RADIO CO M MU NICATION HANDBOOK

'

THE RAD
I O SOC
IETY OF GREAT BRITA
IN

2N706 2N706

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ZONE

ZONE

ZONE
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C
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1
44 0
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.15MHz CW o
nly
. 1
45-
1-145
-5MHz Zone C , t
he Midlands .(Cambs , Hunts, L
eicester
Norfo
lk, No rthants, O xford, Rutland, S uffolk
,
Warw ickshi
re, Ang lesey
, C aernarvon C hesh i
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Denbigh, F
l
ints, Mer
tone th
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1
44-
15-
144 5MHz Zone A , t
he S outh Wes t
. ( Berks, Cornwall
,
Shropshire
, Staffo
rd .
)
Devon, Dorset, Hants, S
ome rset
, W il
ts Channel
I
s ,Brecon, C ardigan, Carmarthen, G lamo
rgan,
1
45-5-
145
-95MHz Zone D t he Nor th, S cotland a nd Northern
Gloucester
, He reford
, Mon mou th, P embroke
,
I
reland. (Derby, Lancs
, L incs, Not
ts, Yorks, a
l
l
Radnor, Wo rcester
.)
Scott
ish and No r
the rn Irel
and c ount
ies
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le o
f
Man, Cumbe rland. Du rha m, No r
thumbe rland
,
Westmo r
land .
)
1
44 5
-145
-1 MHz Zone B
, t
he S
ou th E
ast
. (Kent
, Surrey
, Sussex,
Beds
, B
ucks
, Essex
, Her
ts, London
, Middlesex.
) 1
45-95-
146
.00MHz B
eacons
.
 4
32.00 - 4
32.
1C0WMO
I
-
4NLY

4
32-10 - 4
33.43 ANN
ZONES ITO 1
3INC
4
33.45 - 433
.50 MHz
BEACONS
4
3 350 - 434
• 001.
4H3
TELEVIS
ION SOUND
434 MHz T
O T
OP O
F B
ANC
V
IDE O

4
32-0-432
-1 MHz CW o
nly
. 4
32-9-433
-1 MHz Z
one 6.(Ang lesey, C
aerna
rvon
, Chesh
ire
, D en
-
b
igh, F
lin
ts, Me r
ioneth
, Montgomery
, S hrop
-
4
32.
1-432 2MHz Z
one 1
.(Berks, Co
rnwa l
l, Devon
, Do
rse
t, H
ants
, s
hire
, S
taffo
rd.)
S
ome
rset, Wi
lts, ChannelIs
.)
4
33 -
1
-433 3MHz Z
one 7
.(De
rby
, L
ancs
, L
incs
, No
tts
, Y
orks
.)
4
32 2
-432
-3MHz Z
one 2 . ( B
recon, C
ardigan, C
arma
rthen
,
G
lamorgan
, Glouceste
r, H e
reford, Monmouth
,
4
33-3-
433
.45MHz Zone 8
.(al
l Scot
land, Nor
thern I
r
eland
, I
sle o
f
P
embroke,Radnor
, Worcester
.)
Man, Cumbe r
land, Durham, Nor
thumber
land,
Z
one 3
.(Ken
t, S
urrey
, S
ussex
). Westmo
rland.
)
4
32-3-432 5MHz

4
32.5-
432
.7Mhz Zone 4. (
Beds
, B
ucks
, E
ssex
, H
ens
, L
ondon
, 4
33 4
5-433
.5MHz B
eacons
.
Midd
lesex
.)
4
33
-5-434MHz T
elev
ision s
ound
.
4
32-7-432
.9MHz Zone 5 . (Cambs, Hunts
, L e
ices
ter, Norfo
lk
No
r thants
, Oxfo
rd, R
utland, Suf
folk
, Warwick-
s
hire.) 4
34 t
o!op o
fband V
ideo
.
 THE
RAD
IO COM MUN
ICAT
ION
HANDBOOK
FOURTH ED
ITION

RAD
IO S
OCIETY OF GREAT BR
ITA
IN
3
5 DOUGHTY S
TREET
, LONDON
, WC
1.
 COPYR
IGHT 4
1
) 1
968 BY

RAD
IO SOC
IETY OF GREAT BR
ITA
IN

F
IRST ED
ITION
F
irs
t P
rin
ting . . De
cembe
r 1
938
S
econd P
rin
ting . A
ugus
t 1
939

S
ECOND ED
ITION
F
irst Printing . •• J
uly 1940
S
econd P r
in t
ing •• J
anua ry 1941
Th
ird P rinting.. •• April 1
941
Fourth P r
in t
ing •. S
ep tember 1941
F
ifth P r
inting . •• J
anua ry 1942
S
ixth P r
inting . .• April 1
942
S
even th fyinting •• October 1942
E
igh th Printing •• J
anua ry 1943
N
in th P r
inting .• Augu s
t 1943
T
en th P r
inting •. J
anuary 1 944
E
leven th P r
inting •• Augu s
t 1944
Twelfth Printing •. February 1946

TH
IRD ED
ITION
F
irs
t P
rint
ing . Novembe r 1961
S
econd Pr
int
ing February 1962
Th
ird P
r
inting.. August 1962
F
ourth P
rint
ing Apr
il 1963

FOURTH ED
ITION
F
ir
st P
rin
ting . S
eptembe
r 1
968
S
econd P
rin
ting Ju
ly1969

P
r
inted i
nGrea
t Br
ita
in f
or t
he R
adio Socie
ty o
fG rea
t Br
ita
in, 3
5 Dough
ty S
tre
et,
L
ondon
, W.C
.1, b
yT he G
arden C
ity Pres
s L
imited
, Le
tchworth
, Her
tfo
rdsh
ire
THE RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
T
his b
ook i
sded
ica
ted t
o t
he m
emory o
f J
ohn A
.
R
ouse
, G2A HL w
ho w
as G
enera
l Manage
r o
f t
he
R
SGB a
nd E
dito
roft
heS
ocie
ty's p
ubl
ica
tions u
nt
il

h
i
s d
eath i
n May 1
967
.

H
e w
as r
e
spons
ible f
o
r much o
f t
he p
repara
tory

w
ork i
nconnec
tion w
ith t
h
is v
o
lume
.
-
 RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
FOURTH ED
ITION

T
he R
adio Soc
iety o
fG rea
t Bri
tain e
xpr
essesit
sgra
titude t
oth
efo
llow
ing w
ho h
ave c
ontr
ibu
ted
t
oand a
dvised o
n the p
reparat
ion ofth
is ed
ition
:

D
r. E
.J.A
l
laway
. M.B.
, Ch.B.
, M.R.C.S
., L
.R.C
.P.
, G
3FK M
W. H
. Al
len, M.B
.E.
, G2UJ
R
. B
ake
r, G3USB
B
. D
. A
. A
rmstrong
, G
3EDD
A
. J
.B ay
lis
s, B
.Sc.
, C.Eng
., F
.
I.E.E.
, G 8PD
G. L
. Benbow, M.Sc
., C
.Eng.
, M.
I.E.E.
, G 3HB
F
.J .H. Charman, B
.E.M
., G6CJ
D
. N
. Corf
ie
ld, D.L.C
.(Hons.)
, C
.Eng
., M.I.E.E.
, G5CD
M
. H. Emmerson
, G 30QD
G. C
. Fox
, C.Eng
., M.
I.E.E.
, G 3AEX
H
. L. G
ibson
, C.Eng.
, M.I
.E.E., G8CGA
J
.C. Graham, G3TR
E
. P
. H ar
ris
, G 3GFN
D
. E. A
. Harvey
, C.Eng., M
.I.E
.E.
J
.P. H awker, G3VA
T
. L
. He
rdman , M .A.
, G6HD
R
. C
. H
i
lls
, B
.Sc
.(Eng
.)
, C
.Eng
., M
.I.E
.E.
, M
.I.E
.R.E
., G
3HRH
N
. G
. H
yde, C.Eng.
, M.I
.E.R .E
., G2AIH
G
. R
. J
essop
, C.Eng., M
.I.E.R.E.
, G6
JP
J
. Dougla
s Kay, G 3AAE
P
.G. Mart
in, B
.Sc
., G3PD M
J
.W. Mathews
, G6LL
M
. H. McFadden, G
I3VCI
L
. A
. Moxon
, B
.Sc
., A
.C.G
.I.
, C
.Eng
., M
.I.E
.E.
, G6XN
A
. L. Mynett, B
.Sc.
, G3HB W
A
. D. Pa
terson, B.A.Sc
., GI3KYP
T
. R. Preece, G3TRP
B
. Pr
ies
tley, B.Sc
., G3JGO
D
r. J
.A. Sax
ton, D.Sc., Ph
.D., A.R.C
.S.
, F
.
I.E
.E.
N
. H
. S
edgw
ick
, G
8 WV
P
.J .Simp son
, G3GGK
R
ev. P
.W. S
ol
lom
, 0
.S.B.
, Ph
.D ., B
.Sc
., D
.I
.C.
, A
.C.G
.I.
, G
3BGL
R
. F. S
tevens
, G2BVN
G
. M
. C
. S
tone
, C
.Eng
., M
.I.E.E.
, M.
I.E
.R.E
., G
3FZL
G
. R
. B
. Tho
rnley, G2DAF

P
roduc
tion o
fth
e Fourth E
dit
ion was u
nde
rtaken b
y J
.E. T
ebb
it, M
.I.T
.P.P
. a
nd A
. D
. W
ile
s,
G3BBY —G6BBY/T (Co-Ed
itors
) a
nd D. E
. Co
le (D
raugh
tsman
).
-
 CONTENTS
C
hap
ter P
age
s
F
orewo
rd .
1 PR
INC
IPLE
S .. 1
.
1 t
o 1
.
39
2 VA
LVE
S . . 2
.
1 t
o2.
24
3 SE
MICONDUCTOR
S 3
.
1 t
o 3
.
15
4 H.
F.RE
CE
IVER
S . 4
.
1 t
o4.
68
5 V.
H.F.
/U.
H.F.RE
CE
IVER
S 5
.
1 t
o 5
.
53
6 H.
F.TR
ANSM
ITTER
S 6
.
1 t
o6.
71
7 V.
H.F.
/U.
H.F.TR
ANSM
II I
E
RS 7
.
1 t
o7.
52
8 KE
Y
ING A
ND BR
EAK
-IN 8
.
1 t
o8.
17
9 MO
DULAT
ION SY
STEM
S .
, •• •• • 9
.
1 t
o9.
44
1
0 SI
NGLE SI
DEBAND TR
ANSM
ISS
ION 1
0
.1 t
o 1
0
.108
1 RTTY . . 1
.1 t
o 1
.20
1
2 PR
OPAGAT
ION 1
2
.1 t
o 1
2
.24
1
3 H.
F.AE
R
IAL
S 1
3
.1 t
o 1
3
.80
1
4 V.
H.F.
/U.
H.F.AE
R
IAL
S 1
4
.1 t
o 1
4
.23
1
5 No m . . 1
5
.1 t
o 1
5
.9
1
6 MO
B
ILE E
QUIPMENT . 1
6
.1 t
o 1
6
.38
1
7 POW
ER SU
PPL
IES . 1
7
.1 t
o 1
7
.24
1
8 I
NTERFERENCE . 1
8
.1 t
o 1
8
.19
1
9 ME
ASUR
EMENT
S . 1
9
.1 t
o 1
9
.43
2
0 OP
ERAT
ING TE
CHN
IQU
E A
ND ST
ATION LA
YOUT 2
0
.1 t
o20
.8
2
1 TH
E R.
S.G.
B.A
ND T
HE RA
DIO AM
ATEUR 2
1
.1 t
o21
.2

A
dve
rti
semen
ts 2
2
.1 t
o22
.20
I
ndex . 2
3
.1 t
o23
.8

....
. •
 F
OREWORD
B
y D
r. J
.A. S
AXTON
, D
.Sc
., P
h.D
., A
.R.C
.S.
, F
.
I.E
.E.

D
irec
tor
, R
adio a
nd S
pace R
esea
rch S
ta
tion

A
MATEUR i nte rest inr adio , w hich m any w ou ld c la
im t o b e t h
e mo st inte resting o fa l
l s c
ien t
ific
hobb ie s
, s how s n o s i
gn o f aba ting w hi
le n ew s c
ien tifi c a nd t echno log ica l d evelopmen ts i nt he
fi
eld c ontinue a pace. I ti st here fore n ot surp r
i s
ing t h att heS oc
ie ty h as n ow f ound i td e s
irab le to
b
r
ing o u t af ou r
th e dition o ft he H and book t o su cceed t he t h
ird e dit
ion o f 196 1. A t t he t ime t he t h
ird
e
dition w a s w ritten t he s eeds o f an umbe r o f i mpor tan t a dvance s h ad a lready b een s own : t hu s t he
p
o tentia litieso fs pace c ommun ica tion sw e
r eb ecom ing a ppa ren t, asw a sa l
so t h
ei mpa cto fn ew t e
chn ique s
i
n d esign , i n
clud ing s uch t h
ing s a s m in iatu riza tion , p rinted c ircuits a nd a dvanced s olid s tate d evices.
The i n
te rven ing y ea r s h ave s e
en m any o f t h ese d eve lopmen ts c ome t o f rui
tion , o fering i nt he p roce ss
n
ew p os sibilit
ie s t o a ma teur s as w ell a s to p ro fessiona l c ommun ica t
ion s e nginee rs
. T hu s t h
e re h ave
a
lready b een a mateu r c ommun ica tion s atellite s, t hough n one y e
t l a
unched b y t he Un ited K ingdom ,
a
nd t her e w ill d oub t le s
s b e mo re, a nd a mateu rs t he w orld o ve r h ave e xp loited t he o ppor tun ity o fu s
ing
t
hem : moon -boun ce e xpe rimen ts h ave a lso t a ken p lace a nd t h ere i se very i ncen t
ive t o p r ess f orwa rd
w
ith t he a pplication o f t he l a
te st g round -sta tion t echn ique s. Q uite a pa r
t f rom a l
l t his, w orthwh i
le
r
efinemen t s a nd i mp rovemen ts o f p rev iou sly e x
i st
ing r adio t echno logy h ave o ccur red o ve r t h e s ame
p
e r
iod a nd i nt hen ew e dit
ion o ft heh andbook t heS ociety h a sa imed t ob ring r eade rsu pt od ate a l
lr ound .
The f ou rth e dition t herefo re re pr e
sen ts av ery c on side rable a dvance o nt h ep reced ing o ne a nd i ti smo re
t
h an f ity p erc en tb igg er. T here i s an ew c hap te ro n R TTY a nd mo sto ft heo the rsh ave b e en e x
ten sively
r
e-w ritten a nd e xtended . F o r examp le, s ingle s i
deband t echn ique s ar e b ecom ing o f w ide r i n
te re st to
ama teu rsa nd i nt h en ew v o
lume t het rea tmen t o ft his s ubjec th asb een g rea t
ly d eve loped . T he re i s much
n
ew m ate r
ia l o n a eria ls, tran sm i
t te r
s a nd r ece ivers , p art
icu la rly f o
r t he h .f. band ; a nd u .h.f. t echn ique s
,
whe re a ma teur a ctiv ity i sa lso i ncrea sing, a re c omp rehen s ive ly c ove red . R athe r mo re i ss aid t han
p
rev iou sly a bou t w ave p ropaga t
ion , amo st i mpor tan t m a
t te r f or ag ood u nder stand ing o fp ropaga tion
p
henomena i sb asic t o af u
l l app recia tion o f t he p ossibil
i tie s ( and v aga ries) o f r adio c ommun ica tion.
Ove rt hee ntire f requency r ange n ow a vailab le t oa mateur s t h
i s n ow d emand s some k now ledge o fu pper
a
tmo sphe ric p hysic s, s un -earth r e
la t
ion ship s a nd, i nt he tropo sphe re, o fr adio m eteo rology . T he r eade r
may n ot f i
nd t hese m at
te rs c over ed i ng reat d epth i nt hi
s v olume , and w ou ld n ote xpec tt od o s o, b ut h e
w
ill f ind e nough t o b r
ing o u t m any o ft h e s a
lien t f eatu res a nd p erhap s t o w he t h is a ppetit e f or f urthe r
i
nfo rma tion t ob e s ough t i n mo r e a dvanced t reatise s
.
The h andbook i sn oto n
ly i nvaluab le t ot hea mateu r;i ti salso a ne xtreme ly u sefulp arto ft h ep rof e ssiona l
l
ibra ry,b eing p articu larly sui table a sa ni n
troduc tion t ot hem any v a r
ied a spectso fr ad io c ommun ica t
ion ,
a
nd t h e y oung a sp iring c ommun ica tion s e nginee r w ill find i nt h
i s book much t hat i se s
sen tia l top rovide
as ound b asis for h is s ubject. T here i sn o d oub t t hat, i nt h e t radition o fi ts predece sso rs
, t o w hich t his
volume i s aw orthy s ucce s
so r
, t he h andbook i se minen t
ly s uitab le t o f ind a p lace o n e ve ry a mateu r's
book she lf a nd t hati tw il
l b e ag rea t suppo rt t oh im i nt hep ursu it ofh is h obby.

6
t
h May
, 1
968 J.A.SA
XTON

•
• I
C H AP TE R I

P
R
INC
IPLES
A KNO WLEDGE o ft he f undamen tal p hysical p r
inciple s c
o re orn ucl eu sa round w hich a re mov ing an umbe ro f much
rkunde rlying r adio c ommun icat ion i sj us
t a s i mportan t l
i
gh te r partic les e ach n ega tively c ha rged , c al
led e lect rons.
t
o t he ama teu r a s t o the p rof essiona l r adio e ngineer. I t A
tom s are n orma lly electrically n eutra l; t hat ist o say, t he
f
orm s the s t
arting p oint of all d esign w ork a nd i sessential amoun t ofp o s
itive e l
ectricity a s
soc iated w ith t he nucleu s is
f
orp rop er m a
in tenance a nd s ucces sful o perating . e
xac t
ly b alanced b y th e total amoun t o fn ega tive electricity
I
n the l im
ited s pace a vailab le h ere i ti sn ot p oss
ible t o a
ssoc iated w ith t he electron s. One t ype o f a tom d if ers
d
iscus s the
s e ba s
ic p rinciples i ng r eat d etai
l, b ut an umbe r f
rom a nothe ri nt hen umb e ro fp ositive a nd neu tral particles
o
f reference s are i nc
luded i nt he bi b
liog raphy a tt he end o f (
called p roton s a nd n eutron s) w hich m ake u p t he n ucleu s
t
he c hapter as ag uide t o tho se r eade r
s w ho w ould l i
ke t o a
nd t he n umbe r a nd a r
rangemen t o f t he o rbital electron s
make a f urther s t
udy o fa ny p articula r p art of t he subject. which a re c on t
inua l
ly mov ing a round t h e nucleu s
.
Mo s
t p ublic l i
b raries will b e o nly t oo g lad t olob tain t he Large atom s
, s uch a s thos e ofu ran ium , are c omplex , b ut
b
ook s li
sted i fth ey aren ota lready o nt heirs helve s
. small a tom s, s uch a s tho se o f h ydrogen a nd h el
ium , a re
The p at
tern o fh eading s fol
low s t he syllabu s oft h
e R ad io r
elatively s imp le, as can b e s een i nF ig. 1 .1
.
Ama teurs' E xam ination v ery c l
os ely, a nd i ti sh oped t hat The i mpor tan t f a
ct w hich e merge s f rom t he preced ing
n
ewcomer s will f ind this c hap ter au seful i n
t roduc tion t o parag raphs i st hat all ma tte r is made u p of p osi
tively a nd
Ama teur R adio. Mo re e xpe rienced r eaders m ay f i
nd i t n
ega tively c ha rged p ar
ticle s
, w h
ich m ean s that e l
ectricity is
u
sefula s ar ef
re she rc ourse. l
aten t ine ve rything a round u s.
CONDUCTORS AND I
NSULATORS
E
LECTRON
The ease w ith w hich t he e lectron s i n as ubs
tance c an b e
P
ATH OF d
etached f rom t heir p arent a tom s varie s f
rom s ubstance t o
E
LECTRON
s
ubstance. I ns ome s ubstance st here isac ont
inual movemen t
o
fe l
ectron s in ar andom manne rf rom o ne atom t oanothe r,
a
nd the a pplication o fa n e lectrical pr essure or vol
tage ( for
e
xamp le from a b attery) to t h
e t wo e nd s of ap i
ece ofw i re
made ofs uch as ub s
tance w illc au se ad riftofe l
ectronsa long
t
he wire c a
lled a n e lec
t r
i c c urrent; ele ctr
ical conduction i s
NUCLEUS t
hen sa
id t ot ake place. I ts hou ld b en oted thati fanelectron
NUCLEUS
(
I PROTON) e
ntersthew ire from t h eba t
te ry ato ne end itwil
lb e adiferen t
(
2 P ROTONS
2 NEUTRONS) e
lec
tron w h
ich i mmed iately l eaves t h
e o there nd oft he wire.
HEL
IU M A
TOM By arbitrary c onven tion, t he d irect
ion o f current flow i s
HYDROGEN A
TOM
s
aid tob e from p os
itive t on egative.
F
ig. 1
.
1. S
tructure o
f h
ydrogen a
nd h
eliu m a
torns
.
Materials w h
ich e xhibit t his p roper ty o f el
ectr
ical con -
AT O MS A N D ELE CTR O NS d
uction a re c al
led c ond uctor s
. A ll m etal
s b e
long t o t his

Al
l m a
tte r i sc ompo sed o f mo lecu le s, vdl
ich i st he name C
onduc
tor
s I
n
sula
tor
s
g
iven t o the s mallestq uan ti
ty of as ub stance w hich c an exi s
t
S
ilver Mica
a
nd s t
il
l d i
sp lay t h ep hysical and c hem ical prope rt
ie s oft hat
Coppe r Quartz
s
ub s
tance. T here i s av ery great n umbe r o f dif erent s orts
A
lum in
ium G
la s
s
o
f mo lecule s
. F urthe r study o f a mo lecu le disclose s that i t
B
ra ss Ceram i
cs
i
sm ade u p o fs maller partic
lesc alled a tom s and i th as been
S
tee l Ebonite
f
ound t hat t here a rea bou t 102 dif eren t t ypeso fa tom s. A l
l
Mer cury P
lastics
molecules a r e made u p o f comb ina tion s o f atom s s e
lected
Carbon A
ir
f
rom t h
is r ange . E xamp les ofd if eren t a tom s a re atom s o f
C
e rtain l
i
quid
s Oi
l
h
ydrogen , o xyg en, i r
on, c oppe r and s ulphu r, and e xamp les
o
f h ow a tom s arec omb ined t o form mo lecule s ar e (a
) t wo c
l
ass. Mater
ials wh
ich do no
t c
onduct e
lec
tric
ity a
re c
a
lled
a
tom sofh yd rogen a nd o ne ofo xygen t of orm o ne mo lecu le i
n
sulato
rs, a
nd the t
ab
le s
hown above gi
ves afew e
xamples
o
fw ater
, a nd ( b) t wo a tom s o f hyd rogen , o ne o f s u
lphu r o
fcommon ly used c
onducto
rs a
nd in
sulato
rs.
a
nd f our o fo xygen t of orm o ne mo lecu le ofs ulphur ic acid .
SOURCES OF E LECTR ICITY
A
tom s a re s o s mal
l th at they canno t b e se
en e ven u nde r
When two dis
simi
lar m e
tals are immersed in c
er
ta in
t
he mo s
t p owe rful m icro scopes. T hei r behav iou r, h oweve r
,
c
an b e studied a nd f r
om t h
is i th a s b een d iscove red t hat c
hemica
l so
lution
s, or e
l
ectroly
tes, a
n el
ect
romo t
ive fo
rc e
a
tom s ar
e made u p of ap os
itive
ly c ha rg ed relatively h eavy (
e
.m.f
.) isc
rea
ted by c
hemical a
ction w
ith
in the c
e
ll s
o that
1
.1

••••• w Ma g•••
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
i
ft he p i e
ce s o f m eta l a rej oined e xterna lly t o t he c e
ll t he re s
i
ze a nd t h e l ife r equ ired a nd may r ange f rom a f ew
w
ill b e ac on tinuou s f low o fe le ctr
ic c urren t. S uch ad evice m
illiampe res t oa n amp ere o r t wo .
i
sc al
led as imp le cella nd s uch ac ell c omp rising c oppe ra nd S
econda ry C ell s. I n p rima ry c ells s ome o f t he v ariou s
z
inc r od s i mme rsed i n d i
lu ted s u
lphu r
ic a cid i ss hown i n c
hem ica ls a r e u sed u p i n p roduc ing t he e l
ec trica l e ne rgy —
F
ig. 1 .2( A). T he f low o fc ur ren t isf r om t he c opp er t o t he ar e
la tive ly e xpen sive a nd w aste ful p roce ss. T he m ax imum
z
inc p late i n t he e x ter nal c ir cuit ; i .
e
. t he c opp er f orm s t he c
urren t a vailab le a lso i s l imited . Ano the r t ype o f c ell,
p
os it
ive ( +) t e
rm ina l o f t he c ell a nd t he z inc f orm s t he c
al
led as e cond a ry c e
ll,s t
orage c ello ra ccumu la tor , o fe rst he
n
ega tive ( —) t e
rm ina l. a
dvan tage o f b eing a ble t o p rov ide a h i ghe r c ur ren t a nd
I
n as imp le c e
ll o ft h
i st ype h yd rogen f orm so n thec opp er i
sc apab le o fb eing c ha rged b y f eed ing e l
ec trica l e ne rgy i n
to
e
lectrode , a nd t his g a s f i
lm h as t he e fec t of i ncrea sing t he t
he c e
ll t o b e s to red c hem ica lly, a nd b e d rawn o ut o r d is-
i
n
te rna l r esis tanc e o f the c ell a nd a lso s etting u p w ith in t he c
ha rged l a
te r a s e lectr ical e ne rgy a ga in. T his p ro ce s s o f
c
el
l ac oun te r or p olarizing e .m .f. w hich r ap id ly r educe s t he c
ha rg ing a nd d ischa rg ing t he c ell i sc apab le o f r epe tition
e
fec tive e .m .f . o f t he c el
l a s aw hole. T his p olariza tion a
lmo s
t i n defin ite ly .
efect i so ve rcome i n p rac tica l c ells b y t he i n
troduc tion o f The mo s t c ommon t yp e o fs e conda ry c el
l i st he l ead -ac id
c
hem ica l a gen ts s urround ing t he a node f or t h e p urpo se o f c
el
l s uch a s t ha t u sed i n mo to r-ca r b atte ries. I tc on s
i sts o f
r
emov ing t h e h yd rog en b y o x ida tion a ss oon a si ti sf ormed . t
wo s ets o f s pe cia lly p repa red l ead p late s i mme rsed i n a
S
uch a gen ts a re c a
lled d epo la rize rs
. m
ix tu re o fs ulphur ic a cid a nd w ate r
. B rief ly t h ea c t
ion o ft he
Pr
imary C ells. P rac tica l c ells i n w hich e l
ectric ity i s c
el
l i sa sf ollow s: i nt he d ischa rged s tate t he a ctive ma te rial
p
roduced i n t his w ay b y d ire ct c hem ical a ction a re c alled o
n e ach p late i sl ead s ulpha te. Dur ing t h e c ha rging p ro ce ss
p
rima ry c ells; ac ommon e xamp le i st he L eclanche c el
l, t
he l ead s u
lpha te i n t h e p ositive p l ate i sc hang ed t o l ead
t
he c on struc tion o f w hich i s s hown d iag ramma tica lly i n p
erox ide a nd s ulphu ric a cid , a nd t he l ead s u
lpha te i n t he
F
ig. 1 .2( B). T he z inc c a se i st he nega tive e le ctrode a nd a n
ega tive p late t o af orm o f l ead c alled s pongy l ead a nd
c
arbon r od i st he p ositive e le ctrode . T he b lack p a ste s ur- s
ulphur ic a cid . Du ring d ischa rge t h e r e verse a ction t a kes
r
ound ing t he c arbon r od may c ontain p owde red c arbon , p
lace a nd l ead s ulpha te f orms a gain o n b oth p l ates. T he
mangane se o xide, z inc c hlo ride , s al-ammon iac a nd w ate r
, s
tate o ft hec ha rge o ft h ec ell may b ec hecked b y m ea sur ing
t
he mangane se o xide a cting a s d epo larize r b y c omb in ing t
he s pecifi c g rav ity o f t h e e lect roly te w ith a h ydrome ter
w
ith h yd rogen f ormed a t t he a node t o p roduce a no the r s
ince t he c oncen tra tion o f s ulphu ric a cid i ncrea se s d uring
f
orm o f m angane se o xide a nd w ate r
. T he r ema inde r o ft he c
ha rg ing a nd d ec reas e s a gain a s t he c ell i s d ischa rged .
c
el
l i sf i
l
led w ith aw h
ite p a ste w hich may c on ta in p la ste r of Typ ica lv alue so fs pec ifi cg rav ity a re 1 .250 f or af ully c ha rged
Paris, f lou r, z inc c hlo ride , s a
l -ammon iac a nd w ater. T he c
ell a nd 1 475 f o r ad ischa rged c e
ll. T he t e
rm ina lv oltag e of
c
ell iss ea
led w ith p i
tch e xcep t f or as mall v en t w h
ich a l
low s as ing le l ead-a cid c ellw hen f u
lly c ha rged a nd l e
fts tand ing i s
a
ccumu la ted g a
s t oe scap e
. T he e .m .f. d eveloped b y as ingle abou t 1 05 v olts. I n t he d ischa rged c ond ition t h e v oltage
d
ry c ell i sa bout 1 .5 v o
l ts a nd c el
l s may b e c onnec ted i n f
alls t oa bou t 1 .85 v olt s
.
s
eries ( po sitive t erm ina l t o n ega tive t erm ina l a nd s o o n
) Too b
ta in al ong l i
fec el
l ss hou ld n otb eo ve rcha rged s ince
until ab atte ry o f c ells, u sua lly r ef erred t o s imp ly a s a t
his c au se s f l
ak ing a nd b uck ling o f t h e p late s. C ells s hou ld
b
at tery, o ft h e de s
ired v oltage i so btained . T he s ymbo l u sed not b e l eft i n ad i scha rged s tate b ecau se t he l ead s ulpha te
t
od eno te ac el
l i n ac ircu it d i ag ram i ss hown i nF ig. 1 .2( C)
. may u nde rgo ap hy sica l c hange w hich i ti sd ifi cul t t o b reak
The l o ng t hin s troke r ep re sen ts t he p osi
tive t erm ina l a nd t h
e down i nt he r e-cha rg ing p roce ss a nd t h ec apac ity o ft hec el
l
s
ho rt t hick s troke t hen ega tive t e
rm ina l. S eve ral c ellsj oined wi
ll b e i mpa ired ; c ells i n t his c ond ition a re s aid t o b e
i
ns eries t of orm ab a
t tery a re s hown ; f or h ighe r v o
ltag es it "s ulpha ted ," ac ond i tion w hich m ay s ome time s b e p ar tially
b
ecome s i mp racticab le t o d raw a l
l t he i ndividua l c el
ls e
r ad ica ted b y p ro longed c harg ing a t al ow c urr en t
.
i
nvo lved a nd i ti ss uff
i c
ien t t o i ndica te m erelyk the f irst a nd Mechan ica l G ene ra to rs. Mechan ica l e ne rgy may b e c on-
l
ast c ells w ith a d o t
ted l i
ne b etween t hem w ith p erhap s a v
e rted i nto e lec tr ica l e ne rgy b y mov ing a c oil o f w ire i n a
note a dded t o s tate t he a ctua l v oltage . T he amoun t ' of magne tic f i
eld . D i re ct-cur ren t o r a lterna ting -cur ren t g ene r
-
c
ur ren tw hich c an b ed erived f rom ad ry c ell d epends o n i t
s a
to r s a re a vailab le i n a l
l s i
ze s b ut t h e c ommone st t yp e
s

CURRENT I
NDICATOR -BRASS CAP
/ VENT

-P
ITCH

Z
INC CASE
HYDROGEN
BUBBLES WH
ITE P
ASTE

Z
INC COPPER BLACK P
ASTE
PLATE PLATE
CARBON ROD
D
ILUTE
SULPHUR
ACID
IC
I
NSULAT
ION -
=1
1-1
2
0v
(
A) CONTA
INER (
B) (
c
)
F
ig. 1
.2
. The elec
tric ce
ll. A nu mber o
f ce
lls connected i n ser
ies i
sc a
lled a battery
. ( a
) A s
i mp
le e
lectric c
el
l cons
isting o
fc opper and
z
inc e
lectrode
s im mersed i
ndi
lute sulphur
ic acid. (b
) S ec
tiona l d
rawing showing co i
on o
f adry c
el
l. (c
) Sy mbols u
sed to r
epresent
s
ingle ce
lls and b at
teries i
n c
ircuit d
iagra ms.

1
.
2
 PR
INC
IPLES

l
i
kely to be m et in amateur rad
io w ork are (i) a.
c. p
etrol
- TABLE 1.
1
d
r
iven gene ra
to r
so fu pt o 1or 2kW ou tputs uch asareused Un
its a
nd S
y mbo
ls
f
or supplying p o
rtable equipmen t and ( i) s ma
ll motor
g
enera
tor s
, s ome t
ime s cal
led d ynamo tors
, w hich furn
ish S
ymbolu
sed
u
p to abou t 100 w a
tts of power and comp rise ac ombined Quan
tity i
nfo
rmulm Un
it Abb
rev
iat
ion
l
ow-vol
tage d .
c. elec
tric motor and a d.c
. gene rator s
o tha
t
ahigh-
tension s upply may b e d
erived from a 6 -o r 1
2-vol
t Quan ti
ty Coulomb
c
ar ba
ttery. Current Ampe re A
Voltage r V V
Eo olt
E
LECTR
ICAL UN
ITS T
ime S
econd
(
a) U nito f Quan tity. S i nce a l
l e lectron s
, w ha teve rk ind o f Resistance Ohm S
2
a
tom t hey belong t o
, c arry t h e s ame c ha rge , t he amoun t o f Capac i
tance Farad
e
lectr
ic ity a ssoc iated w ith t h e e l
ec tron c ou ld b e used a s th e I
nduc tance Hen ry
u
nit o fq uan tity o fe lectricity . I ti s
, h oweve r
, t oo s mal
l f or Mu tual Inductance Hen ry
u
se a s ap ractica l u n
it, a nd amo re c onven ien t u nit iscalled Powe r Wat t
t
he c ou lomb ; t his i se qu iva len t t o t he c ha rge o n a pprox i- F
requency I Cycle/second c
/s
mately 6 x 1 0" ( six m illion m illion m i
llion )e lectron s. T he Frequency I Hertz Hz
a
nalogy h ere b e tween t he mo lecu le o f w ate r a s au nit o f (One H er
tz equa
ls o
ne c
yc
le p er second
)
q
uan tity o f w a ter a nd t h e p rac t
ica l u nit, t he g a
llon, i s Wave length A Me tre
o
bviou s.
Aq uantity o fe l
ec tricity o rn umbe ro fc ou lomb si susua l
ly
T
he f
o
llow
ing mu
ltip
les a
nd s
ub-mu
ltip
les o
f t
he a
bove
d
eno ted b y t he s ymbo lq .
u
ni
tsa
recommonly u
sed:
(
b) U ni
t o f C u
r ren t F low . C on tinu ing w ith t he w a
te r
a
nalogy , w he rea s af low o fw a te r i ss poken o fa s "x g allon s
p
er s econd" t h e f l
ow o fe lectr icity c an b e e xp ressed a s "x M
ic roampe re (µA) = 1mil
lion th o fa n ampe re
c
oulomb sp ers econd ." A c ur ren to fo ne c ou lomb p ers e
cond M
i ll
iampe re (mA) — 1t housand th o fa n ampere
i
sc al
led a na mpe re ( abb rev ia ted t oa mp.)a nd t hes trength o f Microvo lt (
µV) = 1mill
ion th o f av olt
ac ur ren t iss aid t o b e "x ampe res." A c urren t f l
ow i s Mill
ivo lt (mV) — 1t hou sand th o f avolt
u
sua lly d eno ted b y t h e symbo l I .T he c ur ren ts u sed i nradio K
ilovo lt (
kV) - 1 ,000 v o
lt s
a
re o ften v ery s mall fraction so fa n amp ere a nd f orc onven i- Megohm (M.) — 1
s
? ,000,000 o hm s
e
nce t het wo s ma l
le ru n
itsm illiampe re ( mean ing at housand th Microfa rad (
µF) = 1mill
ion th o f af arad
o
fa n amp ere) a nd m icroampe re ( mean ing am i
llion th o fa n Micro-m icrofarad (
j
.
41F) = 1m i
ll
ion -m i l
lion th of af
arad
amp ere ) are u sed . T hus ac ur ren to f0 .
003 ampe re i sw ri
tten P
ico farad (
pF) = 1mill
ion -m i l
lionth o f af
arad
a
s 3m il
liampe re s
. S ee T ab le 1 .1 f ora bb rev iation s. Microsecond (
µS) = 1mill
ion th o f as econd
The r e
la t
ion b etween t he t o
ta l q uan t
i ty o f e lec
tricity Mill
ise cond (mS) = 1t hou sand th o f asecond
(
q) w hich h a s p a s
sed a p oin t i n aw ire, t he t ime o f flow ( t
) Mill
iwa t t (mW ) — 1thou sand th o f aw at
t
and t h e rate o ff l
ow ( I) ist he r efo re — Megacyc le/second (Mc/) — 1
s ,000,000 c yclesp ersecond
Quan ti
ty ( coulomb s) = C u
r ren t Flow ( ampe res) x Megahe rtz (MHz )- 1
,000.000 H ertz
T
ime ( s
econd s) K
i locycle /second (kc/s) = 1
000 c yclesp ers econd
or ins ymbo ls— K
i lohe rtz (
kHz ) 1
000 He rtz
q = Ix t . i
crowa t
t (
µW ) = 1m i
llionth o f aw at
t
(
c) U nito fE lectric Pressu re. I no rde r t o m ake elec
tricity K
i lowa tt (
kW ) = 1000 w atts
f
l
ow c on t
inuou sly t hrough a c ircu i
t i tisn ecessary to have Me tre (m) = 1
00 c entime tr es
s
ome d evice w hich c an p roduce a c ontinuou s supply o f K
i lome t re (
km ) = 1000 m etres
e
l
ect ron s. T his may b e ab atte ry i n w hich t he supply o f
e
l
ect ron s isp roduced b y chem ica l a ction o r ad ynamo o r
t
he k
ilohm (
meaning 1
000 ohms) and t
he Megohm (meaning
g
ene ra to r i n w h
ich m echan ica l e ne rgy i s t urned i n
to
1mi
ll
ion ohms)are u
sed
. T hu
s4 7,000 ohms may b
es poken
e
l
e c
tr ica l e nergy . T he b attery o r g ene rato r produce s a n
o
fas4 7 k
i
lohm s
. See Tab
le 1.
1. for a
bbrev
iat
ions
.
e
l
e c
t rica l p ressu re s ome time s c alled a n e l
ectromo t
ive
f
orce o re .m.f. w hich m ay be us ed t of orce ac u
rrentt hrough
ac i
rcu i t. T he u n
it o f electr
ica l p re ssure i st he vol
t, a nd R
ESISTANCE AND CONDUCTANCE
v
oltage s a re u sua l
ly d enoted i n f ormu lae b y t h
e s ymbo l D
iffe
ren t m a
terials m ay b e compa red a s conducto rs b y
Eor V . measu r
ing t he r e
sistance o f sample s of t
he m ater
ials of t he
(
d) Un ito fE le c
trical R esis
tance . T he e ase with w h
ich a n s
ame s ize a nd s hape. T he resi
stanc e( i
n ohm s)o fconduc ting
e
lectric c urren t w i
ll f l
ow, o r c an b e c onduc ted, through a material of o ne cen t
ime tre in length a nd one square c enti-
w
ire w i
ll d epend o n the d imen sion s o f t he w ire and t h
e metre i ncro ss-sectional a rea iscalled the spec
ific res
istance
mater ial f r
om w hich i tis made . T he o ppo sition of ac i
rcu i
t o
r resisti
vity o ft he ma terial
. S pecifi
c resi
stance isq uoted a s
t
o t he f l
ow o f curren t isc al
led t he r esistance o f the ci
rcu i
t xo hm s p er c entime tre cub e or mo re simply as xo hm -cm .
a
nd i su sually d eno ted b y t he s ymbo l Ri nf ormu lae. T he I
ft h e specific r es
istance o f a ma ter
ial isk nown, ti
le a ctual
r
esistance o f ac ircuit i sm easu red i no hm s, and ac i
rcuit is r
esistance o f
, s ay
, ap iece of wire m ade f rom that .nate r
ial
s
aid t o h ave a r es
i s
tanc e o f 1o hm i ft h e v o
ltage between c
an b e calcu lated s ince t he re
sistance o f aw ire i n
crea ses
i
t
s e nd s i s 1v o
lt w hen th e cur rent f l
ow ing i s 1a mp. F or p
ropo r
tiona lly w ith i t
s l e
ngth a nd i n
versely with its cross-
c
onven ience , b ecau se t h
e r e
sistance s u sed i n rad
io e quip - s
ectiona l area.
men t may b e u p t o 10 m i
llion o hms t wo l arger units ca
lled I
ft h
e l ength o f aw ire is c m, it
sc ross-s
ectional area as q.
1
.
3
 RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
m, a
nd i
t
ss pe
cif
icre
sis
tance So
hm-cm
, i
t
sac
tua
l r
e
sis
tance A
NODE 5
mA I
mA S
CREEN
w
i
ll b
e g
iven by t
he f
ormu
la — C
URRENT C
URRENT
1
•*A
SxI
R— — o
hms R
.81
1
a
App roxima te s
pecif
ic r e
sis
tances oft ypical materials used i n

