving,
moving,
and
and zooming
zooming in in and
and out.
out. OnOn the
the far
far right,
right, the
the annual
annual average
average values
values of of the
the total
total radiation
radiation are
are also
also
shown in 3D form; it provides a more intuitive sunshine feature for landscape planners.
shown in 3D form; it provides a more intuitive sunshine feature for landscape planners. Finally, when Finally, when
‘Next’
‘Next’ is
is selected,
selected, the
the interface
interface will
will run
run toto the
the results
results panel,
panel, which
which will
will display
display thethe retrieval
retrieval results
results of
of
adaptable plants and communities. If necessary, users can also view real
adaptable plants and communities. If necessary, users can also view real sample images. sample images.
Figure 8. Screenshots
Figure 8. Screenshots of
of the UP-DSS’s Graphical
the UP-DSS’s Graphical User
User Interface
Interface (GUI).
(GUI).
3. Example of Use and Results

3. Example of Use and Results
3.1. Study
3.1. Study Area and Data
Area and Data
Wuhan is
Wuhan is located
located in in the
the central
central region
regionofof China.
China. The
The geographical
geographicallongitude
longitudeisisbetween
between113113°41′E
◦ 410 E
and 115
and 115°05′E,
◦ 050 E, and
and latitude
latitude is between 29
is between 29°58′N
◦ 580 N and
and 31°22′N.
31◦ 220 N.Wuhan
Wuhanbelongs
belongs toto the
the northern
northern climate
climate
zone of the subtropical monsoon that is characterized by abundant rainfall and sunshine,
zone of the subtropical monsoon that is characterized by abundant rainfall and sunshine, four distinct four distinct
seasons, and
seasons, and aa hot
hot summer
summer and and cold
cold winter. Most subtropical
winter. Most landscape plants
subtropical landscape plants can
can grow
grow healthily
healthily inin
Wuhan. It has been estimated that the number of plant species in the area
Wuhan. It has been estimated that the number of plant species in the area exceeds 2040 [38]. exceeds 2040 [38].
Our study
Our study site
siteisislocated
locatedininthe the Hongshan
Hongshan District
District of Wuhan
of Wuhan City.City.
The The
totaltotal
area area is 1.085
is 1.085 km2,
km2 , with
with three
three residential
residential units,units, respectively
respectively calledcalled
Da Hua,Da Jin
Hua,
Di,Jin Di,Yaand
and Ya Yuan.
Yuan. There There
are 462are 462 buildings
buildings in the
in the study area, and the tallest building is more than 90 m. Building data
study area, and the tallest building is more than 90 m. Building data are provided by local planningare provided by local
planning departments and supplemented by Google Maps and on-site
departments and supplemented by Google Maps and on-site field investigation. The building data field investigation. The
building
serve as thedata serve
input as the
of the input platform
software of the software platform simulation.
for the sunshine for the sunshine
At thesimulation.
same time, we At also
the same
used
time, we also used instruments to locate plants and obtain solar radiation data
instruments to locate plants and obtain solar radiation data for model validation and calibration. for model validation
and calibration.
In order to make recommendations for landscape plant selection and configuration in this area,
we have established a landscape plant database for the region of central China based on the Flora of
China website [39]. The database is built with MS-Excel, and then linked to ArcGIS platform.
In order to make recommendations for landscape plant selection and configuration in this area,
we have established a landscape plant database for the region of central China based on the Flora of
China website [39]. The database is built with MS-Excel, and then linked to ArcGIS platform.
3.2. Adaptive Planning for the Shade Tolerance of Plants
3.2. Adaptive
In the urbanPlanning
built-upforarea,
the Shade Tolerance
landscape of Plants
plant selection and planning for study areas should be based
on the specific environmental
In the urban built-up area,conditions,
landscapewhich
plant is popularly
selection and referred
planning toforasstudy
‘right tree,should
areas right place’.
be
To this end,
based onthis
thesection
specificmainly shows the
environmental practicalwhich
conditions, application of UP-DSS.
is popularly However,
referred we only
to as ‘right consider
tree, right
the sunshine
place’. To factor;
this end,thethis
simulation and evaluation
section mainly of other application
shows the practical ecological factors, as well
of UP-DSS. as the we
However, application
only
consider
of artistic the sunshine
techniques, willfactor; the simulation
be introduced and evaluation
in future research. of other ecological factors, as well as the
application
As described of artistic
in thetechniques, will be introduced
research methodology, in future
according to research.
the parameter input, data loading, and
As described in the research methodology, according
model settings, the UP-DSS automatically generated landscape plant to the parameter input, data
adaptation loading,
planning andandlayout
model settings, the UP-DSS automatically
based on the diversity of solar radiation. generated landscape plant adaptation planning and layout
based on the diversity of solar radiation.
The results are mainly divided into five planting areas, which are the Sun-Loving plant area
The results are mainly divided into five planting areas, which are the Sun-Loving plant area
(Sun-L), the Sun-Tolerant plant area (Sun-T), the Sun-Neutral plant area (Sun-N), the Shade-Tolerant
(Sun-L), the Sun-Tolerant plant area (Sun-T), the Sun-Neutral plant area (Sun-N), the Shade-Tolerant
plantplant
areaarea
(Shade-T),
(Shade-T),and thethe
and Shade-Loving
Shade-Lovingplant
plant area (Shade-L),respectively
area (Shade-L), respectively (Figure
(Figure 9). 9).
TheThe adaptive
adaptive
planning
planningresults of landscape
results of landscape plants
plantsneeds
needstoto be
be combined
combined with withother
otherplanning
planning information,
information, suchsuch
as as
the road network and other ancillary facilities, in order to ultimately guide
the road network and other ancillary facilities, in order to ultimately guide this practice. this practice.
Figure 9. The adaptive planning of landscape plants based on UP-DSS.

Figure 9. The adaptive planning of landscape plants based on UP-DSS.
3.3. Adaptive Planning for the Flowering Habits of Plants

3.3. Adaptive Planning for the Flowering Habits of Plants
Landscape plants provide considerable ornamental value, such as leaf shape, trunk morphology,
Landscape
flowers, fruitsplants
and soprovide considerable
on. Among ornamental
these features, it is thevalue, suchplants
flowering as leafthat
shape, trunk
are most morphology,
favored by
flowers, fruits
humans. and so on.
Landscape Amongshould
architects these pay
features, it is to
attention thethe
flowering
selection plants that are most
and application favored by
of flowering
plants. Landscape plants with flowering habits are closely related to sunshine duration, especially
for herbs that are sensitive to photoperiod. In order to focus on these photoperiod sensitive plants,
humans. Landscape architects should pay attention to the selection and application of flowering
plants. Landscape plants with flowering habits are closely related to sunshine duration, especially for
herbs that are2017,
Sustainability sensitive
9, 215 to photoperiod. In order to focus on these photoperiod sensitive plants, 13 of 20 the
characteristics of sunshine duration were simulated and analyzed for the study area. The adaptive
the characteristics
planning of floweringofplantssunshine
was duration
realizedwere
by simulated and analyzed
UP-DSS (Figure 10). for the study area. The adaptive
planning of flowering plants was realized by UP-DSS (Figure 10).
The solar duration of the same location varies during the year. In this simulation, the selection
The solar duration
and configuration of the plants
of long-day same location variesbased
are mainly duringonthethe
year. In this value
average simulation, the selection
of solar duration in
and configuration of long-day plants are mainly based on the average value of solar duration in
spring and summer. On the other hand, for short-day plants, the average value of solar duration in
spring and summer. On the other hand, for short-day plants, the average value of solar duration in
autumn and winter should be applied. For day-neutral plants that are not sensitive to photoperiod, the
autumn and winter should be applied. For day-neutral plants that are not sensitive to photoperiod,
application is more flexible, which offers choices in extensive planting areas. Therefore, if a planning
the application is more flexible, which offers choices in extensive planting areas. Therefore, if a
areaplanning
is suitable forislong-day
area plant
suitable for cultivation
long-day plant then it is also
cultivation thensuitable forsuitable
it is also the growth and
for the flowering
growth and of
day-neutral plants.
flowering of day-neutral plants.
Figure 10. Adaptive planning for photoperiod-sensitive plants.