I
r
ad io e quipmen ta reg iven inT ab
le 1 .2
. A t rad
io f r
equenc ies
D
I
RECTION
t
he r es
istance o f aw ire may b e very much g reater t h
an i t
s O
F E
LECTRON
d
irec t-cur rent value b ecause radio-frequency c urrent s o nly F
LOW
11117-1
t
rave l along t hes u
rface shell o
ft hew ire a nd not through t he
E
=4V •
r
. .Rc E
blas
who le b ody a sint hecas eofd i
rectc urren t. T h
isi scalled t he T
OTAL 1
000
11
s
kin e f
ec t and i si mportant in mak ing h igh-quality r adio (
A) C
ATHODE ,, I
c
oils. C
URRENT
I
S
Some time sin
stead o fspeaking oft her es
istance of ac ircuit 5
+1.6mA (B)
t
he c ond uctance of the circui
t isr eferred t o: th
is i ss imp ly
F
i
g. 1
.
3
. A
ppl
ica
tion
sofO
hm'
s L
aw.
t
he r ec
iproca l of the res
istance. The u nit ofc onduc tance i s
t
he m ho, a nd conduc tance i susually d enoted i n formu lae
b
y t h es ymbo l G. T
he a pp
lica
tion o f Ohm 's Law i s ilu
strated b y the
The r e
la t
ion between r e
sis
tance a nd c onduc tance i st here- f
o
llowing e
xamp le
s.
f
ore — E
xample I. Consid
ert h
ecircu
itshown inFig. 1.
3( A) wh
ich
c
ons
ists o
f abattery E of v
o
ltage 4 v
olt
s and a resi
stance R
G= —
1 o
rconve
rse
ly — R= —
1
o
f 8o hms. Wha t i s t
he magni
tude of the current in th
e
c
i
rcui
t?
T
hus ar
e
sis
tanc
e o
f 1
0 o
hms h
as ac
onduc
tance o
f
H
ere E = 4 vol
t s a
nd R = 8o hms
. L e
t Ib e the cur
rent
0
.
1 mho.
f
l
owing in ampere
s. T hen f
rom Ohm 's Law ( Formula i)—
TABLE 1
.
2 4
I —
E a mpe
res = -8 amperes = -1ampe re
S
pec
ific R
esistance o
fCo m mon
ly U
sed C
onduc
tor
s 2
I
tshould b
e n oted t
hat i
na l
l calcula
tions based on Ohm's
S
i
lver l
.
6 x 1
0 -°o
hm-cm Law ca
re mu s
t b e t
aken t
o e n
su re tha
t I,Ea nd R ar
e in
C
opp e
r 1
-
7 x 1
0-6
ampe
res, v
ol
ts a nd ohms r
espectively i
ferror
s i nthe r
esu
lt
A
lum inium 3x 1
0-6
a
re t
ob e a
voided.
B
rass 7x 1
0-6
I
ron E
xamp le I ( f
rom aR ad
io Ama teurs' Exam ination paper )
.
1
2 x 1
0-6
S
pecialhigh
-re
sis
tance a
l
loy
s: Wha t isthe st
and ing b ias v o
ltage p roduced b y ac athode bias
Manganin 4
8 x10-6
r
esis
to r of 1000 o hm s w hen t he c haracte
ristics of the valve
E
u reka a
re such t ha
t t h
e a node c urrent i s 5 mA a nd the s c
reen-grid
4
9 x10-6
N
ich rome c
urrenti s ImA?
1
08 x 1
0-6
T
he c ir
cuit iss hown i n F ig
. 1 .3( B
) i n w h
ich t he total
c
athode c ur
ren t i st he s um o f t he a node a nd s creen-gr
id
c
urrents. T he ca thode c urrent flow ing through t he cathode
Oh m
's L
aw
r
es
i s
to r wil
l cau se a v o
ltage t o a ppea r across it
s t e
rm inals
Ohm's Law state
s tha
t the r
at
io of th
e vo
ltage app
lied wh
ich i sthe required s tanding b ias v o
ltage.
a
cross ar e
sis
tance t o t
he cur
rent fl
owing th
rough t h
at Let E b
ias = s tand ing bi as vo
ltage i nv olts
,
r
e
sistance i
scons
tant. This r
a
tio i
sequa
l toth
e value o
fthe = t otal cathode c ur rent ina mperes,
r
e
sistance
. = r esi
s tance o ft h
ec athode r e
sistor ino hm s
.
Wri
ting t
h
isa s aformu
la — T
hen f rom Ohm 's L aw —
V
ol
tage =( I
, xR .
)v o
lts
— ac
ons
tan
t = R
esi
stance Here I .= ( 5± 1 ) = 6m i l
liamp eres =0 .006 a mpere.
C
urren
t
R = 1 000 o hm s
.
o
rins
ymbo
ls— S
ub s
tituting int he f ormu la —
E =0. 006 x 1 000 = 6v olts
T -A
No
te that i
fE isinv o
ltsand Iinamperes, t
hen R isino hms. E
lectr
ica
l P
ower
I
twill be se
en th a
t th
is formu
la rela
tes current
, v o
ltage
a
nd res
istance
, so that i
ftwo of t
he
se q uan
tit
ies are known When a c urrent of electric
ity flows t hrough a r e
sistance
t
he th
in imay b e calcu
lated by su
itably rearranging the e
.g
. ina n electr
ic f i
re
, t he re
sistance gets h ot and el
e ctr
ical
f
ormula inthe fo
llowing ways: e
nergy ist u
rned i nto h eat
. T he actual r ise in tempe rature
d
epends on t he amoun t o fp owe r d
iss
ipa ted i nt he r
es
is tance
E=I x R (
g
iving E
,know
ing l
and R
) ...(
i
) a
nd t h
e shape a nd s i
ze o f the r e
sis
tance . S ometime s the
E . p
owe r d
iss
ipa ted iss o s mal
l that the tempe rature ri
se i snot
I= — (
g
iving I
,know
ing E a
nd R
) ...(
i
) v
ery no
ticeable, but neve r
thelessw heneve ra nelec
tric current
f
l
ow s th
rough a r e
sistance p owe r isdis
sipa ted there
in. T he
E .. u
nit of elec
trical p owe r i s the w at
t, u sually d enoted i n
R= 7 (
g
iving R
, k
now
ing E a
nd I
) ...O
H)
f
ormulae by t he s
ymbo l W. T he amoun t o felectr
ical p ower
1
.4
 PR
INC
IPLES
d
i
ssipated in ar es
istance ise qual t
o the produc
t o f t
he D
ecibe
ls a
nd Nepers
v
ol
tage acrosst her e
sis
tance and thecur
rentflowing t
hrough I
n r ad
io a nd l ine tr
an smission e ngineering p ower rat
ios
t
he re
sis
tanc e
. T hus— a
re often exp ressed i n te
rm s o f unit
s p roportional to t h
e
Power( wat
t s
) = V oltage (
volt
s) xC ur
rent( amperes
) l
ogar
ithm o f t h
ei r ra
tio. I n t h
is w ay g a
in s and los
se s in
o
r insymbo ls— ampl
ifiers
, n e
two rks and t ransmission p aths can b e added
W = Exl ... (
i
) a
nd sub t
racted instead ofh aving tob e multipl
ied together.
S
incef rom Ohm '
s law — Two s uch u n
its a re in c ommon u se
. T he f i
rs
t i s th
e
E=I x RandI = E IR d
ecibe
l , abbreviated d b
, b a
sed o n c ommon l o
ga r
ithm s and
t
heformu la f
ort hep owe rdis
sipated i
n ar
esis
tance may al
so w
idely u sed int he Brit
ish C ommonwea l
th a nd inthe USA .
b
ew ri
tten int wo fur
therf orms: T
he s econd ist he n eper, based o n n atural lo
ga r
ithm s and
W = ENR (
i
) w
idely u s
ed i nc ontinental E urope.
W= P xR ..(
ii
i)
T
hese formulae a
re u seful f
or finding, fo
r examp le
, the TABLE 1
.
3
p
ower input to at ransmitter or the p ower diss
ipated in
v
ar
ious resi
stances in an amp l
ifie
r s o t h
at sui
tably rated D
ecibe
ls 1 2 3 6 1
0 1
4 2
0 4
0
r
e
sis
tances can be s
elected. T o take a pract
ical case
, con-
s
i
der aga
in t h
ec i
rcu
it o fFig. 1
.3( A). The power diss
ipated P
owe
r R
atio
s 1
.
2 1
.
58 2 4 1
0 2
5 1
00 1
04
i
ntheres
istance may becalcula
ted asf ol
low s:
He
re E = 4v ol
tsa nd R = 8o hm s. L e
t Wb ethep owerin Eo
r /R
atio
s 1
.
12 1
.
26 1V2 2 3
'
1 5 1
0 1
00
w
atts
. Then —
E
' 4x 4 , „ I
fthere a
re t
wo power l
e
vels
, P1 and P1,f
o
r e
xamp
le a
t
W = — —8 — w
ait
s. t
he input a
nd outpu
t of a
n amp l
ifi
er, t
he p
owe
r r
at
io i
n
d
ec
ibels, N
, i
sgi
ven by t
he e
xpres
sion:
I
t mus
t be st
ressed again that t
he b
eginne r s
hould a
lway
s
Pi
s
ee t
hat al
l v
alues are expressed i
nt e
rm s of v
ol
ts, a
mpere
s N= 1
0lo
gie — db
a
nd o hms in t h
is t ype of c a
lcu
lat
ion . C a
reles
s use of Pe
Megohm s or mil
liamp e
res
, f or e
xamp le, may l e
ad to a
n E
xpre
ssed i
nnepe
rs
a
nswer se
vera
l orde r
s too la
rge or t
oo s mal
l.
N = Il
og
e—e n
P epe
rs

1
000 Nepe
rs can b
e conver
ted eas
ily i
n
to dec
ibels
, and vi
ce
v
ersa
, si
nce f
rom t
he t
wo equa
tions a
bove i
tfo
llows t
ha
t:

SOO
1n
epe
r =8
.
69 d
ec
ibe
ls
Curve A i n Fig
. 1 .
4 c an b e u
sed for dete
rm ining th
e
n
umb e
r o f decibel
s c o
rrespond ing t
o ag i
ven p owe r r
at
io
a
nd v ice
-versa.
S
ince p ower c an be expre
s sed i
n te
rm s o
f current i
n, or
49 B
.
4—A .
y
. 42
v
ol
tag e acro
s s ar e
sis
tance, itfol
lows tha
t, f
or ag i
ven va
lue
V o
fresistance
, v ol
tage and current r
at
io can a
lso beexpres
sed
4
1
.
i
nd ec
ib e
ls (or nepers)
.
IO

1
0
4
/
RAT

0
c
a
.
E12
i
r
: di I
f P1 = I121
2= — a
nd P2 = 114R = —
E
22
r VOLTAGE

5 A
Q-
e
r 0 t
hen f
or ac
urren
t r
a
tio o
f 1112
A
.
*
+
0
4 4
t-
4
., N= 2
0lo
g10L idb
r CURRENT o

J
/2
0
a
nd f
o
r av
ol
tage r
a
tio o
f EVE
,
o
N-
-20l
og" — db
E2
POWER o

F
ig. 1.4, curve B, s hows t h
e relation sh ip between decibels
a
nd v ol
tag e and c urrent ratios
.
,
Table 1.3 givess ome u seful app rox ima te p ower, vol
tage
a
nd c urrent ratios i nterm s ofd ecibe ls.
It should b e n oted t hat str
i ctly s peaking c urrent and
v
oltage ratioss hou ld only b eexp re ssed i ndecibel
s w hen the
r
es
istance a t w hich t hey a re m ea sured i s the s ame. I n
p
ractice, howeve r,t hev ol
tage g a
ins o f amp l
ifier
sh aving very
1
0 0 30 40 50 60
d
if e
ren tin puta nd o utputr es
istance sa reo f
ten quoted inthis
D
ECIBELS
way; i tisa n a rbitrary u se of the d ecibel w h
ich a l
though
F
ig. 1
.
4. Graph r
elat
ing d
ecibe
ls t ower o
o p r c r v
urrent o oltage
rat
io
s
ome time sc onven ienti np ract
iceo ften l eadstoc onfusion.
1
.
6
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
TABLE 1
.
4 f
i
gu re is4,t he vio
let second b and s ignif
ies t hat the s econd
T
he Res
istor Co
lour Code f
i
gu re is7,w hi
le the orange t h
ird b and s ignif
ies t hat t he
re
a
ret hree zero s t
o fol
low : t he s i
lve
r f ourth b and i ndica tes a
0b
lack 5g
reen T
ole
rance c
o
lou
rs: t
o
le ranc e o f ± 10 p er c ent
. T he v alue o f th
e r esisto r is
1b
rown 6b
lue ± 5percen
t .gold t
herefore 4 7,000 o hms ± 10 p er cent ( 47 K o hm s ± 10 p er
2r
ed 7v
iolet ±10 p
ercen
t .si
lver c
ent).
3o
range 8g
rey ±20percen
t . no c
o
lou
r TYPE B . T he blue body g ives the fi
r s
tf igure as6 ,theg rey
4y
el
low 9w
hi te t
i
p g ives the second f i
gu re as 8 , while t he red d ot s i
gn if
ies
t
hat t h
ere a re two zero s t o fo
llow : i n the a bsence o f a ny
c
olour o n t he o
ther ti
p t he tolerance mu st b e taken a s ±20
R
esistor
s U
sed i
n R
adio E
quipment p
er cent. T he value of t he res
istor i st h
e refore 6 ,
800 o hms
±20 p erc ent( 6
.8 K o hm s ±2 0p erc ent).
As a l
ready m entioned , a r esistor t hrough w h
ich a
So faro nly fi
xed res
i s
to rs have b een m entioned . V ariab le
c
ur rent isf l
ow ing may g et h ot
. I tf o
llow s th e
refo re that ina
r
e
sistors,s ome timesc a
lled p otentiome terso rv ol
ume c ont rols
,
p
ie ce of radio e quipmen t t he res
is tors o fv ar
iou s t ypes and
a
re also us ed. T hese are u sually pane l-moun ted b y m eans
s
i
ze s that a r
e n eeded mus t b e capab le o f d i
ssipa ting t h
e
o
f at hreaded b ush through w hich a F in, d iame ter spind le
p
owe ra sr equ ired w ithou t o verheating.
Gene ral
ly s peak ing, r adio r es
istanc es (or r e
sistors a s t
hey
a
re u sua l
ly ca l
led ) can b e di v
ided r ough ly i n
to t wo c l
asses
,
(
a) l ow p owe r u p to 3w a
tt s and ( b) a bove 3 w a
tt s
. T he
-
-----
-
l
ow -powe r re
s istor s are usua l
ly made o fc arbon a nd may b e A—F
IRST F
IGURE 1r (
TIP) )
o
b tained i n aw ide r ange o f res
is tance v alue s from a bout "— SECOND F IGURE
1
0 o hms t o1 0 Megohm s and i np owe r r a
ting s of w
att to .
.., (
BODY)

3w a
tts. T ypica l c arbon r es
isto rs a re s hown b elow i n NU MBER OF
"O's FOLLOWING (
DOT)
F
ig. 1 .5. F or h igher p owe rs, resistors a r e usua l
ly w ire
- SECOND F
IGURE
w
t
e
ound o
cted b
n c
y av
eram
i
t r
ic f
eou
o
s e
rme r
name
s a
l c
nd t
oat
he v
ing
e
. T
ry f
yp
i
ne w
ical w
ire i
ire
spro
-wound
-
(
A
) (a )

r
es
i storsa res hown o nt h
er ight. TOLERANCE
Resi
sto rs
, p ar
ticula rly t he s mall c arbon t ype s
, a re
u
sua lly colou r-coded t o indicate t he value o f the r es
istance
i
no hm sa nd s ome time sa lso the tolerance o ra ccu racy o fthe COL OURED — BAND BODY
, TIP & DOT
r
e
si stance. T he s tanda rd c olour c ode iss hown i nT able 1.4
. TYPE TYPE
The colou r
s a re applied e ither as b and s ato ne e nd o f t
he F
ig. 1
.
6. S
tandard r
esistance v
alue mark
ings
.
r
e
si stor a s shown i n F ig. 1.6 (A), o r a s b ody, lip a nd dot
c
olou rsa ss hown i nFig. 1.6( B)
. A sa ne xamp le,w ha tw ould
b
e t he value o f ar e
sisto r with thef o
llow ing m arking s? p
rotrudes and t o v
,hich th
e c ont
rol knob isfi
tted. Low-
p
owe r hi
gh-value variable re
sis
tances use a c
arbon res
ist
-
(
A)C
opo
tiR B
ANDs-
-yelow (
B)Boor —blue a
nce el
emen t and hi
gh -power lower r
es
istance t
y pe
s (up to
v
io
let T
ip —grey 1 ,000 o
00 hms) use awire-wound elemen
t.
o
range DoT —red
s
i
lver (No to
lerance c
o
lou
r o
n
R
esistance
s i
nSer
ies a
nd P
ara
lle
l
o
ther OP
.)
R
esis
tors m ay b e jo
ined i n ser
ies o r para
lle
l to obta in
T
YPE A. T
he y
e
llow f
i
rs
t b
and s
i
gnif
ie
s t
ha
t t
he f
i
rs
t
s
ome special d es
ired v alue o f r
es
istance . When i n ser
ie s,
r
e
sis
torsa reconnec ted ass hown inF ig. 1.
7( A)and the total
r
e
sis
tance oft her esistors i
se qual t
ot hesum o fthesepara te
r
e
sis
tanc e
s. T he p aral
lelc onnect
ion i sshown i nFig
. 1.7( B),
a
nd w i
th t hi
s a rrangemen t the r eciproca
l o f the tota l
r
e
sis
tance isequa ltot h
es um oft h
er eciprocal
so fthesepara te
r
e
sis
tances.
I
fRi st he tota
l r es
istance, th
ese fo rmulae can b
e w r
itten
a
sfol
low s:
SER
IES CONNECT
ION PARALLEL CO
NNECT
ION
1 1 1 1

V
IN
IMP R = R1 ± R2 ± R3 + e
t
c. = + + +e
t
c.
R R
, R
, R1

C
ons
ide
ring t
hec
ase o
fon
ly t
wo r
e
sis
tor
s i
npa
ral
lel-

f
ig 1
R
,
1 1
R2
R1+ R
R
,R,
;

w
hich b
y i
nve
rsion g
i
ves—
R _ R
,R,
F
ig. 1
.
5. Typ
ical res
istors used i n rad
io e quip ment
. The spec
i- R1 -
1
-R,
mens s
hown on t
he lef
t are c
arbon res
istors and those o
n t
he r
ight
a
re wire
- wound. T
his i
s au
sefu
l f
ormu
la, s
i
nce w
ith i
tth
e v
a
lue o
f t
wo
1
.
6
 PR
INCIPLES
a
nd i st hec apac itance o f ac apac ito rw hich h o
ld s ac harge o f
(
A) o
ne c ou lomb w hen t he v o
l tage a cros s it
s p lates iso ne v olt.
R2
Af arad i stoo l arge au nitf orp rac tical purpo sesa nd c apac i-
R
I R2 R3
--N
evvvv—n
.ni
sAes
.— N
ev v
‘
. t
orsa re u sually m easu red i nm icrof arad s( µF ), one m ill
ion th
o
f af arad a nd i n m icro-m icro farad s ( µµF ) or p icof arad s
R3
R•RI
+ R2 + R
3 e
tc
(
pF )
, o ne million -m il
lion th o f af arad.
T
he c apacitanc eo f ac apac i
to r d epend s o n the a rea o fi t
s
1
—
1 1 1
— 1 R2 + —.
p
lates a nd o n th e distance b y w hich t hey a re sepa rated a nd
3 e
tc.
R R M t
he m ate r
ial b e
twe en t hem . When t he s pace b etween t he
p
lates o f ac apac ito r iso ccup ied b y s ome o the r i n
su lating
7
0ohms 30ohms 7o
h ms medium t han a ir t he capac ity o f t he capac ito r isi n creased ,
t
he a rea a nd s pacing b eing a ssumed t he same i nb o
th c ases.
70 o
h ms
The f acto r b y w hich t he d ielect r
ic i ncrea se s the c apaci ty
c
ompa red w ith a ir i sc a
lled t h e d iel
ec t
ri c c onstan t o f t he
mate r
ia l
. T h
i s facto r iss ome t
ime s cal
led t hep erm it tiv
ity o f
t
he ma teriala nd i sd eno ted b yt hes ymbo l K . T ypica l value s
o
f Ka re —air 1 ,p ape r 2.5, gl ass 5 ,m ica 7 . C ertain c e
ram ics
(
C) (
D) have much h ighe r v a
lue s o f K.I ft hed ie
lec tric is av acuum ,
F
ig. 1
.7. Resistors i
n var
ious co mbinat
ions: (A) ser
ies
, (B) p
aralle
l, a
s i nt he case o f t he inter-elec trode c apac ity in av alve t he
(
C) series and p ara
lle
l (D) s
eries-paralle
l. The c a
lculat
ion of the
r
esultant res
istances i
n (
C) and (D) is e
xplained i
n the t
ext.
s
ame v alue of Ka s fora ir may b ea ssumed . ( S
tric t
ly , K=1
f
o r av acuum a nd i ss l
igh tly h i gher f or a ir.) T he v o
ltage
a
t w hich a c apacito r b reak s d own d epend s o n t he s pacing
r
e
sis
to r
s inp ara
llel c
an eas
ily be ca
lculated w
i
thout th
e use betwe en t hep latesa nd t het yp eo fd i
electric u sed. C apacito r
s
o
freciprocals. a
r e often l abelled w ith t he max imum w ork ing v oltage w hich
T
o ilustrate these r
ules two e
xamp les ar
e g
iven b
elow. they a re designed t ow i
th stand a nd t h
is figu re shou ld n ot b e
E
xamp le I . C a
lcula
te the res
istance of a30 ohm and a e
xceeded .
7
0o hm r e
sistor connected f
irs
ti nserie
sa nd t
hen i
nparal
lel
. F
ig. 1 .8 s how s a n e lemen tary c apac ito r made o f t wo
I
n se
ries connection — parallel m etal pl a
te so fa rea A s q.c ms epa rated b y ad istance
R= 3
0 + 7
0 = 1
00 o
hms dc m. I ft h
e p latesa reo fu nequa l area, o nly t hes maller o ne
I
n p
ara
lle
l connec
tion
, u
s
ing t
he s
pec
ial f
ormu
la f
o
r t
wo
r
e
sis
tor
s inparal
lel—
RiRs F
ig.1.8
. Paral
lel-p
late c apac
itor.
R= The c apacitance i s p
roportional
Rs+ Rs t
o t he area A a nd inverse
ly pro-
port
iona l to t
he spacing d
.
3
0 x7
0
— 2
1 o
hms
3
0 +7
0

T
hese two ca
lculations are i
lustra
ted inF ig
. 1
.7 (
C)
. s
hould be t
aken in
to a ccount s ti
ince i sa c
tual
ly th
e cro
ss-
Example 1. T hree resi
stors of 7, 1
4 a nd 28 ohms are s
ec
tional a
rea of t
h e ac
tive d
ie
lectr
ic which de
termines t
he
c
onnected in paralle
l. I f another re
sistor of 6 ohms is c
apaci
ty. Ifth
e dielectr
ic cons
tant of t
he mater
ial b
etween
c
onnected in s
eri
e s wi
th t h
is combinat
ion w ha
t isthe to
tal t
he pl
ate
s isK, th
e c apaci
tance of th
e capaci
to r w
il
l be-
r
es
istance o
ft h
e circui
t? 0
-0885 KA
The ci
rcui
t iss hown i n Fig. 1.
7 (D). T ak
ing the t
hree C— p
F
r
es
istors in pa
rallel fi
rs
t, these are e
quivalen
t to as i
ngle
r
es
istance o
f Ro hm s g
iven by- w
here A i
sin square c
entime
tre
s and d i
sin c
ent
ime t
res.
I
f A i
sin squa
re i n
ches and d i
sin i
nches t
he fo
rmu la
1 1 1 1 — 4 + 2+ 1 1
b
ecomes-
R 7 1
4 2
8 2
8 4 0.
224 KA
C— pF
T
here
fore —
R = 4o
hms A
sa n e
xamp
le, s
uppose t
wo m
eta
l pl
atese
ach 1squa
re in
ch
T
his i
nse
rie
s with t
he 6ohm r
esis
tor g
i
ves at
o
tal r
e
sis
tance i
nar
ea ares
paced 0
-
004 in
ch a
par
t inai
r,t
hecapac
ity w
ould
o
f 1
0 ohms fo
r th
e whole c
i
rcu
it. b
e-
0.
224 x Ix 1
C— 0-
0
4pF — 5
6 pF
CAP AC
IT ORS A N D CAP AC
IT A N CE

Capac
itors ( or condens e r
s) h ave t he p roperty o f be ing I
fmica (f
or w
hich th
e v
alue of Ki
s7)h
ad b
een u
sed a
s a
a
ble tosto
re ac harge ofe lectr
icity. T hey c onsis
t essentially d
i
elec
tric t
hec
apaci
tance wou
ld be-
o
ft wo c
onduc ting plateso rs t
r
ip ssepa ra
ted b ya n i
nsulating
0
.224 x 7 x 1
medium called a d ie
l ectr
ic. When a c apac i
to r isc harg ed C— 3
92 p
F.
t
here i
sav oltage diference b etwe en it
sp lates,a nd thel arger 0
.
004
t
he pl
atesa nd/or thes mal
le rt he
irs eparation t hegreaterw i
ll
Capac
itors u
sed i
n Rad
io Equ
ip ment
b
e thecharge t hat th
e c apacito r ho
ld s fo
r a ny given v o
ltage
a
cross i
t
s plates. T
he v
a
lues o
fcapac
itor
s used i
nrad
io equ
ipment e
xtend
The un
it o f capacitance ( or capacity) i scalled the f arad f
r
om about 1p
F to 1
000 µF
. They a
re d
es
igned f
o
r va
rious
1
.
7
 RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

s
ize. T hey a re u sed, f or examp le, a s bypa ss c apac ito rs i n
v
e ry h igh f requency e quipmen t, w he re s ma ll s ize a nd l ow
i
n herent i nduc tance a re n ece s
sary. T hey s hou ld n ot b e u sed
i
no sc
illato rs, h oweve r, a s they usua l
ly v ary c on side rab ly i n
c
apac ity w ith t empe ratu re change s
, t h ec hange b eing p ositive
o
r n ega t
ive d epend ing o n the type o fc eram ic m ate rial u sed.
11 1 1 C
e ram ic c apac ito rsa res hown a t Ca nd D i nF ig.1 .
9. Ce am i
r c
c
apac ito rs u sed f or t empe rature c ompen sa tion of st able
o
sc i
llato rs.
(
e
) E lec trolytic C apacito rs ( Capacity r ange 2 -2000 S F).
E
lectro lytic c apacitor s are m ade o fa lum in ium -foil p lates
a
nd h ave a s em i-
liquid c onduc t
ing c ompound , o ften i n the
f
orm o f as pe cial i mpregna ted pape r, b etween t hem . T he
d
ielectric i sat h
in i nsu lating l aye r w h
ich i s f ormed b y
e
l
e ctro- chem ica l a ct
ion o n o ne o f t h
e f oils w hen a d .
c.
p
ola r
izing v oltage i sa pplied t o t he c a p c i
a tor . T his f i
lm
i
ss o t h
in t hat i tisp ossible t o make l arge-capac ity e l
ec tro-

OP
.
l
y
tic capac ito rso fs mal
lp hysicalsi
ze . T herei sa nu ppe rl im
it
t
o t he w ork ing v oltage o f elec
troly tic c apac itor s o f a bou t
7
00 v olts a nd t here isa lso s ome l a k
e a
ge o fcurren
t be
tween
F
ig. 1
.
9. Typ
ica
l c
apac
itors u
sed i
n r
adio e
quip ment
.
t
he p l
ate s i nside t he capac itor. A n e l
ectro ly tic c apa cito r i s
A — Metal-cased b
lock p
aper
, F — Precision three-gang t un
ing
c
hassis mounting
. capac itor, silver p lated
B — Meta
l-cased t
ubular paper r
ass.
w
ith insu
lat
ing s
leeve
. G —M ica, e ncapsulated.
H —M ica, min iature e ncapsu
- ELECTR ICAL
C— D
isc c
era m
ic. l
ated. EQUI VALE NT
0 —Tubu
lar c
era m
ic. I— M ica, wax c oated.
J — Tubu lar paper. V il. cHASSIS
E —E
lectro
lyt
ic. K — Meta l-cased tubular paper

W
IRE 1
F
IXING CH ASS
IS
work ing v oltag e s a nd a re o f many d if eren t t ypes o f c on- NUT
s
truc tion . T he i mpo rtan t v arie tie s are d escrib ed b e
low .
(a) A ir-dielec t r
ic C apac ito rs ( Capac ity r ange 5 -
1000 p F
max .
).
A
ir -dielec tric c apac ito rs a re u sua l
ly o f t h e v ariable t ype
THREADED
such a sa re u s ed f o rt uning t ran sm ittersa nd r eceiver s
. H igh - BUS H
voltage t ype s f or t ran smi tter s h ave r e
la t
ive ly l arge spac ing s
between t h
e p late s a nd t h e c on struc t
ion o f at ypical g anged STRAI GHT- CERA M
IC TUBE
THR OUGH CONDENSER
a
ir- spaced v a r
iab le c apac ito r i ss hown a t Fi nF i g. 1.
9. WIRE
(
b) M ica C apac itor s ( Capac i
ty r ange 5 -
10 ,000 p F). F
ig. 1
.
10 (
a). F
eed
-through c
apac
itor
.
S
tacked -f oil t y pe. T he se a re m ade f r om a l
te rnate t hin
m etal p lates a nd s hee ts o f m ica , s tacked o ne a bove t he M OV
ING
PLATES
o
the r
, c lamped , a nd u sua lly mou lded i n B ake lite a s s hown
a
t Gi nF ig. 1 .9. T hey a rec ommon ly used a sb ypa s scapac ito rs
i
nr ad io -f
requency c ircu i
t s
.
S
i
l ve red-m i ca t ype. T he se a r e made b y s pray ing a c oat
F
ig. 1
.
10 (
b). Ba sic c
onstruc
-
o
fs i
lve ro ne ach s ide o f as hee to fm ica t of orm t h eelectrode s t
ion of a split
-stator c ap
-
o
rp la tes. Silve red -m ic ac apac ito rs a re h ighly s table i nv alue ac
itor.
a
nd a re u sed i n r .f
. e qu ipmen t w her e h igh f r
equency
s
tab il
i ty i sr equ ired , e.g. i no scilla to rs.
(
c) P ape r C apac ito rs ( Capac ity r ange 0 .00 1-10 µ F).
Pape rc apac i to rs,s hown a tA , B , Ja nd K i nF ig. 1.9, a re CONNECT
I ONS TO
F
IXED PLATES
made f rom l o ng s tr
ip s o f t h
in a lum in ium f oi
l a nd p ape r
which a re w ound i nto a t ight r oll a nd t h
en e i
the r mou lded
i
nB ake lite o r s ealed i nc ardboa rd o r m etal t ube s, or f or t he
l
arge r s i
ze s i n r ectangu lar m eta l c an s. Ano the r t ype o f
p
ap erc apacito ru se sm etallized p ap er el ectrode si nw hich t he
f
o
i ls a r e replaced b y m etal s prayed o n e ach s i
de o f as tr
ip
o
f p ap er
. T hi s t y pe i ss ma ller t han t h
e f o
il t y pe f or ag iven
c
apac i ty a nd w ork ing v oltage .
(
d
) C e ram ic C apac ito rs (Capac i ty r ange 1p F-0 .0 1 S F).
Ceram ic c apac ito r
s a re m ade b y c oa ting t wo s i
de s o f a
c
eram ic d isc, t ube , o r c up , w ith s i
lver. C e ram ic m aterials
h
av ing a h igh d ielectric c on stan t a r e a va i
lab le s o t hat F
ig. 1
.
10 (c). Push-pu
ll circuit F
ig. 1
.
10 (d). Push
-pu l
l circuit
u
sing a s
plit-
stator capacitor. u
sing a n ord
inary s ingle-
r
e
la tive ly h igh c apac i
tie sc an b eo btained i n as ma ll phy sical sect
ion capacitor.

1
.8
 PRINCIPLES
s
hown a t Ei nF ig. 1 .
9. E lect roly tic c apac ito rs a reg ene ra l
ly astanda rd range o f c
apac itor
s, or perhap s in the case of
u
sed f or r educ ing t he r i
pp le v oltag e i n p ower s upp ly s
e
ries c onnec t
ion t o obtain a c apaci
tor c apable o f with-
u
nit s
, a nd a lso f or d ecoup ling p urpo ses. I n d .c
. c ircu i
ts s
t
and ing a g reater voltage w ithout b reakdown t han i s
t
he c or re c
t p olarity o f e l
ec tro ly tic c apac ito rs mu st b e p
rovided b y as i
ngle capacitor
. When c apaci
to r
s a r
e c on-
o
b se rved , o r p e rmanen t d amage w il
l r esu lt: t he capac itor n
ected inp aral
lel,asi nFig. 1.
11 (A), t
het o
talc apaci
ty o fthe
may e ven e xp lode . T he m ax imum w ork ing v ol
tage mu s
t c
omb ination i sequal to the sum o f t
he separate capacit
ies.
n
ot b e e xce eded o r simila r resu lts may e nsue . When capac itors are c
onnec ted inser
ies, as i
nF ig. 1.
11 ( B
),
(
f
) F eed -th rough C apac ito rs t
he rec
ip rocal ofthe equivalent capac
ity isequa l t
ot he sum
The re i salway s as ma ll amoun t o f i n duc tance a sso cia ted o
ft he rec
ip rocal
s oft he s
eparate capacit
ies.
w
ith a c apac ito r, p a
rtly i nt h e c onne cting l eads a nd p ar t
ly I
fCi st he to
tal capacity these fo
rmu lae can b e writ
ten
i
n t he c apac ito r. A t v ery h i gh f requenc ie s ( above a bout a
sf o
llow s:
3
0 Mc /s) i ti so ften d if i
cu lt t o o btain a n e fec
tive l ow- PA
Ra! iF
L CO
NNECT
ION SE
R
IES CO
NNEC
TION
r
eac tance p a
th t oe arth t hrough ab ypa ss c apac itor b ecause
1 1 1 1
o
f t h
i s s t
ray i nduc tance . F e ed- th rough c apac ito rs a re C + C2 + Cs e
t
c.
s
pec ia l
ly d es
igned t o o ve rcome t hi s d iff
i culty. T hey c on sis
t
o
f ac eram ic t ube, s i
lve red i nside a nd o u tside t o g ive t h
e S
imila
r to t
he fo
rmula f
or re
sisto
rs i
n paral
lel
, au
sefu
l
r
equ i red c apac ity. T he t ub ei ss o
lde red t o ab u sh w hich m ay e
quiva
len
t f
ormula f
o
r two c
apaci
tors i
nse
ries i
s—
b
eb olted t o ac hassisa nd t hereby g ive av ery l ow induc tance
p
ath f rom t he o u
t s
ide s i
lve r
ing t oe arth. T he i nner s i
lve ring Ci Cs
C =
i
sc onne cted t o aw ire w h
ich p as se s t hrough t he tub e a nd Cl + Cs
p
ro trude s a te ach e nd a s s hown i nF ig. 1 .
10 ( a)
, t he w hole
The use of t hese f o
rmu lae i silustrated b y a n examp le
d
ev ice f orm ing a v ery c onven ien t m ethod o f d ecoup ling o r
t
aken from aR ad io Ama teurs' Examina tion p aper
.
f
i
lte r
ing s upply l eads w here t h ey e nte r o r l eave a s creened Example. T wo c apaci
to r
s o f 4and 1 2 pF are connected in
c
ompa rtmen t. s
e
ries; two others o f 8and 2 4 pF ar
e also c onnected i
ns eri
e s
.
(
g) S plit-stato r C apacito r
Whati sthee qu
i valentc apacitance ifth
ese s er
iesc ombinations
A s plit -s
ta to r c apac i tor i s a s pe cial t ype o f v ar iable
a
rej o
ined inp ara l
lel?
c
apac ito r w hich i sused m ainly i np ush-pu ll r adio-frequency
The c
ircuit iss hown i nF ig
. 1.
11 ( C). U s
ing t h
e formu la
amp lifi er c i
rcu its i nt ran sm it
te r s
. I tism ade u p o ft wo s epa r-
f
or two c apaci
to r
s i n se
ries the two s er
ie s arm s Xa nd Y
a
tese tso ff i
xed a nd mov ing p late sa ss hown d iag ramma tica l
ly c
an be reduced t os ing
le equivalent capacities Cx a nd C y as
i
nF i g. 1 .
10 ( b)
. T he a dvan tage s o ft he p ush -pu ll circu it o f
s
hown i nF ig
. 1 .11 ( D
). T hus-
F
ig . 1 .10 ( c
) u s
ing a s pl
it-sta to r c apac i
to r o ver t ha t o f
F
i g. 1 .
10 ( d) u sing a n o rdinary v ariab le c apac ito r a re t hat 4x 1
2 4x 1
2
Cx — — 3p
F
t
h e c ircu it i ss ymme trica l
ly b a
lanced t o e arth a nd t h e s haft 4+ 1
2 1
6
i
sa t e arth p oten t
ial. I n th e c ase o f t he c ircu i
t w ith t he 8x 2
4 8x 2
4
s
plit- stato r c apac itor t he b alanc e o f t he c ircu it i s n o
t s o C
y — — 6p
F
8+ 2
4 3
2
d
ependen t o n t h
e p osition o ft he t app ing p o
in t on t h e c o
il.
T
hese two capac
itances m ay now be compounded i
n
C
apac
itor
s i
nSer
ies a
nd P
ara
lle
l p
ara
llel to g
ive t
he to
tal ef
ective c
apac
ity r
epre
sen
ted b
y
C
apac
itorscan b
econnec
ted i
nseriesorpara
lle
l,asshown t
he s
ingle c
apac
ito
r CT inFig
. 1 .
11 (
E)
.
i
nFig
. 1
.11
,e i
the
rtoobta
in some s
pecia
lcapaci
ty va
lue u
s
ing = + Cy = 3 + 6 = 9p
F
T
he tota
l e
quivalen
t capaci
ty of t
he f
our c
apac
ito
rs c
on-
C n
ected a
sde
scribed ist
here
fore 9pF
.

C2
1 -0
C
l C2 C3 MAG NET
ISM
0 - 11- 11-- 11 -0
C3 Permanen t Magne t
s. Am agne t w ill att
ract pieces o f i ron
(
A) (B ) t
owa rdsi tbye xerting am agne tic force u pon them . T he f i
e
ld
1- 0

o
f t h
is m agnetic f orce c an b e d emon strated b y sp r
ink ling
4. 4, I i
r
on f i
l
ings o n ap iece o f t h
in c ardboa rd u nder w hich i s
e
tc.
C . C I + C2 + C3 e
tc. C C
I C2 C3 p
laced a b ar m agne t. T he i ron f i
l
ing s w il
l m ap o ut t he
magnetic fi
e
ld a ss ketched i nF ig .1.12 ( A). Itwillb es een t hat
t
he f i
e
ld i s mo s
t i ntense n ear t he e nd s of the m agne t, t he
1 c
entres of in
ten sity b eing called t he p oles, and li
ne s o ffo rce
4p FL - - 1 s
pread o ut on eithe r side and c ontinue t h
rough t he m aterial
8pF
i T
gli nCy o
ft he m agnet from o ne end t ot h
e o the r
.
I
fsuch a m agne t iss uspended s o th a
t i tcan s w
ing f reely
3pF 6pF
1
2pF 24pF i
n ah or
izon tal p lane i tw i
ll a lway s c ome t o rest p ointing
i
n o ne p ar
ticula r d irect
ion , n ame ly t owa rds t he e ar
th 's
(
c
)t i.
r (
D) I (
E) m
c
agne
ompa
t
ic p
ss n
ole
eed
s, t
le i
h
ss
e e
imp
arth i
ly a b
t
se
a
lf a
r o
ct
f m
ing a
agne
s am
tized s
agne
teel
t. A
. One
F
ig. 1.
11. Capac itors in var
ious c o mbinations: ( A) p aral
lel, (B)
s
eries
, (C) s er
ies-paralle
l. The c a
lcu lat
ion o f the resultant capaci- e
nd o f the m agne t ( N) isc alled a n o r
th p ol
e, w hich i sa n
t
ance of the co mbination shown in ( C) requires f
ir
st the e valuation a
bb reviat
ion o f "n orth-seek ing p ole" a nd t he o the r e nd
o
f each series arm X a nd Y as sho wn in (0): the single e quivalent
c
apacitance of the co mb
inat ion iss hown i n (E). (
S) as outh p o
l e or "s outh-seek ing p ole." I tisa n acc ep ted
1
.
9
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
LINES O
F wou ld i ndica te t hat for ac urren t f l
ow i n t he direct
ion
M
AGNET IC F
ORCE
i
lu stra ted t h e magne tic force actsc lockw ise round the wire.
A r ever sal o f c urrent w ould r eve r
se t he di
rection o f the
magne tic f i
eld.
The c orksc rew r ule enables th e direct
ion o f t he magnetic
f
i
eld r ound aw ire to be found . I magine a"r i
gh t
-handed "
M
AGNET c
o rk scr ew b eing d riven i n
to th e wire so t ha
t i tprogres
ses in
A
l
e-1
t
he d irec t
ion o fc urrent flow; t he direction o f the magnetic
f
i
eld a round t hew ire wil
l t h
en b e int he direc
tion o frotat
ion
o
ft h e c orksc rew.
(
A
) The m agne t
ic f i
eld s ur
round ing s uch a s t
raight wire is
F
ig. 1
.
12 (
A). Magnet
ic f
i
eld p
roduced b
y ab
ar magnet
.
r
ela t
ive ly w eak , b ut as t
rong m agne t
ic f i
eld can b eproduced
b
y ac urrent i fi nstead o f as traight w ire ac oi
l o fwire or
c
onven t
ion t hat magne tic f
orce a
cts int he direction f r
om N s
ol eno id i su sed: mo reover the f i
e
ld c an b e greatly s
trength-
t
o Sa s indicated by th e a
rrows on t h
e l i
nes o ff o
rce i nFig. e
ned i fap i
e ce ofs o f
t ir
on,c a
lled ac ore
, i splaced in
side the
1
.12 ( A).
I
ft wo magne ts a
rea rranged so that the nor th pole ofo ne
i
sn ear t he s ou
th p ole of another
, t here will be af orce of S-R
ULE
a
ttraction b etween t hem, w hereas i f similar p o
les a re
o
ppo site o ne a nother, the magnets will repel o ne a nother:
s
ee Fig. 1.12 ( B
).
Magne ts made f rom c erta
in k inds o f i ron a nd n ickel
SOFT- I
RON
a
l
loy s r e
tain t he
ir m agnetism mo re o r l e
ss p ermanen t
ly, BAR OR
a
nd f ind many u ses in radio equipmen t
, s uch a s al oud- CORE
s
peake rs, p olar
ized r elays
, h eadphone s, c athode -ray t ube D
IRECTION
'
SOLENO
ID
OF CURRENT
f
ocu s
ing a rrangemen t s and magnetron o sci
lla tors
.
O
the r types o f i
ron a nd ni
ckel alloys, e.g. soft iron, are F
ig
. 1
.
12 (
D). T
he " S " r
ule for deter m
ining t
he p
olar
ity o
f a
n
e
lectro magnet.

c
oil. T he e xten tb yw h
ich t hes t
reng th o ft h
es o
leno id magne t
[
N
i
si ncrea sed b y t h e i n
troduc tion o f the c ore i sc a
lled t he
A
TTRACT
ION
p
e rmeab ility o ft h ec ore ( cfd ielec tric con stan t). F ig .1 .12 ( D)
s
how s t he magne tic f i
eld p roduced b y as o
leno id , w hich i t
N14,- -1
. N S
w
ill b e s een i sv e ry s imilar t ot hat o f ab ar magne t a ss hown
REPULS
ION i
nF ig . 1 .
12 ( A
). An orth p ole i sp roduc ed a to ne e nd o ft he
F
ig. 1
.
12 (
B). A
ttract
ion a
nd r
epu
lsion b
etween b
ar magnets
. c
oil a nd a s outh p ole a tt he o the r. R eve r
sa l o f t h e c urren t
w
ill r ever se t he p ola r
ity o f t he e lectromagne t
. T he p olarity
not c apab le of r e
ta ining m agnetism , a nd th
ere fore canno t o
f as oleno id c an b e d educed f rom t he "S" r ule, w hich
b
e u sed f or mak ing "permanen t" m agnets
. T hey a re s
tate s tha t t he p ole w hich f ace s a n o bserve r l ook ing a t t h
e
efective i n transm itting magne t
ic f orce, howeve r
, a nd a re e
nd o f as oleno id i s as ou th p ole i ft o him t h e c urren t i s
u
s ed a sc ores ine l
ec tromagne ts a nd transformer s
. f
low ing ( i
.e. f rom p osit
ive t o n egative ) i n a c lockw ise
E
lec tromagne t
s. Ac urrent ofelectr
icity fl
owing t hrough a d
irec t
ion ; s ee F ig. 1 .
12 ( D).
s
traigh t wire e xhibits a magne tic fi
eld, t h
e li
nes o f force of The s treng th o f a magne tic f i
eld p roduced b y ac ur rent
which a re in ap lane p erpendicular t o the wire a nd con- i
sd irectly p ropo rtiona l tot he c ur rent, af act m ade u se o fi n
c
en tric w i
th t he wi re. I f apiece ofc ardboard i ssprinkled mov ing c oi
l m ete rs. I t also d epend s o n t he n umbe r o f
w
ith i ron f i
l
ing s,ass hown i nF ig
. 1.12 ( C)
, th
ey w i
ll arrange t
urn so fw ire,t hea r
ea o fthec oil
, a nd t hep ermeab ility o fthe
t
hem selves i n rings r ound t he w i
re, t hus ilustrat
ing t h
e c
o re
.
magne t
ic f i
e
ld a s
soc iated w i
th thef l
ow o fcur
renti nt hew ire
. I
nterac tion o f Magne tic F ields. S im i
la r t o t he a t
trac t
ion
Obs erva t
ion o f as mall compa ss needle p l
aced nea r th
e wire a
nd r epu lsion o f p ermanen t m agne ts, t he re c an b e i n
te r
-
a
ction b etween t h e fie
ld s o f e l
e ctromagne t s o r b etween a
CORKSCREW p
ermanen t magne t a nd a n e l
ect romagne t, a nd i n j ust t he
RULE
s
ame w ay t he i nterac tion i s man ifest a s af or ce c au s
ing
r
e
la tive mo t
ion b etween t he t wo. T h
is interac t
ion f orm s the
b
asis o fs e vera l t ype s ofe lectromechan ical d evice s w h
ich a re
D
IRECTI ON u
sed i nr adio s uch a sl oud speake r s, earphone s, a nd mov ing -
OF CURRENT
FLOW c
o
il m e
te rs.
T
he p rinc ip le o ft hel oud sp eake ri sshown i nF ig. 1 .13 ( A )
.
A strong p ermanen t magne t A f orms p ar t o f as oft-iron
magne tic c i
r cuit BCD w hich h a s an arrow a nnu la r g ap
L
I NES OF b
etween t he c i
r cula r p ole-piece s C a nd D : as t
rong r adial
MAGNETIC
FORCE
magne tic f i
eld i s t h ereby p roduced i n t h
i s g ap. S peech -
W
IRE f
r
equency c ur ren ts a re p assed t hrough t he c o
il Ew hich i s
CARDBOARD
f
r
ee t o move i n t he a nnu lar g ap a nd i sf i
xed t o ac one
F
ig. 1
.
12 (
C). Magnet
ic f
i
eld produced b
y c
urrent f
l
owing i
n a F
. I nterac tion b etwe en t he magne tic fi
eld i nt heg ap a nd t hat
s
tra
ight wire
. d
ue t ot h ec ur ren t f l
ow ing i nt hec oi
lc au se st he:coil t o move
1
.
10
 PR
INCIPLES
c
ause ac urrent to f
low through t he m e
te r fo
r as hort time
u
ntil the fi
eld due to Phas r eached as t
eady v a
lue w hen the
c
urrent t hrough S f a
lls to z ero aga
in. T he e fect iso nly
momen ta
ry a nd iscompleted i n asmall f
ract
ion o f as econd.
The change i ncurren
ti nt hec i
rcuit Pissaid toh ave induced
avoltage i nthe ci
rcuit S
. T he fac
t that ac hanging c urrent
i
no ne c i
rcuit can induce av o
ltage ina nother circui
t i sthe
p
rinciple unde r
lying the operation oftransforme rs.