Figure 10. Adaptive planning for photoperiod-sensitive plants.
3.4. Decision-Making for Specific Plant Species
3.4. Decision-Making for Specific Plant Species
There are large numbers of plant species that can be utilized in urban forestry and urban
There areregional
greening; large numbers of plant
adaptability species
is the main that can
factor be utilized
restricting theinselection
urban forestry and urban
and application of greening;
these
regional adaptability
plants. is the
In this study, main factor
a database restricting
of plant the constructed.
species was selection and application
For of these plants.
retrieving efficiency, In this
the plant
species
study, have been
a database tailored
of plant to those
species wasthatconstructed.
can grow in the Forregion of central
retrieving China. the plant species have
efficiency,
The retrieval
been tailored to thoseresults of the
that can UP-DSS
grow in theinclude
region103 species China.
of central of trees, 63 species of shrubs, 66 species
ofThe
ground-cover plants, and 20 species of climbing plant,
retrieval results of the UP-DSS include 103 species of trees,bamboo and63palm. These
species ofare suitable
shrubs, 66 plants
species of
for the study area. The detailed quantities are shown in Table 2.
ground-cover plants, and 20 species of climbing plant, bamboo and palm. These are suitable plants for
For the purpose of biodiversity conservation, it is necessary to choose as many plant species as
the study area. The detailed quantities are shown in Table 2.
possible, as long as these plants can adapt to the ecological and climatic conditions [40,41]. A diversity
For the purpose of biodiversity conservation, it is necessary to choose as many plant species as
possible, as long as these plants can adapt to the ecological and climatic conditions [40,41]. A diversity
of plants ensures a rich variety of food types and habitats for more animals, birds, and other creatures
in theSustainability
mixed-dwellers2017, 9, 215ecosystem. 14 of 20
However, it is also necessary to consider the needs of residents within residential communities.
of plants ensures a rich variety of food types and habitats for more animals, birds, and other creatures
When choosing plant species from the retrieval results of UP-DSS, we should also consider the health
in the mixed-dwellers ecosystem.
and aesthetic appeal for stakeholders. For this purpose, it is important to avoid selecting plants
However, it is also necessary to consider the needs of residents within residential communities.
with needles,
When choosing fallingplant
dust, flyingfrom
species catkins, or unusual
the retrieval resultssmells, as well
of UP-DSS, as other
we should allergenic
also plants.
consider the healthThese
features
and aesthetic appeal for stakeholders. For this purpose, it is important to avoid selecting plantsitwith
of plants can be incorporated into the UP-DSS database; the planner may exclude through
publicneedles,
participation.
falling dust, flying catkins, or unusual smells, as well as other allergenic plants. These
features of plants can be incorporated into the UP-DSS database; the planner may exclude it through
public participation. Table 2. Retrieval results of landscape plant by UP-DSS.
Shade Tolerance
Table 2. Retrieval results of landscape plant by UP-DSS. Flowering Habits
Community Structure Plant Types
Sun-L Sun-T Sun-N Shade-T Shade-L Short-Day Long-Day
Shade Tolerance Flowering Habits
Community
Upper Structure Plant Types
Tree 17
Sun-L Sun-T62 Sun-N 11 Shade-T 9 Shade-L4 Short-Day— Long-Day —
Upper
Middle Tree
Shrub 174 62 37 11 6 9 9 4 7 --- 1 --- —
Middle Shrub 4 37 6 9 7 1 ---
Annual/biennial 9 10 1 2 — 2 4
Lower (Groundcover) Annual/biennial 911 10 15 1 2 --- 5 2 1 4 1
Lower (Groundcover) Perennial 9 4
Perennial 11 15 9 4 5 1 1
Climbing species 2 4 — — 2 — —
Other Climbing species
Bamboo species 2— 4 5 --- 1 --- — 2 — --- — --- —
Other Bamboo species
Palm species ---— 5 4 1 — --- 1 --- 1 --- — --- —
Palm species --- ‘—’ indicates
Note: 4 ---
no data. 1 1 --- ---
Note: ‘---’ indicates no data.
3.5. Decision-Making for the Plant Community
3.5. Decision-Making for the Plant Community
The major issue in the community structure design of landscape plants is to configure the upper
The major issue in the community structure design of landscape plants is to configure the upper
tree, middle shrub, and lower groundcover plants [20]. The design method for the landscape plant
tree, middle shrub, and lower groundcover plants [20]. The design method for the landscape plant
community is mainly based on the conceptual model, as described in Figure 11. The process is
community is mainly based on the conceptual model, as described in Figure 11. The process is
performed under
performed the the
under context of of
context limited
limitedsolar
solarradiation, assumingnono
radiation, assuming restrictions
restrictions on other
on other ecological
ecological
factors. The comprehensive sunshine condition is divided into five grades
factors. The comprehensive sunshine condition is divided into five grades and 10 sub-grades and 10 sub-grades
depending on the
depending onsolar radiation
the solar of the
radiation of study area.
the study A total
area. of 10
A total of representative
10 representativeplant community
plant communitytypes
were types werefor
designed designed for different
different sunshinesunshine levels (Table
levels (Table 3). 3).
Figure 11. Conceptual

Figure model
11. Conceptual modelofoflandscape
landscape plant communitywith
plant community with limited
limited solar
solar radiation.
radiation.
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 ☻☺
☻☺☻☺ 
 ☻☺
☻☺
1IIII 1II
II
-(Trees)  1
 ☻☺
Middle ☻☺ 
(Shrubs) --- 
 Lower ☻☺ 2   ☻☺
(Groundcover☻☺ ☻☺
 ☻☺ 
--- ---
---
 
Plants) 
 ☻☺ ☻☺☻☺
☻☺       ☻☺ ☻☺☻☺  
II
2
 ☻☺ --- The 2IIIIV
II 2II
1 III
IV
2IV
IVIV
III
III
IV
III
2 2
11☻☺‘W’,








☻☺☻☺
 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺ ------
--- 
---
---
---
---
--- 








 II IV
IV
III
III
1☻☺
IV
IV
III
III ☻☺
22
1☻☺
1☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺  







 
 ①
☻☺







☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺ ② ---

--- ---

---
---






③ 




☻☺

 ①☻☺
☻☺ ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺ ②
 













 ③  


 ①

 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺②
☻☺
☻☺
I 1  --- ②  --- ③  III II 11 ‘Y’,
   ☻☺
 ☻☺  ---
---   II ☻☺ ☻☺ 
   ☻☺ 
---
  ☻☺☻☺☻☺ 
   ☻☺
II ☻☺ II ☻☺ ---  ☻☺    
-  I2 2  ☻☺☻☺ ☻☺  Note:--- 
 symbols
I2III 1
☻☺22☻☺
 ☻☺ ☻☺☻☺‘V’,
 ‘F’  and
--- ‘ ’ indicates ☻☺‘sun-loving’,
2☻☺ ☻☺ 2☻☺
2  ‘sun-tolerant’,
 ‘sun-neutral’, ☻☺☻☺ ‘shade-tolerant’,

② - 1  ③ ①  

---‘shade-loving’, 2 2III
IV IVIV
22 ①
III 11  

 ☻☺
 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺ ② 
--- --- ---
--- ③
 

 IV
IV
III
III ☻☺☻☺11 I☻☺ ☻☺ 


 


 ☻☺
☻☺  ---
---
 
 
 ☻☺☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺☻☺  


 


 
 ☻☺
☻☺
II II1 2 ☻☺☻☺
 ☻☺ and --- 
IIII 1 IV
III 1 1IV
II
2 IV
V
IV
III
III
2V 22☻☺
2V
IV
☻☺ ☻☺
respectively;
 ☻☺









☻☺☻☺
 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
The
☻☺
☻☺ ---
---
symbols
--- 
---