S
elf
-Induc
tance
I
f as teady c urren t i sf l
ow ing t hrough a c oi
l t h
ere w i
ll
b
e as teady m s1gr
ietic f i
eld d ue t o t hat c urrent
. A c urrent
c
hange w il
l t end t o a l
te r the s tr
eng th o f the fie
ld w hich i n
F
ig. 1
.
13 (A)
. The p
rinc
iple o
f t
he mov
ing c
oil l
oudspeaker
.
t
ur n w il
l i nduce i nt he c oi
l av oltage t ending to o ppos e the
c
hange b eing made . T h
is p roce ss i sc a
lled s e
lf-ind uction.
b
ackwa rdso rforwa rd saccord ing tot hes trength a nd polari
ty Ac oil i ssaid t oh ave s elf-
ind uc tance, u sually abb reviated t o
o
ft hes peech s ignal: thec one th er
efo re vibratesi ns ympa thy i
nduc tance . I tw i
ll have av a
lue o fo ne h enry ( H)i f
,w hen t he
w
ith t he s p
eech c urrents a nd c ause s s ound w aves t o be c
urr en t through t he c oil c hange s at ar ate of o ne ampe re
p
roduc ed. p
er s econd , th e v o
l tage a pp earing a c ross i t
s term ina ls is
The p r
inc iple o f the earphone i ss hown i n F ig
. 1.13 ( B)
. o
ne v o
lt. I nduc tanc e i susua lly d eno ted b y the s ymbo l L
A permanen t magne t M i s s i
tuated c lose t o ac i
rcular i
nf o rmu lae. A s the i nduc tance v alue s u sed inr adio e quip-
d
iaphragm Z m ade o f magne t
ic ma terial. T he p ermanen t men t may b e o nly av ery s mall f ract
ion o f ah en ry t he u n
its
magnet's f i
e
ld h olds t he diaphragm i n as tate o f s t
ress
. m
illihen ry ( mH )and m icrohenry(µ 1
-1)m ean ing one t housand th
Around t he a rms o f the U -shaped m agne t a re two c oi
ls a
nd o ne m i
llionth o f ah enry respec t
ive ly arec ommon ly u sed.
wound w ith m any t urns o f fine w ire a nd t hrough w hich The i nductance o f ac oi
l d epend s o n t he numbe r oft urns
s
peech c urr ents a re passed. T he magne tic fi
eld d ue t o th
e a
nd o n the area o ft he c oi
l a nd t he p ermeab ili
ty o ft h ec ore
s
peech c urren t fl
ow ing int hec oils adds t oo rs ubtract
s f rom mate rial on w hich t he c oi
l i sw ound . T he induc tance o f a
t
he fi
eld h olding t he di
aph ragm i n as t
ate of s t
ress causing c
oil o f ac erta
in p hy s
ica l size a nd n umbe r o f tur ns can b e
i
tt o vibra te in s ympa thy w ith t he s peech signal and e mi
t c
a
lcu lated t o af a
ir d eg ree o f a ccu racy f rom f ormu lae o r
c
orrespond ing s ound w ave s
. t
hey c an be d er
ived f rom c o
il c ha rts
.
The p rinciple o f the mov ing -coi
l m e
te r isd iscussed i n
Chapter 1 9 (M ea suremen ts)
. Mutua
l I
nduc
tance
Ac hanging c urrent i no ne ci
rcuit can induce av oltage in
as econd c i
rcuit: s ee F ig
. 1 .
14 ( B). T he s t
rength o f the
v
oltage i n
duced i n the second c ircuit Sd epend s o n the
F
ig. 1
.
13 (
1
3). The p
rincip
le o
f
c
l
os ene ss or "t i
gh tness "o fthe magne tic coup l
ing b etwe en
t
he earphone. t
he c i
rcuits; for e xamp le, ifb o
th c oi
ls are w ound t ogether
o
n a n i
ron core p ractically a
ll the li
nes off orce or magne tic
f
l
ux f rom t he f i
r
s t circuit wil
l l i
nk w ith th e turn s of the
s
econd c ircui
t. S uch c oilsw ould bes a
id tob et i
ghtly coupled
wherea s ift he coils w ere both a i
r-cored a nd s paced s ome
E
LECTRO MAGNET
IC I
NDUCT
I ON d
i
s tance a part they w ould be loose
ly coupled.
The mu tual induc tance b etween t wo coils ism ea sured in
I
f ab ar m agnet i s p lunged i nto a s o
leno id c oi
l a s h
en rys, and t wo coils ares a
id toh ave am utua linductance of
i
ndica ted i n F ig. 1.14 ( A) t he mov ing -coil m icroamme ter o
ne h enry i fw hen t hec urrent inthep rimary c o
ilc hanges at
c
onnec ted a cro s
s t he c oil w i
ll s how a d eflect
ion . T he
e
xp lana tion o f this phenomenon , k nown a s electromagne tic
i
nduc tion, i st hat t he movemen t o f t he magne t's lines o f
f
or ce p ast the t urns oft hec oil c aus e av o
ltage t obe i nduced
i
nt hec o
il w hich i nt u
rn c ause s ac urren t t oflow through t he
mete r
. T he m agnitude o ft he e fect d epend s on the streng th
a
nd r ate o f movemen t oft he m agne ta nd t hes i
z eoft h ec oi
l.
Withd rawa l o f t h
e m agne t c au ses ar eversal oft he c urren t
.
No c urren t flow s u n
less t he l i
ne s o f f orce are mov ing r ela-
t
ively t o t he c o
il
. T he s ame e f
ect i so btained i f ac oi
l
o
f w i
re i sa rranged t o move r ela t
ive ly t o af i
xed magne tic
f
i
eld . D ynamo s and g ene rato rs d epend f or thei
r o pe rat
ion
on t he p rinciple o felectromagne tic i nduc t
ion.
I
f ap air ofc oi
lso fw ire area rranged a ss hown i nF ig. 1.14
(
B ), w hen t he s w
itch K i so pen t here i sn o m agnetic f i
eld
f
r om t h
e c oil Pl i
nking t he t u rns o f t he coi
l S , a nd t h
e
(
A
) (
B)
c
ur r
en t t hrough S i sz ero. C losing K w i
ll cause a m agne t
ic F
ig. 1
.
14 . E
lectro magnetic induction: (A) Re lative move ment o f a
magnet and a coil c
auses a v o
ltage t o be induced i n t
he co
il; (B)
f
i
e ld t o a ppea r d ue to t he c urren t i nt he c oi
l P . T h
i s fi
eld, when the c
urrent in one o
f ap a
ir of c
oup led coils changes i
n value
, a
a
s i tb u
ild s u p f r
om z ero, w ill i nduce a v o
ltage i n Sa nd c
urrent is induced in the second c o
il.
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
arate o f o ne ampe re per s e
cond t h e voltage a c
ross the Broad ly speaking, c o
ils can be d
ivided into t
wo c l
asses—
s
econda ry i sone v olt
. Mu tual in ductance i sd enoted in (
a) low -frequency c oils or chokes a nd (h
) rad
io -
frequency
f
ormu lae by the symbo l M. c
oi
ls a nd c hokes
. L ow -
frequency choke srange i
ni nductance
The mu tualinductance between two c oi
lsm ay bem easured f
rom 0 .5 t o 500 henry s and are wound w i
th m any t u
rns of
b
y joining t he co
ils in s
eries (a) s
o t hat the sense of the
ir w
ire on i ron cores
. I nF ig
. 1.
15 the genera
l m e
thod o f con
w
inding s isthe same a nd (b
) so tha
t t hey are rever
sed. T he s
t
ruc t
ion o fsuch c hoke s isshown inA , Ba nd C. T he core
t
o
tal i nductance isthen m easured ine ach case. i
sm ade u p of t
hin s oft ir
on o r s
pecial
-al
loy stamp ings or
I
fL . a nd L. are the to
tal m easured i nductances, and L1 l
aminations A ,i n
sula ted from each o
the rsoa s t
or educ e t
he
a
nd L., are the s
eparate inductances oft he t wo co
ils and M p
owe r l ost due to eddy c urrents i
nduced i n t
he core. T he
i
sthe mu tual inductance — c
oi
l i sw ound o n ab obbin B , wh
ich i sthen packed w ith
l
amina tions as shown a t C. L aminations may be o btained
L
. L1 + L2 + 2M
i
n aw ide r ange ofs izes and permeabili
ties
.
= — 2M
Radio-
frequency co
ils are air
-co red, dust ir
on-cored o r
.
* — Lb = 4M
f
er
rite c
ored. Air
-cored coi
ls are usually wound on low-loss
L
. —L c
yl
indrical or ri
bbed forme r
s. I n Fig. 1 .
15 a plug
-in c o
il
i
.
e
. M —
4 s
uch as isoften used in ama teur s hort
-wave t r
ansm i
tters
a
nd rece
ivers isshown at D. F or max imum e f
f
iciency, co
ils
T
he mutua
l i
nduc
tanceist
herefo
re equa
ltoone
-quarte
ro f s
hould be ofsuch dimensions that t he le
ngth of th
e wind -
t
he d
ife
rence b
etween t
he s
e
ries
-aiding a
nd s
e
rie
s-opposing i
ng isn ot le
ss than half and n ot g rea
ter than twice the
r
ead
ings
.
d
iameter.
A p erfect r adio -frequency c oil w ould h ave i nduc tance
I
nduc
tor
s u
sed i
nRad
io E
quipment o
nly a nd n o r es
istanc e , a nd t h e c urren t t hrough i ta nd t he
I
nductor s
, li
ke capacitors, a re u sed i n rad
io e qu ipmen t v
oltage a cro ss itw ould b e i nq uad ratu re ( i
.e
. 9 0° o ut
-of -
where ac ircui
t isrequired t o be f requency-dependen t. F or p
ha se) a nd n o p owe r w ou ld b e l ost i nt h e coi
l. I n p ractice,
i
nstance they areused inc onjunc tion w ith c
apaci torst of orm h
oweve r, coils have a n a pp reciab le e fective s e
riesr e
sistance ,
t
uned c i
rcuits which se
lect w an ted f rom u nwan ted f requen - which may b e many t ime s t he d .c
. r e
sistance o f t he c o
il,
c
i
e s in receivers and transm itters, a nd they ar e also u sed a
nd p owe r i sw asted i nt h e coil. T his p owe r loss s how s u p
i
nt he form o fchoke s i
nf i
lters w hich remove h um i nh i
gh - i
n the c ase o f at ran sm itting c oi
l , w here c urren t s a re h igh
t
ension p owe r s
upplies
. i
n ar ise i nt empe ra ture o ft he c oil a nd i t
s forme r. C oils in
T
he value ofinductance u sed i na ny ci
rcui
td epend sl a
rg ely wh
ich t h
is l oss resistance i sl ow a re s a
id t o be "l ow -
los s"
o
nt h efr
equency a tw h
ich thec ircuiti soperat
ing :f o
re xamp le, o
r "h igh Q ." T he l o
s se s in ac oil a tr adio f r
equenc ies a re
c
oils might b e o
f many h en rys in ductance for use as p owe r- d
ue t o ( a) e ddy c ur
ren ts i n s urround ing m eta l o bjects,
s
upp ly fi
l
te r c
hoke s where t h
e f requency i s5 0 or 100 c ycles i
ncluding t he core i fthe re i so ne, ( b) s k
in e fect ( see R esist-
p
ers econd o rass mallas0 1 m ic rohen ry when used a st uning a
nce a nd C onduc tance ), a nd ( c
) d i
elec tric l oss i n the c oil
c
oils at af r
equency of, say
, 1 44 Mc /s. f
orme r. F or a l ow -los s c oil s uch a s w ould b e u sed i n t he
o
utpu t t ank c i
rcui t o f as hort-wave t ransm i
t te r, h eavy -
g
auge w ire ( e
.g. No . 1 4 s .w.g.) i su sed , w ound a s s hown a t
Ei nFig . 1.
15 w ith t h em in imum o fd ielec tr
ic ma te ria
l i ns
ide ,
t
he turn s o fw ire b eing s uppor ted b y s t
rip s ofg ood -qual i
ty
i
nsulating ma te r
ial w hich c an j ust b e s een c emen ted t o t he
w
ires. T he c oi
l s hou ld b e moun ted s o t hat there i sn o p art
o
f t h
e m etal c hassis o r s creening w ith in a d istance a t least
e
qua l tot h
e d iame te r oft hec oil i na ny d i
rection . F or high
f
r
equency -s
tab ili
ty ,s uch a si sneeded i n at ran smit te r ma s
te r-
o
scil
lator , coils s hou ld b e w ound u nde rt e n
sion o n grooved
c
eram ic f orme rs: a n examp le i ss hown a t Fi nF ig. 1 .
15.
For l a
rg er induc tanc es, such as w ould b e used in i n
ter-
mediate -frequency amp lif
iers, the c oils a r
e u sually f i
t
ted
w
ith as pecialk ind o fi ron core ("d usti ron " )thep ermeab il-
i
t
yo fw hich a l
low sf ewert urnso fw ire tob eu sed for ag i
ven
i
nduc tance ; t he r esistance i s thereby d ecreased a nd t he
ef
iciency o f the c oil isi ncreased
. S olid i r
on c ores canno t

••
b
e u sed s ince t he eddy -cur r
ent losses w ould mo re than o f-
s
e
t t he g ain i n c o
il e f
iciency just m entioned , a nd a f i
ne
i
ron-alloy p owde r mou lded i n a n i nsula t
ing m edium i s
n
orma l
ly u sed. R ather h igher e f
i c
iency c an b e obtained
b
y t he u se o f ferrites w h
ich a re n on-me tal
lic m agne t
ic
materials o f v ery h igh r es
ist
ivity a nd t he refore low e ddy-
c
urren t l oss
. I n F ig. 1 .
15, Gs how s t wo h alves o f aferri
te
"p o
t "c ore
. T he c oil isw ave-wound , o r s imply w ound o n
F
ig. 1.
15. Typ ica
l i
nductances a nd magnet ic cores. A — Iron lam ina-
t
ions (T - and U-type); B — Bobb in; C — Asse mb led iron-cored ab obb in a nd p laced i ns
ide t he t wo h a
lve s s o tha
t i ti s
i
nductance; D — P lug -
in air-cored c o
il; E — L o w-
loss trans mitter c
omp lete ly surrounded b y t
he fer
rite ma te r
ia l
t
ank c o
il; F — H igh-stab
ility osci
llator c oil; G — Sma ll ferrite
"pot" c ore; H — W ave- wound c oil with a d
justz.ble i
ron c ore. A t
yp
ica
l i
.
f
. c
o
il o
f w
ave
-wound c
ons
truc
tion w
ith a
n
1
.
12
 PR
INC
IPLES

a
djustable s crew -
type d u st-iron c ore i ss hown a t H i nF ig . r
e
spec
tively a
re inpa
ral
lel a
nd w
i
ll t
he
refo
re b
e e
quiva
len
t
1
.
15 . T he varia tion o ft h ep osit
ion o ft hed ust-iron c ore a l
te rs t
oone si
ngle i
nduc
tance o
f-
t
he induc tanc e v a
lue . S ome time sa n a d
ju stab le b rassc o re i s 3
0 x7
0
— 2
1lA
H
u
sed i n
stead o f t he i ron c ore, b ut w herea s t he e f
ect o f t he 3
0+ 7
0
i
r
on i stoi ncrea se t hei n duc tanc eb ecause o fi tsh igh magne tic
T
his i
sth
e va
lue of t
h e e
quiva
len
t i
nduc
tance o
f t
he f
our
p
ermeab ility t h e e fect o f t he bra ss i st o r ed uce t he i nduc -
c
o
ils i
nth
is s
e
rie
s-para
llel a
r
rangemen
t.
t
ance; t he r eason f or t h
i s i st ha t t he b ras s
, b es
ide s b eing
n
on -magne t
ic, h as av ery l ow r esistanc e a nd t herefo re a cts
a
s a n e f
icien t s hor t c i
rcu ited s i
ngle t urn s e
conda ry. T
i me C
onstant
A
lthough c opp er w ould t h eor e
tica lly g ive a s uperio r p er-
Fig
. 1.16 (A
) s hows ac i
rcu i
t inw hich ac apacitor Cc an
f
ormance , si
lve r-plated b ras s h a
s as ufi c
ien tly h igh c onduc -
e
i
the r becharged from ab attery ofvoltage E
,o rd ischarged,
t
i
vity and i st he m a
te rial n orma lly e mployed .
t
h
rough a r e
sistor R according t o whether the swi
tch S i s
The u se o f m agne tic o r c onduc tive c ores t o c ontro l t he
i
np osit
ion ao r b.
i
nductance v alue o f ac oi
l i sk nown a ss lug t uning.
I
fatsome instant, t
„
,the s wi
tch isthrown f rom bt o acur-
F
or c onven ience i n a eria l t un ing i n a t ransm itte r a
r
ent wil
l st
art tof l
ow in
to t he capac
itor with an in
it
ial value
t
apped c o
il m ay b e u sed . I f ac ont inuou sly v ariable i nduc t-
E
lR . A s t
he capacitor c
ha rges the v
oltage across the pl
ates
a
nce isr equir ed t hec oilc an b em ade t or o
ta te w hile av ariab le
i
ncreases and the cur
rent t h
rough t he ci
rcui
t t he
refore fal
ls
t
apping i sm ade b y as l
iding p u
lley f o
llow ing t he wire s pira l
.
a
way , as shown i n the charging p o
rtion of F ig
. 1 .
16 ( b
);
Th
i s typ e of v ariable i n duc tance h as t he d isadvan tage o f
when f u
lly c
ha rged to th
e v oltage E the current will have
r
e
lying o n th ree r ubb ing c on tacts i ns e
rie s, viz, b e
tween t he
d
ropped t oz e
ro.
p
ulley a nd th ew ire, b etween t h ep ulley a nd t her od o nw h
ich
i
t move s, and t he pivo t a tt hee nd o ft h
ec o
il. N eve r
the le ssi t
V
O
LTAGE
i
scapab le ofg i
ving s atisf acto ry s ervice ifp rope rly ma in tained . A
C
ROSS C
A var
iab le i nductance w ith n o r ubbing c ontac ts may b e \
t
.

TAGE
made b y u sing t wo s eries -conne cted c oils w h
ich c an b e
t
urned r elat
ive ly t oo ne a nothe rt hrough 1 80 °f rom t hes erie s
-

OL
R V
a
iding t os eries-oppo sing c ond ition . S uch ad evice d epend s T
I
ME

URRENT O
on the v ar
iation o f th e mu tua l i nduc tance b etween t h
e t wo C
U
RRENT
t
o I
NR
c
oils and i sc alled a v ariome ter.

C
I
nductor
s i
nSer
ies a
nd P
ara
lle
l (
a
) C
A
PAC
ITO
R C
APAC
ITOR
(
b
) C
H
ARG
ING D
I
SCHARG
ING
P
rovided that the
re isno mutual c
oupl
ing b e
tween i n
duc-
t
o
r s when they are connec
ted inser
ies
,t he t
otal in
ductance F
i
g.1.
16
. I n( a
) acapac
itor Ccan becharged o
rd i
scharged th
rough
o
btained i s equal t o th
e s um o f the separate i n
duc- t
h
e re
sist
an ce Rbyo perat
ing th
es wit
ch S .The cu
rveso f(b
) show
t
ances
. When t hey ar
e inpara
lle
l th
e rec
iprocal of th
e tota
l h
ow th
e v o
ltage a
cross t
he ca
pacito
r and the c
urrent in
to and o
ut
o
fthe capac
itor vary wi
th time ast he ca
paci
tor i scha
r ged a
nd
i
nductance i s e
qual t o t
he s
um o f t
he rec
ip roca
ls of t h
e d
i
scha
rged. T he curve fo
r the ri
se and fa
ll o
fc urren
t i nan LR
c
i
rcuit issi
milart othe v
o
ltage curve f
ortheC Rc i
rcui
t.
s
eparate in
ductances.
IfL i s th
e t o
tal induc
tance (no mutual c oupl
ing) t h
e
r
e
lationships are a
s fol
lows: When , atsome t ime t,
„t he s wi
tch ist hrown b ack t o bt he
c
apaci tor wil
l discha rge through t he resistor R , t he current
SE
R
IES CO
NNECT
ION PA
RALLEL CO
NNECT
ION b
eing i n the o pposite d i
rection t o t he c ha rg
ing c urrent,
s
tar
ting a t avalue —E IR a nd d y
ing a way t o zero. A s the
L =L 1 + L
, L
,et
c. — c
apac itor discharge s the v oltage acro ss i t
s p l
a tes f a
ll
s t o
L Li Li L
,
z
ero a s shown i n t he discha rge portion o f Fig . 1.16 ( b)
.
F
or t
h
e s
pec
ial c
ase o
ftwo i
nduc
tance
s i
npa
ral
lel—
Graph s oft h
is shape a re cal
led e xponen tialc urve s
.
LiL2 Iti sevident t ha
t af i
nite t ime isre quired t o c harge a nd
Li + L2 d
ischa rge ac apacitor t h
rough ar e
sis
tor ; t he large r Ro r C
t
he lo nger the t
ime t aken. T his time iss pecif
ied b y t he Time
I
tm ay be n
oted that th
is f
ormula isofthe s
ame type a
st h
at Constan tofthe CR c i
rcuit,b e
ing t hetime t aken for ac apacitor
r
e
lat
ing t o two res
istors inpara
llel o
r capaci
tors i
ns e
ries
. t
od ischa rge to 37 per cent, i .
e
. 4.
-
th, of its in
itia
l v oltage, or
T
he use of the
se ser
ie s a
nd paral
lel i
nductance f
ormulae is t
oc ha rge to63 p e
rc en t(1-+)th, ofitsfinalv o
ltage . T he time
i
lus
trated by t h
e f o
llowing example taken fr
om a R adio c
onstan t, inseconds , isgiven b y the produc t o ft he capacity
Amateurs
' Exam inat
ion p ape
r: i
nF a rads and t he re
sistance i no hm s
:
Examp le. T wo in ductors of 1 0 and 2 0 m i
crohenrys are Thu s T = CR s econds.
c
onnected i ns
eries; two o thers of30 and 40 m icrohenrys a
re A
s an e
xample, the t
ime c
ons
tant of acapac
ity of 0
1
a
l
so c onnected inseries. Wha t isth
ee qu
i valent induc
tance i
f m
icrof
arad
s (10 -vF
arads
) and a r
e
sis
tance o
f 47 Ki
lohms
t
hese series c
ombinations a re connected inp aral
lel? A ssume (
4
.7 x 104 o
hms) is
:
t
hat there isn
o m utua li n
duction.
T= 1
0-7 x 4.
7 x 1 04
The 1 0and 20 01 c o
ilsi nser
iesa reequ
iva len tto( 10 +20)
= 4
.
7 x 1 0-4 s
econd
s
= 3 0;AL
= 4
.
7 mil
liseconds
T
he 3 0and 40tif
lc o
ils inser
iesa reequivalen tto( 30 +40)
= 7 0p. H
. E
xamples
, inwh
ich t
he t
ime con
stants o
f CR c
i
rcui
ts ar
e
T
hese t wo equivalen t inductances of 3 0 pH a nd 7 0 p
.
F1 i
mportan
t,aret
obefound i
nrad
io re
ceive
rci
rcui
tsas
socia
ted
1
.
13
 R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
w
ith t h e second d etec tor a nd a .g.c. rect
ifier. T he t ime c on- with t he p assage o f t ime a nd t h e r e versa l
s o f t he s witch .
stanto ft hes ignald etec to rdiode l oad and r eservoir capac itor Such a c urren t w aveform , i n w h
ich t he c urren t f l
ow s a t a
isc ho sen t o b e l o ng c ompa red w ith t he p er
iod o f the U . st
eady v alue f or e qua l t ime s i n b oth d irection s i sc alled
s
i gna l t o give g ood s moo thing , o r fi
l
tering , b ut n ot so l ong as qua re-wave .
t
ha t t h e v oltage a c ro s
s t he l o ad resisto r c anno t f ollow The mo st common a l
te rnating c urren t ist hat u sed f ort he
t
h e h i ghe st s peed a ud io amp litude v ar
ia t
ion s l i
kely t o b e e
l ectricity s upp ly ma in s i nw h
ich , i nG reat B ritain a nd mo st
encoun tered. On t he o the r h and t he t ime c onstan t o f the of E urope , t h e direc tion o f c ur ren t f low i sc on tinuou sly
a
. g.c. c ircuit i sc hos en t o be l ong c ompa red w ith t hep eriod chang ing f rom p os
i tive t on ega tive a nd b ack a gain a t ar ate
oft h e l owe s
t a udio f requency amp l
itude v ariations t oa vo id of 5 0 c ycle s pe r second . I n t he USA a nd C anada t he r ate,
s
upp r ession , d ue t o n egative f eedback , o f t he modu lation o
r f requency , i s6 0 c ycles p er s econd . I n e ach c ycle t he
i
n t h e a .g.c. c on trolled s tages, b ut at th e s ame t ime s hor t d
i rec t
ion c hange s t wice, b u
t f or t he p urpos e o f mo st c al-
e
nough t of ollow t h e f as
test fad ing l i
kely t ob ee ncoun te red. culation s i ti st he c omp lete c ycle w hich i s mo re s i
gn if
i can t
T
ime c onstan ts a re v e
ry i mpor tant inp ulse c i
rcuits w hich t
han t he t wo h a
lf-cyc le s ino ppo site d ire ct
ion s.
a
r e e xpec ted t o h and le f a
st tran sient w aveform s. The a l
ter nating v oltage o f t he e lectricity s upp ly d oes n ot
T
he r i
se a nd f a
l lo fc urrenti na ninduc tance i ncircuitw ith have a s qua re w ave form b u
t f l
uc tuate s w ith a g radua l a nd
ar es
i stance a l
so t akes ad efini
te t ime depend ing o nt hev a
lue s smoo th v ariation l i
ke t h e swing ing o f ap endu lum . S uch a
o
f La nd R i nq uestion . T he l arger th e value o f La nd t he c
ur r ent w ould b e p roduced b y t he c ontinuou s a nd s teady
sma l
le r t he v alue o f Rt he longe r itt akes f or the c urrent t o r
ota tion o f ac oi
l i n a magne t
ic f i
eld a s in d
ica ted i n F ig.
r
i
se o r d ecay. T he s hape o f th e curren t c urve s for a n LR 1
.17 ( C)
, w hen t hec ircuit i sc omp leted b y s ome d evice s uch
c
ircu it a re sim ilar i ns hap e to t he v o
ltage c urves fo r the CR a
s a r es
is to r
. T his i s t he b asic p r
inc iple u sed i n t he
c
ircui t s hown i nF ig. 1 .
16 ( b)
. a
lte rna tor, a mach ine f or g ene rating a l
ter nating c urren t.
The t ime c on stan t o fa n LR c ircuit isd efined a s t he time The w avefo rm o f t h
i s c urrent h as as hape w h
ich i sd efined
t
aken f or t he c ur ren t t o reach 6 3 per c ent, ( 1-
1)th , o f i t
s ma thema tica lly as as ine
-wave , s hown i n Fig. 1 .17 ( D)
, a nd
f
inal v alue , o r t o d ecay t o 3 7 p e
r c ent + th of i ts i n
itial t
hec urren t i ss a
id t ov ary s i
nu soida lly.
v
alue . T he t ime c on stan t ins econd s isg iven b y the i nduc - Alterna ting c urren tso f much h ighe rf requency a reu sed i n
t
ance i nH enry s d iv
ided b y the r esis
tance i no hms : r
ad io c ommun ication , t he f requenc ie s c ommon ly u sed i n
s
ho rt-wave ama teur w ork r ang ing b etween 1 ,800 ,000 a nd
T
hus
: T= — s
e
cond
s. 3
0,000 ,000 c ycles p er s econd ( 1
.8 -30 Mc /s) a nd i n mo re
a
dvanced w ork u p t o 4 30,000 ,000 c ycle s p er s e cond ( 430
Mc /s) o re ven h ighe r.
A L TE R N A TI N G C U R RE N T

P
rev iou s s ect
ion s h ave b een c once rned ma inly w ith
c
urren t f lowing i n one d irection t hrough a c ircuit, such a C
haracter
ist
ics o
fAlterna
ting C
urrents
c
u r
ren t b e
ing p roduc ed , f or e xamp le, b y ab a
tte ry
, i .
e
. F
rom t he prec eding p a
rag raph itc an b e s een t hat o ne
d
irec t current (usually a bb revia ted t od . c
.). f
eature w hich d is
tingu ishes o ne a l
ternat
ing c urrent f rom
There i sano ther i mpor tant t ype o fc urrent f l
ow i nw h
ich a
no the
r ist he rate atw hich t h
e c omplete cycles o fc urrent-
c
urren t flow s backwa rds a nd f orwa rds a lternately t h
rough a r
eversa
l t ake p lace; t his i s cal
led t he f r
equency o f the
c
ircu i
t. S uch c urrents a re called a lterna ting c urrents (a
.c.)
. a
l
ter na
ting c ur
ren ta nd i sm easured incyclesp e rse cond.
An a l
terna t
ing c urren t c ou
ld b e o b
ta ined b y c onnec t
ing a A second d i
stingu ish
ing f ea
ture ofa n alter na
ting c urrent
r
esisto r to ab attery t hrough a r ever s
ing s wi
tch a s shown i
sit
sm agn i
tude o ra mpl
itud e
,b yw h
ich ism eantt h e maximum
i
nF ig. 1.17 (A )
. On o pera t
ing t h
e s witch S b ackwa rds and v
alue reached d uring o ne cycle or al
ternation : s e
e F ig. 1.17
f
orwa rds f rom a t o bt he c ur rent f rom t he b attery w ould (3).
f
l
ow i n a l
ter nate d i
re ction s t hrough t he r e
sistor R ; t h
e I
t is p oss
ible t o h ave t wo alternat
ing c urren ts w hose
g
raph i n F ig
. 1 .17 (B ) show s h ow t he c urrent w ould vary f
requency a nd a mplitude a re exactly equal b ut with a t ime

(
A
) (
c
) F
ig. 1
.
17. Alternating current. As i mple
C
URRENT c
ircu
it with a current i
ng switch
SW
ITCH T
O
.a AMPLITUDE OR s
hown a t (A) produces a s quare-wave
1
11.
1•••• Ir
PEAK VALUE c
urrent t hrough t he r esistor R a s
s
ho wn i
n (B)
. W hen a c o
il isrotated in
a magnetic f
ield as in (C) t he vo
ltage
i
nduced i n the c o
il h as a s inusoidal
t
ime wavefor m ( 0).

&,SW
ITCH TO b PEAK R M S .J RM
.S. x1
.414
RM . PEAK PEAK x 0
.707

(
B
) (D)

1
.
14
 PR
INC
IPLES
d
i
rec
t fr
om the u
sua
l power f
ormu
lae, p
rovided t
ha
t r
.m
.s.
v
a
lues f
or v
ol
tage a
nd c
urr
ent a
re u
sed, v
i
z.:
AMPLITUDE

2
W E
l W 12R W = —
E
R

I
fpeak v
alue
s Ef o
r vol
tage a
nd if
o
r c
urren
t a
re u
sed
t
he
se fo
rmulae b
ecome —
F
ig. 11
8
. P hase d
ifference bet ween two a
l i
ng c
urrents
. Pro-
v
ided t
hat they both have t
he s a me f
requency t
he phase d
iference l
'R
wi
ll r
e main constant
. w = W= 2
-
R
2

l
ag, orp hase diference, between thet wo so th at th
ey aren ot
p
erfo rm ing t he same p a
rt oftheircycles att he same i ns
tant. A
.C. C
ircuit Conta
ining C
apac
itance On
ly: R
eactance
Thi
s i si lustrated inF ig. 1.
18 inw hich the s o
lid a nd dotted o
f Capacitor
s
ine w ave s are o f the same amp li
tude a nd f requency b ut When a n a lternating v o
ltage i sapp lied t o ac apacitor a s
d
if eri np hase byo ne-qua r
tero fthet ime t
a ken f oro ne c
ycle s
hown i n F ig . 1.19 ( C
) t he capacitor w i
ll b e a l
terna tely
a
si nd
ica ted b y the time x inthe diagram.
c
harg ed i n o ne direc tion a nd then c ha rged i n t
h e oppo site
Thus a n alternating current
, o r indeed a ny a l
ternating d
irect
ion a st hesupp ly a lternates. A te ach r eversali tbecome s
q
uan t
ity, c an be defined by the t
hree propertie s— frequency, momen tar
ily d ischa rged . An o b
serve r w atching t he f l
ow
amp li
tude a nd p hase. o
fc ur rent i n the w ire s conne cting the c apacitor t o the a .c
.
Anothe r t erm u sed with ref
erence t o a
lte rnating current s
upply w ould s e
e a n a l
ter nat
ing c urren t f l
ow ing b ackwa rds
i
st h ep eriod o f aw ave, w h
ich isthe time t aken t o pe
rform a
nd f o rwards t h
rough t hew i
res. T h
isc ur rent fl
ow si nto a nd
one c ycle. T he period o f aw ave i sthe r eciprocal of the out oft hec apac ito r a nd n ot actual
ly t hrough t hec apac ito r
.
f
requency ; thus — Ac areful st udy w ou ld s how t hat the c urren t iso ne-qua rter
p
eriod ( or9 0 °)o ut-o f-pha se with thev o
ltage ,a nd i na dvance
F
requency = P
eriod —
P
eriod F
requency o
fi t
,a s shown i nF ig. 1 .
19 ( D). T h
i s mu st be so, for w hen
t
h ecapac ito r isfully c ha rged t he vo
ltage i s amax imum a nd
F
requency i
susua
lly denoted b
y t
he s
ymbo
l Iand p
er
iod t
h e current i szero. No p owe r isdis
sipa ted i ns uch ac i
rcu it
,
b
y t
hes ymbo
l T. Asane xample
, t
hep
er
iod o
fth
e 50c
ycles ac urren t o f t h
is t ype b eing c al
led a r eactive c urrent o r
p
er s
econd ma
ins i
sgi
ven b y- watt
le ssc urren t
.
1 1 T
he magn itude o f t he c urrent f low ing i n the c ircu i
t
T= —= — s
e
cond d
ep ends o n t he capac ity o ft he capacitor a nd th e fr
equency
f 5
0
o
f t he supp ly , and t h
e c apacito r there fore e xhibits ap ro-
The v alue o f an a.c. vol
tage o r c urren t c
an b e s
pecif
ied per
ty o fc ur rent r estrict
ion o r oppo s
ition s omewha t similar
b
y i t
s amp li
tude . T his isoften c alled t he peak v o
ltage o r
p
eak c urren t
, being th e h
ighest value r eached d uring acycle.
Thust hep eak value ofa ny a.c
. voltage o rc urrenti sequalt o
i
t
s amp litude ( i
nv o
ltso r amp eres
)a ss hown i nF ig. 1
.17 (D).
The peak v a
lue, h owever, isn ot the mo s
tc ommon w ay of
amperes
s
pecifying a na l
terna t
ing v o
ltage o rc urrent. T he usual va
lue
(
rm s )
a
dop ted i st h
e r oot-mean-squa re o r r .m.s. value w hich is
e
qua l to t he d.c v oltage or c urrent w h
ich w ould produce
t
he s ame amoun t o f power in ar esis
tive l o
ad a s the al
ter-
(
A
Evo
lts .
(
rms B
n
ating v oltage o r current w ould p roduce T he r .m
.s. va
lue
i
sl ess t han t he peak v alue, t h
e t wo b eing r e
lated i fthe
wavefo rm i ss i
nu soidal asfollow s:
p
eak v
a
lue I
r
.m
.s. v
a
lue — — 0
.
707 x p
eak v
a
lue
a
mperes
o
rc onver
sely — (
rm.s.
)
p
eak va
lue = r .m
.s.va
lue x = 1.
414 x r.m.s
. v
a
lue
An a.
c. mains supply o
f 240 vo
lts r
.m.s
. thu
s h as ap
eak Evo
lts
(
c
—
(
r
.m.$) Xc
v
ol
tag e o
f2 40 x 1.414 o
ra pp
roximate
ly 340 vo
lts
.

A
.C. C
ircu
it Conta
ining R
esistance On
ly
Ohm 's Law can beu sed tofind th
ec urrentflowing through
aresistor w hen a c ertain alternat
ing v o
ltage i s applied amperes
(
r
.m.$)
a
cross i t
s te
rminals. T he cur
ren t wi
ll fl
ow b ackwa rds a nd
f
orwa rds through t h
e r e
sis
tor u nder t h
e i n
fluence o f the
a
pplied v ol
tage and w ill be in phase w i
th i t
. T he voltage
(
E
Evolts
E) (
r ms)
a
nd c urrent waveform s f o
r the res
ist
ive c i
rcuit o
f Fig. 1 .
19 XL

(
A) are shown i nFig. 1.19 (B)
. F
ig. 1
.
19. Voltage and r
elationsh
ips i
n a
.c. c
ircu
its c
o mpris
-
The p owe r di
ssipated i n t h
e r e
sistor can be calculated i
ng (A) r
esistance on
ly, (
C) c
apac itance o
nly
, (E) i
nductance on
ly.

1
.
15
 RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
t
o that exh
ib i
ted b y a r e
sistor e xcept that the e f
ect is c
urrent is9 0' beh
ind the vo
ltage, i.
e. e
xactly oppos
ite t
o t
he
f
r
equency-dependen t and t here is a9 0° phase diference c
ase oft he capacit
ive c
ircui
t: see Fig
. 1.
19 ( F
).
b
etween the vo
ltage and the current
. T his p
roperty, which i
s Examp le. C alcula
te the induc
tive reactance of acoi
l o f
c
a
lled the capaci
tive r
eactance o f the capac
itor is measured 2h enrys i nduc
tance at frequencies of 50 c/s and 50 kc
/s
i
no hms and isusually d
eno ted b y the s
ymbo l X,
; itisgiven r
espective
ly.
b
y the f
ormu la — The formu la for i
nduct
ive reactance is—
1
X0 = XL 2
7
rfL
2i
r
fC
S
ince f i
s50 c
/
s a
nd L i
s 2h
enrys —
where f isthe frequency i n cycles per se
cond a nd C ist he
XL —27
r x 5
0 x 2o
hms
c
apacity infarads : t
he v alue o f 7
ri s3.
14.
Sometimes f or conven ience, the symbo l wi sused to rep- =200 x 3
.
14 o
hms
r
esent 27rf I t is known a s t he angular f
requency a nd is = 6
28 o
hms
e
xpressed inr adians pe r second .
B
ecause i nduct
ive r eac
tance is direct
ly p roport
ional to
The fol
low ing e xamp le, t aken f r
om a R adio Ama teurs'
f
requency
, the reac
tance o fthe 2H coi
l at50k c
/s wil
l b
e one
E
xam ination p aper, shows h ow t h
is formula isappl
ied.
t
housand times it
sr eactance a
t50c /s
, namely 628
,000 ohms.
Example. C alcula
te t he r eactance ofered
, a t f
requencies
The current t h
rough a n inductance a nd t he vo
ltage
o
f 5 0 c/
s a nd 5 0 kc/s r espectively
, o f ac apaci
tance of 2
a
cross i
tare c
onnected b ythe modif
ied Ohm's Law formula —
m
icrofarads.
I
n the formula f or capacitive reactance - , E
I-
AL
1
- - ohms
2
77JC S
usceptance
Before any c
a
lcula
tion i s made it mus
t b
e r
emembered t
o A t
erm s omet
ime s used inc alcu
lat
ions isthe su
sceptance
e
xpre s
s fand C i
nt he cor
rect un
its
. o
f acoi
l or acapacitor
. S usceptance iss
imply th
e rec
iprocal
Consider
ing f
i
rst t
he fr
equency of5 0 c/
s- o
f reactance in the s ame w ay that conductance is the
r
ec
iprocal of r
es
istance. S usceptance isin g
eneral denoted
1 b
y the symbol Ba nd is measured in mho
s.
Xo — o
hms
2
7
r x 5
0 x 2x 1
0 -' Thus-
1
0000 1
= —2— — 1
592 o
hms BL Be = T
c
,
2
7
r XL

Cons
ider
ing n
ext t
he f
r
equency o
f50 k
c/s (
i
.e
. 5
0
,000 c
/
s)-
A
.C. C
ircu
it Conta
ining L
, Ca
nd R
: I
mpedance
1
Xc — o
hms An a.c. circui
t may c onta
in r
e s
istance
, i nductance and
2
7
r x5
0
,000 x 2 x 1
0-' c
apacitance ins e
rie
s,a sshown inFig. 1.
20 (A)
,e ach of wh
ich
o
pposes t he fl
ow ofc urrent i
n ad
if erent way as mentioned
= —1
0 =1
.
592 o
hms
2
7
r i
n the previous sect
ions. T he o
ppos i
tion of the compo site

I
t i
s wor th n o
ting t hat the reactance is inver sely p ro
-
portional to the frequency, so that it wou
ld b e p ossible t
o
d
er ive the reac
tance a t5 0 k
c/s d
irect
ly from t he r
e ac tance a
t
5
0 c /s s
imp ly by dividing by 1,
000.
The c urrent flow ing " through" a c apacitor c an be
c
alcu la
ted b y using Ohm 's Law, regarding the reac tance o f (
A)
t
he c apacitor X0 a s replac
ing the more u sual resis tance R,
v
iz.; - x
2 X (2
7 T
t i7 c)

(c
f _7
1)
1=
T
v
o R2+( 1
2fL 4
2 4z) a

A
.C. Circuit Conta
ining I
nductance On
ly: R
eactance
o
f Coil
The oppo sit
ion o f a n inductance to alterna
ting current
f
l
ow i sc a
lled t he inductive reactance of the co
il: s
ee Fig.
1
.
19 ( E
). I tisp roport
iona l to th
e inductance ofthe c
oi
l a nd
a
l
so to the frequency a nd isdeno ted by t
he symbo l XL,
I
t may bec alculated from t he formula —

XL = 2
7
rfL
FREQUENCY

(
a
)
As i
nthe case of acapac
itor
, the cur
rent inan induc
tanc e /
Resonant
f
requency
a
nd the vol
tage a cross itare one-quarter p
eriod (or 90°)
o
ut-of
-phase and nop owe risdi
ssipated in ap
urely i
nduct
ive F
ig. 1.
20. The ser
ies-resonant circuit. The hown at (B)
i
ndicate h
ow the impedance and the current v
ary with f
requency i
n
c
i
rcuit
. In a n induct
ive ci
rcuit
, h owever, t
he phase of the the t
ype ofcircuit shown at (A)
.

1
.
16
 PR
INC
IPLES
c
i
rcuit t o al
ternating current f low isc a
lled t he impedance u
sed o fa l
l inrad
io w o
rk a s i
tpermits the c
alculation ofthe
o
ft he ci
rcuit and isdenoted b y th
e symbo lZ . i
nduc tance of acoi
l w h
ich will t
une t o adesired frequency
The i mpedance o f t
he w ho le ci
rcuit c
anno t be f ound by w
ith a g i
ven capac
itance. It
s use, togethe
r wi th other fo
r-
s
imply a dding the re
actance s and r e
sis
tances togethe r
, si
nce mulae relat
ing to the re
sonan t c
ircuit
, isilust ra
ted by the
t
he re
lative current and voltage p hases a
ssociated with each f
ol
low ing w orked examp les taken f rom v arious R adio
c
omponen t are not the s
ame . T he induc
tive a nd capacit
ive Ama teurs' Examinat
ion p aper
s.
r
eac
tanc e h ave exactly o ppo si
te p hase efects a nd c onse
-
E
xample I. Wha t v
a
lue ofin
ductance isr
equi
red ins
er
ies
q
uently t h
ey mu s
t fi
rst be s ubtracted fr
om o ne ano ther t
o
w
ith a c
apac
ito r o
f5 00 pF f
or th
e circui
t to r
esona
te a
t a
f
i
nd t h
e t o
tal reac
tance int h
e c i
rcuit
, thus-
f
r
equency o
f4 00 kcls? (
Assume no r
esis
tance
.)
X= (
XL - X0) F
rom the resonance f
ormula —

The impedance isthen found b

y c
ompounding t
her e
sis-
f- 1,—
t
ance wi
th thetota
l reactance o
f t
h
e c
ircu
it. T
his h
as to b
e 2
7
r v LC
d
one b y ta
king th
e s quare r
oot o
f t
he s
um of t
he square
s
o
ft he
se two quant
itie
s ; t
hus — 1
t
he i
nduc
tance i
s- L- 4 ,2 f2 C

Z= R
' X
'
E
xpre
ssing t
he f
r
equency a
nd t
he c
apac
itance int
he p
rope
r
T
he cur
ren
t f
low
ing th
rough th
e circui
t may then b
e u
ni
ts (
f= 400 x 10 3c
/
sa 00 x 1
nd C = 5 0-1
2F-
)._
f
ound u
s
ing Ohm
's Law b
ut w
ith Z r
ep
lacing R a
s f
o
llows
:
L- 1
= — 4
70 x (
400 x 1
0 3)
2 x (
500 x 1
0 -
1
2)
Z
I
fth
e curren
t inthe ci
rcui
t isknown, the v
ol
tage across T
aking 7
11 = 1
0
, t
h
is b
ecome
s-
e
ach i
ndiv
idual component can be c
a
lculated u
sing Ohm 's
1
L
aw wi
th theappropr
iate v
alue o
fthere
sis
tance o
rr e
actance. L- —H
3
200
S
erie
s-Resonant C
ircu
it: A
cceptor C
ircu
it = 3
12
.5 m
icrohenry
s.
Cons
ider
ing the c
ircui
t of F
lg
. 1.20 (
A)
, cur
rent fl
owing
may bec a
lcula
ted u
sing the f
o
rmula /= EIZ, whe
re Z isth
e E
xamp le I
. I fan i
nductance of50 m
icrohen
rys i
sinse
rie
s
w
ith a c apac
itance of 500 picof
arads what i
sthe re
sonan
t
i
mpedance o f th
e ci
r cu
it and E isthe a
ppl
ied al
ternat
ing
f
requency? ( n m ay b
e taken as 1
0.
)
v
oltage. When Z isw r
it
ten inte
rms of R
, L, Ca nd 1
,t h
e
e
xp res
sion o
f /become s- A
t re
sonance —

I- 1—
1= 2
7
r'.
/LC
(
27rfL - — 1--
)1
2
7
rfC o
r f
' — 1--
4
7
r 2LC
At one p articular f requency d epend ing o n thee xact values
E
xpre
ssing t
he i
nduc
tance a
nd t
he c
apac
itance int
he p
rop
er
o
f Ca nd L ,t h
ec apaci t
ive a nd i n
duc tive r eactance s w i
ll be
u
ni
ts (
L = 50 x 10-4H a
nd C - 500 x 10 -"
F)—
e
qual a nd o ppo site. Unde r th
is cond ition, c a
lled r e
sonance ,
t
he impedance o ft h e ci
rcuit wil
l be am inimum , e qual t o R 1
a
nd t he c urren t will b e am aximum . R esonanc e is av ery =
4x 1
0 x(
50 x 1
0-4 )x (
500 x 1
0-2 )
3
i
mpo r
tan t p henomenon a s iti s used t o s e
lec t ad esired
f
r
equency f rom o the r u nwanted f requenc ie s
. F ig. 1.20 (B) = 1
0"
s
how s h ow t he c ur rent a nd i mpedance f or t he circuit of T
her
efo
re—
F
ig. 1.20 ( A) v ary w ith f r
equency , the c urrent a tr esonanc e f= 1
0
' c
i
s = 1Mc
/s.
b
eing E IR a nd t he i mpedance a tr e
sonance b eing R .
Example II. Ifthe ef
ective s
er
ies induc
tance a nd capaci-
S
eries-re sonan t c i
rcu i
t s are s ome time s r eferred t o as
t
ance o f aver
ticalaer
ial are 20 t
AH and 1 00 p F r
espect
ively
a
cceptor c i
rcu i
ts b ecause a t t he r e
sonance f requency t he
a
nd t he ae
rial isconnec
ted t o ac o
il of 8 0 p.H induc
tance
i
mpedance i sam in imum a nd th
ey th e
re fore a cceptm aximum
c
urrent att h
is f r
equency . w
ha t isthe approximate r
esonantfrequency?
I
nt h
ise xample theaer
iala nd c
oi
l togetherw i
ll re
sonate at
The f requency a t w hich a c er
tain c oil a nd c apacitor
r
esonate w hen c onnec ted t ogether can b e found b y equating afrequency determined bythecapacitance and thesum o fthe
a
eriale fect
ive induc
tance and th
el oading coi
l inductance.
t
he inductive a nd c apacitive reactance s: thus -
A
t resonanc e—
1
2
7
rfL = I- —
2
i
rfC
2
7A/ LC
S
olv
ing f
o
r f-
1 He
re the r
e
levant v
a
lue
s of in
duc
tanc
e a
nd c
apac
itance e
x
-
f - - -
2
7
r ,CL p
ressed i
nthe p
rope
r u
nits a
re—
L (
20 + 8
0
) x1
0-4H
I
fLi sin h
enry
s and C i
sinfa
rads
, fwi
ll b
e inc
yc
les p
er
s
e
cond. C= 1
00 x 1
0 -"
F
T
his f
ormu
la, n
ext t
o Ohm
's Law, i
sprobab
ly t
he mo
st T
herefo
re -
1
.
17
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
1 s
i
nce g
ood-qua l
ity capacitors have n
egl
igible l
osses
. T he Q
2
7
r V
(100 x 1
0-2 )x (
100 x1
0-
12) c
/
s o
f atuned circui
t d etermines it
s s
elec
tivi
ty, i.
e
. i t
s ab
ili
ty
t
o p
ick out aw anted signal from a numb er o
f u nwanted
1 s
i
gna
ls ona d
jacen tfrequencies
. Ah igh Q-value co
rresponds
c
/
s
2
7
r x 10-
2 t
ogood se
lect
ivity.
= 1
.
6 M Oa
pprox
ima
tely
.
P
ara
lle
l-Re
sonant C
ircu
it: R
ejector C
ircu
it
Example IV. A n a lternat
ing v ol
tage o f1 0 v
olts at af r
e-
q
uency of5 /7
r Mc /s i sa ppl
ied t o ac i
rcu i
t ofthef ollow ing I
f ac o
il and capac
itor ar
e c onnected in p aral
lel a s in
e
lements in s
eri
es: ( i
) ac apacitance o f 100 pF
, ( i
) an on- F
ig. 1
.2
1 ( A
) re
sonance efe
cts appear w hen thec urrent isof
i
nduct
ive r
esis
toro f1 0o hm s
. s
uch afrequency t
hat t
hereactance ofth ecoi
l a nd capacitor
(
a) Wha t v alue ofi nductance ins er
ies i
sr e
qu ired to a
re e
qual inm agn
itude and o ppos
ite ins i
gn. T he re
sonan t
t
une t
he c ircui
t tor esonance? f
r
equency o f aparal
lel
-tuned c i
rcui
t i s
, for practica
l p ur-
(
b) Atr e
sonance , what isthec u
r rentinthecircu i
t? p
oses
, given by t
he same formu la as for t
he s er
ies circui
t,
(
a) For the ca
lcu lation o f the inductance, th
e r e
sistance v
iz. -

c
an be ignored since i th as no e fect o n the r
esonan t f r
e-
q
uency, which isgiven b y- 2 TVEZ
'
1
At r esonance t he i mpedance o f ap arallel-tuned c ircu i
t
2
7
r VL
C i
sr es
istive a nd is am aximum a s s hown i nF ig. 1.21 (B)
. I f
R
ear
ranged
,th
isb
ecome
s- t
hec oil a nd capacitor w ere per
f ect reactive c omponen ts, t h
e
1 i
mpedance a t resonance w ou
ld b e i nf
inite. I n p ractice
L=
4
7
r2P-
C7 t
he c apacito r can b e l ooked u pon a s an early p erfect r e
-
a
ctance. b u t t
here isalway sa ppreciab le res
i s
tance a ssociated
E
xpre
ssing t
he f
r
equency and t
he c
apac
itance i
nth
e p rope
r w
ith t he c o
il w h
ich l imits the r esonan t i mp edance o f t he
u
ni
ts(f = 5x 10 6/
7rc
yc
lespe
rsecond; C= 100 x 1
0 -"F)— c
i
rcuit. T he value ofthei mpedanc eo f ap arallel-tuned circuit
a
t resonance i sc a
lled t he dynam ic r e
sistance o f th
e c i
rcuit.
1
L h
enry
s T
his i s af i
ct
itious r es
i s
tance a nd a ppea rs t o exis
t o nly
7,
4 2 x (2
5 x iv f
or al
terna t
ing c urrents o f t
he r e
sonan t frequency ; the d.c.
7
r
1 )x (
100 x 1
0 -"
)
r
e
sistance o ft he c
ircuit is
, ofc our se, re
latively v ery low.
1 Paral
le l-tuned c i
rcuits a re s ome time s c alled r ejecto r
1
0
,000 H c
i
rcuits b ecause a tr e
sonance t h ey h ave a h igh i mpedance
a
nd t herefo re re
ject curren t a
tt heir r e
sonan t f requency.
= 1
00 m
icrohen
rys
.

(
b
) At resonance
, th
e i nduct
ive and capac
itive r
eac
tances D
ynam
ic R
esistance
c
ancel ou
t a nd the circuit wil
l h ave a p ure
ly res
ist
ive
There i
s as e
ries
-to-parallel transformation w h
ich c an be
i
mpedance of 10 ohms. T he current /through the ci
rcui
t
made between the two circuits ofF ig
. 1.2
1 (C) inw hich the
a
t re
sonance can then be c a
lculated di
rect
ly from O hm's
s
e
ries res
istance rc an b e replaced b y an equivalent shunt
L
aw : 1= EIR. Since E = 1 0volts a
nd R = 1 0o hms
r
e
sistance R. P roviding t h
e v alue o f riss mal
l c ompa red
1
0 v
ol
ts w
ith the r
eactance oft h
e c o
il, as isusual
ly thec a
se inr adio
C
urren
tatr
e
sonance I—
1
0ohms c
i
rcuits, t
he va
lue o f Risg iven b y the f
ormula —
=
- 1ampe
re. x .
2L 2
R= =—

Magn
ifica
tion F
actor
: Q w
here t
o-- 2i
r
f
At resonance t h
e v o
ltage across thec o
il (or th
ec apacitor) I
tf o
llows th
at t he para
llel
-tuned c ircuit of F
ig. 1.21 (
A)
i
nt hec i
rcuitofF ig
. 1 .
20 (A)c an bec ons
ide rably gr
ea tert han c
an b e r
ep
laced b y that shown i nF ig
. 1 .21 (D
) i n wh
ich a
t
hat s uppl
ied t o the cir
cuit b y t
h e generator. T he c urrent p
erfect c
oi
l and c apacitor are shunted b y ar e
sistor R. At
a
t r esonance i s determined b y the v a
lue o f the r e
sistor r
esonance the c apac
itive and i nductive r eac
tance s cance
l
Rw hereas the voltage across the c o
il (or the capac i
to r
) is o
ut and th
e impedance o ft h
ec ircu
it re duces t
ot he fi
c
tit
ious
g
iven b y the p roduc t of the current a nd t he app ropriate r
e
sistance RD shown i n Fig. 1.21 (E): t h
is ist h
e d ynamic
r
eactance w hich may b e m any t imes the v a
lue of R . T he r
e
sistance ofth
ec i
rcui
t.
r
a
tio o ft he vo
ltage a c
ro ss t
he coi
l (or thec apaci
to r) tot hat S
ince atre
sonance c u
L = 1wC , the v a
lue oft he dynamic
a
cross t he re
sistor isc al
led t he m agnif
ication facto r or Q r
e
sistance o
f ap aral
lel
-tuned c i
rcuit isg i
ven by—
o
ft hec i
rcuit
. I f Iisthec urrenta tresonance —
=
RD C
r
I
XL 2
7
rfL t
a
L
Q = I
R = R = R F
urther
, s
ince Q = w
Llr
, t
hed
ynam
ic r
e
sis
tance c
an a
l
so b
e
e
xpre
ssed a
s—
IX° I 1
o
r Q =—
I
R = 2
7
rfCR — ,
oCR RD = T
a c

w
here t
o 2
7
i1
F
rom thi
s itc
an b
e s
een tha
t for ah
i
gh d
)namic r
es
istanc
e
T
he Q o
f at
uned c
i
rcu
it i
sde
term
ined m
ain
ly b
y t
he c
o
il (
which i
sne
ces
sary f
o
r hi
gh g a
in ina
n r
.
f
. amp
lif
ier v
,hen a
1
.
18
 PR
INCIPLES
I
MPEDANCE L
/C ra
tio isspec
ial
ly chosen so t
hat when damped b y the
l
oad (
oraer
ial
) thee f
ect
ive Q ofthe t
ank c
ircu
it has avalue
w
hich give
s ag ood comp romis
e b e
tween e fi
ciency a nd
h
armonic s
uppress
ion. This ma
tte
ri sdea
ltwith inC hap
ter6
(H
.F. T
ransmi
tter
s).

R
esonance C
urve
s a
nd S
elect
ivity
FRE QUENCY The c urve s o fF ig s
. 1 .20 ( B) a nd 1 .21 ( B) show h ow t uned
j
r c
i
rcu i tsa r e mo re r espon s
ive a tt hei rr e
sonan tf requency t han
( B )(
rt E
RS
EO
Q A
ENiT
r
s C y
) a
tn e
ighbour ing f requenc ies. C urve so ft h
isn atu re a rec al
led
(
A) r
e
sonance c u rve s a nd s how h ow a t uned c ircu it c an b e
u
sed t op i ck o u
t,o rs elect , aw an ted s i
gna lf rom an umbe ro f
u
nwan ted s igna l s o n o the r f requenc ie s. F ig. 1 .22 s how s a
r
e
sonance c ur ve A f or as i
ng le p ara llel-tuned c i
rcu i
th aving a
r
e
sonan tf requency o f4 65 k c/sa nd aQ o f1 00. When s uch a
c
i
rcu it i sc onnec ted a s t he a node l oad i n as imp le s ingle -
s
t
age i ntermed ia te -frequency amp lifi erc i
rcui tt hec urve s how s
h
ow t he g ain v aries w ith f requency . F or i nstance , i tw ill
b
e s e en t h at a n u nwan ted s igna la t4 61 k c/s ( 4k c/so ft une )
wou ld g ive o n
ly a bout 5 0 p er c en t o f t he o utpu t o f t he
wan ted s igna l ( o f e qual i npu t amp li
tude ) a t4 65 k c/s. T he
(
c
) (
D) (
E) d
a
3
shed c
00 a nd s
ur
how
ve B i
sc lea r
sf o
ly h
r as
ow ah
im
i
ilar c
ghe r Qg
ircu
i
it b
vesg r
u
t w
ea te
ith a Q o
rs e
lectivi ty
f
.
F
ig. 1.21. The p aralle
l-resonant c ircu
it. The c urve s hown a t ( B) The re i s ap rac tical u ppe r l imit t o th e value o f Qw hich
i
ndicates h ow t he i mpedance v aries with frequency i n the type o f
c
ircuit shown a t (A). A series-to -paral
lel transfor mation to replace c
an b e o bta ined w ith a c o
il o f r e asonab le s i
ze , a nd s ince
t
he s eries resistance b y an e quivalent parallel resistance c an b e much g rea te rs elec tivity i sr equ ired i n ar eceive rt han c an b e
made a s shown a t (C)
. The c ircuit shown a t (A) c an therefore b e
r
eplaced b y t
hat s hown at ( 0) in which a perfect co
il a nd capacitor obta ined w i th as ingle-tuned c i
rcu i ts e
ve ral amp lifying s tage s
a
re s hunted b y ap ara
llel resistance . At resonance t he impedance a
re c ommon ly u s ed i nc ascade , e ach w i
th ar esonan t c i
rcu it
o
f this circu
it r educes to af ict
itious res
istance a s shown a t (E)
.
a
si tsa node l oad . T he d o
t ted c urve C i nF ig. 1 .22 s how st he
r
espon se o ft hree c ircui ts i nc as cade , e ach w ith a Q o f 1 00.
The r espons e a tr e
sonance h as b een r a
ted a t 100 p erc en t in
p
a ral
lel-
re sonan t c
ircui
t isused a sa n anode load), t
he ra
tio e
ach c ase r e gard le ss o ft he a ddi t
iona l gain d ue t o t he ex tra
o
f Lt o Cs hou ld be high and rs hould b e sma
ll (i
.e
., th
e Q v
alve s. I tw ill b es een t ha t t he c urve i swide r a tt hep eak o r
s
hou ld be h i
gh ). T he ga
in of ap en
tode r ad
io-frequency or "n ose " t han t h at o f as i
ng le c ircu i
t w ith a Q o f 3 00 ( a
i
nte rmediate-frequency a mpl
ifie
r i s roughly e qual to the d
e sirab le f eature f or t e
lephony r ecep tion) a nd g ives mo re
d
ynam ic res
istance o fthetuned-circui
tl oad multip
lied bythe s
elec tivity d own t he" s kirts" t han t hes i
ngle c ircuit.
mu tual conduc tance ofthev alve
: s e
eC hapter 2( Va
lve
s). Ano the r m e
thod o f o bta ining b e
tte r selectiv ity t han c an
be p rovided b y as i
ngle t uned c ircu i
t i st o a pply r e
ac tion,
L
/C R
atio o
r p osi
t ive f eed back , am ethod c ommon ly u sed i n straigh t
E
xam
ina
tion o
fth
e f
o
rmu
la f
o
r t
h
e r
e
sonan
t f
r
equency o
f r
e ceive r s
: s eeC hap te r 4( I I
.F . R ece iver s)
. T he a ppl
ica tion o f
r
e ac tion a rtifi c
ia lly i ncrea se s t he Qo ft he c i
rcu it, av alue o f
at
uned c
i
rcu
it, !— 1,— s how s t hat t he r esonan t f r
e- s
e ve ral t hou sand b eing r eadily o bta inab le,w ith ac onsequen t
2
7rA /LC i
n cr ease i ns elec tivity a nd s en sitiv ity.
q
uency i sd ete rm ined b y t h
e produc t o f th e induc tance a nd
c
apac i
tance , LC . I tf ollow s t hat t here i s aw ide r ange o f
Land C v a
lue sw hich c an b ec hosen t or esona te a t ap a r
ticu- P
ERCENTAGE OF
l
a
r f requency . P ut a nothe r way, f or ap ar
ticular r esonan t OUTPUT AT RESONANCE
100 %
f
r
equency t he re i sflexibil
i ty inc hoice o f t he L/C r atio, i.e
.
alarge La nd s mall Co r,a l
ternatively as ma l
l La nd al arge C
may b eu sed p rov ided t h att he LC p roduc t g i
vest her equired
r
esonan tf requency .
S
INGLE CIRCU
IT
The choice o f L/C r atio i sd eterm ined b y p ractical c on- =
1 00
Q
s
ideration s c onnec ted w ith t he particu lar a pplica t
ion o fthe
t
uned c ircuit. S
INGLE C IRCU
IT
:
I
n h .
f. receive rs iti su sua l toe mploy c ircuits wi th ah igh = 300
L
/C r atio a s t h
is l e
ads t o circu i
t s w ith a h i gh d ynam ic
A
r
esistanc e a nd t herefore h igh s tage g ain, t h e m inimum
possible v a
lue o f Cb e
ing d eterm ined b y t he s t
ray c ircui
t
3CIRCU ITS
c
apac itance. On t he othe r h and, al ow L /C r atio, i .
e. ah igh OF 0 = 1
00
Cv alue, isu sua lly e mployed i nv ariab le frequency o scil
lato r
c
ircuits assoc ia ted w ith t ransm itters i no rde r t o s wamp o ut
I 10 ' I T I I I I I I I
t
hee fecto fv alve a nd o the r st
ray c ircu i
t c apacitance s w h
ich 4 465 4
70
K
ILOCYCLES /
SECOND
t
end t om ake t he frequency o ft he o scil
lato r u nstab le.
I
n t he ca se o f h.f. t ransm i
tte r o u tput t ank c ircuits t he F
ig. 1
.
22. S
elec
tiv
ity o
fsing
le a
nd c
ascaded t
uned c
orcu
its
.

1
.
19
 RSGB —RADIO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
LO W PASS F
ILTERS O
UTPUT o
f t he r e
spon se c urves o f
P
ASS S
TOP
2
LI LI c
on stant k( Curve A ) and m
r
o
- f0o
o
LI
K K K B
AND B
AND
d
erived ( Curve B ) f i
l
ter s e
c-
I °V -
C
C n r
c - t
ions i sclear
ly s hown .
2C2K
M-derived s ection s are not
T
or 2
-C 2
K

0 0 T" u
sua
a
t
l
tenua
ly u
t
sed a
ion d
lone b
rop s b
ecause t
eyond t
h
h
e
e
7 S
ECT
ION TS
ECT
ION i
t
F
REQUENCY R
ESPONSE f
r
equency L. T o o vercome
t
h
i s d if
iculty, p ract
ical f i
l
ters
R.
-- • — u
se a c omb ina tion o f m
7rf
O R• d
erived a nd constan t ksections
HI G H PASS F
ILTERS
O
UTPUT c
onne c
ted i nseries.
CI
K 2
C I
K 2
C 1 S
TOP
P
ASS S
AND
B
AND

M
-der
ived E
nd S
ect
ions

An m -derived f i
l
te r sec
tion,
w
ith m = 0 .6,h a
st hep rope r
ty
f
t o
fm atching w ell to ar e
sis
tive
I
T S
ECT
ION T S
ECT
ION
F
REQUENCY R
ESPONSE
l
oad o verthep assband , giving
R
. t
her ein a l evel f requency r e
-
C
1.—
47
r
feR
. s
pon se a nd l ow a ttenuation.
SA N D PASS F
ILTERS
O
UTPUT
I
ti sc ommon p rac tice touse m-
LI
K CI
K Z
CIK L
IK iL
IK 2
C1K P
ASS S
TOP d
erived h alf-sec tions , w ith
04 S
AT
B ONP
D
B
AND B
AND m=0 .6
,a te ach e nd of af i
l
ter
i
n o rde r to o btain t h
is g ood
match . S
uitable e nd h alf
-
s
ec
tion s foru se with rs ect
ion
l
ow -pa ss fi
l
te rs a nd T s ect
ion
f
I f
2 h
igh -pa ss f
i
lte r
s a r e shown i n
1
T S
ECT
ION TS
ECT
ION F
REQUENCY R
ESPONSE F
ig. 1 .28
.

R (
1-2— I
1
)
L1.— Ci.-
=
11
7...— 1
.0' 4
7 t
RIII
2
R
tf2— A
) ,
. I
1
-
1.— ,2
.

F
ig. 1
.
26. Des
ign f
or mu
lae f
or c
onstant k f
i
lters
.

d
iagrams. I
f,a
ftercalcu
lation, i
mprac
ticab
ly l
arge i
nduc
tor
s
o
r s ma
ll c
apac
itors are ca
lled f
or, t
he fi
l
ter s
hould be r
e
-
t
-
,30
a
A
.1
d
esigned f
o
r adiferent v
alue ofR.
.
r
.
-

M
-der
ived F
i
lter
s .
4 .0
,
By mod ifying thec on stant kf i
lters e
c t
ion s itisp ossible to 4
.5

ob
tain a f requency r espons e w hich f a
lls o f mo re r apidly
2
0 IS
ECT
ION
b
eyond t hec u
t-offf requency" ,a nd a t ap articular f r
equency C
ONSTANT X
i
nt he s
top -band ,f „
, at heoret
ica l
ly i nf
inite a ttenua t
ion c an T
YPE
b
e o bta
ined . S uch f i
lter s are c a
lled m -de r
ived f i
l
te rs a nd
3
C
s
ome o f t he common ly u sed t ype s are s hown i n Fig. 1 .7
.8 0
aDERIVED
t
ogetherw ith t h
eirf requency r e
spon ses. '
and d esign f ormu lae. C
a-
0 10
S
ECTION
ma 0
.6
When using t h
e m -derived f i
l
ter d esign f o rmu lae f i
rs
t c alcu-
l
a
te t he v a
lue s o f C nc, LH( ' e
tc., a s f or t he pro totype
f
‘
e
c
onstant kf i
lter( F
ig. 1 .26)a nd then f ind th ev alue sofL i C I,
e
tc
. Finally s ubst
itute t hev alue ofL i
,C l,e t
c.,s hown a gainst
t
hec omponen ts int hec ircuitd i
ag ram s.
The va
lue o f m i sr elated to t h e rat
io o f t he cut-offf r
e- 1 1
I0 1
.
1 I
2 1
.
3 1
-
4 1
1 1
.
6 1
.
7 I
S 1
.
9 2
.0
q
uency A a nd t he fr
equency o f infinite a t
tenua tion f. F or
R
ATIO O
F A
CTUAL FRED TO C
UT—OFF FRE(
) FOR L
P FILTER O
R
e
xamp le if .= 1 .
25 f o
r al ow -pa ss f i
l
te r, t h
en m = 0 .6
R
ATIO O
F C
UT-OFF FRED T
O ACTUAL F
RED FOR HP F
I
LTER
(
se
e Fig. 1 .
28 )
. C urve B o f Fig. 1 .27 s how s the t h
eo retical
f
r
equency r espon se curve o fmd erived l ow -pa ssa nd h igh-pa ss F
ig. 1
.27
. F
requency c
haracteristics o
f l
ow-pass a
nd h
igh-pass f
i
lter
f
i
l
ters ec
tion sf or av a
lue o fm = 0 . 6
. T he d iference i ns hape s
ections
. Curve A i
s f
or constant k a nd Curve B f
or m-derived
(m — 0.6) t
ypes
.
1
.
22
 PR
INC
IPLES

LO W PASS F
ILTE RS

Li

L
PF
I
NTERMED
IATE
T I 7 S
ECT
ION

S
HUNT D
ERIVED E
ND H
ALF S
ECT
IONS
I
T S
ECT
ION U
SE (
m 0
.6) F
REQUENCY R
ESPONSE

1—nts
Li = mL i
k ; CI= —4m Cu; = MCs
i,

m
— c
o
o
T
y
HI G H PASS F
ILTERS

2C 1
2
C 1 2C 1

01
1 1-0 -- •
01
1
HP
T
2
L I
NTERMEDIATE
TSECT
IONS

2C 2 2
IC2

0 0 f
a, 1
'
0
S
ERIES DERIVED E
ND H
ALF S
ECT
IONS
(
USE m
.0.6) F
REQUENCY R
ESPONSE
T SECT
ION

4
//1 Lit
-- —-n
z
' ; Ls= —
i
n 1 i
n
F
ig. 1
.
28. Des
ign f
or mu
lae f
or m-
cler
iv•d f
i
lters
.

TRANSFORMERS The si
ze of c
ore used in the transformer depends on the
The f ac
t tha t ac hang ing c ur rent i no ne ci
r cui
t c an induce amounto fpowert ob ehandled.
F
ig. 1
.29 s
how s asimp
le transformerw i
th ap r
imary wind-
acur rent in as econd c ircuit, a si nF ig. 1.14 ( B)
, i sthe b asis
i
ng Pa nd asecondary winding S. S i
nce bo
th w indings a
re
o
ft ran s
forme ra ction .
i
nt he s
ame al
ternat
ing magne tic fi
e
ld, th
e induced vol
tag e
s
Tran sforme rs a re u se ful fo r t ransferring e l
ectrical e nergy
w
ill b
e inproport
ion tot h
e n umb e
r ofturnso n each c
oil
.
f
rom o ne circuit t o a no ther w i thou t direct c onne c
tion ; f or
e
xamp le from t h e a node c i
r cu it o f one v alve t o t he g r
id Thus i
f—
c
i
rcu ito fa nothe rv alve . I nt h et ran sfe
rp roce ss itisp o
s s
ib le Number o
ft urns o
n the p
rimary = np
t
o c hange t h e r elative v o
ltage s a nd i mpedance s o f t he Numb e
r o
ft urn
s on the s
econda
ry = n
,
p
rimary a nd s econda ry c ircuit s, examp le
s b eing t he s upply Vo
ltage a
cro
ss the p
rimary =
o
f al ow v oltage t o o perate a v a
lve h ea
te r from t h e high - Vo
ltage a
cro
ss the s
econdary = &
v
oltage s upply ma in s a nd t he i mp edance m atching o f al ow -
= E
,n2-
r
es
istance l oud speake rt o av alve a node circuit. np
T he c oupled c ircui ts r e
fer red t o i n the d iscussion o n
F
ig. 1 .
23 a re e xamp le s o f t ransformer s w ith v ery l oo se The rat
io n5/n, iscal
led t h
e turns rat
io and atr
an sformer
c
oup ling b etwe en t he p rima ry a nd s e
conda ry wind ing s. I n may step a vol
tage u p or down a ccording t
o whether
a
ud io -f
requency a nd p owe r s upply t ransforme rs
, t ight i
sgreatero rles
st han unity
.
c
oup ling i sr equir ed, a nd t he p rima ry a nd s econda ry w ind - As a n examp le c onsider at ransformer w h
ich s uppl
ies
i
ngsa ret h
ere fore w ound o na ni ron c ore with ac onstruction v
alve heaters having 1 200 tu
rns ini t
s primary a
nd 3 2 t
urns
s
imila rt oth a
to ft hel ow -frequency c hoke o fF ig. 1.
15 ( A
-C )
. i
n its secondary. When c onnected t o a2 40 vol
t ma ins
s
upply the seconda ry v o
ltage w
ill be—
P
RIMARY S
ECONDARY & — 2
40 x 3
2
Is
E 1
200
Ep t
ip •
-
•6-
4 v
ol
ts.
As lo
ng ast h
ere i snol oad connec ted to atransformert he
nS p
rimary c ur
rent should b e v
ery s mall. T h
is current i
scal
led
I
s l
i
p
t
he m agneti
zing c u
rrent and c an b e n eg
lected in mo s
t cal-
2 c
ulat
ion s when c ompa red with t he p r
ima ry current due to

o p ns
.
-
2 C)
7
_s = IE
ns
t
h
s
e
es
t u
e
conda
pb yt
ry l
h
ep r
oad
ima
. Since t
ry and s
h
e
e in
ten
conda
sity o
ry cur
ft
ren
he magne
t isthes
t
ic f
ame a
i
e
ld
nd
TURNS TURNS s
ince the fi
eld intensi
ty i sp roportiona l to the numbe r of
F
ig. 1
.
29. Th• l
o w-frequency t
ransfor mer
. ampere-turns of each w inding itf ollow s that the pr
ima ry
1
.
23
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
urrent w
i
ll be e
qual t
othe s
e
condary cur
ren
t mu
ltip
lied b
y a
nd transformer s a
re wide ly used f or ma tching a load to a
t
he tu
rns ra
tio
. s
ource of powe r, the turn s ratio b e
ing c a
lculated to give
Thus i
f— max
imum t ransfer ofpowe r tot he load.
C
urren
t int
he pr
imary =1, For examp le
, t he lo
ad i nto w hich a n audio f r
equency
C
urren
t int
he se
condary — I
. ampl
ifi
e r va
lve d el
ivers i t
s max imum u ndis
torted o utput
may be 6400 o hm s
. Howeve r
, the l oudspeake r which i ti
s
d
esi
red t ousewi th t
hev a
lve may h ave a na verage impedance
n
,
o
f only 4 ohm s and a m atching t ransforme r will t
herefore
T
aking t
he p
rev
ious e
xamp le a
gain
, i
fthe h
eate
r c
urren
t b
e required
. T he tr
ansforme r turns ratio can b e c
alculated
i
s 6ampere
s t
he p
rimary c
urrent w
ould b
e- f
rom th e f
ormu la ju
st m entioned b y t aking the square root
6x 32 o
f the impedance ratio
, t hus—
1
,= - - a
mpe
res — 1
60 mA
.
1
200
= = 1E46
_
° 4
°
A tr
ansformer h a
s the prope r
ty of being a
ble to tr
ans- n Z
. N
i 4 1
f
orm impedances. I fthe impedance o f
ered b
y t he p
r
ima ry
T
his m ean s that at r
ansforme r wi
th 4 0 times as m any
o
fthet r
ansformero fFig. 1
.29 ism ea
sured itw
i
llb efound to
t
urn
s o n t he p r
ima ry a s on t he s
econdary w i
ll g i
ve t he
b
ee qual t
ot h
e secondary or load impedance d
ivided by t
he
r
equ
ired i mpedance ma tch.
s
quare ofthe tu
rn s r
at
io. T hus if—
T
ransforme r s ar
e o ften r eferred to by the
ir p r
imary -to-
P
rimary impedanc e =Z ,
s
e
condary w inding t urn s rat
io . T hus a4 0-
to-1 ( or 40 :1)
S
econdary impedance = Z ,
t
r
ansforme r w ould h ave 4 0 turn s o
n the pr
ima ry f o
r e ach
t
u
rn on the s econdary, a nd w ou ld be a"s t
ep-down "t rans-
Z
, = Z
, (n
—
E) '
n
, f
o
rme r s uitable f o
r ma tching a p rimary-to-seconda ry
i
mpedance r at
io o f(40) 1 :1o r 1 600 :I. Atransforme r with
I
tisp
robab
ly mo
re c
onven
ien
ttor
ememb
ert
h
isr
e
sul
tas—
a1:2r at
io w ould have t wo t urns on t
hes e
conda ry fore ach
Z
, i
n, \ t
urnon the p r
ima ry,a nd w ould b e ast
ep-up transformer. It
Z
. n
, w
ould match ap r
imary -to-secondary i mpedance rat
io of1 :4.
w
hich means t
hat th
e i
mpedance r
a
tio i
sequa
l t
oth
e squa
re
o
fthe t
u
rns ra
tio
. Auto
-trans
former
s
T
he t
ransfo
rma t
ion o
f impedance i
s ava
luab
le p
roper
ty I
tisn o
ta lway s n ecessary t o have d .c. iso
la t
ion b etween
t
he primary a nd s e
conda ry ci
rcu i
ts o f at ransforme r a nd in
FS
ECONDARY C S
ECONDARY t
h
is c a
s ea na uto-tran sf
orme rc an b e used.
(
OUTPUT) A
n a uto-transforme r c an be looked u pon as a n ordina ry
t
r
ans forme r in w h
ich t he p r
imary o r s e
conda ry wind ing is
c
ommon t ot he othe r
. F ig. 1.
30 ( A
) s how st he magne tic core
o
fa no rdina ry step-up t ransforme rw ith at wo turn primary ,
P
RIMARY s
hown d otted, a nd a f ou r tu
rn s econdary . T he primary i s
(
INPUT) s
hown l y
ing a l
ong s
ide t he c orrespond ing t urns o f t he
s
econda ry; such at ransforme r w ould h ave av oltage s t
ep-up
o
f 2:1a nd its c
ircu i
t s ymbo l isass hown i nF ig. 1.30 (B)
.
I
nF ig. 1 .
30 ( C
)t het wo t u
rn p r
ima ry has been m erged ( or
P
RIMARY & A made c ommon ) with t he seconda ry t o form a n a u
to -trans-
S
ECONDARY (
c)
f
orme r
. T he t wo t urns b e
tween t he c ommon p o
int A a nd
C
OMMON T
ERM
INAL
t
he tap B f o
rm t he prima ry and t he w hole fou r t
ur ns from
At o Cf orm t he seconda ry
. T he circuit symbo l for such a n
a
uto-tran sforme r iss hown i nF ig. 1.30 (D )
.
The voltag eratio o fa na uto-transforme r (F
ig. 1.30 ( D)) i
s
c
alculated f r
om t he rat
io o fthe n umbe r o ft urns i
t
, b etween
t
he common p o
in t Aa nd t he tap Bt o the total numb er of
t
urns between A a nd C , thus—

(
a
) n
p T
URNS At
o B
(
a
) V
. n
,
A
s wi
th o rdinary tr
ansformer
s, auto
-trans
formers can be
u
sed t
op rovide impedance tr
ansformat
ion or matching, t
he
S
F A
MPLIFIER
VALVE i
mpedancer a
tio being e
qualtothes qua
re of th
e tu
rn s r
at
io.
L
OW IMPEDANCE T
hus inFig. 1.30 (D)—
C
ABLE FROM
A
ERIAL (
c
) =

Au
to-transformers can be used t o s
tep up or down
d
epending o n whe
ther the t
ap i
st he p
rimary o
r s
econdary
c
onnect
ion .
F
lg. 1.
30. Der
ivation of the a
utotransfor mer I
s s ho wn i
n (
a), (b) Fo
ra .
c.p owerw ork
,a u
to-
transfo
rme rshave t
hea
dvantage
a
nd (c)
. The c
ircu
it sy mbo
l issho wn i
n (
d) and a t
ypical u
se a
t rad
io
f
r•quency in (e
). t
ha
tt hew indingsand the
ir i
n
sula
tion ta
ke uple
ssspace t
han
1
.24
 PR
INC
IPLES
i
n a n ordina ry t r
ansforme r. T hey are common ly u sed to s
iderably r educed . Au sefulw orking r ule i stou se as c
re ening
s
t
ep -down o r b oo s
t a n a.c
. s upply voltage t
o s ome o ther c
an o fs uch as ize th a
t n owhe re i sitn eare rt ot h ec o
il than a
v
alue. F or e xamp le a s tep-down a uto-t
ransforme r
, w ith d
istance e qual t ot he d i ame ter oft hec oi
l ; see F ig. 1.31 ( C)
.
asuitable tap, could be used t or un 10 v ol
t a
.c. equipmen t A
t l ow f requenc ie s w here s creen ing d ue t o e ddy c ur rents
f
rom 2 40 v ol
t a.c. mains. i
sn ot s o e fective i tm ay b e nece ssary t oe nclo se a l ow f r
e-
The t apped t uned circui
t i sa n e
xamp le of at uned a u
to- q
uency c hoke o r t rans fo rme r i n ab ox o f hi gh p ermeab i
lity
t
ransforme r w h
ich i s o f
ten u sed a t radio frequency . A magne tic ma te r
ial s uch a s Mume tal i n o rde r t o o btain
t
ypicala pplicat
ion i sshown i nF ig. 1
.30 (
E)i nwhich at apped s
atisfactory m agne tic s creen ing. S uch m easu resa r eno to ften
t
uned circuit isu sed to match a nd provide avoltage step-up r
e qu
ired b ut as ensit
ive c omponen t such a s am ic
rophone
b
etween a l ow i mpedance a erial feeder and t
h e input o f a t
ransforme r m ay b e e nclo sed i n s uch a s cre en i n orde r to
r
.
f. a mplif
ier valve. make i ti mmune f rom h um p ick-up .
I
ti ssome time s d esirab le t o h ave p ure i nduc tive c oup ling
SCREEN
ING b
etween t wo circuits w i th n o s t
ray c apac itanc e c oup l
ing . In
t
his c a
se a F arad ay S c reen c an b e e mployed b etween t he
When t wo c i
rcuit s a r
e n ea r o ne a no ther, u nwan ted
t
wo c oi
l si nq ue st
ion a ss hown i nFig . 1.31 ( D). T hisa rrange -
c
oup ling may e xis
t b etween t h em d ue t o s t
ray c apa c
itanc e
ment i ss ome t
ime s u sed b etween a n a erial a nd a r eceiver
b
etween t hem o r d ue t o s t
ray magne tic c oup ling .
i
n put circu it or b etwe en a t ransm it
te r t ank c ircu it and a n
S
tray capac i
tanc ec oupling c an b ee l
im ina ted b yp lacing a n
a
e r
ial
. T he F araday S creen i s made o fs t
if w ire s ( F
ig. 1 .
31
e
arthed s creen ofg ood c onduc t
iv i
ty b etwe en t he t wo c i
rcu i
ts
(
e)) connec ted t ogethe ra to ne end o nly, r a
the r l i
ke ac omb .
i
n q ue
s t
ion a s shown i n F ig. 1 .31 ( B). T he re i s t hen
The s c
re en i st ranspa ren t t o magne tic f i
elds b ecau se b y it
s
o
nly s t
ray c apac
itance f rom e ach c i
rcu i
t t o earth a nd n o
v
e ry const ruction t here i sn o c ontinuou s c onduc ting s u rface
d
irect c apacitance b etween t hem . A u se ful p ractical r u
le i s
i
nw hich e ddy c urren ts c an f l
ow a nd t hereby g ive m agne t
ic
t
o p osi
tion s c
reens s o t hat the t wo c i
rcu i ts a re n o
t v i
sible
s
creening . Howeve r,b ecau se t hes creen i sc onne cted t oe arth
f
rom o ne a nother
.
i
ta ct
s v ery e fectively a s a n electro static s c
reen e l
im ina t
ing
S
tray m agnetic c oupling c an o ccur b etween c oil
s a nd
s
t
ray c apac i tance c oup l
ing b e
tween t hec ircuit s
.
w
ire sd ue tot he magne tic f i
e
ld o fo ne coil o rw ire e mbracing
t
he o the r
. A t radio f requency , coils c an b e s creened b y
p
lacing t h
em i n c
lo sed b oxes o r c ans made f rom ma terial
o
f h igh c onduc t
ivity s uch a s c oppe r, bra s s o r a lum inium . U N B AL A N CE D A ND B A L A N CE D CI R C UI TS

I
n p ractice, eddy c urren ts a re induced i nt h e screen ing c an
U nba
lanced C
ircuits
which i n turn s e
t u p af i
eld w h
ich o ppo se s a nd p ractically
c
ance lst hef i
e
ld due t ot hec o
ilb eyond t h ec onfine so ft hec an. An u nba lanced c i
rcu iti ss hown i nF ig . 1 .32 ( A
). Ag ene ra-
I
f as creening can i st oo c lose to ac oil t he p erformance t
or, o r s igna l s ou rce i ss hown c onnec ted t o al o
ad r es
i s
to r
o
f t he c o
il
, i .
e
. i t
s Q a nd a l
so i t
s induc tance , w ill be c on- t
hrough a s ing le c onduc to r
; t he r e
tu r n p ath f or c urren t is
t
hrough w hati st ermed a ne arth r e
tu rn. I np ractice,a l
though
t
he t erm a n e arth r e
tu rn i su sed , th e r e
tu rn p a
th i su sua lly
t
hrough t hec ha s
s is o ft he e quipmen t.
Unba lanc ed c i
rcu it s o ft h
is t ype a re v e ry c ommon ly u sed
i
n r adio e quipmen t a nd a re p erfectly s atis factory p rov ided
l
ead s a re k ep t s ho rt a nd a re s paced w ell a way f rom o the r
l
ead s
. T he c i
rcu i t i s, h oweve r
, p rone t o t he p ick -up o f
e
xt raneou s n o
is e a nd s igna ls f rom n eighbou ring c ir cuits b y
t
hre e m ean s : I nduc tive p ick-up , C apac itive p ick -up a nd
t
hrough ac ommon e a r
th r e
tu rn p ath.
S
CREEN
(
b) I
nduc tive p ick-up , F ig. 1 .32 ( B), c an t ake p lace d ue t o
(
a)
t
ran sforme r a ction b etween t he u nba lanced c ircuit w ire a nd
S
CREEN
ING C
AN F
EEDER a
no the r n ea rby w ire c arrying a n a lterna ting c ur ren t; a n
S
TIFF W
IRES e
xamp le i sh um p ick -up i n t he g rid c ir cuit w iring o f a n
Z LCO
IL
T
ANK amp l
ifi er d ue t oa .c. i nt he h ea ter w iring .
CO
IL
C apac i
tive p ick -up , F ig. 1.32 ( C), t ake s p l a
ce t hrough t he
s
tray c apac itance b etween t h e u nbalanc ed c i
rcu i
t l ead a nd a
n
eighbour ing w ire. S uch p ick -up c an u sua lly b e e l
im ina ted
b
yi n
t roduc ing a ne ar thed m eta ls creen a round t hec onnec ting
S
OLDERED
'
F
ARADAY ll w
i re.
T
OGETHER AT
S
CREEN 7 .
T
HIS E
ND ONLY I
ft h e u nba lanc ed c i
rcu it h as a n e arth r eturn p ath wh ich
C
HASS
ISfl
r
a d.
4 C
OIL F
ORMER i
sc ommon t oa no the rc ircuit,F ig. 1.32 ( D),u nwan ted s igna ls
(
c
) (
d
) (
.
) o
r n o
is e may b e i n
jec ted i nto t he u nba lanced c i
rcu it
. T he
e
xt raneou s s i
gna l c ur ren t, f l
ow ing i n t he c ommon e ar th
F
ig. 1.
31. (a) S tray c apac ity c oupl
ing CA B between two c ircuits A r
etu rn p ath , c an c ause av oltage t o a ppea r b e
tween t he t wo
a
nd B . The i ntroduct ion o f an earthed screen E i n (b) e
lim inates
d
irect capacity c oupling , there being now o n
ly stray c apacitance to e
ar th r eturn p o int s o ft he u nba lanced c ircu it. T his v oltage
e
arth fro m each c ircuit C .s and Ci
,s. A screening c an (c) should be w
ill, i nt u rn, c au se a n u nwan ted c ur ren t t of l
ow a round t he
o
f such di mensions t hat i tisn owhere t
o the c o
il i
tc ontains
t
han a d istance e qual t o the d ia meter of the coi
l d . A F araday unba lanced c ircu it. I n ter ferenc eo ft h
i st yp ec an bem in im iz ed
between t wo c ircuits (d) a
llows magnet ic coup ling between b
yu sing al ow r e
sistance c hassisa nd a void ing c ommon e arth
t
he m b ut e l
im inates s tray c apacitance coupling. The F araday
s
creen i s made o f wires as s
hown a t (e)
. p
ath s a sf ar a sp ossib le.
1
.
25
R
SGI
3 —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
S
INGLE C
ONDUCTOR o
fthe u nbalanced circuit
. I nductive and c apaci
tive p i
ck-up
r— a
re el
iminated since equal and o pposi
te c ur
rents are induced
S
OURCE i
n each of the two w ires of the balanced c i
rcuit and t hese
1
L
OAD c
ancel out
. T he s ame a ppl
ie s to i
nterf
ering c urrents in the
c
ommon e arth connec t
ion int he c
ase w here the centre taps
(
a) L -
J o
fthe winding s are ear
thed.
T

E
ARTH R
ETURN
S
CREEN
S
PUR
IOUS CURRENT IN
DUCED T
WISTED P
A
IR S
CREEN L
OAD
I
N U
NBALANCED CIRCU
IT O
F BALANCED

T
I #1 C
IRCUIT

W
IRE CARRY
ING
E
XTRANEOUS
S
IGNAL MAGNET
IC F I
ELD D UE TO
(
b)
EXTRANEOUS S IGNAL
'
EMBRACING U NBALANCED
C
IRCUIT C ONDUCTOR U
NBALANCED U
NBALANCED B
ALANCED U
NBALANCED
S
IGNAL T
O BALANCED T
O UNBALANCED L
OAD
S
OURCE T
RANSFORMER T
RANSFORMER
S
TRAY C
APAC
ITY B
ETWEEN W
IRiS
F
ig. 1
.
33. The b
alanced c
ircu
it.