---
---
---
---‘-’




and

 
☻☺
II‘,’IV
IV
III
III
2☻☺
V
V
IV
IV
☻☺
☻☺ 2☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
1
indicates
2☻☺
☻☺
☻☺









 


 ☻☺
☻☺
‘evergreen’
☻☺


 
☻☺
☻☺

☻☺
 ---

--- ---
or
---
---



---
 
‘deciduous’;

 



☻☺
 ☻☺ ☻☺ ☻☺
The
☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺

☻☺
symbols 

 









‘#’,


 ‘ ’ 

 ☻☺

 ☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
☻☺ I
- 2  ---1 
IIIII 1  ☻☺
 
☻☺☻☺ ☻☺ ---

☻☺ 
---‘
--- ’ 
 IIIII IV
1☻☺
2 III
 IV
1IV 1 ☻☺ 11 ☻☺
1   
☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
 ☻☺
 ☻☺ 
☻☺ 
--- ---
------
  

---
--- 
 ☻☺

 III ☻☺ ☻☺
IV
IV1 ☻☺ ☻☺
11 ☻☺
☻☺ 

   ☻☺


  --- 

--- 
1
---‘  2
 ☻☺ 3 ☻☺
☻☺ ☻☺☻☺ 
 

 
  
 ☻☺
☻☺ 22 I☻☺ ☻☺ ☻☺ ☻☺
1 respectively.
- 
II  ☻☺ ☻☺ 
and
---
indicates

 II IV
III 1 1III ‘short-day’,
III
V V ☻☺22  ☻☺ 
☻☺
 ☻☺

‘day-neutral’,
☻☺ ☻☺ 
--- --- 
---
---
and
  

‘long-day’,
 ☻☺III
III
V
V ☻☺☻☺
☻☺ ☻☺  


 

 ☻☺ Label
  
---
---
’,
 
---
’,
‘
 
‘ ’
☻☺
 ☻☺☻☺ ☻☺☻☺
indicates
  
 

‘sunshine
  
 
 ☻☺
III2
 ☻☺ ---
requirements’,  IIIIV V
III
2 2
2 ‘deciduousIV
1IV
V 1 12121☻☺
V   
☻☺☻☺

habits’ ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺ and --- ---
---‘flowering     
 III
habits’ IV
IV
V
V1☻☺
☻☺ 11☻☺ of☻☺
1☻☺ ☻☺  



2landscape  
☻☺
 ☻☺
☻☺ ☻☺
plant. ---
 
The  


color 

strip☻☺ ☻☺ ☻☺☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺☻☺
corresponds ☻☺ 

 

  

tothe  

 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺ ☻☺
-II1  III  ☻☺ --- 
---  IIIII IV 1 IV
V
1III 2IV   
☻☺  ☻☺
 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
 ------ ---
------ 
  
 IIIIV IV ☻☺ 2☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺ 
    
☻☺
 ☻☺
☻☺  --- ---
---

  
  
 ☻☺☻☺☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺☻☺ 
 

  
  
 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
2☻☺ ☻☺
1
☻☺ ---
II 2 2   ☻☺☻☺ ☻☺ 
☻☺ ---  
 IV V
2 9. 2IV V
IV 2 ☻☺
V 11
☻☺
2
 ☻☺ 

☻☺
 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
☻☺ 
--- 
---
--- 
---
---    
 ☻☺ ☻☺
V
V
IV
IV2 ☻☺ 22☻☺
☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺  


  
 
☻☺
☻☺   ---
---
 
 
☻☺ ☻☺☻☺ ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺☻☺   
 
 
 ☻☺
☻☺
- 
III  ☻☺ ☻☺  ---
legend of 
 III
Figure IV V V 1☻☺ ☻☺
 ☻☺

 ☻☺
 
---  
---
--- 
 IIIIV☻☺ V
V ☻☺
☻☺
111 II  

 