—_
*i•
_
I
.
1
. .
1
.
.
4
• 12

.
W
IRE AT E7 =T
1.
1
S- 7
1 THE E
LECTR O MAG NET
IC S
PECTR U M
A
LTERNAT
ING P
OTENTIAL
(
c
)
C
URRENT I N U
NBALANCED
Radio w aves are elec tromagne tic w aves f orming p art o f
C
IRCU
IT C AUSED BY t
he elec
tromagne t
ic spec trum w hich c ompr ises r adio
, h eat,
E
XTRANEOUS P OTENTIAL l
i
ght, ultra
-violet
, g amma r ays
, a nd X -rays: s e
e F ig
. 1 .34.
A
CTING THROUGH S TRAY
C
APACITY The var
ious forms ofe l ec tromagne tic rad ia
tion a re al
l int he
f
orm o f oscil
latory w ave s
, b u
t d if er f rom e ach o ther i n
f
requency a nd w aveleng th . No tw ithstand ing t hese dif er-
e
nces they a l
l trave
l t hrough s pace w i th t he same s peed ,
E
XTRANEOUS S
I
GNAL
n
ame ly, 3x 1 0 1°cm per s econd. T his ise quivalen t t
oa bou t
(
a
)
1
86,000 m iles per s e
cond ( i
.e
., o nce r ound t he w orld i n
o
ne-seventh o f asecond ).
A
C V OLTAGE A CROSS EARTH
C
ONNECT IONS D UE TO EXTRANEOUS .
7
S
IGNAL C AUSES U NWANTED C URRENT F
requency a
nd Wave
length
T
O FLOW I N UNBALANCED C IRCUIT
T
he dis
tance travel
led by aw ave i
n the t
ime taken to
F
ig. 1
.32 The u nba lanced c
ircuit. (
a) The b as
ic unbalanced circuit c
omplete one c
ycle of osc
il
lation isca
lled t
he waveleng
th.
s
howing e arth return path
. ( b) How e xtraneous signals and noise I
tfol
lows that waveleng
th, frequency and v
e
loci
ty of pro-
c
an b e induced i n an unbalanced circuit by magnet ic induction.
(
c) S
how ing how e xtraneous s
ignals c
an b e i
nduced b y s
tray capaci- p
agat
ion are r
e
lated by t
he formula —
t
ance coupling. (d) Diagra ms showing h ow extraneous signals can
be i
nduced d ue t
o ac o m mon earth return path
. V
eloc
ity = F
requency x Wave
leng
th
o
r c= f
.A
w
here c = v
e
loc
ity o
fpropaga
tion (
3 x 1
0 1°cm
/se
c.)
B
alanced C
ircu
its f= f
r
equency o
f o
sc
illa
tion (
c
/s)
Ab alanced c ircuit i ss hown i n F
ig . 1.33. A s many s ignal A= w
ave
leng
th (
cm)
.
s
ource s, and o ften l oads a s w ell
, a re inheren t
ly u nba lanced T
his f
o rmula enables t
he wavelength tobec alcula
ted ifit
s
(
i
.e. o ne s i
de i se arthed ) i ti su sual t o use transformer s to f
r
equency i sknown,a nd v
i
ce ver
sa.
c
onnec t as ource o f s ignal t o ar emo te l oad v i
a ab alanced T
he fo
llow ing examp le i
staken f rom a R adio Ama teur
s'
c
ircuit
. I n the b alanced c ircuit, separa te wire s are u sed t o Examination paper.
c
onduc tc urrentt oa nd b ack f rom the l oad; n oc urren tp asses E
xamp le. What a re the frequencies corresponding to
t
hrough ac hassis o r earth r eturn p ath. w
aveleng
ths o f(i
) 150m , (
i) 2m a nd (i
i) 7
5cm .
T
he c i
rcu it issaid t o b e b alanced b ecause t he i mpedance s F
rom t he fo
rmu la c = fA
, the frequency i
sg iven by—
f
rom e ach oft he p a
ir o fc onnec ting w irest o earth a re equa l
.
I
ti susua l to use t wisted w ire b etween t he two t ransformer s I—
a
s s hown i n Fig. 1 .33. F or a h igh d eg ree of b alance , a nd
t
herefore i mmun i
ty t o extraneous n o
ise a nd s igna ls, trans- C
ase (
i
): = 1
50m = 1 .5 x1 0
'cm
f
ormer s w ith a n e arthed s creen b e
tween p r
imary a nd c= 3 x 1
0 1°cm/sec
.
s
econdary w inding s a re u sed ; s ome t
ime s the cen tre t aps o f
3x 1
0
'°
t
he b a
lanced s ides o ft he t rans former s a re ear
thed a s shown T
herefore f — — 2x 1
0 c
/
s
1
.
5 x1
0'
d
o t
ted i nF ig. 1 .
33.
The b a
lanced c ircu it o ve rcomes t he t hree d isadvan tages = 2-
0 Me
/s

1
.
26
 PRINCIPLES

C
ase (
i
): A 2
m - 2x 1
02cm mak
ing t
hem s
uitable fo
r specif
ic pu
rpose
s. Amateu
r tr
ans-
m
iss
ion i
spermitted on ce
rtain fr
equency b
and
s inthe h
.f
.,
3X 1
0 1°
T
here
fore f = — — 15 x I
0 c
/
s v
.h
.f
. a
nd u.
h.f
. r ange
s.
2x 1
02
— 1
50 Mc
/s AER
IALS
C
ase A= 7
5cm An a e r
ia l i su s
ed t o l aunch e l
ectromagne t
ic w ave s i nto
3x 1
0 1° s
pace o r c onve r se
ly t o p i
ck u p e nergy f rom s uch a w ave
T
here
fore f — — 4x 1
0
°c/
s t
ravelling t hrough s pace . Any w ire c ar rying a h i gh f r
e-
7
5
q
uency a l
te rnating c urren t w ill r ad iate e lectromagne tic
=4
00 Mc
/s. wave s a nd c onve rsely a n e l
e c
tromagne tic w ave w ill i nduce
av oltage i n al ength o fw ire. T he prob lem i na er
ial d e
sign
F
ig
. 1
.34 s
hows h
ow the rad
io sp
ectrum may be d
iv
ided
i
st o r adia te a s much t ransm it
te r p owe r as p o ss
ible i n the
u
p in
to v
ar
ious b
ands o
ffrequenc
ies
, the p
roper
tie
s o
feach
r
equ ired d irec t
ion , o r i nt he case o f ar eceive r, top ick u p as
s
t
rong as ignala sp os sible,v ery o ften i nt hep resence o fl ocal
S
TA
ND AR
D B
R
OADCAS
T i
nter ference .
F
R
EQU
ENCY A
M
B
AA
N
TE
DU
S
R F
R
EQUENCY I C
L
ASS
IF
ICA
TIO
N An a eria l m ay b e c on sidered a s at uned c i
rcu it con s
i s
ting
T
R
ANSMISS
ION T
E
LEV
ISI
ON
o
fi nduc tance ,c apac itance a nd resistance ,a nd f or max imum
V V V • V
r
adia tion a n aerial i su sua lly o perated s o that i tisn atu rally
r
esonan t a t the o pe rating f r
equency , max imum r adiation
2
1
.150 c
o rrespond ing t o max imum h igh- f
requency c urrent f l
ow ing
1
0
.050 — 3c m S
.H.F
. i
nt hea eria l.
5
6
51 5
cm
There a r e two b asic t ype s ofa er
ial u sed b y ama teu rs, ( a
)
3
4
00 — 9c m t
h e H ertz ian a erial
, k nown a s ad ipole o r d oub le
t, w h
ich i s
3
0
00
s
e
lf -resonan t b y v i
rtue o fi t
s leng th inr e
la t
ion t o the w ave-
2
3
00 m- 1
2c m
l
eng th o ft hes ignal,a nd ( b
)t he Ma rcon ia er
ialw h
ich may b e
00 —
1
3 2
3c m o
f a ny c onven ien t le ng th a nd r e
lies o n a n e arth c onn ection
1
000 - U
.H.F
. a
nd i st uned t o resonanc e by m ean s of ac oil o r capac ito r
.
6
0
0 IBAND 5 T
V The s imp le H ertzian a e r
ial i so ne h a
lf-wave leng th l ong a nd
5
0
0 • BAND 4 TV i
st here fo re w e
ll s ui ted t o t h
e s horter w ave s ( h
ighe r f re
-
4
35 — 7
0c m • MODEL CONTROL
1
451
.5-451
.5 Ma
il quenc ies) w he reas t he Ma rcon i a erial i s ma inly u sed a t
3
0
0
l
onge r w ave leng ths, e .g.
, 1 60m a nd 8 0m w he re iti so ften
LES

1 BAND 3 TV imp rac t

icab le t o e r ect aH ertzian d ipo le. Mo re d e
ta iled
VC

5 — 2m
1
4 e
xp lana tion s o f a eria l t heory a nd p rac t
ica l d esign w il
l b e
EGA C

1
0
0 a BAND 2 FM V
.H.F f
ound i nC hap ter s1 3a nd 1 4. At ypicale xam ina tion q ue s
tion
7
0 — 4m on t he t uning o f aMa rcon ia er
ia l isw orked o uti nE xamp le
I
M

BAND 1 TV II o n p age 1 .
17 .

2
7
•— 10 m u
r
no p
z A
a k,
W WV MODEL CONTROL
y
.t
0
5
1 -1
511
1 P
R OPAGAT
I ON OF RAD
I O W AVES
W WV
-15 W WV — W WVH
1
01 — 2
0m Radio w ave s
, o n leaving a n aer
ial, t r
ave l through s pace
4 MSF — W WV — W WV
1.
1 H.
F.
i
nstraigh t lineswith th ev elocity ofl i
ght. T he w avesc on s
ist
— 40 m
o
f interdependen t e l
ec tric a nd magne tic f ie
ld s w hich a ct
5 M SF — W WV — W WVH
i
ndirection s mu tually a trighta nglesa nd a lso atr i
gh ta ngles
3
.
5
3
t
ot hed i
rec tion ofp ropaga tion oft hew ave.
7
.
5 MSF — W WV I
ft he elect r
ic fi
eld ac ts in av ert
ical d i
rec t
ion t he w ave is
— 1
60 m s
a
id t o b e ve r
tica
lly po larized and s uch w aves a re l aunched

I
a
nd b est picked u p b y v ertical aer
ials
, F ig. 1 .
35 ( A). I ft he
MEDIU M
WAVE
BROADCAST
e
lec
tric f i
e
ld i shorizon tal t he waves are s aid to b e h orizon-
BAND t
al
ly p olarized a nd h o r
izon tal a e
rials a re t hen u sed: s ee
F
ig. 1.35 (B )
.
1
05 —(
s
1"
F't
1
L
+
r, Ho r
izon tal p o
lariza tion i s mo st c ommon ly u sed b y
3
1
1
I LONG amateurso nt h
eh .f
.b and sf orlong-distanc ec ommun icat
ion .
n
e BBC D
roa w
Ich WAVE
Ver
tical p o
la r
izat
ion i sf requen t
ly used f or mob ile w ork a nd
BROADCAST
BAND l
ocal w ork o nv .h
.f. and u .h.f. b
and sw here t h
e "a l
l- round "
a
; 1
00 o
r omn i
-d irectional cha racterist
ic s ofs imple v ertical aerials
5
0 MSF
a
re an advantage.
T
he p ropagation of radio waves to remote par
ts o f the
e
ar
th d epend s o n r
ef
lect
ion o f the waves from la yers of
3
0
i
on
ized g as s
ituated b
etween 7 0 and 200 mile
s or so a bove
t
heearth in ar eg
ion ca
lled the i
onosphere
. A s t
he r
eflecting
1
6 G1
4
;4
p
ropert
ie s o
ft his r
eg
ion d epend o n t
he f
requency used a nd
1
0 a
re cont
inually c hang
ing w ith n
i ght and day
, the t ime of
y
ear
, a nd sun spot act
ivity, itcan b e imagined t hat the
F
ig. 1
.24
. Th• r
adlo
-frequency f
p..
.cro
on.
1
.27
RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

f
or a t r
ansm iss
ion. D iversity r e
cep t
ion d epends for i t
s
D
IRECTI ON OF o
perat
ion o n the fa
ct t hat
, s tat
ist
ically, fading isu n
likely
PROPAGATI ON t
o occur a t two diferen t p o
in ts or o n two d iferen
t fre-
PERPENDICULAR
q
uencies at the same time. Two r eceivers are used wi
th a n
TO PLANE OF
PAPE R a
utoma t
ic c hange-over a rrangemen t f o
r s e
lecting t he
s
t
ronger o fthe two s
ignals, ac ons
iderab le r
eduction infad
ing
b
e
ing a chieved.

(
A
) ( B) VALVES
VERTICAL HORIZ ONTAL
POLA R
IZATI ON
The s uc ce s sful d eve lopmen t o f r ad io c ommun ica tion h as
POLARIZ AT
I ON
(
VERT
I CAL AER
IAL) (
H OR
IZ ONTAL AER
IAL) d
epended o verwhe lm ing ly o n t he t herm ion ic v alve . V alves
E. D
IRECT
I ON OF ELECTR
IC F IELD
a
re u sed a s r ectifie rs f or conver t
ing a l
terna ting c urren t i n
to
n D
IRECT
I ON OF MAGNET IC F
IELD d
irec tc ur ren t b oth a t p ower -supp ly f requenc iesa nd a tr adio
P
ig. 1
.35
. D iagra m ilustrating the po
larization of e
lec tro magnet
ic f
requency w here t he p roce ss i s more c ommon ly c alled
waves
: ( A) r ep e
eeee t
s vertica
l p olarizat
ion a nd ( B) r ep
hor
izontal p olarization
, t he dist
inction b eing in t er ms of the
d
etec tion . O the r c ommon a pp lica tions a re t h e genera tion o f
e
lectric vector r
ather than the magnetic vector . r
ad io f r
equency p owe r i nt r ansm i tters a nd t h e amp lifica tion
o
fs igna ls i nr eceiver s
.
The e arl iest v alve s
, c al
led d iod es, h ad t wo e lec trode s
mechanism o f long -distance s hort-wave p ropaga t
ion i s
e
nc losed i na n e vacua ted e nve lope . T h
is i ss hown d iag ram -
c
omp lex a nd very variab le. However , t
ransm is s
ion c ondi-
a
t
ica lly i n F ig. 1 .36 ( A). T he f i
lamen t e lectrode o r c athod e
,
t
ions to dis
tant points c an b e f
o recast wi
th s ome a ccuracy.
was made o f t ung sten w ire a nd c ould b e h eated t o i ncan-
The p
ropaga tion o
fv .h.f. and u.h.f. si
gnals ra
rely d epends o n
d
e scence b y t he p as sage o f ac ur ren t t hrough i ts upp lied b y
t
he c ondi
tions i n t he i onosphere b ut o n m eteorological
al ow -tens ion o r "A" b attery . When i ncandescen t t he
c
onditions i n t
he lowe r levels of the atmo sphe re called the
f
i
lamen t h as t he p roper ty o f em it t
ing f r
ee e lectron s w hich,
t
roposphere.
b
eing n ega tive ly c harged , may b e a ttrac ted t o t he s econd
The subject o
fr adio-wave p ropaga tion istreated i nd e
tail
e
lectrode c alled a n a nod e orp la te i fthe v ol
tage o ft he a node
i
nC hapter 1 2 (
Propaga tion).
i
s made p ositive w ith r espec t t o t he f i
lamen t b y t he u se o fa
h
igh -tens ion ( h
.t.) b attery "B ," a s s hown i n F ig. 1 . 36 ( B)
.
F
ading Reve rsa l o f t h e p olar ity b etween a node a nd c athode , a s in
I
t i sc ommon f or h .f
. s ignals w hich h ave a rrived a t a F
ig. 1 .36 ( C),w il
lr epe lt he e lec trons a nd p reven t t he p assage
r
ece ive r f rom a d istan t t ransm it te r t o v ary c on tinua lly i n o
fc ur ren t. T he a ctua l f low o fc ur ren t t hrough a v alve i sin
s
treng th . T his p henomenon i sk nown a sf ad ing a nd i sc aused t
he f orm o f af low o f elec trons f rom f i
lamen t t o a node ;
b
y t he v ary ing r elationsh ip b e
tween s igna ls a r riving a t t he n
ever the le ss t he c onven tiona l f l
ow o f c ur ren t f rom t he
r
e ceive r b y d if eren t p a th s who se r elative l eng ths a re p
o sit
ive t o t h e n ega tive b atte ry t erm ina l
, i .e., from a node t o
c
hang ing . c
athode , i su sua lly a ssumed .
The s treng th o f t he s igna l a t t he r eceiving a eria l t e
rm ina l More ef i c
ien t em i
tter ma ter ials a r e n ow u sed i n v a
lves
i
st he s um o fs igna ls a rr
iving f r
om a t r
ansm itter b y p erhaps t
han t he o rig ina l t ung s ten f ilamen t. F o
r e xamp le, t hor ia ted
t
wo d if eren t p aths . I ft he t wo p aths d if er i n l eng th b y a n t
ung sten ( am ix ture o ft ung sten a nd 1 -2 p erc ent o ft hor ium )
e
xac t n umber o f w ave leng ths,c or re spond ing t o t h e f r
equen - i
su pt ot en t ime sa s ef icienta sp ure t ung sten . A n e ven more
c
ie s i n use t he s igna ls a rriv ing b y t he t wo p aths w ill a rr
ive
i
n p hase a nd t he t ota l s t
reng th o f r ec e
ived s igna l w il
l b e a
EVACUATED
max imum . I f
, h owever , t he p a
th l eng ths d ife r b y a n o dd ENVELOPE
numbe r o f h alf
-wave leng ths t he t wo s igna ls w ill b e o ut o f AN ODE OR
phase a nd t he t otal r eceived s igna l s t
reng th w ill b e am ini - PLATE

mum . T hus i f as igna l i sb eing r eceived b oth b y g round -

wave a nd s ky -wave p a ths, o rb yt wo d if eren ts ky -wave p a
ths , F
ILA MENT
f
ad ing w ill b e expe rienced w hen t he e fective h eigh t of t h e
i
on ized l aye r w hich r e f
lects t hes ky -wave v ar iess ince t his h as
t
h
m
i
e e
t
f
ter a
ect o
nd r
fa
e
l
ter
ce
ing t
iver .
he r e
la tive p ath l eng ths b etween t r
ans -
(
A
)
Fad ing may b es low o r v ery r ap id : i fi ti sr apid , t he f ading "CURRENT"
a
ppear s as a n a ud ible l ow -frequency f lu
t ter. Dur ing f ading ,
s
peech t ransm itted b y a .m . s ome time s b ecome s b ad ly
ELECTRON
d
istor ted b ecause t hec arrie ra nd v arious s ideband f requenc ie s FLOW
d
o n ot a l
l f ade e qua l ly a tt he same t ime. i
B
T he e fect o f f ading i sc omba ted b y a pp lying a utoma tic
v
olume c ontro l ( bette r r efer red t o a s a u
toma t
ic g ain c on trol )
t
or e ceiver ss o tha t t he o vera ll gain o ft hes et v arie s i nverse ly
w
ith t he streng th o ft h e re
ce ived s igna l
. O the r m ethods u sed (
B
) (
c
)
a
re ( a) h igh ly d irec tive a er ial s ys tem s, p articu lar ly i n t he
F
ig. 1
.
36. As i mple d
iode va
lve: (A) s
hows the essentia
l construction
v
er tica l p lane t o r e
s tric t t he p ossib ility o f mu lti-pa th t ran s - c
o mpris
ing a f i
la ment and an anode: (B) ilustrates how c urrent
m
is s
ion , a nd ( b) d iver si
ty r ecept ion i n w hich t wo o r more f
l
o ws through t he valve when t he anode i s made p os
itive w ith
r
espect to t
he fi
la ment
, and (C
) shows the c
essation ofCurrent when
s
paced a e r
ia ls o r t wo o r more d if eren t f requenc ie s a re u sed t
he po
larity i
s e
a
l

1
.28
 PR
INC
IPLES

N
ICKEL moun ted b etween m ica suppor ts a nd a re c onnected t o
TU BE a
ppropr ia te pins fi
tted i n agl
assb ase. T he elec
trode a s
semb ly
i
ss urrounded b y ag lass bu
lb sealed t o the b ase, a
nd a t the
OX
I DE t
op o ft he bulb i sth e sea
l through w h
ich t he a i
r isexhausted
COATIN G
d
uring manu fac ture . T he p urpose o f t he g et
ter, w h
ich i s
f
i
red d uring t he evacua tion p rocess, i s to d eposit ag as-
a
bsorb ing f i
lm o fb arium m etal on t he in
side o ft h
e b u
lb. I t
F
ig. 1
.
37. P art
ly s ectioned
v
iew o
f an i
ndirect
ly -heated r
ema ins a ct
ive a fter manufac ture a nd ma in ta
ins av ery high
c
athode. v
acuum .
HEATER
I
NSULATED
Mo re c omp lex valves u s
ing mo re e l
ectrode sthan the tr
iode
FR O M TUBE a
re i n c ommon u se. D etai
led i nforma tion o n al
l types o f
v
alve a nd t heir a pplications w i
ll b e f ound i n C hapter 2
(Va
lve s)
.

R
ect
ificat
ion a
nd Detect
ion
CATHODE CONNECT
I ON
T
he opera
tion o
f ad iode a
s ar e
ctif
ier i
si lus
tra
ted in
F
ig
. 1.39
. T he c
i
rcuit shows a mains tr
ansformer with
ef
icien t e mitter v ery c ommon ly u sed i nv alve s ist he o x
ide -
t
wo se
condary windings
, one t
o heat the ca
thode o f t
he
c
oated t ype i n w hich a m ix ture o f b ar
ium , s t
ron tium a nd
c
alcium o x
ide s forms ac oating o n af i
lamen t. S uch ac om -
pos
ite f i
lamen t g ives a c opious em ission a t r e
la tively l ow (
A
)
t
empe rature .
Valve s u s
ing a f i
lamen t a s as ource o fe lectrons a re cal
led
d
irect ly-hea ted v alve s. I t i sa n a dvan tage, p articu larly i n
e
quipmen t o perating o n a .c. supp lies, t o use v a
lves o f the
t
ype s h aving w ha t i scal
led a n i ndi
rectly-hea ted c athod e. An
i
ndirec t
ly -hea ted c athode c onsists o f an icke l t ube c oated
w
ith t he r are -earth o xides m en t
ioned a bove t o f orm t he
emi
t ting s urface w h
ich i sh eated t o the required t empera ture MA NS
by af i
lamen t o r hea ter in
side t he tube b u
t i nsula ted f r om it TRANSFOR MER

a
s shown i nt he ske tch inF ig. 1 .37.
The i ntroduc tion o f a n e x
tra e lectrode , c alled a g rid,
b
etween t he c athode a nd a node f orms a t hree -electrode
v
alve w hich i sc al
led at r
iod e and i sshown d i agramma tically
i
nF ig . 1 .38 ( A). T he grid h as th e proper ty ofc on tro ll
ing t he
Va
f
low o f electrons f rom t he c athode t o th e a node , a nd t he
more n ega tive t heg rid voltage i srelative to t he c athode , the
smaller t he a node c urrent b ecomes u n
til i tisf i
na lly c uto f
a
l
c
toge
ons
the
iderab
r
. A s
le c
mall c
hange i
hange i
n anode c
n g
ur
r
id v
rent a
o
ltage may c
nd t h
is e fec
ause a
t forms
(
B
)
t
he b as is o ft h e valve amp lifier.
F
ig. 1 .
38 ( B) s hows t he c ons truction o f a n i ndirectly- VL
h
eated t r
iode v alve . T he c athode , g r
id a nd a node a re

SEAL F
ig. 1.
39. The operat
ion o f t
he diode a s arect
ifier: ( A) sho ws an
F
ILA MENT GETTER e
le mentary c
ircuit i
n which a n a
.c
. s upply i
s rectif
ied, p roduc ing
OR GR
ID un
i-direct
ional c
urrent pulses in t
he r es
ist
ive load, (B) rep
CAT H ODE MICA t
he wavefor m of the a
.c
. i nput voltage and the r ect
ified v o
ltage
AN ODE SUPP ORT a
cross t
he load.

CAT H ODE
r
ect
ifier v alve a nd the other to step t he mains v oltage u p or
GR
ID d
own a ccording t o the o utput v o
ltage r equired . T he d iode
w
ill c onduc t o nly during t he p os
itike h a
lf-cycle o f t h
e a .c
.
AN ODE
waveform V „ a ppl
ied t o it
s a node s o that t he v o
l tage VL
GLASS BUL B
a
cros s t he load r e
sis
tance ( and the c urrent t h
rough i t
) w il
l
MICA b
e u ni-d irec
tiona l as s hown. P ractical applica t
ions o f th
is
SUPPORT
c
i
rcu it t o power s upplies wil
l b e f
ound i nC hap ter 17( Power
EVACUATED HEATER
ENVELOPE Supplies).
The u n
i-directional c onduc tion o f ad iode i su sed i n a
(
A
) GLASS BASE
s
imilar w ay b ut at ah igher fr
equency t o re
ctify o r "d e
tec t"
CONNECT
ING r
adio-f requency s i
gnals,t he mos tcommon a pp l
ications b eing
P
INS
t
he second d etectora nd t h
ea .g.c. r
ectif
ier ins uperheterodyne
(
B
) r
eceive rs.
F
ig. 1
.38. The tr
iode va
lve : (
A) indicates the b
asic a
rrange ment of
t
he electrodes
, the g
rid being i
nterposed b etween the cathode and Amp
lif
icat
ion a
nd Osc
illat
ion
t
he a node, a
nd ( B
) s
ho ws the construction of atypica
l i nd
irect
ly-
h
eated tr
iode v alve
. T
he b
as
ic amp
lif
ier c
i
rcu
it i
sshown i
nFig
. 1
.
40. T
he g
r
id
1
.
29
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO MMUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
much a s 100 or even h igher. If as econda ry winding of a
RL f
ew turns isw ound round t hecoi
l int he anode t uned c
ir
cuit
C2 LC,av o
ltage wil
l beo btained which c an be fed back tothe
g
rid cir
cu i
t as shown i n Fig. 1.
42. T he arrangemen t then
CI r
eal
ly b ecome s an amp l
ifier c
apab le o f supplying it
s o wn
H
.
T i
nput and, provided t hat the s
ense o f the feedback winding
•= m
1 6•
1
i
sc orrect
, c ont
inuou s o scil
lat
ion s will b e produced a t a
r
esonant f r
equency d eterm ined by t he v a
lue s of La nd C.
I
NPUT OUTPUT
S
uch a t uned a mpl
ifier w i
th sui
table f eedback f rom output
t
o input form s th
e b asis of mo s
t o sc
illators used in tr
ans-
m
itters and rece
ivers.
F
ig. 1
.
40. Bas
ic amp
lif
ier c
ircu
it (
untuned)
.
Negative Feedback
i
sb ias ed s l
igh tly n ega tive w ith r e
spec t t ot hec a thode b y the T
he type offeedback m en
tioned int h
e p r
evious paragraph
b
ia s b attery GB i n s eries w ith t h e h igh g r
id r esistance R „ i
sca
lled posit
ive feedback because the si
gnal fed back from
(
usua lly 0 4- 1 Megohm )
. A s teady a node c urr en t w ill f low o
utput to input i sin phase with t he input si
gnal. I fa n
t
hrough t he v a
lve a nd t he load r esistance RL. amp
lif
ierc i
rcuit isar
ranged sothats ome o ft h
eo utpu t i
sfed
An a .c. signa l a pplied b etween t he i nput t e
rm ina ls aa nd b b
ack to th
e inpu t i
ns uch aw ay that itis180° out ofp hase
w
ith t
h e i
nput signa
l, negat
ive f
eed back issaid t
oh ave been
w
ill b e a pplied t h
rough t he c oup l
ing c apac i
to r C I t oc ause
t
he g rid-to-ca thode v o
ltage t o v ary a bove a nd b elow i t
s
s
teady b ias v oltage i n sympa thy w i th t h e a .c. w ave fo rm
a
pp lied . T he c hang ing g r
id-to -cathode v o
ltage w ill c au se a
c
or respond ing c hang ing a node c urren t t o f l
ow t hrough t he
l
oad r es
istanc e RL a nd t he a node -to -cathode p ath i n t he
v
alve ,t h
isv ariation b eing s upe rimpo sed o nt h es t
eady a node
c
ur ren t. T he a l
te rna ting c omponen t o f the a node c ur rent
w
ill p roduc e a n amp lified r epl
ica o f t he i npu t w ave form a t
t
he o utpu t t erm ina ls ca nd d . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t hat t he
amp lified o utpu tw aveform w i
llb e1 80 °o u
t-o f-pha se w ith t he O
UTPUT
i
n put w aveform s inc e ap osi
tive-go ing g r
id v oltage c au ses
a
n i nc rease i na node c urren t w hich i nt urn c ause s ad ecr ease
i
nv oltage b etween t hea node a nd t hec athode . F
ig. 1
.
42. Bas
ic o
sci
llator
.
The c ircuit s hown i sa pplicab le toa udio f requency amp l
i-
f
i
ca tion . A tr adio f r
equenc ie s af requency -sele ctive amp lifier a
pp lied a nd a r educ tion i nt h
e o verall g ain o f t he amp lif
ier
i
su sua lly r equ ired a nd s e
le ct
iv i
ty i so b
tained b y u s
ing a e
nsue s
.
p
a rallel-tuned c ircuit, LC,a s a n a node l oad i n stead o f t he A
t f i
rst s igh t s uch a r eduction o f gain a ppear s t o b e a
r
esisto r RL s hown i n F ig. 1 .41. E xc ep t w ith s pecial c on- d
isadvan tage ; h oweve r, t hea ppl ica t
ion o fn ega tive f eedback
s
truc tiona l o r c ircuit a rrangemen t s triode s a re n ot s uitab le y
ields s eve ral a dvan tage s w hich mo re t h an o fset t he
f
or u s e as r.f. amp lif
i ers s i
nce t he u navo idab le c apac itance r
educ tion i ng ain . T he se a dvan tage s ar e—
b
etween g rid a nd a node i ns
ide t he v a
lve r e
su lts i nu nwan ted (
a) A r e duc t
ion i n h armon ic d i s
to rtion c aus ed i n the
o
sc i
lla tion. T his e f
ec t i sa voided b y t he use o f ap en tode amp lif
ier.
v
alve , a s s hown i n t his circuit. S ince t he o utpu t v oltage (
b) A f l
atten ing o f t he amp lifie r respon se c urve.
f
rom s uch a n a mp lif
ie r is, within l imit s, propo rtiona l t ot he (
c
) Ar eduction i nh um a nd o the r a mp lif
i ern oise.
l
oad i mpedance i tf ollow s that th e o utpu t v oltag e w ill b e a (
d) A s tabiliza tion o f amp lifier p erfo rmance a gainst
max imum a t t h e r esonan t f r
equency o f the t uned c ircuit v
aria t
ion s i ns upp ly v oltag e
s,c omponen t v alue sa nd i nv alve
whe re i t
s i mpedance i s a max imum , f a
ll
ing a way o n e i
the r c
ha racte r
i s
tic s
.
s
ide o ft he r e
sonance w here t he i mpedance d ec rea ses. The w ay i n w hich n egative f eedback r educe s h armon ic
The v o
ltage amp lification o f a n r .
f. amp lifier may b e as d
isto rt
ion may b e e xp lained s imp ly a s f o
llow s. S uppo se an
amplifier i sb eing f e d w i th a n i npu t s igna l w hich i s ap ure
t
one ( i
.e. a n u ndis tor ted s i
ne w ave ). Due t oi mpe rfection s i
n
t
he amp lif
ie r
, h armon ic so ft hei npu ts i
gna lw ill b ep roduced
which w ill a ppea r i n t h e o u
tpu t a s h armon ic d istor tion.
C
lea rly, b y f eed ing t h e c orrect amoun t o f e ach h armon ic,
i
nt h ec orrec t p ha se, i nto t hei npu t term ina ls o ft he amp lif
ier
f
rom s ome a uxilia ry s ourc e, itw ould b e p ossib le t o c ancel
o
u t t he d istor tion p roduc ed i n t he a mp l
ifi er. N egative
f
eedback f r om t heo utpu tc ircuitp rovide sj ust s uch at ype of
d
isto rt
ion -cance lling s igna l and , a l
though c omp lete e l
im ina-
t
ion o f d i
stor tion c anno t b e a ch ieved , p rov ided t hat t he
g
ain o ft he amp lifier i sh igh a nd t hat as uficien t f raction o f
t
he o utpu t i s f e
d b ack , av e ry w orthwh ile r e
duc t ion i n
d
isto rt
ion m ay b eo bta ined .
F
ig. 1
.41. Basic r
adio f
requency amp i fer c
ircu
it (
tuned). A p
entode Af urthe r refe renc e t on ega t
ive f eedback i st ob e f ound i n
i
s used instead of atr
iode t o s
i mp
lify the prob
le m of e
liminat
ing
un wanted f
eedback . Chap ter 9 (Mod u
la tion ).
1
.30
 PR
INC
IPLES
P
IEZOELECTR
IC E
FFECT p
erp endicula rtoa ny oft h
ef a
ceso ft h
ec rys
tala r
ec a
lled the
Certain c rystal
line s ubs
tance s h ave t he p rope r
ty o f m
echan i
ca la xes, w h
ile the axis ZZ iscalled t h
e o pticala xi
s.
d
eveloping a n electr
ic charge o n t h e
ir s urface s w hen s ub- I
f ap la
te i sc ut s o t
ha t it
s faces are p erpend icular t o an
j
e
cted t o m echan ical st
re s
s a nd, c onve rsely, o f e xhibiting XX-ax iso rt o a YY -axis, itissa
id tob ea n X-cu t or aY -cut
mechanica l s t
rain w hen t he
ir s ur face s a re e l
ectrica l
ly c
rystal respectively. Innume rable other c u
ts c an b e chosen,
s
imp ly by t i
l
ting t he p
l ane ofc ut
ting s o as to make v arious
c
harged . T h
i s isk nown a sthep iezoel ec t
rice fect.
Fo r radio p urpo ses t
h e mo s
t w idely a pplied p iezoelec tr
ic a
ngle s with t h
e a xes, but only a few p a
r t
icular o rientations
s
ubstance i sq uartz. T his isu sed i n h igh -s
tab i
lity r adio- a
re u sed i n pract
ice a nd e ach of these h as it
s o wn s pec
ial
f
requency o scil
lator s a
nd i ns harply t uned f requency f i
l
te rs
. a
dvan tage . An e xamp le ist he AT-cut c rystal
: i n t h
is type
t
he p l
ane o ft hec ut isrotated 35° from t heZ -axis, ass hown
Anothe r p iezoelec tr
ic ma terial i s R ochelle s alt ( sodium
p
ota ss
ium t artrate): th
is h as somewha t dif erent c haracte r
- i
nF ig. 1.44.
i
s
ticsf rom q uartz,a nd isused i ncr y
s tal m icrophone sa nd i n A ny q uartz p late wil
l h ave several d iferent m echatucal
c
rystal h eadphone s and l o
ud speake rs. I n ama teur practice, r
esonance s
, d epend ing o n t he mode o f vibration . I n the
h
oweve r, t h
e se it
ems s e
ldom i fe ver r equire a ny a t
ten tion
a
nd i ti so nly the q uartz crystal t hat i sl i
kely t o m erit a
d
etailed s tudy.

F
ig
. 1.
44. An AT -cut crystal has i
t
s
Quar
tz C
rys
tals major surfaces a t a n a ngle of
3
5 t o the Z -axis. T his type of
Apa rt f rom t he i mp e rf
e c
tion s w hich n orma lly o ccur i n c
rysta
l h as a l ow t e mperature
n
ature, ac rystal o fq uar tz i sshaped l i
ke ah exagona l prism c
oe f
icient and i s w
ide ly used in
r
.
f. osc
illators.
w
ith a h exagona l p yram id a t each e nd, a s s hown i n F ig.
.Y
s
q
1
.43 (A ). T ypica lc rysta ls may b ea ni nch o rt wo ind i
ame te r
a
nd s eve ra l inche s l ong , a nd f rom t hese al arge n umbe r o f
t
h
in s l
ab s o r p lates h aving t he required e l
e c
t romechan ica l
c
harac teri st
ics c an b e c ut. o
rdinary t ype o f c r
ystal u sed in h .
f. transmitters, the mo s
t
I
fo ne o f th ese p late s i sm ade t o vibrate b y m echan ica l i
mportan t mode i sthe t h
ickne ss vibration, since this gi
ves
mean s
, i tw i
ll d evelop a n a l
terna t
ing v oltage b etween i t
s t
he highe s
t f requency f or ar easonab le s e
t o f dimen s
ion s
.
o
ppo site f aces, a nd v i
ce v ersa i fa n oscillatory v o
ltage i s E
ven s o, t h
e p late h as t o be made q u
ite thin t o a
chieve a
a
pplied t o ap air o fe lect rode s on oppo s
ite s i
de s oft he p l
a te u
seful
ly h igh frequency . F o
r instance, ac rystal des
igned f o
r
i
twill v ib rate a tt h
e s ame f r
equency a s the a pp l
ied v o
l tage . 7Mc /s migh t h ave at hickne ss ofo nly 1 5 t
hou sandth s ofan
I
ft his f r
equency h app ens t o c o
incide w ith a m echan ica l i
nch. As light v ariat
ion i nthickne ss correspond s to al a
rge
r
esonance o f t he p late, t he vibration w il
l r each ac on side r- c
hange i n f r
equency , a nd t herefore t o o btain a s trong
a
ble a mpl itude a nd i ne x
treme c ases i t may b e sufi
cien t t o p
iezoelectric r espon se t he p la
te mu st b e u niformly t h
ick
c
aus e t h
e p l
ate t of r
ac tu re, thereby r endering i tpermanen tly w
ithin very f i
ne l imi
tso veri t
s entire area.
wor
th le ss
. T he a ctua l amp litude o f v ibration i s alway s With t h
is mode o fvi brat
ion , th
e ma in r e
sonan t frequency
m
icros cop ically s mall, b ut t he c orrespond ing v oltage i
s inversely p ropor tiona l t o the t hickness. T he p rec
ise
d
eveloped m ay b eo ft heo rdero fs everal volt s
. r
e
lation ship d epends o n t he angle of c ut
, a s shown i n t
he
The c ha racte r
i st
ic s o f such a q uartz p la
te d epend o n t he f
ew examp les g iven h ere:
way i n w hich i th a s b e en c ut from t he n atura l crystal i n
r
e
lation t o t he c rystallog raphic a xes. T he se are indica ted T
ype o
fCu
t F
requency (
kc
ls) xT
hickne
ss(
mm)
i
n Fig. 1 .43 ( B). A xe s s uch a s XX w h
ich b isect the a ng le
b
etween a ny p air o fa djacen t faces of the h exagona l section X 2
860
a
rec a
lled t he e lectrica xe s
, a nd those s uch a s YYw h
ich a re AT 1
675
BT 2
500

X X-CUT O
the r factors to b e cons ide red i nc
lude t he temp era ture
P
LATE Y
- CUT
Y3 P
LATE c
oef f
i ciento ffrequency ,w hich i s am ea sure ofh ow much t he
f
requency v ar
ies with t empe ratu re. T h
is i sof g reat i mpo r-
.
.•
2
2 t
ance i nhigh-precision frequency c ontrol,a nd ad i
scu ssion o f
i
tw ill b efound i nC hap ter 6( H
.F . T ran sm i
tters).
V
2 .2
1 Quar tz isa n exceptiona lly h ard s ub s
tance a nd t he n eces-
X s
ary c u
tting, grinding a nd p olish ing o p e
ra t
ion s a re v ery
t
edious . T he u sual m aterials e mp loyed a re d iamond , c a
r-
b
o rundum , e mery a nd jewe ller's r ouge . G rea t accuracy i s
Y
3 e
ssen tial int h
ed imen s
ion ing a nd f inishing proce sse s
, sim ilar
x
i t
ot hatf ound i nt h
eh i
ghe stc lasso fo p
tical w ork.
The g rinding o f the c rystal b y t hese m e
thod s r e
sul ts i n
s
ome d amage t o the c rystall
ine s t
ructu re o f th e s urface.
F
ig. 1.
42. The s ketch a t ( A
) s hows a d ouble-ter minated natural Much i mproved s tabil
ity a nd p er fo rmance c an b e ach ieved
quartz c
rysta
l and indicates t he re
lationsh ip between t he X
, Ya nd b
yu sing af ina
le tching pro ce ss
,w he reby th ed amaged s u rface
Za xes
. Usually the crystal isfound to have o ne pyra m
idalter mina-
t
ion and one rough e nd where i th as been b roken fro m the p
i
sd is solved a way b y m ean s of ab a
th o f h ydrofluor ic a cid
r
ock . The s
ectional draw ing (I
I) show s the various X a nd Y a
xes as s
olu tion o r of ammon ium b if
luo r
ide . T he f i
nal a djustmen t
v
iewed along adirection p ara
lleltot he Z-axis and inc
lude sexa mples
o
f positions ofX -cut and F -cut plates
. o
ft hec rys
tal tot he required f requency i sinvariab ly car ried
1
.
31

•
RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

e
xtreme ly h igh. F ig. 1 .45 s how s the e quivalen t c ircuit o f a
s
imple q uartz p late: t he shun t c apacitor C 2 r epre sen t
s t he
c
apacitance o ft hee l
ec trode s a nd t hec onnec ting l e ads.
Ac ircui t of t h
is k i nd h as t wo r esonan t f r
equenc ies, o ne
c
orrespond ing t o ah igh i mpedance a nd t he o ther t o al ow
i
mpedance . T hey a rei ndicated i nFig .1.46 w hich s how sh ow
t
he r .
f
. c urrent f low ing t hrough a t yp
ical c rystal c hang es
when the f requency o ft hea ppl
ied r .f
. voltage i sva ried. T he
r
esonan t ( or series) f requency c orrespond s t o r esonance i n
t
he s er
ie s c omb ina tion , LC 1, w hich b ehave s a s al ow -
i
mpedanc e a ccep tor c ircuit. T he s o-
called a nt
i -resonan t
(
orp arallel) frequency c orrespond st oresonance i nt h
eh i gh-
i
mpedanc e r e
jecto r c ircu it formed b y t
he LC 1 c omb ination
i
np aral
le l with C 2
.
The dif erenc e b etween t he t wo f r
equenc ies i sn orma l
ly a
s
mall fr action o f o ne p er c en
t o f the n om ina l f requency .
A
lthough t here a r e c ircuits w h
ich h ave b een d evised f or
o
perating s uch ac r y
sta l o no ne oro thero ft hese f requenc ies,
S
ix t
ypes o
f q uartz crysta
l holders. A —
Internat
iona
l Octa
l. t
hem a
jor ity ofc ircuitsu sed f orf r
equency c on tro li na mateu r
B—FT243
. C- 10 X. D — HC-6/U. E—PS. F—B7G . t
r
an smitte rs u t
il
ize t h e p a ra
llel o r a nti-resonan t h igh -
i
mpedance c ondition .
o
ut t oday b y t his m ethod , w hich a lso l e
ave s the c rystal The mo st i mpor tan t f e
atu re with r egard t o f r
equency i s
p
e r
f ectly c lean . t
hat for e i
the r t he r e
sonan t or t he a n
ti-resonan t c ondition
The a cids u sed f ore tching a ree x trem e
ly d ange rousa nd t he
S
eries
method s hou ld o n
ly b e u sed b y t ho se e xperienced i n t heir 1
0,0 0 0 Resonance
h
and ling. I n par t
icu lar, t he a c
id mu st n ot b e alowed t o
c
ome i n con tact w ith t h e s kin. I fi ti s
, m edical a t
ten tion
s
hou ld b e o btained i mmed ia tely. P
ara
lle
l
The q ua rtz p late i s usualy c lamped b etwe en t wo f l
at R
esonance
meta l e l
e c
t rode s
, a nd t here may o r m ay n o
t b e as ma ll a i
r
1
00-
g
ap a djacen tt oo ne o ft h
ec rysta ls ur faces. When i ti sdesired
t
oo perate w ith ag ap, th e pl ate i sc l
amped a tt he periphe ry
i
fiti sc i
rcu laro ra tt hec orne rs i fiti sr ec
tangu laro rs qua re. 1
0-
A
lte rna tive ly, thin f i
lm e l
ec trode s o f g o
ld o r si
lver may b e
d
epo sited o n t he face s of t he c rystal p late a nd conne cting
w
ire s c an t hen b e solde red t o t he m etall
ic f ilms ats uitab le
Resonant Ant
i- Resonant
p
oin t s (the n od a
lp oints): t he se w ire s also s e
rve a ss uppo rts. F
requency F
requency
The a ssemb ly i ss ome time s e nclo sed i n a n evacua ted g l
a ss
F
ig. 1
.
46. Typica
l var
iation of c
urrent through a q uartz crystal with
e
nve lope t oe xc
lude d irt and mo istu re, b oth o fw h
ich h ave a f
requency
. The resonant a
nd anti-resonant frequencies are nor mally
d
eleter iou s e f e
ct o n t he per formance o ft he crystal
. s
eparated by about 001 p er cent of the f requencies t he mse
lves
(
e
.g. afew hundred cycles for a 7 Mc's c
rysta
l).
A
lthough s uch aq uartz p late may a pp ear q ui
te s imilar i n
c
on struc tiona l f eatu res t o as mall c apac itor, i t
s e l
ec tr
ica l
b
ehav iour i sv ery d if e
ren t. B ecau se o f t he comb ina tion o f t
he i mpedance v ar
iation i sex tremely s harply d efined . T hus
t
he p iezoe lect r
ic p roper tie s a nd t he m echan ical v i
b rat
ion t
he i mpedance may b ef ound t ov a
ry b y ar a
tio o f mo re th an
c
ha rac teristics i tb ehave s a s as eries-tuned c i
rcuit h aving 1
0,000 :1w hen t he frequency i sc hanged b y m erely a f ew
ave ry h igh L /C r a
tio a nd av ery h igh Q v alue. T he i nterna l h
und r ed c ycles. T h
is may b e exp ressed i n t erm s o f t he
f
r
ictiona l l o
sses i n t h
e c ry stal a re r ema rkab ly s mal
l a nd e
quiva lent c i
rcu it by s aying t hat the Q -value i sv ery h igh.
c
on sequen tly t h
e e qu ivalen t r esistance i sv e
ry l ow. T his i s I
n fact, aq ua rtz crystal b ehave s as at uned c ircuit w ith a
o
f c our se t he e f
ective r esistance , c on side red a s part o f t he Q
-va lue many t imes grea ter than can b e a chieved e ven w ith
e
quiva lent c i
rcui t
, t o r .
f
. c ur rents : t he d .c
. r esistance i s t
heb e st inducto rsa nd c apacito r
s.

1
_
B
y u s
ing a q uartz c rys
ta l i n p lace o f t h
e n orma l
t
uned c ircuit ina n ordina ry feedback t ype o f r.f
. o scillato r
,
F
ig . 1.45. E quiva lent c ircuit o f a
t
hef requency o fo sci
llation i sa u
toma t
ically s tabilized w i
th in
p
iezoe lectr ic c rysta l a s u sed i n v
ery c lose li m
its. S uch a n oscil
lator i sk nown a s ac rysta l
-
r
.f. oscillators o r i n f
ilter circuits.
Typica l v a
lues f or a 4 00 W s C
I c
ontrolled o scil
la tor (or mo re s imply, ac rystal o sc
illato r)
,
p
late a re — a
nd at ypical circuit iss hown i nFig. 1.47.
CI w 0 .04 p F
.
C2 w 6 p F.
B
eside st h
et h
in f l
at plate type ofc rystal w hich i sp ref e
rred
L 3.
5 H . f
or u se i n h .f
. o sc
illato rs
, ab ar t ype i s o ften u sed f or
G
I = 2 5
,000 o r higher .
C2 r epresents t he c apacitance o f
r
esona to r
s i n fi
lters o perating a t re
latively l ow f requenc ies
the e lectrodes a nd t he h older. (
below a bou t 5 00 kc/s): a n e xamp le o f this a pp lication i s
The s y mbo l u sed i n c ircuit d ia-
gra ms t o r ep a p iezo -
t
he c rystal f i
l
te r (some t
ime s k nown a s ac rystal g ate) i n
C
IRCU IT
e
lec tric c rysta l i s sho wn o n t he
SY MB OL
a h igh-selectivity i n
te rmed iate-f
requency a mplifier: s ee
r
ight .
Chapte r 4( H
.F. R eceive rs)
.
C
ertain c rystals have a t e
ndency t o o perate a t u nwan ted
1
.
32
 PR
INC
IPLES
po
int-contactg ermanium d iode
. I tconsists of as mall wafer
o
f g ermanium , c ontain
ing a v ery s mal
l b ut c ontrol
led
amount o f ar
sen ic or an
timony , in con tact with a "c at's
F
ig. 1.
47. Basic crystal-contro lled
o
scil
lator circuit u s
ing a q uartz
wh
isker" o f wire w h
ich may b e of pho sphor bronze. T he
c
rystal. The a
aa y feedback g
eneral arrangemen t i sshown i n Fig
. 1 .48, the comp le
ted
i
s provided b y the g rid
-to -anode
d
iode b e
ing s ealed against mo i
sture i n ag l
ass e nve
lop e.
c
apacitance (sho wn d otted).
D
iode s ofthis type may h ave a fo
rward r e
sis
tance o f afew

EM
ITTER COLLECTOR
WHISKER WHISKER

o
r s puriou s f requencies, o wing ' to m echanical c oupling
efects i n the crysta
ls t hemse lves, a nd t he ci
rcuits inw hich
t
hey a re u sed may h ave t o b e d es
igned t o prevent a ny
WAFER OF
p
o ss
ib le o peration a t af requency o ther t h
an t he w anted GER MAN
IU M
f
requency .
LOW RESISTANCE
Whe re ac ry
sta lisrequired t oo scil
la te a
t af r
equency w hich (
A) BASE CONNECTION
i
sa bove t he n orma l
ly a ttainab le max imum ( usually de
te r
-
m
ined b yt h emin imum p racticab le th
ickne ss),itcan be made
CURRENT- L
IMIT
ING
t
ov ib rate ata n o ve
rtone f requency i ft he c
ircuit isar
ranged RES
ISTOR
t
o s t
imu late t his act
ion . A n o vertone i s a pproximately
(
neve re xactly) amu l
tiple o ft hef undamen tal fr
equency , and LOAD
i
n mo st cases t hi
s t y
pe o f o p
era tion i sl i
mited t o t
he o dd S
IGNAL RES
ISTOR
multiples since t h
e even mu lt
iple s are associated with mode s
o
fv i bration w hich presen t dificult prob lems i n mounting.

S
EMICONDUCTOR DEV
ICES
(
B
)
F
ig. 1
.0. P o
int -contact t
ransistor
. The b asic a
rrange ment o
f the
S
inc e t h
e S econd Wo rld Wa r an umbe r o f e lectron ic e
lectrodes i
s shown a t (
A): when c onnected in t
he circu
it (
III i
t
d
ev ices u sing s emiconduc to r ma te r
ia ls such a s g erman ium a
cts as an ampl
ifier g
iving a c
urrent g
ain.

a
nd s i
l
icon h ave b een i n
troduced . T hese d evice s h ave
b
rough t a bou t ar evo lution i n c ommun ication e nginee ring
c
ompa rable w ith t ha t w hich f o
llowed t he i nven t
ion o f t he hund red o hm s a nd a r e verse resistance o f se veral h und red s
t
herm ionic v a
lve a tt he b eginn ing o ft he century. o
ft hou sand s o fo hm s a nd a re o f
ten u sed a sr adio-f requency
The r ange o f dev ice s i ncludes s emiconduc tor d iode s a nd r
ectifie r
s or d etec tors.
a
lso s emiconduc to rt r
iode s, k nown a st r
ansistors,w hich h a ve The e a
rliest f orm s o f t ransistors w e
re "p oint-con tact "
t
he p rope rty o f being a ble t o a mplify s i
gna l
s. A ll t he se t
ype s c omp rising a t hin w a
fe r of g erman ium , to o ne s ide
d
ev ices h ave t he i mpo r
tan t a dvan tage o f con sum ing l e
ss o
fw hich al ow -resistance o r base c onnec tion w as m ade , and
p
owe rt h an t heirt herm ion ic valve c oun terpa rts
, much o ft his ap air o fc losely s paced "c at's w hiske r" e lectrode s p ressing
s
aving a rising f rom t he f act that n o c athode -hea ter p owe r is on t he o ther s i
de o f th e w afer a nd c alled t he e mitter a nd
r
equ ired i nt he sem iconduc tor dev ices. Ap ractical e xamp le c
olle ctor e l
ect rode s
. T he g enera l a rrangemen t o f t he
which i lu s
t rates t his o ve ral
l s av ing i n p ower i sas mall e
lectrode s iss hown i nF i g
. 1 .
49 ( A). When c onne c ted i nt he
g
ramophone a mplifier d elivering a n a udio o utpu t o f t wo c
ircui t o f Fig. 1 .49 ( B) t he p o
in t-con tact t ran sis
to r h as t he
watts. T he t ran s
istor v ersion c on sume s 3 .5 w atts r ep re- p
rope rty o f giving ac u rrent g ain; i .
e.
, f or ac ertain c hange
s
enting a n e fic
iency o f 6 0 p er c ent w hereas a n equ iva len t i
nc ur rent i n th e e m
itte r-
to-ba se c ircuit t wo t o th ree t ime s
v
alve a mp lifier c on sume s 1 2 w atts c orrespond ing t o a n t
hat c hange o f c urren t w i
ll o ccur i n t h
e c ollector -to -ba se
ef
iciency o f 1 6
.66 p er c en t. Qu ite a part f r
om t he o bviou s c
ircuit. I n at ypical t ran s
isto r the e m
itter c ircuit m ay h ave
s
aving i np owe rc onsump tion ,t ran sistorso fert hea dvan tage ar esistance o f af ew h undred o hm s w herea s the c ollecto r
o
f s mall s ize a nd w eigh t w hich m ake s them v ery s uitab le c
ircuit m ay h ave ar es
istance o fs evera l tens o ft hou sand s o f
f
oru se inp ortable e qu ipmen t
. ohm s, a nd t he o ve rall p owe r g a
in i st herefo re c on side rab le.
A c ommon e xamp le o f as em iconduc to r d evice i s t he Poin t
-con tac t t r
an s
is tors h ave b een s up erseded b y
j
unct ion t ransisto rs b ecau se o f t h
eir s upe rior c ha racte r-
i
s
tics, s uch a sl owe rn oi se level
, h ighe re f
ic
iency a nd g reate r
W
IRE GLASS E
NVELOPE
L
EAD METAL TUBE
SEALED TO
SOLDER GLASS GER MAN
IU M
WAFER

EM
ITTER COLLECTOR
F
ig. 1
.50
. Bas ic a
aaaa g
o-
I
NDIUM BEAD ment o
f a junct
ion
)4 W
IRE I
NDIU M trans
istor.
CAT
'S WH
ISKER SOLDER L
EAD BEAD
REGIONS WHERE
GERMAN
IUM WAFER BASE I
NDIU M HAS
D
IFFUSED INTO
F
ig. 1
.
411
. P
oint
-contact g
er man
iu m d
iode
. BASE

1
.
33
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
p
owe r
-hand ling a bili
ty. F ig. 1 .50 i lu s
tra tes o ne m ethod o f OUTPUT TO
f
unction -tran sisto rc onstruction . Two s ma l
l b ead sofi nd
ium A
ERIAL
a
re p l
aced o n e i
the r s i
de o f at h
in w a fer o fg erman ium a nd
R
.F
.C.
t
hen h eated s uf icien tly toc au se th ei ndium t od ifu se into the I
NPUT
g
erman ium a s in dicated b y t he s haded a rea s
. T his pro cess
c
an b e c ontro lled s o t hat t here i so nly a v ery s mall g ap
b
etwe en t h
e i ndium -difu sed a rea s. T he j unc t
ion s w hich
f
orm t he t ran s
isto r are ( a) b e tween o ne i ndium -d iff
us ed NC
a
rea a nd t he w afe r a nd (b) be twe en t h
e w afer a nd the o ther
i
ndium -diffus ed a r ea. Em itte r a nd c ol
le ctor c onnec t
ion s
a
re made t o t he i ndium b ead s a nd a l ow-resi s
tance b a
se G
.&
c
onnec tion i s made t ot he german ium w afer. T he transistor
i
sth en s ealed i n am etal or gl as
se nvelope t op reven t ingre ss
o
f mo is ture o r o the r contam inan t s
.
F
ig. 1
.52
. Triode po wer amplif
ier c
ircu
it s ho w
ing the use of a
Junction t ransis to rs exhib it ac urren t g a
in o f s l
igh t
ly n
eutra
lizing c
apac
itor N C t
o b
alance t
he gr
id-to-anode c
apacitance
.
l
e
s s than u nity b ut t he powe r g a
in a vailab le isg reater t han
f
or t h
e p oint-con tac t type since t he r a
tio o fo utput t oi nput f
requency s tability isr equ ired n o t o nly t oa void i n
te r ference
r
esis
tance i shi ghe r. w
ith o ther s tation s o pe rating o n n ea rby f requenc ie s i n th e
L
ow -powe r t r
an sis
to rs ar e a vailable w hich o perate a t c
rowded ama teu r b and s b ut a l
so t o e nsu re t hat t he s i
gna l
f
requenc ies o f h und reds o f m egacyc les p e r second . H igh- r
ema in s w ith in t he f r
equency b andw id th , o r p assband , o f
p
owe rt y pes capab le o fh and ling p owe rs o fs eve ral watts a re modern h i ghly s e
lective r eceive rs a nd s how sn ot e ndency t o
a
lso m anuf actu red . D etailed i nfo rma tion o n tran s
isto rs wil
l d
ev ia te f rom i t
. A h igh d eg ree o f f r
equency s tab il
ity i s
b
ef ound i nC hap te r 3( Sem icond uctor s)
. u
sua lly o bta ined b y o p era ting t he ma s
te r o scilla tor a t l ow
p
owe rt oa void e xcessive g ene ration o fh ea t and b y s electing
T HE A M ATE UR TR A NS M
I TTER g
ood -qua l
ity c omponen ts o f h igh e lectrica l a nd m echan ica l
The p
urpose o
f t
he t
rans m
itter i
s t
o p
rov
ide r
adio f
r
e- s
tab ility a nd b y u s
ing a m a ster-o sc il
la to r t uned c ir cuit o f
q
uency e ne rgy w hich c an b e f ed i nto a n aerial for t rans- h
i gh Q .
m
ission t o ad istan tp ointo n ac ho sen f r
equency . As t he ama teu r band s a r e f o r t h
e ma in p art h armon ica lly
The s imp le st t ype o f transm i tter i so ne w hich w ill s end r
e
la ted i ti sc ommon p rac tice t oo pera te t he ma ste ro sc i
lla to r
Morse s igna ls i n t he f orm o f l ong a nd s hort b ursts o f r.f
. i
nt h e lowe s t f r
equency a ma teu r b and a nd o btain s uf ic
ien t
e
nergy c o rre spond ing t o th
e d ashe s a nd d ots o f the c ode. powe r t o d r
ive t he p owe r amp lifi e
r o r o utpu t s tage f rom a
Ar a
the r mo re e labo rate arrangemen t i srequired w hen t he s
ucce ssion o f f r
equency -mu ltip ly ing s tage s. F o r e xamp le ,
a
n o s c
illato r c apable o f b eing v aried b etween 1 .75 a nd
t
ransmis sion i st ob e i nt hefo rm o fs peech o r vis
ion s ignals.
An outline o f t he f unc t
ion o fe ach s tage i sgiven h ere, b ut 2 Mc /s w i
ll c ove r n ot o nly t he 1 60m a ma teu r b and b ut a lso
f
or furthe r d etails t he reade r isr e
fe rred t o C hap ter 6( H
.F. t
he 8 0
, 4 0
, 2 0, 1 5 and 1 0m b and s w hen mu l
tip lied b y 2 ,4 ,
T
ran smit ter s). 8
, 1 2 a nd 1 6 r espective ly. F requency -mu ltiplie r s tage s u s e
h
eav ily-bia sed v a
lve s w h
ich a re d r
iven w ith l a
rge i n pu t
Mode rn t ran sm it
te rs a re u sually made u p o f s everal
d
ist
inctc i
rcu itso rs tag esc onsisting o f v
ol tage s
. T h
is h a s t
h ee fec t o fc au sing t hea node c ur ren t t o
(
a) ama ster o scil
la tor, f
low i ns hor t p ulsesi nstead o ff o
llow ing t hes inu so ida l w ave -
(
b) o ne o r mo re f r
equency -mu lt
ip ly ing s t
age s
, f
orm o f t he d r
ive v o
l tage . T he p ulse-like a node c urren t
(
c) ap owe r amp l
ifier, or o utpu t s tage, a nd c
on ta in s c omponen ts o f f r
equenc ies w hich a re mu ltip les o f
(
d) a n a eria l coup le r
. t
h e f requency o ft h
e i npu t w ave form . Av oltage a ta ny o ne
Fors pee ch o r te
levision t ransm ission t he neces sary o
f t h ese f requenc ies may b e d eveloped a t t he a node b y
modu la tion i si n
troduced b y af urther d ist
inc t u nit
, mean s of ar esonan t c ir cuit t uned t ot he r equired f r
equency .
(
e) amodu lato r. I
ti ss ome time s p racticab le t os e
lec t u p t ot h ef i
f
th h a rmon ic
At yp ica l t elegraphy a nd t e
lephony t r
an smitter system i s i
n o ne s tage ; f or highe r o rde rs o f frequency mu ltipl ication
s
hown i nb lo ck d iagram f orm i nF ig. 1 .
51. s
eve ral stage s may b eu sed i nc ascade .
The p urpo se o ft he ma stero scillato ri st ogene rate as table T he p owe r
-amp l
ifier s tage i sd r
iven b y al ow -powe r s tage
h
igh-frequency o s c
il
la tion w hich w i
ll c ontrol the f r
equency a
tt hed esired o utputf requency , aw a tto rt wo b eing s uf ic
ien t
o
f t he e mis sion s f rom t he t r
an smit te r
. A h igh d egre e of t
o d r
ive a lmo st a ny o f t he p en tode o r t e
trode a mp l
ifie r
v
alve s l i
kely t o b e used i n ama teur t ran sm itte rs. F o r h igh -
A
ERIAL e
ff
i ciency , ar adio-fr equency p owe r amp lifier i sr un u nde r
MAS TE R FREQUENCY POWER AERIAL
c
la ss Cc ond ition s: s ee C hap te r 2( Valve s)
.
OSCILLATOR MULT
I PL
IE RS A MPL
IFIE R COU PLE R T
riode amp l
ifiers a re n ot a s o ften u sed a s t etrode s o r
p
en tode s b ecau se t hey r equ ire mo re d rive p owe r a nd n eed
(
a
) (
b) (
c
) (
d) n
eu t ralizing t oa void s elf-os cilla tion . T he s e
lf -osc illa tion i n
at r
iode a mplifie r st
age o ccu rs a s ar esul t o f f e
edback f rom
t
h e a node t o th e gr
id c i
rcu it t hrough t he c apac itance w hich
KEY e
xi sts b etween g r
id a nd a node i ns
ide t he v alve . T he f eed -
MICR OPH ONE
back m ay b e b alanced o ut, o r n eut ralized , b y a r rang ing f or
F
ig. 1
.51. Block diagra m of atypical amateur t a ns mitter f
or tele-
an e qual f eedback v oltage o f o ppo site p hase t o b e a pplied
g
raphy a nd telephony. A s ingle po wer supply u nit is so meti mes t
o t he g r
id c i
rcu it
. T his i su sua lly a chieved i n a mateu r
re
lied upon t o feed the entire trans m
itter but t here a re usually
important advantages t o be g a
ined b y providing s eparate po wer
t
ransm itters b y c ent re -tapp ing t he t uned c ircu i t o f t he
s
upply u n
its *specia
lly for t
he p o wer ampl
ifier and t he modu lator. outpu t amp lifiera ss hown i nF ig. 1 .52 t oo b
ta in a na ntipha se
1
.
34
 PRINC
IPLES

+ HT
.
The ef
iciency n of the ampl
ifi
er gives afigure of mer
it
P
I- NET WORK f
or the s
tage a s ac onver
ter of d
.c
. i n
to r.
f. p ower
. T he
e
f
fi
ciency isc a
lcula
ted b y d
iv
iding th
e p ower output by t
he
TAPPED CO
IL p
owe r in
pu t and mu lt
iply
ing by 100 to expres
s t h
e resu
lt
a
s apercentage thus
:
'
AER
IAL
Ef
ic
iency i
j= — x 1
00 p
erc
ent
1 Wi.
I
ti sc l
ear that si
nce n o ampl
ifi
er can be 100 per cen
t
e
f
f
i cient more p ower i
sf e
d in
to the ampl
ifi
er than appears
a
tt he ou
tpu t a
sr .
f. p
owe r
. Mo s
t ofthisexces
s of power is
I
NPUT
s
pen t o
r dis
sipated as heat a
t the anode of the ampl
ifie
r
GB
v
a
lve . T he anode diss
ipation Wdu may b e calcu
lated b y
t
aking the dife
rence between th
e input a
nd output power.
Anode D
iss
ipa
tion We
u = W
,„ —
F
ig. 1
.
53. A p
entode p
o wer ampl
ifier with a p
i-network c
oup
ler i
n As a
n examp
le o f t
he p
receding p
aragraphs con
side
r the
t
he anode circuit
.
c
ase o
f av a
lve opera
ting with an h
.
t. supply of 7
50 vol
ts
a
nd an anode cur
rent of 1
00 mA . Ifthe amplif
ier i
spro-
d
ucing acur
ren
to f0.71 ampere i
n al
oad r
es
istorof100 ohms
n
eu t
ra l
iz ing v oltag e w h
ich i sf ed b ack t o t he g rid c ircu it
RE CHOKE R
.F. CURRENT
t
hrough t he s mall n eu tralizing c apac ito r NC . I
N LOAD
T
he re a re m any t ype s o fa eria l w hich c an b e u sed w ith a
t
r
an sm itte r, a nd a n a er
ia l c oup ling o r t uning u nit may b e
n
ece ssary t oe nsu re t hatt hep owe rg enera ted b yth e amp lif
i er
s
t
age i se ff
icient ly t r
an sferred t ot hea eria l
. G enera lly s peak -
i
ng a erial c oup ling o n
ly b ecome s ad ifi cult prob lem i fa
t
ransm itte r h a
s t o o pera te a nd s upp ly p owe r t o a n a er
ia l
LOAD
o
ve r aw ide a nd c on tinuou s r ange o f f requenc ie s; s i
nce RESISTOR
amateur t r
an sm i
tter s o pera te o nly i n n arrow s pec if
ied —H
.T. POWER
b
ands o f f requenc ie s t he c oup ling c i
rcu it i n p rac tice c an AMPL
IFIER
o
ften b e r educed t o m erely a n i nduc tive l i
nk c ompr ising F
ig. 1
.54
. Diagra m showing how t he d.c
. po wer i
nput t
o ar ad
io
f
requency ampl
ifier and the r
.f
. power wh ich it p
roduces c
an b e
o
ne o r t wo t urn s o fw ire w ound r ound t h e p owe r-amp lifier measured.
o
u tpu tc oila si n d
ica ted i nt h ec ircui to fF ig . 1.52
.
A u sefu l c omb ined a erial c oup ling a nd p owe r-amp lifier c
a
lculate (
a
) t
he p
owe
r inpu
t, (b
) t
he p
ower o
utpu
t, (
r
) t
h
e
outpu tc ircuiti st hep i-ne two rk c oup ler. I th a
st hea dvan tage e
fic
iency a
nd (
d
)theanode d
is
sipat
ion o
f t
h
e s
tage
.
o
fo pera ting o ve r ac on s
ide rab le f requency r ange a nd f eeding (
a
) P
owe
r i
npu
t Wi,= 7
50 x 0
1 = 7
5 w
atts
.
ef
i c
ien tly i n
to a w ide r ange o f l oad i mp edance s. I ta lso
(
b
) P
owe
r o
utpu
t W = 1
00 x (
0
.70
. — 5
0 %
Amts
.
h
a s t he m erit o f help ing t o r educe t elev ision i nte rference .
The c i
rcu i t iss hown i nF ig. 1 .
53 . T he p rope r tun ing o ft he (
c
) Ef
ic
iency n= —
5
0 x 1
00 = 6
6
.66 p
erc
ent
.
a
e r
iala nd l o ading o ft het ran sm i ttero utpu ts tage i so b
ta ined 7
5
bya dju sting t h e t wo v ariab le c apa cito rsa nd t het apped c oi
l. (
d
) Anode d
i
ssipa
tion 7
5 —5
0 =2
5 w
att
s.
Ar ad io f requency p owe r amp lifier may b e c on sider ed a s
ag ene rato r w hich c onver ts d .c. p owe r t aken f rom t h e h .t
. Ass ofa
rd e
scribed t h
et ransm i t
te ri sc
apab le ofg ene rat
ing
s
upp ly i nto r ad io f requency p owe r t o be f ed to t he a er
ia l
. as teady rad io-f
requency s ignal c alled a c arrier w ave. T his
Impo r
tan tf acto rsi nc onnec tion w ith a n amp l
ifiera re: i
n i tself conveys n o informa tion a nd f o
r m essage s to b e
t
ransm it
ted b y telegraphy t he c arrie r wave mus t b e broken
(
a) T he d .c
. p owe ri npu t
.
u
p i nto the c haracters of t he Mo rse c ode a s i n
dicated i n
(
b) T he r .
f. p owe r o utpu t
.
F
ig. 1 .55. T his p
roce ss isca
lled k eying a nd v ar
iou s m ethods
(
c) T he e f
iciency o ft he amp lif
ie r
. which may b e adop ted are d esc r
ib ed i nC hapte r 8( Keying
(
d) T he a node d i
s sipa tion . &B reak-in).
The d . c
. i npu t p owe r P V
,,
, i se qua l t o t he produc t o f t h
e T he tr
an smiss
ion o fv o
ice o r mu sic (audio) w aveform s is
h
.
t. s upp ly v o
ltage V . a nd t he a node c urren t I.o ft he v alve a
ch ieved b y modu lating t he c arrie r w ave, i .
e
. c ausing i t
s
a
ss hown i nF ig . 1 .
54 t hu s: amp litude, frequency o r p hase t o v ary in s ympa thy w ith
t
he a ud
io. Modu lat
ion p roduce s n ew frequenc ie s cal
led
P
owe
r i
npu
t W
,„ = V x
U
i
The r.
f
. o utputp owerisof
ten calcula
ted by m easur
ing t he CO
1
4
1
r
.
f
. c urrent f l
owing in al o
ad r es
istor somet
ime s c a
lled a
C:
d
ummy l oad. T his load r
esis
tor s hould be n on-
induc t
ive C0
_
\ A M A T
I ME
a
nd m ay c onven ien
tly be of th
e h igh
-powe r carbon t ype. 04
The output p owe r W.
, m ay b e calcu
lated b y fi
nding t he
p
roduct o ft he l
oad re
sis
tance R and th e s
quare ofthe l o
ad M O RSE CHARACTER

c
urrent 1,f t
hus: F
ig. 1
.
55 . Morse c
ode s
igna
ls are produced b
y break
ing the c
arrier
wave into l
ong and s
hort characters
. The il i
on r
epresent.
P
owe
r o
utpu
t 1
41. = R x I
ds t
he le
tter V.

1
.
36
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
t
og ethe r ist herefo re o ne h alf t hat o f t h
e c arrie r w hen i ti
s
Carr
ier f
ully modu la ted . When modu la ted b y s peech t he s ideband s

AM PLITU DE
F
ig. 1
.
36. Sideband a
re c omp lex a nd v ary c ontinua l
ly i nf requency s pac ing a nd
s
pectru m of a 7 Mc/s amp li
tude f ol
low ing t h e rapid ly c hang ing s peech w ave fo rm.
c
arrier amplitud•
modulated by aSk c
/s
L
ower U
ppe
r The s ideband s e xtend o n eithe r s i
de o f the c a rr
ier u p t o a
S
ideband S
ideband
a
ud io t
one. f
requency s pacing c orrespond ing t o t he highe st f requency
c
omponen t p re sen t i n t h
e s peech w aveform . I n p ractice
k
CIS g
ood t e
lephone q uality s p eech c on tain s frequenc ie s u p t o
6
995 7000 7005
FRF OUENCY a
bou t 3k c/s s o t hat i n an a .m . s igna l of t hat q uality t he
s
ideband s
, e xtend ing a bove a nd b e
low t hec arrierf requency s
ideband so ccupy 3k c/so ft hef requency s pect rum a bove a nd
b
y a tl east t he h ighe st f r
equency c omponen t o f th e a ud io b
elow t hec a
rrie r.
wave . When t h e comb ined s i
deband v o
ltage s a re e qua l t o the
The mo s
t c ommon ly u sed t ype o f modu lation i sa mplitude c
ar r
ie r voltage , t he t ran sm itter i ss aid t o be modu la ted 1 00
modu lation ( a.m.) i nw hich t he a mplitude o ft he tran sm itter p
erc ent. I ft he amp li
tude o ft he modu lating v oltage a pplied
outpu t i svaried u p a nd d own i ns ympa thy w i th t he a ud io t
o t he p owe r a mplifier v a
lve e xce eds t hat r equ ired f or 1 00
modu lating w avefo rm , t h
e c arr
ier f requency b eing c on s
tan t. p
er c ent modu la tion , t he v alve w ill c ease t o c onduc t a tt he
I
np rac tice t h
is v aria tion o fa mp l
itude i su sually a ch ieved b y n
ega tive p eak o f t he a udio modu la ting v o
ltage . T h
i s i n
ter-
v
a rying t hea node , s creen o rg rid v o
l tage o f aC lass Ca mpli- r
up t
ion o f t he c arr
ie r w ill r esult i n s eve re d isto r
tion
f
i
e r s tage a cco rding t o the a udio w avefo rm i ti srequ ired t o o
f t he t r
an sm itted s igna l a nd mu st b e a voided a s i tw ould
t
ran sm it. F ig. 1 .
57 s how s t he unmodu la ted c ar r
ier w ave a t c
au se s er
iou s i n
te rfer ence t o s i
gna ls f rom o the r s tat
ion s
t
h e t op, t he a udio modu lating s ignal int he c entre a nd t he o
pe rating o n adjacen t f r
equenc ie s
.
c
ompo s
ite a mp li
tude modu lated w ave att h e b ottom . I ft he I
ntermed iate d epth s o f modu la tion b etween z e ro a nd
outpu t f rom a 1 00 p e rc en t amp li
tude modu lated t ran sm it
te r maximum v a
lue s a re u sua l
ly e xp re ssed a s ap e rcen tage . I fx
i
sd isp layed o n an o scilloscope w hose t imeba se i sl ocked t o i
st heu nmodu lated amp litude o ft hec a rr
ie re nve lope a nd yi s
t
he a ud io s i
gna l i tw ill a ppear a s s hown a t t he f oot o f t
he p eak i ncrea se ( o r de crea se
) i na mplitude o ft he e nvelope
F
ig. 1 .57. d
uring modu lation ,t hed ep th o f modu la t
ion m ay b eo btained
An a mp li
tude modu la ted r adio s igna
l a ctually c on s
i s
ts o f b
y d ividing y b y xa nd mu lt
ip lying b y 100 t o exp res s thc
t
hree d ist
inc t c omponen t s
; t he ca rr
ier w ave o f c onstan t r
e
su lt as ap erc en tage . E xp ressed a s af o
rmu la,
amp litude ,a nd t wo s i
deband s,o rs i
de f r
equenc ie s
,s paced o n
e
i
the r s ide o f t he c ar r
ie r
. T hese s i
deband s c arry t he a udio M —
x x 1
00 %
i
ntel
lig ence a nd v a ry i na mplitude a st hea ud io s ignalc hang es
whe re M i st he modu lation p ercen tage .
i
n i nten sity. T he f requency s pacing b etwe en t he s i
deband s
a
nd t he c arrie r ise qua l t o the frequency o f t he modu lating The s imp le a .m . s i
gna l i sw as tefu l i n t wo w ay s
. F i
rst a
s
igna l. c
hanne l o f b andw id th e qua l to t w
ice t h
e h ighe s t f requency
o
ft he aud io s i
gna l u sed i sr equi red , a nd s econd a tl east two -
The f requency s pec trum c orrespond ing t o a 7 Mc is
c
arrie r w ave modu la ted f ul
ly, or 1 00 p er c ent, b y a n a udio t
h
i rd s of t he r adia ted p owe r isi nt he c ar rier w hich c onvey s
s
igna l o f 5k c/ s iss hown i nF ig. 1.56. At f u
ll modu lation t he n
oa ctual i nfo rma t
ion a nd c ould e qua lly w ell b e om itted a nd
r
e
in troduced a tt her eceive r. B o th o ft hese d isadvan tage sa re
ampli tude o f e ach o f t he t wo s i
deband s i so ne h alf t hat o f
t
hec arrie r
, t hep owe r ine ach sideband b eing o ne q ua r
ter o f e
l
im ina ted i nt he s ingle s ideband s upp res sed c arrie r m e
thod
o
ft ran sm ission i nw hich o nly o ne s e
t o fs ideband f requenc ies
t
hat i n th e car r
ier. T he p owe r int he t wo s ideband s t aken
a
nd n oc arr
ie r i st ransm it ted. F ull d etails o ft his s ystem w ill
UN M ODULATED CARR
IER WAVE b
e f ound i nC hap te r 1 0 ( Singl e S id eband T echn ique s). T he
a
.m . system h as, h oweve r, the a dvan tage o fs imp licity , bo th
_
!
a
tt he tran sm itter a nd i nt he r ece ive r.
o
. Ordina ry a mplitude modu la tion i su sua lly o b tained b y
2
v
ary ing t he h .t
. f e
ed t o ac lass Cr ad io f requency a mp l
ifie r
,
M ODULAT
I NG a
cco rding t o t he a udio w ave fo rm t o b e t ransm itted, b y
VOLTAGE a
pp lying t h e modu lating v oltage i n s eries w ith t he h .
t.
ITUDE

s
upp ly t hrough t he m edium o f amodu lation t ran sfo rme r a s
s
hown i n F ig. 1 .58. I n t he m ethod j ust d esc ribed , c a
lled
AMPL

T
I ME
a
nod e m od ulation o r p late m od ula tion , t he a moun t o f audio
p
owe r re quir ed t o modu late t h e c a rrie r w ave f u
lly i se qua l
t
oo ne-ha lf o f the d .c
. p owe r i npu t t o t he a node a nd s creen
c
i
r cuits o f th e p.a. s t
ag e. F ore xamp le , at r
an sm i
t te r p owe r
amp l
ifier d raw ing a n a node c ur ren t o f 1 00 mA f rom a n h .
t.
s
upp ly o f 6 00 v olt s h as a n inpu t o f 6 0 w atts. A m aximum
a
ud io p ow er o f 3 0 w atts i st he refo re r equ ired t o modu la te
T
I ME
t
h
i s a mp lif
ie r f u
lly.
I
n f requency modu la tion ( f.m .
) t he a mp litude o f t he
c
arrie r w ave i sk ep t c onstan t b ut i ts f requency i sv aried, o r
M ODULATED CARR
IER M
.
' WE s
wung t o a nd f ro o n e i
the r side o f t h e n om ina l v a
lue , a ta
F
ig. 1
.57
. A mplitude modu lation of a carrier
. The modu lat
ion r
a
te c orre spond ing t o the modu la ting f requency a nd t o a n
e
nvelope may be displayed o n an o
sci
lloscope a nd r epresents 100
p
er cent modulation b y as inuso
idal signal. I
t sho ws graphically e
xten t c orre spond ing t o t he a mp l
itude o f t h e modu lating
how t
he sum o
ft he carrier a
nd sideband v o
ltages var
ies w ith t
i me. s
i
gna l. A n f .m. signa l h as ag r ea te r b andw id th t h
an a n a.m .
1
.
36
 PR
INC
IPLES
H
.T. +H
.T. s
e
lectivity and ea se ofh and ling. T he t.
r
.f. rece
ivero fe
rs the
MODULATED a
dvan tage o f simp lic
ity a nd c heapne s
s a nd therefore lends
R
.F. OUTPUT
i
t
se
lf mo re read
i ly t o home c on s
truction.
The s implest p o
s s
ible r e
ceiver c omp ris
e s as i
ngle t uned
c
i
rcuit a nd ac rystal d e
tecto r, ass hown i nFig. 1.
59. Such a
c
i
rcuit i sn ot s uitable f o
r s ho r
t-wave w ork s i
nce i tl a
cks
b
oth s e
lect
ivity a nd s ens
itivity. A t r
iode ( or t e
trode o r
p
entode ) v a
lve may b e u sed a s ad etector as shown i n
F
ig
. 1 .60,theg r
id a nd cathode a cting as adiode detectora nd
RE
DR
I VE
HT+
M ODULAT
I ON
AF
TRANSFOR MER
CHOKE
GRID
F
ig. 1
.
55. A p
opu
lar method o a pp
lying amp
litude modu
lat
ion t
o a
LEAK
r
adio f
requency power ampl
ifier
.

s
i
gnal, b ut o n the o ther h and a n f .m. sys
tem o f
e rs t he F
ig. 1
.
60. S
i mple t
riode v
alve
rece
iver.
a
dvan tage of ab e
tter s i
gna l-to -noise r a
tio p rovided t hat
t
hestrength ofther eceived c arrieri sabove ac ertain th
re sho ld
v
a
lue. F requency modu la t
ion i sthu s w e
ll s u
ited f or t he
v
.h
.f. bands w here a mple b andw idth i savai
lable a nd ag ood
s
i
gnal-to-noise ratio isd esirab le.
DC BLOCK
ING HT—
Further informa tion o n m ethods o f ampli
tude a nd f re
- CAPAC
ITOR
q
uency modu lat
ion w i
ll be f ound i nC hapter 9(Mod ulation )
.
A
lthough av a
lve u sed i na n a mplitude-modu lated p owe r t
he a mpl
ifying propert
ies of th e va
lve p rov
iding a cer
tain
ampl
ifier must be r un at ar e duced i nput compared w ith t he amount o f si
gnal m agnif
icat
ion . A lthough t h
is ci
rcui
t is
t
e
legraphy c ondition t oa void e xcess
ive d i
ssipation and p o s
- more sensit
ive than that o f the crysta
l s e
t it: s
t
il
l l a
cks
s
i
ble d amage,a n a dvantage o ff r
equency modu la t
ion i st hat s
e
lect
iv i
ty.
t
he p ower-amp l
ifier s t
age c an b e o perated at t h
e full t e
le- Bo
th t he s
ens
itiv
ity and se
lectivi
ty of av a
lve de
tector may
g
raphy r a
ting thu s al
low ing ag reater o u
tpu t to beo btained b
e increased enormou s
ly b y applying react
ion as shown in
f
rom ag i
ven v a
lve t han unde ra .m. c ondit
ion s
.
O HT +
THE AMATEUR R
ECE
IVER AER
IAL
AF
T
he p urpo se of ar eceiver i st o s e
lect ad e
sired r adio CH OKE
s
i
gna l f rom a mongst the many o the r st hat m ay b e receivab le
a
nd t o r ecove r from i t t he intelligence t hat i tc onvey s
.
U
sua lly t hep owera rr
iving a tt hea erialt ermina lsi ss om inute RF
CH OKE.
(
perhap s o n
ly a s mall f r
ac t
ion o f am icro -mic rowa tt ) that
t
he r e
ce iver a l
so needs t o c ontain a n a mplifier s o th at the
r
eceived s i
gnal can be m ade p ower ful e nough t oa ctua te the
h
eadphone so r al o
ud speake r. Ar ece ivert here fore n ormaly
h
as t hree func t
ions— (
i) the selec
tion o ft he d e
si red signa l by
as e
lec t
ive t uning circuit, ( i
) th e c onver s
ion o f the r adio-
REACTI ON
f
r
equency s ignals i n
to a udio-frequency s igna ls b y t he COIL c-
p
roce ss o f d emodu lation o r "de tection," a nd ( ii) t he A El
REACTI ON a
s/
amplification o f t
he signals t o au se ful powe r l evel
. CAPAC
ITOR C
There a re t wo ma in t ypes o f r eceiver— the s t
raigh t, or HT-

t
uned -rad io-frequency ( t
.r.f.
) r e
ceive r
, a nd t h
e s uperhe tero-
d
yne r eceiver or "sup erhet." O f th ese the mo re c ommon ly F
ig. 1
.
61. S
i mp
le r
ece
iver u
sing a t
r
iode v
alve w
ith i
on.
u
s ed t oday i st h
e s uperhe terodyne , b ecau se o f i t
s s up er
ior
F
ig. 1 .
6 1
. R adio fr
equency e nergy i nthea node c i
rcu i
t oft he
v
alve i sf ed back t o t
he g r
id c i
rcuit by t he reaction c oil A.