  
☻☺ ---
--- 

--- 
  ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺ 
☻☺ 
 
  
 ☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺ ☻☺
V 2IV  ☻☺
☻☺ ---‘’,   IV ☻☺
☻☺
1  ☻☺
☻☺ ---    ☻☺  
1
III1 2  ☻☺ ---Note:  IIIIV1 III1
V V 222☻☺  ☻☺☻☺
 ☻☺ ---‘’,
--- 
---
---   2☻☺
☻☺
V
V 22☻☺☻☺ 
 ☻☺
    ---
---   ☻☺ ☻☺ ☻☺☻☺ 
  ‘sun-loving’,  ‘sun-tolerant’,
☻☺ -II2  IV1
---
III ☻☺

 
☻☺☻☺ ☻☺ ---
 ---
☻☺ 
---  Note:
Note:

 
IIIThe
IV The
The
V12IV
☻☺ 2 symbols
 V
2 symbols
1 1☻☺
V
symbols
1 ☻☺  ☻☺
☻☺ ☻☺
 ‘’,
☻☺
‘’,
 ‘’,
☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺
☻☺
‘’, ‘’,
‘’,
------
--- ---
‘’,
Note:

Note:
‘’
 ‘’
‘’

 and
☻☺The

and
The

and
IV☻☺ ‘’
☻☺
1 ☻☺
V
V ☻☺
2‘’
symbols
1‘’
1symbols
☻☺☻☺ ☻☺
☻☺ indicates

indicates
indicates
 ‘’,
‘’,
☻☺
 ☻☺
☻☺ ‘’,
‘sun-loving’,
‘’,
‘sun-loving’,
 ---‘’,
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tool in our research [20,30,46], which provides decision-making for the four common types of landscape
plants in the study areas (Figure 1). In fact, the phenology of many plants, such as deciduous leaves, is
often influenced by other ecological factors and is not strictly seasonal in different regions. Therefore,
we also need more extensive records and statistics on the phenology of various landscape plants in
order to facilitate a more accurate numerical simulation of solar radiation, thereby making decisions
for the adaptive planning of shade-tolerant plants.
4.2. The Influence of Other Ecological Factors on Plant Selection

Soil conditions are another important factor affecting plant growth and development by providing
nutrients and moisture, but also as a physical substrate for fixed plants. Most studies have found that
the physical and chemical properties of soil in urban areas are quite different from that in suburban
areas [53,54]. Therefore, this is a scientific approach to urban plant selection through site evaluation of
the planting areas [15].
In Wuhan, the investigation and analysis of the urban soil’s physical and chemical properties have
also provided more research results; the soil pH, organic matter content, N/P/K contents, and the
cation exchange capacity (CEC) are all involved [55]. The results showed that the average pH was 7.69,
which is higher than the soil’s pH in suburbs, while it also has a greater variation range. Other results
revealed that the distribution and variation of soil nutrients are more irregular. Researchers believe
that the main reason for this phenomenon is fertilization and conservation.
In addition, the plant growth space, pests, and other stress factors should also be considered in
the future development of UP-DSS for urban plant adaptation planning, although these factors are
weakened or eliminated at present by artificial measures. Our research can also incorporate some
analysis modules into UP-DSS, which can be used to simulate the spatial distribution of soil properties
when combined with sampling and testing [56,57], as well as simulating plant growth rates over time
or adding the canopy and height information to the database at different age stages of urban trees and
shrubs [58].
4.3. Expansion and Improvement of Plants Database

The landscape plant database is a core component of UP-DSS. In this study, we have set up nearly
20 kinds of plant properties for systematic information retrieval and logical operations. Most of the
selected landscape plants are native species which have been widely distributed in the central China,
or some exotic plant species which have proven to be well adapted to local climatic conditions. In order
to eliminate the regional restrictions of UP-DSS, and to provide a platform of plant shade-tolerant
planning for a wider range of regional applications, we will also extend the database in the next stage
of the study to meet such practical needs.
Shade tolerance is a key feature of landscape plants, which shows the traits for maximizing
photosynthetic carbon gain in low light versus those minimizing losses [59]. These gene-based
physiological traits are difficult to change, but the morphological characteristics of plants will change
in order to facilitate greater capture of solar radiation in low light conditions [60]. The plant tolerance
for shade is mostly tested in the laboratory environment by means of related equipment [61–63], such as
Li-6400XT, for the photosynthetic efficiency test of herbs and small shrubs (seedlings). However, there
is still a lack of extensive test data on sunshine requirements (e.g., the light compensation point) of the
landscape plants in metropolitan environments, especially for the larger shrubs and trees.
5. Conclusions and Future Research