I CRYSTAL
RECT
f
r
(
IF
IER
T
f
e
he s e
edback
r
ies c
, o
apac
r r
i
e
to
act
r Ci
ion. B
si nse
y i
r
n
ted t
creas
oc on
ing t
t
h
rol t
e va
he a
lue o
moun
f C
t o
, th
f
e
r
eac t
ion i si n
creased a nd t he s ens
itivity o f the d etector is
i
nc reased: e ventually a p oin t i s reached a t w h
ich s e
lf-
o
sci l
lation b egins. T his i s ma rked b y a n increa se i n the
F
ig. 1
.
59. S
i mp
le c
rysta
l r
ece
iver
. b
ackg round n oi
se i n the r eceiver, ac haracteristic r ush
ing
s
ound , a nd b y t he abil
ity o f t h
e r eceiver t o p roduce a
h
ete rodyne b eat n o
te w ith a c ont
inuous -wave t elegraphy
s
igna l
. F or te
lephony r e
cep tion t h
is c i
rcuit isu sed w ith the
HEAD-
PHONES d
etec tori n ac ondit
ion j u
s t short ofo scil
lation.
T
he a moun t o f audio p owe r available f r
om a s i
ngle
TUNING
CAPACITOR d
e tecto r st
age even w i
th r eaction i ss mal
l, and f urthe r audio
1
.
37
 RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK

(
A
) SPEAKER
t
o t
m
ixe
he i
r v a
n
te rmed
lve c on
ia
ta
te f
ins c
requency
omponen
. T
ts a
he a
tt h
node c
e si
gna
ur
l f
rent o f t
equency j
r
he
,
t
he o scillator f r
equency f , a nd t h
e s um a nd d iference
AUDIO
D
ETECTOR AMPL
IFIER f
r
equenc ies L+ f ,a nd f.— i
ta l
so c ontains o ther c om -
p
onen t s
, b ut these a re o fno i mpo rtanc e inthe o peration o f
t
he r eceive r
. T he c omponen t J.- .
I; i s the i n
termed ia te
(
B
) S
PEAKER
f
r
equency a nd i ti ss e
lected from t he others by a n if. tr
an s-
f
orme r w hich u sually c omp r
ise s ap a
ir o f coup led t uned
R
.F. AUDIO c
i
r cuit s t uned t o th e i n
termedia te f r
equency , a nd i st hen
D
ETECTOR
AMPL
IFIER AMPL
IFIER p
as sed o n t o a n i .
f
. a mpl
ifier. T he f requency -chang ing
a
ction i si lustrated i nt he f
orm o f ab lock d i
ag ram i nF ig.
F
ig. 1
.62
. Methods o f providing amp l
ification i n ar eceiver: in (A) 1
.63 w h
ile F ig. 1 .64 s how s am ixe r ci
rcuit using a t r
iode -
a
udio frequency amp lif
icat
ion i s appl
ied t o the o utput fro m t he
d
etector: i
n (B) the r
adio frequency signal i s amplified before it i
s
h
exode v alve inw hich t hevariou sp artso ft hecircuit are la
id
f
ed i
nto the detector and further amp l
ification is prov ided for the o
ut t oc orrespond w ith t heblock d iagram .
a
udio frequency o utput f
ro m t he detector .
The b lo ck diag ram o f ac omp lete p opular type o f supe r-
h
ete rodyne r eceive r iss hown i nF ig. 1.65. The t uning o f the
amp lif
i ca tion m ay b e a dded s o t h at al oud speake r c an b e r
.
f. s tage a nd t he m ixer a nd lo
ca l osci
llato r s
tage s isusually
u
s ed. T his i si lustra ted i nt he bl ock d i
ag ram F ig. 1 .62 ( A). p
erfo rmed b y at hree-section g ang ed v ar
iable c apacitor. A
t i
I sn ot g ood p ractice t o conne ct a n ae r
ia l direc t
ly t o a t
echn icald ificulty with t h
is ar
rangemen t isthatt heo sci
llato r
d
etec to r v alve f or t wo r eason s. F irst, w hen t he d etec tor i s
o
sc i
lla ting t here w il l be r adiation f rom t he a er
ial w hich w il
l
c
ause i n
te rfe rence w ith o the r neighbour ing r eceive r s a nd, +H
.T.
s
econd , t he o p
timum s e
tting o ft he r eac t
ion c ontro l
, as ome - F
.- F
--- ILTER
----
wha t c rit
ica l a dju s tmen t, w ill b e a dve rsely i n f
luenced b y +H
.T
v
aria tion s i n t he i mp edance o f the a erial w hen t he r ece
ive r ;
T
OI
; .
EAMPLIFIER
i
st uned o ve r ab and o ff requenc ie s
. T o el
im ina te t h ese d is
-
-2
.
1
a
dvan tage s i ti sc ommon p rac t
ice t o u se a s t
age o f rad io --
--
--
--
- -
---
-- -
---
---
f
requency a mp lif
ica t
ion a head o f t he d etec to r as s hown i n
F
ig. 1 . 62 ( B
). R
.F.
A c ode i ss ome t ime s u sed t o d esc ribe t h e m ake -up o f a S
IGNAL

t
.
r.f. r e ceive r. I tt ake s the f orm o f an ume ral r epre senting
t
he n umbe r o fr adio f requency a mp lifi er stage s
, f o
llowed b y
t
he l e
tte r V , t o r epresen t t he d ete cto r s tage, a nd t hi
s i s
f
ol
lowed b y af urthe r n ume ral t o r epre sent t he n umbe r o f
a
ud io a mp lifier s tage sa f
ter t hed etec to r. T hu s 1-V -2 m eans
at .
r
.f. r eceive r w ith o ne r .
f. stage, av alve d etecto r a nd t wo
al
. s tag es; t he r eceive r s hown i nF ig . 1 .61 w ould b e d esig-
n
ated 0 -V -0. —H
.T
.
The b est t .r
.f. r eceive rs a re n o
t r eally s e
lec tive e nough f or MIXER OSC
ILLATOR
----
-- ----
-- 1
.
•
u
se o n t he h ighe r f requency b and s. T he s uperhe te rodyne
r
eceive ro ve rcome s t h
is d rawback b yc hang ing t he frequency F
ig. 1
.64
. A t
ypical t
r
iode-hexode mixer c
ircu
it used f
or f
requency.
c
hanging i
n accordance with t
he pr
incip
le ilustrated i
n Fig
. 1.
63.
o
f i ncom ing s igna ls t o al owe r f ixed f r
equency c al
led a n
i
n
te rmed iate f requency , u sua lly a bb rev iated t o i.f
. A t t his
l
owe r f i
xed f r
equency , c ommon ly a round 4 65 k c /s, i ti s must a lway s b e t uned t o af r
equency w h
ich i s e qua l
e
asy t o o bta in h i gh s e
le c
tiv i
ty a nd h i gh g ain w ith a s mall t
o t he sum o f t he s ignal f r
equency a nd t h e i nte rmed ia te
n
umbe r o fs tage s
. f
requency , i r
resp ect
ive o f t he sett
ing o f t he t uning . T he
A s pec ial m ixe r v alve i sc ommon ly u sed f or f requency s
ignal a nd o sc
illator c i
rcuits a re s a
id t o t r
ack c or rectly i f
c
hang ing . I nto i ta re f ed ( i
) the r ad io f r
equency s igna l a nd t
he a bove r equiremen t ism et
. I n o rde r t o o btain c orrec t
(
i
) al oca lly -gene ra ted o scillato r vol tage w ho se frequency i s o
scil
lato r t r
ack ing i ti sn ecessa ry t o mod ify t he i nduc tance
h
ighe r t han t he r ad io s igna l fr
equency b y a n a moun t e qua l o
f t he o scil
la tor c oil a nd a dd t wo e xtra c omponen ts , a
t
r
imme r CT a nd a p adde r C,, as s hown i n F ig
. 1 .66 . W ith
MIXER OUTPUT t
his arrangemen t p erfect t r
acking c an b e o btained a t t hr ee
CONTAINS COMPONENTS p
oints w ith o nly s ma l
l e rrors e l
sewhe re o ver q ui
te a w ide
f
o
, f
s
, (
f
o +f
s
), (
f
o -f
s
), e
tc t
uning r ange . F urther d etai
ls w il
l b e f ound i n C hap te r 4
(H
.F. R ece ive r
s). I ts hould b e n oted t h at spec ial t rack ing
R
.F. c
i
rcu i
tsc an b e dispen sed w ith i fth
e f r
equency r ang ec ove red
S
IGNAL IF TO I
.F
.
M
IXER b
y t he receive r iss ma ll compa red w ith t he frequency i t
self,
f
l F
ILTER f
i "AMPL
IFIER
a
s f o
r i nstance i n ar ece
ive r d esigned e xclusive ly f o
r t he
amateur b ands .
1 - 7 7
1— '
S
ince mo sto ft heg ain and s e
lectivity i n as upe rhe te rodyne
F
ILTER SELECTS THE
LOCAL I
.
F COMPONENT
i
so btained a t th e i n
termed iate f r
equency i tm ay a pp ea r
OSC
ILLATOR (
fo—fa) i u
nnec essa ry t o use a n r .
f
. a mplif
ier a head o f t h e m ixe r. I t
i
s
, h oweve r
, d es
irab le f or t wo r eason s, fi
r s
t t o r e duc e o r
P
ig. 1
.
63. The p
rinc
iple d f
requency
-chang
ing
. e
l
im inate w hat isc al
led s econd c hanne lo ri mage i nte rfe rence ,
 PR
INC
IPLES

A
ERIAL r
ejection p ar
ticularly a t h ighe r s igna l
f
requenc ie s
. On t he othe r h and a h igh
V SPEAKER
if
.,w hile a low ing g ood i mage r ejec t
ion

.
4
1
2
nd R1 H AUD IO with f ew s ignal frequen cy t uned c ircu its
RF 1
s
t 1F
0
.0
E
T ECTOR
MIXER A
MP L
I F
IER AMPL IFIE AMPLIFIER ahead o f t he m ixer t end s t o gi ve p oo r
AMPLIFIER
s
e
le ct
ivity ,u n
lesse xpen sive c rysta l f i
l
te rs
a
re used , a nd l owe r stage g ain.
BEAT T
he d oub le s uperhe t p r
inc iple o fers
L
OCAL F REQUENCY asolution t ot hed i
lemma j ustd escribed .
O
SC ILLATOR OSC ILLATOR
I
n t h
is t ype o f r eceiver t h
e s igna l
f
r
equency i sfir
stc hanged t o ar e
la tively
F
i
g.1.65
. B lock diag ram o f atyp
ical a ma teur c ommun ica tion ss uperheterodyne receiver.
h
igh f i
rst i f
. i norde r to g e
t g ood i mage
r
e
jec t
ion a nd t hen c hanged a gain f rom
a
nd s econd , t o i mp rove t he s igna l-to-no ise r at
io o f t he t
hat f
req uenc y t
o a mu ch lo wer s
eco nd i
.
f. i
n o
r der t
o o
bt a
in
g
ood s e
lectivity. F o
r ar eceive rc overing t he ama teu r b and s
r
e
ceive r
.
f
rom 1 .
8 t o 2 8 Mc /s t he f i
rst i .
f
. m ight b e c hosen a t a bou t
S
econd c hanne l i nterference a rises f rom t h e fact t hat t here
a
re two r adio f requenc ies atw hich s i
gna ls
, i fa pplied t o the 1
.6 Mc is and t he s e
cond i .
f
. a t 1 00 kc/s.
m
ixer, will give r ise toa n i.
f. signal a ti t
s o utpu t. T he se are When o pera t
ing o n v.h.f., triple conve rsion s up erhe ts a re
c
ommon ly u sed. P articula rly a tt he highe r frequenc ie s i tis
t
he frequency o ft he w anted s igna l w hich b y d esign i se qual
c
ommon p rac t
ic e to u se a c r ystal controlled f irst o scillato r
t
o the dif erence b etwe en t he o scil
la tor f requency a nd t he
i
n
termed ia te frequency a nd t h
e s o
-ca lled s econd c hanne l or i
n ad ouble s up e
rhe t a nd t une t h
e s econd o sc i
lla to r a nd
f
i
rsti.
f.c i
rcuit so ver ar estr
ic ted b and o ffrequenc ie s( typica lly
i
mage f r
equency w hich i sequalt ot heo sci
llato rf requency/AD
5
00 k c/s)
. T his arrang emen t h as t he a dvan tage o f g ood
t
he intermed iate f requency . T he s econd c hanne l f requency
i
sthu st w
ic et hei .
f. below t h ef r
equency o ft hew an ted s ignal f
requency s tab i
lity, prov ided b y t he crystal o scillato r, a nd
a
nd u n
le s
s t her e i sa dequa te s electivity i n t he r .
f. t un ing c
onstant b and sp read o n al
l b and s, provided b y t he t unab le
c
i
rcuit s toe xclude s ignals o n t he second c hanne l f requency , s
econd o scil
la tor.
For c.w. telegraphy r e
cep t
ion i tisn ecessary t o i ntroduce
b
oth w ill b e rec eived. As imi
la r c ond ition a rises w hen t h
e
o
sci
llator i so n t he l ow f requency s ide o f t h
e s igna l. T he a
n a ddit
iona l o sci
llato r ( known a s t he b ea t f requency
o
sci
llatoro rb .f
.o.) tob eat w ith t he i.
f
. signa l int he d ete ctor
d
egree o fr .f
. selec t
iv i
ty r equ i
red i sn ot so h igh i n as upe r
-
h
eterodyne a si n as t
raigh tr eceive rs ince iti sm erely ama tter s
tage a nd p roduce a n a udib le t one w h
ich c an b e r e ad a s
o
f rejecting a s puriou s s ignal d if ering i n frequency f r om Mo r
se c ode.
t
he w anted signal b y t wice t he i n
termed ia te frequency i n-
s
t
ead o f as purious s ignal o n
ly af ew k i
lo cycles away.
Mixer valve s in
troduce n o
ise a nd a w eak s i
gnal a pp l
ied
d
i
rec t from a n aer
ia l to am ixer w ould b e l o
st inth e n o
i sy
B
IBL
I OGRAPHY
b
ackg round. A n r.f
. amp l
ifier stage is much l es
s n o
isy t han
amixe r
, and b y using s uch a s tage a head o f the mixe r a n 1
.M. G
. S
CROGG
IE. T
he F
ounda
tion
s o
f W
ire
les
s, I
l
ife
i
mp roved signal-to
-no ise r a
tio c an be o btained . (
London
).
I
n many s uperhe terodyne r ece
iver s t he i .
f
. amp lifier
2
. F
. E. T
ERMAN
. R
adio E
nginee
rs' Hand
book
, McGraw
-
c
ompr ises t wo amp lifier s tage s a nd t hree a s
sociated i .
f
.
H
il
l (NY).
t
ransforme r
s b etwe en t he m ixe r and the d ete c
tor. Ifg rea ter
s
e
lec t
ivity isr equired t han c an b e o btained w ith hi gh Q 3
. R
. T
. BEArrv
. R
adio D
ata C
har
ts (
r
evised b
y A
. L
. M
.
c
oil
-and -capa ci
tor t uned t r
an sforme rs ac rystal fi
l
ter may S
owerby
), I
l
ife(
London)
.
b
e a dded to t he i.
f. amp lif
ier, t he cr
ys tal a ct
ing as a nothe r 4
. F
. E
.TERMAN
. R
adio E
nginee
ring
, McGraw
-Hi
ll(
NY)
.
t
uned c i
rcui
to fextreme ly high Q . S uch f i
lte r
sa rec ommon ly
u
sed f o
rt e
leg raphy r ecep tion a nd ared escribed i nC hap ter4 5
. B
asic E
lec
tri
city
, RAF AP3372
, HMSO
.
(
H.F
. Rece
ivers)
. 6
. T
he R
adio Ama
teur
's Hand
book
, ARRL (
USA
).
T
he cho
ice ofth
e i
nte
rmediate f
r
equency f
or areceiver i
s 7
. L
ADNER & S
TONER
. S ho
rt Wave W
ire
les
s C
ommun
i-
acomp
rom ise
. Al ow i
.
f. w
il
l gi
ve g
ood se
lec
tivi
ty and high
c
a
tion
,Chapman & H
all(
London
).
s
t
age g
ain b u
t itisv
ery d
iff
icu
lt t
o ob
tain adequa
te i mage
8
. K
. G
. S
TURLEY
. Radio Rece
iver D
esign
, V
olume
s Ia
nd
I
, C
hapman & Ha
ll (London)
.
O
SCILLATOR 9
. E
. K. S
ANDEMAN
, R
adio E
nginee
ring
, C
hapman a
nd
S
IGNAL
C
IRCU
IT C
IRCU
IT Ha
ll
.
1
0
. T
he R
adio Ama
teu
rs E
xam
ina
tion Manua
l, R
SGB
.
1
. AG
uid
e t
o Ama
teu
r R
adio
, RSGB
.
1
2
. J
.P. HAWKER
, O
utl
ine o
fRad
io a
nd T
el
evi
sion
, N
ewne
s
L
ondon.
GANGED
1
3
. AC
our
se i
nRad
io F
und
amen
tal
s, ARRL (
USA
).
F
ig. 1.
66. In t he o sc
illator tuning c ircuit o f as uperheterodyne
r
eceiver mod i
fica t
ions a re n ecessary t o e eeeee p roper t racking 1
4
. U
nde
rstand
ing Ama
teu
r R
adio
, ARRL (
USA
).
w
ith the tun
ing a d
just ment of t he signal-
frequency c ircuit over a
w
ide frequency r ange. W here t he tun ing e i
s str
ictly limited
1
5
. R
adio H
andbook
, E
dito
rsa
nd E
nginee
rs (
USA
).
such mod if
icat
ions a re n ot necessary.
1
.
39

• .•
•• •• • =
1• 0
1 .1. 0
1..
.
--
C H AP TE R 2

VALVES

i
sr eached. T he total emiss
ion c an o nly be i
ncreased by
ToHfE twsiompleelestctrfoorm
de
s
o
f v
a
lve i
, ac
athod
st
h
e a
e d
i
nd a
ode
, w
n a
h
ich c
nod
e. T
on
si
he t
s
ts
wo r
ais
ing t h
ec a
thode t emperature.
e
l
ectrodes a r
e c onta
ined in a n evacua
ted b u
lb and con- Obviou sly ifthe anode p o
ten t
ial isreduced t
o zero or i
s
n
ect
ion s are made t o th
em t h
rough e x
ternal pins or made n egative, th
e re w
ill be n o el
ectron fl
ow becau se t
he
c
ontacts
. I fthecathode ish
eated,the moleculesofwhich th
e s
pace cha rge remain s u
nneutralized. H ence t
he v
a
lve i sa
ble
c
athode iscompo sed become in
creasing
ly agi
tated,and ifth
e t
o conduc t curren
t i n one direct
ion o nly, a
nd in fact t
he
t
emperature ishigh enough some ofthee l
ectronscompo s
ing p
rincipalu seo f adiode isa
s ar ect
ifie
r.
t
he moleculesw i
ll beejec
ted fr
om t heca
thode .
C
athode
s
E
lectron F
low
Although s e vera l t ype s o f c athode a re u sed i n mode rn
When a n e lectron l e
ave s t he p arent mo lecule t he l atter v
alve s, th e dif e rence s a re o nly i nt he m ethod o f p roduc ing
b
ecome s p ositively c harged b ecau se the n umb e r ofe lect ron s t
he rm ion ic e m
is sion . T he e arlie st t ype i st he b righ t e mi
t ter
r
emaining a re insuf f
ic
ient t on eutralize the p os
itive c ha rge i n i
n wh ich ap ure t ung s ten w ire i sh ea ted t o at empe ratu re i n
t
he mo lecu le. B ecau se the e lectron s are nega t
ive ly c ha rged , t
he r egion o f 2 500-2600 ° K . A
t s uch a t empe ra tu re
t
here isaf o rce te nding top ul
lt hem b ack t ot hec athode . T he emis sion o f 4t o 4 0 mA p er w att o f h eating p owe r may b e
a
node , w hich i sp os
itive
ly c ha rged t o ah ighe r p oten t
ia l, i s o
b tained .
p
laced n ea r t heh ot cathode ( usually sur round ing i tmo re o r Brigh t e mitte rs a re s t
ill e mp loyed i n h igh p owe r t ran s-
l
e
s s comp le tely) i no rder t o attract t hes
e e lectron s
. A s t hey m
i tting v alve s f or b roadca st
ing b ut t he o nly c ommon
t
rave
l t hrough t he space f rom t hec athode t ot hea node t hey ama teu r u se i s i n d iode s f or a pp lica t
ion s s uch a s n oise
may encoun ter mo lecu le
so fg as( s
ince th ev acuum c anno t be g
ene ra tor s
. T he l i
fe o f ap u re t ung s
ten f i
lamen t a t f ul
l
ap erfect v acuum ) a nd s uch c oll
i s
ion s w il
l i mpede t h e
ir ope rating t empe ratu re i s l imi ted b y e vapo ra tion o f t he
p
rogres s. C ons equen tly,t he amoun to fg asi nt hev a
lve mu st t
ung sten , failu re o ccur ring w hen a bou t 1 0 per c ent h as b e en
b
e as s mall a s p o s
sible. A v alve w h
ich h as be en p rope rly e
vapora ted .
e
vacua ted i sd e
sc ribed ash ard. I fa na pp reciable q uan tity o f D ull e mi
tte r s a r e d irec t
ly h eated t horia ted t ung sten
g
as isp resen t
, t he c o
lli
sion b etween t h e electron s a nd t he c
athode s w hich p roduc e g rea te r e m
i ss
ion t han b righ t
molecule s o f g as w il
l i on
ize t he gas a nd a b lue h aze w il
l emit te rs b u
t r equ ire l ess h eating p owe r. I n ad ull e m
itte r, a
b
ecome v isib le between t he e lectrode s; the valve i sth en s aid sma ll q uan tity o ft ho rium o xide i si ntroduced i nto t he p ure
t
o be s oft
. S uch ab lue h aze s hou ld n o
t b e c onfus ed w i th a t
ung sten w ire, ap roce ss k nown a s c arbu riza tion . T h
is
b
lue glow o n t he i n
side s u
r face o f t he envelope . p
roces sc reate s a n o u ters kin o ft ung sten c arb ide o nt h ew ire
and f aci
litate s t her educ tion o ft het hor ium o x
ide t om etallic
S
pace C
harge t
ho ria , s t
ab i
lize s t he e m
is s
ion a nd i ncrea ses t he s urfac e
I
nt r
ave lling f rom t he cathode t ot he anode , the elec trons r
esis tance o ft hec athode t og asp oi son ing . T yp ica le m
i ssion
f
orm a c loud i n the interven ing s pac e, a nd t he e lectr
ic eficiency i si nt her egion o f 3 0- 100 r nA p erw at t o f h eating
c
harge a ssoc iated w ith t his cloud i sk nown a s th e s pace powe ra ta n o pe ra ting t empe ra tu re o f 1 900-2 100 ° K. Th i
s
c
harge. I tt ends to repel t he electron s leaving t he c athode t
ype o fc athode i sr ela t
ive ly f rag i
le a nd v alve s s hou ld n otb e
b
ecau se i tiso ft hes ame p o
la r
ity, but ift h
ep otentiala pplied s
ub jec ted t os hock s o r s harp b low s
.
t
ot hea node i ssufic
iently h igh,t hee fecto ft hes pacec harge P
rov ided t heo pe rating t empe ra tur ei sc orrectly ma inta ined
w
il
l b e o vercome a nd e lectrons w ill travel t o itf rom t he l
ong l i
fe may b e e xpec ted . I n p articu lar, t he r ated v oltage
c
athode , t he c urrent fl
ow i sc omp leted t h
rough t he ex ternal s
hou ld b e cl osely c on trolled .
c
i
rcuit b ack t o the c a
thode . T h
is m eans t hat t here i san Oxid e c oa ted c athode s a re t he mo st c ommon t ype o f
e
xternale lectron f l
ow f rom a node t oc athode . I na cco rdance t
h erm ion ic e mitte r f ound i n b oth d irec t
ly a nd i ndirec tly
w
ith e stablished c onven tion , h oweve r
, t hat t he f l
ow o f heated v alves. I n t his t ype, t he e mi ttive ma te ria l isu sua lly
e
lec
tric c urren t is "f rom p osit
ive t o n egative," i .
e
. i n t h
e s
ome f orm o fn icke l r ibbon , t ube o r t h
imb le c oated w ith a
o
ppo site d irect
ion t o electron f low , am eter w i
ll s how a mix tu re o f b arium a nd s tron t
ium c arbona te, o ften w ith a
"curren t "f l
ow ing from t he po s
itive t e
rm inal o f the h i
gh- sma ll p erc entage o fc a
lc ium . Du r
ing manu factu re, t hec oa t
-
t
ens
ion s upp ly towa rds the a node. ing i sr educed t o i t
s m etallic f orm a nd t he p roduc ts o f
As t h e a node p o
tential i si n
crea sed t he electron f low o r decompo s
ition r emoved d uring t hee xhau s
tion p roce s
s. T he
c
urren t w i
ll i ncrease up t o ap oint w here t he space c ha rge is active i ngred ien t i st he b a
rium w hich p rovide s much g rea te r
c
omp le tely n eutralized and t h
et otal e miss
ion o fth ec athode em is s
ion t han t hor ia ted t ung s
ten a t l owe r h ea ting p owe rs.
2
.
1
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
T
yp icaly , 5 0-150 mA p er w a t
t iso btained a tt empe ratu res s
tarting f rom t he c athode a nd e nding a t t he a node : t h
i s is
o
f9 50- 1050 ° K . s
hown i nT ab le 2.1.
A
lthough t h ee mi ss
ion e ff
iciency ofo xide c oated c athode s Grid s ar e usually made i nt he f orm o f aw i re h elix b ut a re
i
sh igh a nd l arge c urrents may b e drawn , they a re less a ble s
ome time s c ompo sed o fs qua r e-me sh g auze . T he w i re h elix
t
o r es
is t t h e p oison ing a fects of gas or ion b omba rdmen t. may b e o f n ickel o r mo lybdenum o r a n a l
loy w ound o n
Th
is t ype mu st n ot b e o perated u nder tempe rature l i m
ited s
uppor tr odso fn icke lo rc opp er,a nd i tmay b ec ircula r,o val
c
ond ition s
. o
r r ectangu la r in s ect
ion . I n s ome v . h
.f. v alve s t he g r
id i s
An i nd irec t
ly -hea ted c athod e is ah ol
low m e
tal t ube o r made o f p arallel w ires tightly s tretched a cro ss ah ole i n a
s
l
eeve ,o ri ns ome c asesi so ft h
imb le shape, hav ing ac oating d
isc o r i n the f orm o f as quirre l c age . Many mode rn h igh
o
f e missive ma teria l o n th e o u
ter s u
rface. T he c a
thode i s p
erfo rmance v a
lve s u se af o rm o f c on s
truc tion k nown a s
h
eated b y r adia tion f rom am e
tal fi
lamen t
, c a
lled t he h eate r
, f
rame g rid w h
ich p erm its them t o h ave ag r eate r slop e a nd
wh
ich i s moun ted i n
side t he c a
thode , a nd t he h eate r i s s
hor ter e l
e c
tron t r
an s
i t time t han i sp ossible w ith n orma l
e
l
ec trica lly i nsu la ted f rom t he cathode . The e m
i ssive con struc tion . One s atis facto ry
mate r
ia l i sg ene rally t he same a s that e mployed f or f il
a- method s hown i nF ig. 2 .
1 i st o
men tary o xide -coa ted c athode s and o perates a t abou t t he w
ind t h eg r
id w ire u nde rt ension
s
ame t emp erature . T he cathode may b e made o fpure n ickel (abou t h alf i ts b reak ing s t
re ss)
o
rc oppe ro ro fs pec iala l
loy s,d epending u pon t hep urpos eo f on as t
if r e
c tangu la r f rame t o
t
he v alve . T he h ea ter isn orma lly made o ft ung sten. w hich i ti sfirm ly f ixed b y g laz-
T he l i
f e o f v alve s w ith o x
ide c oated cathode s isg ene rally i
ng o r g old b razing . T h
i s pro -
g
ood p rov ided t h e r at
ing s ar e not exceeded . O cca siona lly duce s av ery r igid g r
id w hich
t
here i ss ome a ppa ren t reduc t
ion i na node c urrentd ue t ot he can b e s paced o n ly af ew t hou -
f
orma t
ion o f ar esistance l a
ye r
, between t h e o x
ide c oating sand th s o f a n i nch f rom t he
a
nd t he b a se m etal, w hich o perates as ab ia
s r esis
to r
. cathode o r o the r g r
id s
. T he
I
nc o ld c athod e v alves, such a sg a
s stabi
lizer s, th
e c athode cathode mu st h ave a f lat s ur-
i
sa n a ctiva ted m eta l surfac e
. f
ace, t h e c oating b eing g round
F
ig . 2.
1. Construct ion fl
at i fn ec essary .
Anodes o
f a f ra me grid.
I
nb eam v alve s
, s uch a sc ath -
Av a
lve anode isg ene ral
ly i nt hef orm o f ahol
low c ylinde r
, ode r ay t ube s, t rave lling w ave
which s urround s the c athode a nd o the r elec
t rode s a nd i s t
ub esa nd k ly strons,t h eg r
id i si nt hef orm o f as ingle h o
le i n
i
ntended t o col
lect a s m any a s pos sible o f t he e l
e ctrons apl ate t h
rough wh ich t he beam p a sse s. Av oltage a pplied
e
jected from t h
ec athode . I ns mall valve s the a node i s made t
o t he p late c on trols t he beam c ur ren t. T his t ype o fg r
id i s
o
f n ickel or n i
ckel-pla ted s t
eel. When i tisn ecessa ry to o
ften k nown a s aWehne l
t.
d
issipate mo re heat
, t he n ickel may b e c arbonized t og i
ve a One o f th e mo s
t i mpor tan t r equ iremen ts i nv alve d esign
matt black fi
nish and t hus i mprove i t
s t h ermal r adiat
ion . In i
s t o p reven t t he g rid f rom b ecom ing o ve rhea ted . F or
v
alve s with higher a node d iss
ipa tion s t he anode mu st be t
hisp urpos et h egrid w ire may b ec arbon ized s oa st oe nhance
made o f ama teria
l w hich c an o perate a th i
gh t empe ratures t
heh ea t radia tion f rom i ta nd c ooling f insa reo ften a ttached
s
uch a s mo lybdenum , c a rbon , t an talum o r z i
rcon ium ; t
o t he s uppo r
t r od s
. I n some t ype s t hese r ods a re w e
lded
a
l
te rnatively, r
adiating f in
s a re at
tached t ot he a node o r t
he d
irectly t oc onduc t
ing p ins int h e b a se w hich p erm it t he hea t
a
node may f o
rm p ar t o ft he e xternal e nve lope o ft he v alve t
o b e t ran sferred o utside t he v alve . Many mode rn h igh -
a
nd t hen itcan ber ead ily coo led b yt h erma lc onduc tion t oa p
erfo rmanc e v alvese mploy g old o r p l atinum -p la ted g rids i n
mass o f m e
tal form ing p a rt of a n e xte rnal circu i
t o r b y a o
rde r t o a void g r
id p rima ry e mission a t th e u navo idab ly
c
i
rcu lating-waterjacke to ra na irb last. W i
th th ea ido ft hese h
igh o pe rating t empe rature s.
c
oo ling m e
thods av alve o fr e
latively s mall phy s
ica l size can
b
e made t o handle v e
ry l arge amoun t s o fp owe r.
TYPES OF VALVES
T
riodes
G
rids
The insertion o f agrid b e
tween t hec a
thode a nd t hea node
T
he elec
tron flow f
rom cathode toanode can bec ontro
lled e
nab les the e l ect
ron f low t o b e con tro l
led b y a pply ing a
i
n va
riou s ways and for va
rious purposes by causing itto r
elat
ively s mallv oltage t ot h
is t h
ird e lec trode. T od is
tingu ish
p
ass th
rough o ne or more grid e
l
ectrodes
; ins ome t ype
s of i
tfrom o therg ridss erving d ife rentp urpo sesi no thert ype sof
v
a
lve there may beas many asfour orfi
ve g
ridsi nsuccess
ion. v
alve,t h
isg rid i soften r eferred t oast hec ontrolg rid(g i) .T he
Asimple sys
tem o fd es
ignation has b
een generally adopted powe r absorbed i nt he c ontrol-grid c i
r cuit isi n many c a
ses
w
hereby theg ener
ic name given t
o avalve i
ndicates t
h eto
tal e
xceeding ly s ma ll
.
n
umbe r o f el
ectrode
s a s
so c
iated with the e l
ectron f l
ow, By varying t he p otential o ft hi
s g r
id t he space c harge c an
b
e mod ified i nt hes ame w ay asi n ad iode . T he grid,b ecau se
TABLE 2
.
1 i
tisa no p en h elix orm e sh, doe sn ot p resen ta ny m echan ical
obs
truction t ot hee lectron f low , and a sl ong ast hep oten t
ial
Nu mber o
f Tota
l Nu mber Generic on itisnega tive w ith r espec t tot hec athode ( ort h
e n ega tive
Grids o
f E
lectrodes Na me
e
nd o fth ef i
lamen t) itw ill attract n o f r
ee e l
ectron s, b ut i fi
t
3 T
riode b
ecome sp ositive ,e l
ectron sw i
llf low t oi te xact
ly a si fi tw ere
2 4 T
etr ode
3 5 P
en tode a
n a node: w hen t h
is o ccu rs grid c u
r r ent w il
l f l
ow . I n mo st
4 6 Hexode v
alves g r
id c urrent b eg in s to a ppea r al i
tt
le b efore t he
7 Heptode
6 8 O
c tode n
egative b ia
s r eaches z ero : th
i s isd ue p artly to t he random
movemen t o fe l
e c
tron s a st hey p ass t he g rid o n their w ay to
2
.
2
 VALVES

t
he a node a nd p art
ly t o t he c on tac t-po ten tial d ife renc es
a
ssoc ia ted w ith t he ma teria ls u sed i n t he c athode a nd g rid
c
on struc tion .
When i ti sn ec essary t o e nsu re t ha t t h e g rid i sa lway s
n
ega tive , t he g r
id c ircuit mu st i n
clude as ou rce o fa dequa te
n
ega tive v oltage . T his v oltage , k nown a s t h eg rid b ias, c an

CURRE
b
eo btained i nf our w ay s:
(
a) An i n dependen t s our ce o ff i
xed v oltage .
(
b) Ar e s
i sto r i nt he c athode l ead .
(
c) G rid c ur ren t i n ag r
id r es
isto r.

ANODE
(
d) C on tac t p oten tial.
I
n( a) th es our ce o fv o
ltage may b e ab atte ry ( u sually d ry -
c
ells), o r i n t ransm itting e qu ipmen t o r h igh -powe r a udio
amp lifiers i tmay b e am ain s-d riven p owe ru nit.
I
n( b) ar esi sto ri sc onne cted i nt hec a thode - to -ear th l ead o f 1
00 200 300 400
a
n i ndire ctly h ea ted v alve o r b etween t he f ilamen t-supp ly ANODE VOLXAGE(Va) VOLTS
c
en tre-tap o f ad irectly-hea ted v a
lve a nd e arth ,a nd t het otal F
ig
. 2
.
3. Anods
-current
/anode
.vo
ltage c
haracter
ist
ics o
f at
r
iode
.
c
athode c ur ren tf l
ow ing t hrough t h
isr esisto rc aus es av ol
tage
d
rop a cros s i ta nd h enc e t h e c athode b ecome s p osit
ive w ith t
he c hange i n a node c urren
t i s p
lotted g raph ica
lly, the
r
esp ec t toe arth ; i ftheg r
id r etu rn c ircu iti sr eturned t oe arth r
esul
tan tg raph i sknown a s acharacterist
ic curve. As eriesof
t
h e g rid w ill b e n egative w ith r espe ct t o t he c athode . T he s
uch c urves m ay b e p lo
tted with d iferent a node v o
ltages:
r
esistor i sk nown a st hea utoma tic-biasr esi stor a nd t hec i
rcu it t
he s et of c urves i s known a s the a node -current
/g r
id-
a
r rangemen t a sc athod eb ia s
. v
oltage c haracte r
istic
s ( 4/V,)
. A s e
cond s e
rie s of curves
I
n ( c
) i ft he v alve i so p era ted a t s uch a n amp litude t hat may b e p lotted f or a node cur rent versus a node voltage
app reciab le g rid c urren t f l
ow sa nd i ft h eg r
id i sc onne cted t o f
or as er
ies o f dif e
rent grid voltages. T hese a r e k
nown a s
c
athode a nd e arth t hrough ar esis
to r,t hef low o fg rid c urren t t
he a node -curren t
/anode -vol
tage c haracter
i stics ( 4/V.)
.
w
i ll r esult i n t he g rid b ecom ing n ega tive w ith r e
spec t t o Examp les are shown i nFigs. 2
.2 a nd 2.3
.
c
a thode . T his f orm o f g rid b i as ise mployed i no scil
la tor s
,
Tetrodes
f
requency mu l tip liersa nd c lass C amp l if
i er sa nd i sk nown a s
At e
trod e v alve i s at r
iode w i th a n add itional g r
id, k nown
g
r id-leak b ia s
.
a
st hes creen ( g,)i nte rpo sed b etwe en t hec ontrolg r
id a nd t he
I
n( d )th eg rid i sc onnec ted t ot hec athode t hrough ah igh -
a
node . When t his s creen i s ma in ta ined a t as teady p o si
t ive
v
alue r es
is to r( usua l
ly 1 -10 Megohm s)a nd t hef low o f as ma l
a moun to fg rid c urren tw illb ia st heg r
id t oa lmo stt hec on tac t v
oltage , iti sfound t ha t t hea mp l
ifi cation f ac
to ro fth e v alve ,
a
s c ompa red w ith t he t r
iode , i sv e ry much h i ghe r
, t h e i m-
poten tial. T his f orm o f g rid b i a
s i ss uitab le o nly f or s ma l
l
p
edance i sa lso g rea tly i ncrea sed .
v
a lve sh av ing v ery s malls igna l i npu tv ol
tage s.
I
ft heg rid p oten tiali sv a r
ied ,t h ea node c ur ren tw il
lv ary i n The r eason f or t his i n
c rea sed amp l
ifica t
ion l i
es i nt he f act
t
ha t t he anode c urren t i nt h e t e
trode v alve i sfa r le
ss d epen -
ac orre spond ing manne r; f urthe r, ifar e
sis tanc ei sc onnec ted
d
en t o n t h
e a node v ol tage t han i ti si n t he tr
iode . I n a ny
i
nt he a node c i
rcu it
, t he v oltage d rop a cro s s i tw ill vary a lso
amp lifierc ircuit ,o fc our se , th ev o
l tage o nt hea node mus tb e
i
nt he s ame w ay. I ft his r es
i stance h as as uitab le v alue t he
variation o fv ol tage d rop w ill b e o f g rea ter amp litude t han e
xpe cted t ov ary s ince t he v arying a node c urren t produce s a
v
ary ing v ol
tag e-d rop a cro ss t he l oad i nt he anode c i
r cui t
. A
the v ariation o fg r
id v oltage ; h ence t h e a bil
i ty o ft he t r
iode
t
r
iode amp lifiers uf er s f rom t he d isadvan tage t hat w hen , f or
valve t o amp lif y
.
i
nstance , th e a node c ur ren t b eg in s t o r i
se d ue t o ap ositive
I
ft her elation sh ip b e
tween t h ev ariation i ng rid v ol
tage a nd
ha
lf -cycle o fg rid v oltage s wing , t he anode v o
l tage f a
lls ( by
mA 20 an amoun t e qua l t o t h e v oltage d eveloped a cros s th e l oad )
and t h ee fecto ft her educ tion i na node v oltage i st od im in ish
t
h e amoun t b y w hich t he a node c urren t w ould o therw i se
i
nc rease . C onve r se
ly ,w hen t heg r
id v ol
tage s wing sn ega t
ive ly
t
h e a node c ur rent f a
lls a nd t h e a node v ol
tage r i
se s
. B ecause
of t h
is i ncreas ed a node v oltage t he a node c urren t i sn ot s o
l
ow a s itw ould h ave b een i fi tw ere i ndep enden t o f a node
voltage . T his m ean s t hat t he f ull amp lification o fthe t r
iode
canno t b e a ch ieved . T he i n
t roduc t
ion o f the s creen g rid,
howeve r
, a lmo st e n t
i rely e l
im ina te s the e fect o f the a node
voltage o n t he a node c ur ren t
, a nd t h
e amp l
ification o btain -
able i st hus much g rea te r.
A s c
reen i sf ound t o f unction b es
t w hen i ts v oltage i s
s
b
elow t he m ean v a
lue o f t he a node v o
ltage . Mo st o f t he
e
lectron s f rom t he c athode a re t h ereby a ccelera ted t owa rds
t
he a node , b ut some o ft hem a r e u navo idab ly c augh t b y t he
s
creen . T he r esulting s cre en c ur ren ts erve sn ou sefulp urpo se,
-
1 -
10 -5 0
a
nd i fi tb ecome s e xce ssive i t may c au se o verhea ting o f t h
e
GR
ID VOLTAGE (
Vg) VOLTS s
cre en. T he t otal c athode c ur ren t i se qua l tot h
e s um o ft he
F
ig
. 2
.
2. Anod•
-cw
-rent
/gr
id-vo
ltage c
haracter
ist
ics o
f at
r
iode
. s
cre en a nd a node c ur ren ts.
2
.
3
 RSG
13 —RADI O CO M M UNICAT
I ON H ANDB O OK

Ano the r i mpor tan t e fect o ccu rs w hen a s creen g r

id i s l
arge r a node -vo ltage s w
ing s withou t distort
ion a nd w i
thou t
in
t roduced i nto at r
iode : p rovided t hat t hes creen i skep ta ta r
e duc tion i n p owe r o u
tpu t. T h
is t h
ird g r
id i sk nown a s a
con stan t v oltage ( not v a rying w ith t he s i
gna l) itr educe s t h
e s
uppr es sor grid ( g5)a nd at e
trode w h
ich h as been mod if
ied i n
c
apac itive c oup ling b etween t he c on trol g rid a nd t he a node t
his w ay b ecome s ap entod e.
and t her efo re h elp s t o e l
im inate u nwan ted f e
edback i n Othe r m ethod s ar e al
so i nuse f o
r s uppre s
sing secondary
a mpl if
ie r c i
r cuits e spe cially a tr adio f r
equency . T o t ake f ul
l emi ssion , f o
r e xamp le, by i nc
rea s
ing t he separation bets
se en
advan tage o ft h
i s f ea
tu re t he screen g rid i s made w ith af iner t
he s cre en a nd t he a node u n
til the seconda ry elec
tron s have
p
itch o rs malle rm e sh s i
ze t han w ould b en ece ssary m e rely t o i
nsu ff
icien t e nergy t o reach t he screen ( as in the "Ha r
ries
obta in g rea te ra mp lif
ica tion ,a nd a uxiliary elec t
ro static s hields Critica l Anode -D istance V a
lve " ) or b y introducing s mall
a
r e b uilt i nto t h e s truc ture i n a n a ttemp t t o r educe t h
e f
i
n sp ro jecting i nwa rd sf rom t hea node. I na notherm ethod a
g
rid -to -anode c apac i
tance t o t he l owe st p racticab le v alue . p
a ir o f d ef
lecting p lates i sfit
ted n ea r the anode a nd c on-
I
ft he s i
ze o f t he a pertu res i nt he s creen i s made t oo s ma l
l n
ec ted t oc athode o re arth. V a
lves h aving this fo
rm o fc on-
t
he e l
ec tron f low t ot he a node w il
l b es eriou sly i mpeded , b ut s
t
ruc tion a re k nown a s b eam t etrodes o r kinkless te
trod es
.
w
ith a r easonab le c omp rom ise t he r es
idua l c apac itance The t erm " kink less" r e
fe r
s t o t he a bsence o f the k ink
b
etween c on trol g r
id a nd a node c an b e m ade 1 ,
000 t ime s which a ppear s i n the c ha racteri
stic c urve o f the simplest
smalle r t han i n at r
iode . T he i mp roved s t
ab il
ity i n ar adio - t
yp e o f t e
trode d ue t o t h
e f l
ow o f secondary e miss
ion
f
requency a mplifier d epend s o n th e con stancy o f t he s creen e
lect ron s from a node t os creen a tl ow a node v o
ltages
.
v
oltage , a nd i ti sf ort h
is r eason t ha t tho rough c apac itive b y-
p
as sing o ft h es creen t oea rth (i.
e.d ecoup ling)i ssoi mpor tan t. B
eam T
etrode
s
The re i sa no the r t ype o ft e
trode , k nown a s as pace -cha rge
Ab eam t etrode e mp loy sp rinc iple sn o tf ound i no the rt y pes
g
rid t e
trod e, i nw hich ap os
itively c ha rged g rid i si n
te rpo sed
of v a
lve s i n t ha t t he e lect ron s t
ream f r
om t he c athode i s
b
etween t he c ont rol g rid a nd t he c athode . T he p u rpo se o f
focu sed t owa rd s t hea node . T he c on tro l grid a nd t he s creen
t
h
i s p ositive g rid i st o o vercome t he l im
iting e f ect o f t he
g
rid a re made w ith t he s ame w ind ing p itch a nd t hey a re
n
ega tive s pace c ha rge a nd t hus e nab le t h
e v a
lve t o o pe ra te
a
s semb led i nt he v alve s o t hat t h e t urn s i ne ach g rid a re i n
ef
icien tly w ith v ery l ow a node v o
ltage ( for e xamp le , a
optica l a l
ignmen t: s ee F ig
. 2 .4. T he e f
ec t o f t h
e g rid a nd
1
2 v o
l t supp ly a su sed f or mob i
le e qu ipmen t).
s
creen t u
rn s b e ing i n l ine i st o re duce t he s creen c ur ren t
The t e
trode s uf e rs from t he disadvan tage t hat, w hen t he
compa red w i th an on -beam c on struc tion . F o re xamp le, i na
a
node v o
ltage s wing i ss o g r
eat t h a
t o n d ownwa rd p eak s i t
pen tode o fo rd ina ry c on struc tion t h e s creen c ur rent i sa bou t
f
a
lls b elow t he s creen v oltage, t here i s af low o f s econda ry
20p erc ent o ft h ea node c urren t, w he rea si n ab eam v alve t he
e
l
ec tron s f rom t he a node t o the s creen . T he e fect o f t h
is
f
igu re i s5 -10 p e rc en t.
s
e
conda ry e mission i st oc ause ad rop i na node c urren t a nd a
The p air o f p lates f or s uppre ssing s econdary e m
is sion
r
i
se i n s creen c urr ent, w hich i n o rd inary amp l
ifier c ircu it s
r
ef erred t o a bove a re b en t r ound s o a s t o s hield t he a node
r
e
su lt s i ns eriou s d i
stor tion a nd ar e duc tion i nu s eful p owe r
f
rom a ny e le ctron s c om ing f r om t he r egion s e xpo sed t o t he
o
utpu t.
i
n f
luence o f t h e g rid s uppo rt w ire s a t p o
in t s w he re t he
f
o cu sing o f t he e l
ectron s i s i mper f ect. T hese p l a
te s a re
P
entodes
known a sb eam -conf ining o rb eam -form ing p la tes.
By i
ntroducing an a
ddit
ional gr
id b
etween the s
c
reen and B
eam v alve s w ere o r
ig ina lly d eveloped f or u se a s a ud io -
t
he anode a nd fi
x
ing i
t
s poten
tia
l atsome low va
lue
, usual
ly f
requency o u tpu t v alve s
, b ut t h e princ iple i sn ow a pplied t o
c
athode o r ear
th po
ten
tial, t
he fl
ow of s
econdary el
ect
rons many t ype s o f r adio -frequency t e
trode s b oth f or r ec e
iv ing
c
an be prevented. T
he v
alve c
an then b
eoperated w
ith much a
nd t ran smit ting . T he ir s upe r
io rity o ve r p en tode s f or a . f
.
outpu t isd ue t ot he f act t hat t he disto rtion i sc au sed m ain ly
b
y t he s econd h armon ic a nd o nly v ery s l
igh tly b y t he t h
ird
AN ODE
h
a rmon ic, w hich i st hec onve rse o ft her esult o b
ta ined w ith a
p
en tode . Two s uch v alve s u sed i np ush -pu ll g ive ar e
la tive ly
BEA M-F OR MING
PLATE l
arge o utpu t w ith s mall h a rmon ic d isto rtion b ecau se t he
s
econd h armon ic t ends t oc ance l ou t w i th p u sh-pu l
l c onne c-
CATH ODE t
ion. F ig. 2.5s how st hec ha rac te r
istic c urve so f ab eam v alve
a
nd ap entode o fe quiva len t s ize. T he l i
ne AB i s al oad l i
ne
CONTR OL GR
ID
d
rawn o n th e c ur ve. I tw il
l b e se en t ha
t t h e l i
ne e x tend s
f
arthe r t o th e l e
f
t b efo re i tc uts t he z ero g r
id -vol ts c ur ve
SCREEN GR
ID t
han i st he c ase w ith t he p entode ; t his i n d
ica te s ag rea te r
p
owe r o utpu t b ecau se t he p owe r o utpu t i sp ropo rtiona l t o
t
he p roduc t o f t he c hange i na node v oltage b etween p oin t s
Aa nd B o n t he h orizon tal a xis a nd t he c hange o f a node
c
ur ren t b e
tween p oin ts Aa nd B o n t h e v ert
ica l a xis
.
The w ide sp read u s eo fb eam p owe rv alve sa sr .
f. amp lifi er s
a
nd f r
equency d oub le r
s, e tc. i s r efer red t o l a
ter i n t hi s
c
hap te r.