Landscape plant selection and configuration are an important aspect of landscape planning and
design in practice [64]. For landscape plants, the concept of adaptability has been recognized by
landscape architects, planners, and horticulturists. Factors of regional climate, soil conditions, sunlight,
and pollution have been discussed in studies of plant adaptability [3,65–68]. However, these studies
were mainly focused on qualitative methods. Quantitative modeling and evaluation based on digital
technologies is rarely applied, especially from the viewpoint of solar conditions. The purpose of this
study is to present a sound strategy and tool, and use it to select the suitable landscape plants for
greening areas with limited and diversified solar radiation.
We introduced a prototype decision support system for urban plant configuration (UP-DSS).
The system is set up on GIS platform, which is composed of the landscape plant database, the
information retrieval model, the solar radiation model, and the graphic user interface. UP-DSS may
help to meet the objective of ‘right tree, right place’ by providing a reliable operating platform for the
selection and configuration of landscape plants, especially within the context of rapid urbanization in
the Chinese metropolis.
The low threshold and ease of use are the most important features of any decision support system,
and this is the biggest attraction for users. GIS related technology is not yet popular among landscape
planners and designers. A stand-alone software package may facilitate the planners and designers in
a more efficient way. Given the popularity of mobile terminals (such as smart phones and PC tablets),
it is also necessary to develop a DSS based on Android and iOS. For the modeling part, UP-DSS
only considers solar radiation in an artificial environment with irrigation and conservation facilities;
other ecological factors also need to be incorporated into our future studies.
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/9/2/215/s1,

Table S1: Field test values of solar radiation, Table S2: The simulation values of solar radiation for test locations
based on the Solar Analyst, Table S3: Parameter settings for solar radiation model, Figure S1: Comparison of
shadow distance between testing and simulation, Figure S2: Comparison of total solar radiation between testing
and modeling.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Doctoral Start-up Fund of Jiangxi Normal University,
and also by the Youth Fund Project for Science and Technology Research, Jiangxi Provincial Department of
Education. In addition, the authors would also like to acknowledge the support of PEOPLE MARIE CURIE
ACTIONS: PUMAH (Planning, Urban Management and Heritage) Project (FP7-PEOPLE-2011-IRSES), funded by
the European Union Seventh Framework Programme ([FP7/2007-2013] [FP7/2007-2011]) under grant agreement
No. 295045.
Author Contributions: Heyi Wei worked on data acquisition, analysis and writing. Zhengdong Huang proposed
the idea, formulated the structure and refined the paper. Mu Lin assisted in the data processing and analysis
in GIS.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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© 2017 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Academic Editor: Brian Deal

Sustainability 2017, 9, 215; doi:10.3390/su9020215 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2.1. Solar Radiation Model

2.1.1. Expression of the Solar Radiation Model

2.1.2. Sunshine Simulation for Specific Plant Types

Figure 2. Measurement location and method.

2.2.2. Testing of Solar Radiation Intensity

2.3.3. Table Structure

2.4. Logical Information Retrieval Model

2.5. Structure of UP-DSS

6. The workflow and technical route

2.5.2. The Modeling Process of UP-DSS

2.5.3. The Graphical

3. Example of Use and Results

Figure 9. The adaptive planning of landscape plants based on UP-DSS.

3.3. Adaptive Planning for the Flowering Habits of Plants

Figure 10. Adaptive planning for photoperiod-sensitive plants.

Figure 11. Conceptual

4.2. The Influence of Other Ecological Factors on Plant Selection

4.3. Expansion and Improvement of Plants Database

5. Conclusions and Future Research

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/9/2/215/s1,

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