Ga
ted V
alve
s
F
ig. 2
.4
. I nterna
l construction of ab ea m po wer tetrode valve. The
d
raw ing shows the f
ocused strea ms o
fe lectrons between t he al
igned I
tisc
onven
ientform any p
urpose
st obeable t
ocontro
l the
t
urns of the control grid and the screen g r
id, and also t he b ea m
-
f
or m
ing o r conf
ining plates which s h
ield the anode f ro m the e lec
-
o
utput o
f avalve f
rom two dif
erent s
ources
. I fsufi
cient
t
rons arr
iving fro m the reg
ions o f t
he support w ires. n
egat
ive v
o
ltage i
sapp
lied t
othesuppre
ssorgrid o
f apentode
2
.4
 VALVES
mA 200 Mutua
l C
onduc
tance
-
-- " ° I

A
l
V

BEA M TETRODE
The rat
io oft hechange o fa node '
c
urrent tot h
e change o f
g
r
id v oltage w hi
le a c ons
tan t anode v o
ltage isa pplied is
PENTODE k
nown a s th
e m utua
l conductance or sl
ope (g„
,) of th
e v a
lve
1
50 a
nd isexp re
ssed inmill
iampe respervolt
. I ti
salso some times
---- -
, -- e
xpressed i n micromho s, w hich is au n
it o f conduc tance
./ --- (
1 mA /V i sequal to 1
000 m icromho s
).
1
- .
-
--
10
w 1
00 Amp
lif
ica
tion F
actor a
nd I
mpedance
--
c .- " I
ft h
e g r
id i sm ade mo re nega t
ive a nd t h
e a node v ol
tage
.
-
.'" r
a
is ed, or i ft he g r
id i sm ade l e
ss nega t
ive a nd t h
e a node
.
-- ------- -- -
15
v
oltag e lowered , itisp ossible toa djust the re
lative v a
lue s s o
,
-- .
. _
_-----
0 50 . -2 0 a
st ok eep t he a node c urrent c on s
tan t and att he s ame v alue
-- .
---
-
---- i
ne ach case. T he rat
io o fc hange o fa node voltage t oc hange
-
------ - o
f grid v ol
tage f or constan t anode c u r
rent i sk nown a s t he
-
-- ._ - 30
amplif
ication f acto r (
µ). V alve s are f r
equen tly c la
ssif
ied a s
B
- l
ow-it (l
es s than 1 0
), m edium -ti ( 10-50) and h igh -s (greate r
0 1
00 200 300 400 SOO t
han 5 0)
.
ANODE VOLTAGE VOLTS I
ft he a node v ol
tage o f av alve i sa l
tered a nd t h
e g r
id
F
ig.2
.5
. Co mparat
ive c
haracter
ist
ic o
f apentode and a b
ea m
v
oltage k ep t con stant, the a node c urrent will c hange. T he
t
etrode ofequiva
lent s
izes
. AB i
s al
oad li
ne. r
a
tio o fc hange i na node v oltage t oc hange ina node c urren t
f
or c onstan t grid v oltage i sk nown a s the i mped ance ( re)
,
a
.c
. r esis
tance o r s l
ope r esis
tance o f the valve. I tc an b e
v
a
lve t he a node c u rren t c an b e c ut o f
. T he e fec t of c ut- c
on s
ide red a s b ehaving i nt he s ame m anne r as t he interna l
t
i
ng o ft he anode c ur ren t i st oc au se ac onside rab le i ncrease r
es
is tance o f ab attery or g enera tor.
i
ns creen c urren t; c a re mu s
t t hen b e t aken t oa void e xceed - Impedanc e, mu tua l conduc tance a nd a mpl
ifica t
ion f acto r
i
ng t he s afe s creen d i ssipa t
ion . If t h
e s upp re ssor g rid o
f av alve a re re
lated b y t h
ee qua t
ion —
i
sb iased n ega tive ly t o c ut o f t he a node c urren t a nd i fa Amp
lifi
cation Fac
tor
p
osit
ive p u
lse i sthen a pp lied t oi t
,a n i nputf edt ot hec ontro l I
mpedance (
o
hms
) - x1
000
Mu
tual Conductance (mA IV
)
g
r
id w i
ll a fect t h e a node c urren t o n
ly d uring t he p u
lse, a s
i
f ag ate w ere o pened , t h e p u
l se b eing c al
led ag a ting p ulse. Mu
tua
lconduc
tance a
nd impedance a
reequa
ltot hesl
ope
s
B
ecau se i tisd ificu ltt oc on tro
la ccu ra tely t hem agn itude o fa o
fthe I
.
/V,and o
f t
he 1
;//
,
, characte
ris
tic
s re
spe
ctive
ly.
p
ulse, i tm ay h app en t hat t he s upp re ssor g r
id i s pulsed I
nner a
nd Outer Amp
lif
ica
tion F
actors
p
osit
ive ly i nto t he r e g
ion w here i tw ill t ake c ur rent a nd
"rob" t he a node . T o a void s uch a p ossibili
ty a d iode i s I
n at etrode or p en tode v alve the s c
reen g r
id ( 32)c an b e
u
sually c onnec ted b etween t h
is g rid a nd c athode t oa ct a sa c
on s
ide red asa n anode a nd i nf a
ct m ay b e employed a sp a
rt
l
ow -
imp edance s hun t a nd t he
reby p reven t as ignifi cant p osi- o
ft he a node. F ore xamp le,i fthev alve isused as at r
iode b y
t
i
ve v oltage . I n c er
ta in v alve s s pec ially i n
tended f or this c
onnec ting t h
e a node a nd screen t ogether, the a mp
lification
p
u rpose , ad i ode i sb uilto nt hes upp re sso rgrid,w hich i sthen f
actor a s d ef
ined a bove w hen m easured b etween c on trol
k
nown a s ad iod ed s upp re ssor g r
id , a nd t he p i
tch o ft he turn s g
r
id ( g
,) a nd t he s creen g r
id ( g
.) i sk nown a s t he i nner
i
nt hes upp res sorg rid i s made f iners ot hat t h
ea node c urren t ampl
ification factor o r i n
ner t ,and t h
is fi
gure c an be t a ken
i
sc u
to fb y av o
l tage o ft hes ame o rde ra st hato ft hec on trol f
orp racticalp urpose st ob et hey o ft hevalve when c onne c ted
g
r
id . I n stead o f as upp re ssor g rid, s pec ial
ly d es
igned b eam a
s at r
iode .
S
imilarly ifthe screen g r
id ( g2)i scon s
idered a s ac on trol
p
lates m ay b ee mp loyed ( as int he b eam t e
trode ) i nc onjunc -
t
ion w ith a l
igned c on tro l a nd s creen g r
id s
, a nd t h e r e
sultan t g
r
id i nc onjunction w ith the a node , the rat
io o f change o f
v
alve i s ag ated -beam v al ve. a
node v ol
tage toc hange o fs creen-grid voltage for ac on s
tan t
E
xamp les o f t he u se o f t hese v alve s a re t e
lev ision s yn- a
node c urrent isk nown a s t he outer a mplif
ication factor o r
c
hron izing c ircui ts, r ada r
, a nd v o
lume c omp re s s
ion a nd o
uteri t
.
e
xpan s
ion . L
oad I
mpedance
The res
i s
tance o r l
oad connected i nthe anode c i
rcuit ofa
VALVE CHARACTER
IST
ICS v
alve isk nown a st h
e lo
ad i mpedance. F or tr
iodes t h
is has a
T
he p erformance c harac teris
tics ofa l valves as published v
alue of 1 -10 times the valve impedance ( except i nspecia
l
b
y the m akers are b a
sed o n the as
sump t
ion t hat thec a
thode c
ases), depending u pon w hether th
e v a
lve ise mployed a s a
i
sm aintained a tt he proper o perat
ing t empe rature, which i n v
oltage a mplif
ierora s apowe ra mpl
ifier
. Av oltage a mpl
ifie
r
mos
t c ases al
so h as an i mpo rtant e fect o n the usefu
l l i
fe of i
so ne such a sw ould be u
s ed asa n in
termed iate stage inan
t
he valve. Unde r
-runn ing m ay b e a s d e
trimen tal as o ver
- a
udio a mpl
ifier and isusually re
sis
tance -coupled. A p owe r
r
unning ,particularly ingas-d ischarge v alvess uch asm ercury- amplif
ier w ould be used ina n output stage feeding a loud-
v
apou r rec
tif
i ers
. s
peake r or asa n anode modu lator in atransm it
te r
.
The charac ter
istics are a l
so rela
ted t o the specif
ied v a
lues
o
fa node a nd g r
id voltages, a nd while i tisp oss
ible and o f
ten C
ut-of
fTa
il: V
ariab
le-p
.
c
onven ient too perate av alve with a node a nd s c
reen v o
ltages When a
n inc
rea
sing nega
tive vo
ltage isa pp
lied to th
e
b
elow t he ra
ted v alues there w i
ll gene ral
ly b e ad eter
ioration c
ontro
l g
r
id of av
alve t
he a
node current f
a
ll
s, and the g
r
id
i
np erformanc e but the li
fe a nd reliab i
lity will be in
crea sed
. v
ol
tage a
t wh
ich th
e anode cur
ren
t f a
ll
s to aspecif
ied l
ow
2
.5
RSGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
v
alue i sd efined a s t he c ut-of fp oint; t he m ea suremen t is i
nt hev a
lve aftert h
e us e
ful p owe ro utput has been deducted
c
alled ac ut-of for t ai
l tes
t. T he reduction i na node c urrent f
rom t he powe r i nput
, i .
e
. t he h.t
. supp ly to the a
node. I n
t
owa rdsc ut-offi saccompan ied b y ac or re
spond ing r eduction amplif
iers operating inc l
ass A , thea node diss
ipation can be
i
n mu tua l conduc tance . F or s ome p urpo ses s uch a s radio c
on s
idered a pp rox ima te
ly a s the i nput p ower, since the
f
requency a nd i ntermed iate f r
equency amp l
if iers h aving ou
tpu t isre
latively s ma l
l b ut for os
cillators o
r clas
s Bo r C
a
utoma t
ic gain c ont rol
,t her edu c
tion i n mu tualc onduc tance amplif
iers the dissipation may b e o nly 40 per cent of the
w
ith i nc
rea s
ing n ega t
ive g r
id b ias shou ld b e g
radua l rather i
nput p ower, depend ing u pon t h
e e fic
iency o b
tained.
t
han a brup t
. T his i sa chieved b y e mp loying a g rid w hich A
node d iss
ipa tion i n exce ss of the r a
ted m aximum w il
l
e
i
the rh ass ome o fi t
st urnsm issing ( i
.
e. ine fec
t ah o
le)o ris r
aise the a
node t o at empe rature above i t
s saf
e limit
. T h
is
wound w ith a n on-un iform p i
tch. V a
lve s using s uch grids r
esults inthe re
leas e of occluded g as wh ich wi
ll poison the
a
re known a sv ar
iab l e
-t
io rr emo te cut-of fvalves
. T he cut
-off c
athode a nd r educe i t
s e mission; itc an also cause a node
i
nt hese v a
lve s isg ene ral
ly s ta
ted t o b e the grid v o
ltage at p
rimary e miss
ion o re ven m e
lt thea node.
which the mu tual c onductance f al
ls t o one h und red th ofi t
s
n
orma l operating v alue. S
creen D
iss
ipat
ion
V
ariable-µ v a
lve s a re clas sif
ied i n t he fol
low ing w ay in I
n a mu
lti
-gr
id valve such as ap entode an apprec
iable
t
e
rm soft he g r
id c u
t -offv o
ltage ,e xp ressed as ap ercentage of amoun
t ofpower isdi
ssipated inth
e s c
reen g
rid and th
is i
s
t
hen ormalr ated s creen v o
ltag e: k
nown assc
reen d
iss
ipation
. Iti so
fc ons
iderab
le importance
S
emi-remote cut
-off .. . 10-20 p erc ent i
ntran
smit
ting va
lves and li
ne-
scan valves f
or t
e
levis
ion.
Remote cu
t-off .. . G reatert han 20percen
t
S
ome t
ime s va
lves are mere
ly d
iv
ided i n
to t wo v
arie
tie
s— G
rid D
iss
ipa
tion
s
hor
t grid base and long grid b
ase—cor responding to th
e When p
ower isdi
ssipated i
n ag r
id o the
r than t
he screen
r
e
lat
ive gr
id vol
tage requi
red forc
ut-of f
,t he name orig
inat
ing g
r
id, iti
sref
erred t
o asg rid d
i
ssipation
. I trequ
ire
s s pec
ial
f
rom the appearance ofthe 4/V,cha racteristic
s. a
t
tent
ion i
nclass Camplif
iersand space-charge g
r
id t
etrodes.

Vo
ltage Ga
in Opt
i mu m L
oad
I
n av o
ltage amplif
ier
, the ga
in per st
age i
sproport
ional
T he p
e rformanc eo f ap owe r ampl if
ieri sdependen t o nt h
e
t
o th
e ratio of the ex
ternal load impedance t
o th
e v a
lve
v
alue o f t h
e l oad in t he a node c i
rcuit
. F or ag iven s et of
a
nd load i mpedances because th
ese impedance
s act as a
operat
ing c ondit
ion s ith a sa no pt
imum v alue gi
ving r e
ason-
p
oten
tial di
vider
. T his c
an b e e
xpre
ssed as
:
a
ble p owe r o u
tpu t con sisten t with low h armonic d is
tor tion
.
Amplif
ica
tion x Ex
ternalL oad This opt
imum l oad isu sualy q uoted inv alve data s heets in
Fac
tor I
mpedance c
onjunc tion w ith theo the rc i
rcuitc onditions. For p u sh-pul
V
ol
tage G
ain
E
xternalL oad + V
alve o
pe rat
ion , t he optimum a nod e
-to-anod e load isq uoted a nd
Impedance I
mpedance h
a s av alue r a
the r lowe r than t wice that for asingle v alve
.
This isp art
icu lar
ly t rue o f p entode valves (as d
istinc t from
= x t
r
iode s a nd t etrode s
) b ecau se t he load i n as ingle e nded
F
orexamp le
, ava
lve hav
ing a
n amplif
ica
tion f
ac
tor o
f50 p
en tode s tage i susua lly c hosen f or minimum s econd h ar
-
a
nd an i
mpedance of50
,000 ohms working i
n
to an e
x
terna
l mon ic whe rea s that f o r ap a
ir o f valves in p ush-pu ll is
l
oad o
f50,000 ohms w
i
ll gi
ve ast
age ga
in of
: c
ho sen for m inimum t hird h armon ic.
Ifv a
lve s are o perated i nc lass B, the optimum l oad w il
l
5
0
,000
5
0 x — 2
5 d
ife rfrom t hat foro pe ration i nc l
assA .
5
0,000 + 50
,000
That isto s ay
, t he p o
tentia
l d i
vis
ion b etween t he equal P
ower Output
i
mpedanc esh ash alved th
ee fect
ive amplif
icat
ion f a
ctor. Ifa P
owe r o utput i sa lway s ar e
la t
ive t erm a nd i tiso ften
v
alve hav
ing ah igher mutual conductance (i
.e
. for the s
ame ambiguou s; itth erefore n eedst ob ec areful
ly defined. Int he
ampl
ifi
cation factor al ower impedance) ischosen, the s
tage c
a se o
fa n amp lifi
e rt heh armon ic con tento ftheo u
tpu t mu s
t
g
ain wi
ll be inc
rea sed. b
e s t
ated, and i nt hec aseo fo sc
illatorst hec i
rcuitc onditions
I
n the case of a n amplif
ier where th
e load i mpedance is a
nd f requency mu st b e k nown . F or f u
lly driven c l
ass A
v
ery low compa red w ith th
e v a
lve impedance ( s
uch as ina amplif
iers the a pprox ima te p ower o utput may b e calculated
t
e
levis
ion r e
ceiver), the g
ain can be ob
tained a pproximately b
y mu l
tiplying t he r.m .s. input v o
ltage ( 0
.707 x g rid b ia
s)
f
rom the exp res
sion : b
yt h
e mu tualc onduc tance a ttheo perating point( converted
V
ol
tage G
ain = Mu
tua
lCond
uctance x L
oad I
mped
ance t
o ampe res per v o
lt), s quaring t he result and mu ltiplying
T
hisisder
ived fr
om the fa
ct t
ha
t i
nthee a
rl
ierformula th
e t
his by the o u
tpu t l o
ad i mpedance . F or examp le, if avalve
t
e
rm "amp l
ifi
cat
ion factor" can b
e r
eplaced by "mu tua
l h
a s ag r
id b ias of — 16 v olts and a mu tual conductance o f
c
onductance x v
alve impedance" a
nd t
hed enominatorcan 2
.5 mA /V a nd i sw orking i n
to an o utput load of6 000 o hm s
,
b
e wr
itten a
s "valve i
mpedance" si
nce t
he load i
mpedance t
he max imum p owe r o u
tpu t wou ld b e:
i
ssmal
l incomparison.
(
0
.707 x 1
6 x —2
.5 )2 X 6
000 4
-
8 w
att
s
1
000
A
node D
iss
ipa
tion
Itshould be b
orne in mind that this formu la take s n
o
T
he powerexpended i
nthea node of av
alve a
nd li
berated a
ccount ofdis
tort
ion. Since i
ti snot possible inpractice t
o
a
sheatisknown astheanodediss
ipat
ion. The t
erm mu s
tn ot d
rive th
e gr
id much nearer t
he pos
itive reg
ion t han — 1 vol
t
b
ec on
fused w
ith e
ithe
r power outpu
t or power i
nput
. w
ithoutc au
sing g
r
id currenttoflow,i tisnecessary t
od educ
t
I
nany va
lvethe anode d
i
ssipat
ion istheremaining power 1v o
lt fr
om the g
rid bi
as in order to obtain the maximum
2
.
6
 VALVES

p
ermis
sib
le gr
id-vo
ltage swing
. Furthe
rmore
, thi
s fo
rmula h
ail ofs ho t fa
lling o n am e
tal s urface
. A l
though t h e no
ise
a
s
sume sthattheoutput l
oad i
slow c
ompared w
ith t
heva
lve i
sd eveloped ( i
.e. fir
st a ppears) int he a
node c i
rcu i
t i tcan be
i
mpedance
. more c onven iently r egarded a s th e no
ise w h
ich w ould be
g
ene rated ifa n e quivalent n o
i se voltage were a pplied t o t
he
g
rid
. F or t h
e p u
rpo ses o f c ompa r
ison w ith t h
e n o
ise
L
oad L
ine
s g
ene rated b y t h
e rmal a g
itation i n ar es
is tor ( known a s
L oad linesa rel i
nesd rawn ont hec haracteri
stic c
urvesofa J
ohn son n oise) iti sc onvenien t t o expres
s t he s hot n o
ise
v
alve f rom w hich c an be ca
lcu
la ted the performance u nder g
ene rated b y av alve also i n term s of aresisto r
: t h
i s isan
s
pecified c i
rcuit cond i
tions. Al oad li
ne drawn t hrough the i
mag inary r es
isto r w h
ich i fconne cted inse
rie s with t he gr
id
o
pe rating p oint o n the anode-
cur rent/anode v ol
tage curves would g enerate t he same amoun t of no
ise as t hat produced
o
fa n o u
tpu t v a
lve h aving aslope e qual to the ou
tput load b
y t he valve a nd i stermed e quivalent no
ise r esis
tance ( R„)
.
c
an b e u sed t o determine the useful output p ower and the The value o f1 2
, may b ec alculated a sfol
low s:
h
a rmon ic d istortion. F or examp le, in F ig
. 23 t h
e l i
ne F or at r
iode u sed asa n amp lif
i e
r :
AB r epresents al oad impedance g i
ven b y
:
2
.5 k
i
lohm
s
4
50 v
o
lts 8
.
2
500 o
hms
1
80 m
il
liampe
res
F
or ap
entode u
sed a
san amp
lif
ier—
I
nput I
mpedance a
nd I
nput Ad m
ittance !
" t2
.
5 + 2
0 4
2 ) k
i
lohm
s
When t h eg rid a nd c athode o f av alve a rec onnec ted a cro ss + 42 ‘g
„
, g
„
,
aresonan tc ircui t
,t hep erformanc eo ft hisc ircu iti smod if
ied ;
t
h
i s mod ification r esult s from t he i npu t o f av alve h aving I
n t hesef ormu lae thec ur
ren t s a
r ee xpressed i nm ill
iampe res
r
e
si stive a nd r eac tive c omponen t s e fectively i np arallel wi th a
nd t h
e mu tualc onduc tance i sexp ressed i nm il
liampe resp er
t
he c ircuit. T he r esistive c omponen t i sd ue t o l eakage , t o v
olt,a ll being m easu red att h eo perating p oint.
d
ielec tr
ic l osses i nt he v a
lve b ase a nd g r
id i n
su la tors, a nd t o T he n oise g ene rated b y a mu lt
i-g r
id v a
lve ( e
.g. a
e
l
ec tron t ransit-time p henomena , i n
terna l l e
ad i mp edanc e s p
en tode ) i s much h igher t han t hat g enera ted b y at r
iode
a
nd o therf ac
to r s
. A st hef requency i sincrea sed t hisr esist
ive owing t ot hep artition e fecto ft hea node a nd s creen currents.
c
omponen t d ec rease s i nv a
lue a t ar ate a pp rox ima te ly p ro - A
lthough n o
t all o ft he noi se originating a tthe c a
thode i s
p
or tiona l t o t h e s qua re o f t he f requency : i ta lso v arie s d
eve loped i nt he a node c ircu i
t ( s
inc e not all oft he cathode
i
nve rsely a st he s lope ( g
„,)a nd i sk nown a s i npu t i mped ance c
urren tr e
ache st hea node)t h ere isal a
rg ep arti
tion -noise con-
s
ome time sq uo ted a si npu ta dm ittance . t
r
ibu t
ion c au sed b yt hee l
emen to fc hance a s tow hethe r any
The r eac tive c omponen t i sd ue t ot hec apac i tance b etween g
iven e lectron g oe st ot hea node a nd then t hrough t hea node
t
ini npu te lec
trode a nd t heo the re lectrode sa nd a l
so i nclude s c
i
rcu i to rt ot hes creen a nd n ott hrough t hea node c i
rcu i
t.
t
hec apac i tance s b etween t he l e
ad s a nd t he p in s i nt h e base . S
ince t he v alue o f 12„ isd eterm ined b y the v a
lve c harac-
The v alue s q uoted b y manu f actur ers a re s ome time s given a s t
er
i stics
, w hich d o n ot al
te r w i
th f requency o ver its norma l
i
npu t capac itance a nd s ome time s a sa n electrode c apac itance work ing r ange , itc an u sually b e t aken t hat t he equivalent
t
o a ll o the r p arts. T hey a r e g ene rally m easu red w ith t he n
oi se resistance i sa l
so i ndependen t off requency .
v
alve c o
ld ,a nd t hef i
gu re o bta ined w hen t hev alve i sw orking
n
orma l
ly w ill b e h ighe r, t he v alue t hen d ep end ing u pon t he I
nduced Gr
id No
ise
c
ircu it a nd t he o pe rating c ond ition s oft he v a
lve .
The r andom v aria t
ion s i nt he electron s t
ream a s itp a sses
The i npu tc apac itance c an b ef ur
the ri ncrea s ed b y af acto r
t
heg r
id o ni t
sw ay t ot hea node i n duce an o
isev o
ltage i nt he
d
epend ing o nt hen atu re o ft heo utpu t l oad. S ince t hes igna l
g
r
id c i
rcu it b y reason o ft hee lectro -s
ta tic charge sc ar r
ied b y
v
ol tage a pplied t ot h eg r
id i so ppo site i np ha se t ot h
er esul
tan t
t
he e lect rons. T his v o
ltage d epend s o n t he n ature o f t he
s
igna l a node v oltage , ac ircu lato ry c ur rent f low st hrough t he
i
mpedanc e int he g rid c i
r cuit a nd o n t he frequency a tw h
ich
g
rid -to-anode c apac itance . T he i npu t s i
gna l h as t o f urnish
t
hec i
rcu iti so pera ting. A t l ow a nd m ed ium f requenc ies t he
t
his c apac itative c ur rent, a nd t herefo re "s ees "a n e fective
e
f ect i sn egl
ig ible b ecau se t he v oltage i nduced b y t h e elec-
c
apac itance a dd i
tiona l t ot h er eactive c omponen t m en tioned
t
ron s a pp roach ing t h
e g rid i sn eutralized b y that induced b y
above . T he h ighe r t he a node l oad, t he g rea te r t he v ol
tag e
t
he r eced ing e lectron s, w he reas a tv ery h igh f r
equenc ies t he
amp lification a nd t he h ighe r t his c apac itanc e b ecome s
. T he
t
ime o ft rans
ito ft hee lectron sc orresponds t oa na pprec iab le
efec t isk nown a st he Mi l
le re fecta nd c an b ea voided w hen
f
raction o f ac yc le a nd t h
is l e
ad s t o ap hase d if erence
e
ssen t
ial b y n eu tra l
iza tion . T he e xtra c apac itance i n a
b
etween t he a pproach ing a nd t he r eceding e l
ectron s
. T he
r
esi stance -coup led amp l
ifie r i se qua l t o C ( ,
„) A w here A
r
esultan t i nduced g r
id c urren t h as ac omponen t w hich c an
i
st he v o
l tag e amp lification o ft he s tage.
b
e mo re o r less t aken i nto a ccoun t b y s uppo sing t h e c on-
n
ec t
ion o fa n a pp ropr iate r esistance a cros s t
h e gr
id c ircui t
.
E
quiva
lent No
ise R
esistance This r es
i stance a cts a s ag ene rator o f t herma l n o
is e a t a n
I
f elec
trons w ere i n
finitesimal
ly s mall a nd i nf
initely e
qu ivalen t tempera ture t o t hat o f t he v a
lve c athode , i .
e
.
n
ume rous, i
tc ould b e imagined t hat th
ey w ould reach t he a
bou t f i
ve t ime s t he a bso lute r oom t emp erature ; the n oise
a
node i n aperfectly st
eady s tream. Howeve r, because t he s
o g ene rated i sk nown a s i n duced g r
id n oi
se. B ecau se i t
e
l
ectron e mi
ssion c onsists of af low of d iscrete el
ectrical a
pp ears a s as hun t t o t he g rid c ircuit t his resis
tance a lso
c
harges the ra
te a t which t h
e c ur
ren t arr
ive s at th
e a node r
esu lts i n ar educ tion o f t h
e i npu t i mpedance ; iti su sua lly
s
how ssl
ightb uta pprec
iab le f
luctuation. Th israndom f luctu- e
xp re ssed a s ac onduc tance i n m icromho s a nd i sk nown
a
t
ion ina node currenti sk nown a ss ho
tn oise and issoc alled a
s t he t ransit-time c onduc tance , t h e v a
lue i n crea s
ing
b
ecause when amp lif
ied itr e
semb lest hen o
i se produced b ya app rox ima tely a st hes qua re oft he f r
equency .
2
.
7
 RSGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
No
ise F
actor i
f t h
e g r
id b ecome s c ontam ina ted w ith a ctive c athode
The efect
sd escr
ibed make n ecessary t
hee valuat
ion o fthe mate rial, w hich c an h appen i f t he v alve i s a ppre ciably
p
erformance o f avalve bytaking into a
ccountt hef r
equency over-run e ven f or ar elat
ively s ho rt time.
o
fo pera
tion. A tfrequenciesa bove 20 Mc/s
, th enoise f
actor The c ontrolg rid, thes creen a nd t h
es uppre s sorg rid a rea l
l
must be m easured
. T h
is can b e done with t h
e a id of a s
ub ject t o these e fects
. T hey a re a voided b y k eeping t h
e
t
hermionic noise d
iode u p t
o4 00 Mc /sor ag a
s n o
ise sourc
e g
rid -cathode r esistance l ow a nd b ya voiding e xce s
sive h ea ter
,
f
or hi
gher frequencies. a
node o r b ulb t emp erature ( i
.e. b y n ot o ve r
-runn ing t h
e
The no
i se f
actor may b e c
alculated f
rom t he fo
rmu la: v
alve ).
Two e xamp le s o f t he e f
ect s o f c ont rol-g r
id p r
ima ry
e
N
oise F
acto
r F— — 1
4 R. emis s
ion c an b eg iven :
2KT (
a) I n as mallo utpu tv a
lve t hea node c ur ren t ri
ses s tead i
ly
w
here e = e
lectron charge 1 19 x 1 0 -" c
oulomb a
ccompan ied b ydistortion d ue t og rid c urren t f l
ow ing
K= Bol
tzman '
sc onstan t1%372 x1 0-i j
l ou
lesper°K i
nt h
eh igh -resistance g r
id l eak i nsuch ad irection a st o
T= T
empe rature ofs ource °K o
ppo se the g r
id b ias.
I
,= Noi
se d i
od e current in ampsr e
quired todoub
le (
b) I n ap owe r amp lifier or f requency mu lt
ip l
ie r i n a
t
her eceivern oi
re o utput t
e
legraphy t ran smitter th e d rive d im inishe s w hen t h
e
R
, = Source r es
istance ino hm s k
ey isheld d own ,accompan ied b yr i
sing a node c urren t
.
A
t normal r
oom t empe rature t he formula m ay be s
impl
i- Ac ons equenc e o fp rima ry screen e m
is s
ion i na n oscillator
f
i
ed to
: o
r amp l
ifie
r i stha t w hen t he screen v ol
tage i sr emoved , f o
r
F
(db
) = 1 01.
,(20 I.R .). e
xamp le b y keying , t he output i s ma intained o f
ten f or q u
ite
l
ong p er
iod s ift he v a
lve i salready h o
t.
Anode p r
ima ry e miss
ion i ss imilar t o g rid e mission b ut
H
iss
o
ccur sw hen t hea node a ttains as uf ic
iently h i gh t emp era ture
The no
ise g enerated by ava
lve when u s
ed ast hefi
rst s
t
age t
oe m
it e l
ectron s
. T h
is e fect occu r s mo stly i nr e
ctif
ie rs a nd
o
f ah i
gh -gain amp l
ifi
er, usua
lly a t audio f r
equency, i
s c
au sesb r
eakdown b etween a node a nd c a
thode .
k
nown a sh i
ss. T hisn o
iseinc
ludess hotn oise a
nd thatdue t
o
v
ar
iou s i
nter-electrode le
akagesb u
t itd oesn o
ti nc
lude hum. S
econdary Em
iss
ion
I
tisg enerally exp res
sed as an equivalent noise vo
ltage i
n
When a n el
ectron w h
ich h as been a ccelerated to ah igh
m
icrovolts a ppl
ied t o t
he c
ontro
l g r
id.
v
elocity hi
ts an elec
trode s uch as ag r
id o r a node, electrons
a
re d i
slodged a nd t h
ese e l
ectrons can b e attracted to a ny
Hu m o
ther e l
ectrode h aving a h igher poten t
ial. T his e f
ect is
Va
lve h um i sthec omponen to ft hea node c urrentresulting t
ermed s e
cond ary emission
. Unde rc ontrolled c ondit
ion so ne
f
rom modu lation oft h eelect
ron s tream d ue t otheu se ofa n e
lec
tron c an d is
lodge s everal secondary e lectron s
, a nd a
a
.c
. fi
lamen t orh eater s upply. When ac athode i sheated b y s
er
ie s of secondary-em itt
ing "c a
thode s" w ill give a c on-
a
.c
.thec urrentg enerate s amagne tic field w h
ich c an modu late s
i
de rable gain in electrons. T h
is principle i su sed i n the
t
he electron s t
ream , a nd a modu la ting v oltage isi n
jec ted e
l
ectron -multip
lier type ofv a
lve.
i
n
to t he con trol g
rid t hrough t h
e i nter-electrode capacitanc e
a
nd l eakage s: additiona l
ly there c an b e e miss
ion f rom t he C
onvers
ion C
onductance
h
eate
r i n a n indirectly-heated v alve. T he h um i su sually The t erm c onve rs
ion c onduc
tance i s used i n re
gard t o
e
xpressed a sa nequiva lent vol
tage ( i
n m icrovo l
ts) appl
ied t o d
etector s or f
requency c hangers t
or epresent the r
at
io oft h
e
t
he con trol grid. V a
lve h um shou ld n ot be c onfused w ith o
utpu t c ur
rent o f one frequency t o the input v o
ltage of
h
um g ene rated ino the rc i
rcuitcomponen ts. a
nothe r f r
equency . A s appl
ied t o the mixe r of as uper
-
h
eterodyne r eceiver
,f orexamp le
,t h
ec onve r
sion conductance
P
ri mary Em
iss
ion i
sthe c urrent int he anode ci
rcuit a
ti ntermediate fr
equency
(
mea sured i nm icroampe res) d
iv
ided b y theinpu t v
oltage t
o
I
na n indirec t
ly -hea ted v a
lve i ti sp ossible f o
rt h e tung sten
t
he grid ats i
gna l fr
equency . The symbo l common ly used is
h
ea te rtob ecome c ontam ina ted w ith em iss
ive ma teriala nd s o
g
,a nd i tisgene ral
ly m easured inm ic
roamp eres pe
r v o
lt
.
emite lectron s. T hisi sk nown a sh ea te re mission. T he e mitted
e
lectron s w il
l b e a t
trac ted t oa ny e lect rode wh ich i sp ositive C
onver
sion o
r T
rans
lat
ion G
ain
w
ith r espec t t ot he hea ter, and s uch a ne l
ectrode may b e t he
c
athode o rt h es c
reen g r
id o ra node ;i tc an even b et hec ontro l Conver s
ion o rtransla
tion ga
in isther a
tio ofin
termed iate-
g
r
id , w h
ich a lthough g eneral ly n ega tive t o t he c athode c an f
requency o utpu t vo
ltage to r
adio-f
requency i nput v o
ltage.
b
ecome s uf f
iciently p ositive t o o ne e nd o ft he h eate r d uring I
tc an be o btained from the conver
sion c onductance i fthe
a
t l east p art o f t he a .c
. c yc le o f t h e h eate r s upp ly. T his d
ynam ic r e
sistance a nd o
ther parame ters of t
he i.f
. trans-
e
xpla ins w hy i tiss ome time s r ecommended t hat t he c ent re- f
orme r used i n th
e m ixer anode ci
rcu i
t are known . B oth
t
ap o f the h eater s upp ly shou ld b e c onnec ted t o ap ositive t
erm s re
late to the e f
ic
iency of am ixer but the conversion
p
oin t i nth ec ircuit tor educe h um . T he g rid c an t hereby b e g
ain takesinto accountt heoutputci
rcu it wh
ile t
hec onversion
main tained a t an egative p oten tialw ith r espe ct t ot heh eate r. c
ond uc
tance r efe
rs only toth
e valve and it
s operat
ing c ondi-
G
rid p rima ry e miss
ion i s ac ond ition i nw h
ich ag rid c om - t
i
on s
.
mence s t o e mit e l
ectron s itself a nd , f i
gura t
ive ly s peak ing ,
c
omp e
tes w i
th t he cathode . T he e fect i sp roduced b y t he C
athode
-inter
face I
mpedance
h
eating o ft heg rid w hich may b ec au sed b ya ne xce ssive f low When avalve i
sopera
ted f
o
rl ong p
er
iodspar
ticula
rly w
ith
o
fg rid c urren to rb yt h ec lo
se p roxim ity o ft heh otc a
thode o r l
ow cathode cu
rren
t or atc
omplete c
ut-of
f
, t
he mutual c
on-
b
yr adiated h ea tf rom t he a node . T he e f
ect sa rea ccen tua ted d
uctance st
eadi
ly fa
lls a
nd s
o also d
oes t
he a
vailab
le peak
2
.
8
 VALVES
em
i s
sion. T h
is e fect i sd ue t ot he grow th o f af i
lm b etween
t
he m etall
ic ca thode a nd i t
s e missive c oating . T his f i
lm O
p
ossesses a n impedance— the c athod e i n
te rface i mpedance —
wh
ich may b e r epre sented b y ar e
sistance w ith c apac itive
s
hunt c onnected i ns eries w ith t he cathode a nd a ct
ing a s a n
a
utoma tic bias r es
is tor . T he f a
lling p er
formanc e iss ome -
B
IAS
t
imesc olloquially termed s leepy s ickne ss. T he r ate o fgrow th PO
INT OUTPUT
S
IGNAL
o
fi n
terface res
i stance i sc ons iderab ly a fected b yt he ma terial _

o
ft hecathode a nd i sa ccele rated b yh i gh tempe ratu resr esu l
t-
i
ngf rom excessive h ea terv oltage. S ince t hec athode -inte r
f ace
r
es
istance i sn orma lly o f t he orde r of af ew h undred o hm s
i
thas amo s
ts erious e fecto nv a
lve sh aving ah i gh s lopea nd a
s
hort gr
id b ase b ecau se t he n orma l cathode r es
i stor isl ikely VOLTAGE +
t
o be comparab le w ith t h
i s v a
lue. T he e fect o ft he parallel
c
apacitanc e is t o m ake t he d rop i n p er formance l e
ss
n
oticeable ast he frequency i si
n creas ed.
CLASS A
C
ontact P
otent
ial S
IGNAL
A s ma ll p oten tia l dif erence e xi sts b etween e lec trode s of
F
ig
. 2
.. A t
r
iode v
alve '
ng a
s ac
lass A amp
lif
ier
.
d
issim ila r m ate rials i n av a
lve i rre spe c
tive o fa ny e xte rnally
a
pp lied p otential s. T hisi sk nown a st hec ontactp oten tia l
. I n
as imp le d iode t he re i s ap oten tia l d if erence b e twe en t he
t
he c ha rac te r
is tic c urve o f th e v a
lve , s how s h ow t he a node
a
node a nd t hec athode w hich c au se s ac urren t tof low i na ny
c
u r
ren t v a ries w i th g rid v o
ltage . I ft h e g rid b ias i sf i
xed a t
e
xterna l c ircuit f rom a node t o c athode . T he magn itude o f
t
he p oin t A , w h ich c or re spond s t o t he c ent re o f t he u se ful
t
h
is c on tac t poten tial d epend s o n t he c athode m ateria l, the
s
traigh t p or tion o f t h e c urve ( i
.e
. w here t h e g r
id p oten tia l
t
ype o f e miss
ive c oa t
ing, t he a node ma te r
ia l and a ny c on-
r
ema in s n ega t
ive )
, a ny c omp lex a lte rna ting v oltage a pp l
ied
t
am ina ting f ilm p res entu pon i t
ss ur face. I t
sv a
lue ( anode t o
t
o t h e g rid w il l b e r ep roduc ed a s as im ilar c omp lex w ave
c
athode ) i sb etween + 1 v ol
t a nd —0 .5 v olt, b ut i s mo st
o
f i ncreas ed amp litude i n t he a node c ircu it
. S i nce t he
f
requen tly p ositive ; i tisa fected b yc a
thode t empe ra tu rea nd
t
rave l o ft h e o pe ra ting c ond ition i su pa nd d own t hes t
raigh t
v
arie s t hroughou t t he li
f e o f the v alve. I n at r
iode o r a ny
portion o ft he c urve , t h e o utpu t w ave s hape w ill b e e xac t ly
o
the r v alve w ith ac ontrol g rid a p oten tial d iference e x
i s
ts
s
imila r tot hat o ft he i npu t a nd n o d i
s tor t
ion w ill re sult, b ut
s
imila rly b etween t he con tro l gr
id a nd c athode a nd b e
tween
i
ft heb iasi sad ju s ted s ot h at thev alve o pe rate so ver ac ur ved
o
ther e lectrode s. A ll el
ec trode s e xcep t t he c ontro l g rid a nd
portion o ft hec harac te ri s
tic, t here w i
ll b e af lat
ten ing o ft he
p
o ssibly t h e s upp resso r g rid c an b e i gno red i n p ractical
c
or respond ing h alf -cyc le a nd d istor tion w il
l r esul t. T he
a
pp licat ion s, becau se t hec urren t d ue t oi tiss mallc ompa red
method o fo pe ra tion w he re t heg r
id b i as i sf i
xed a tt h ec en t re
w
ith o the r c ur ren ts f low ing i n t he c ir cuit. T he c on tact
o
f t h e s tra igh t p ortion o f th e c ur ve i sk nown a s c lass A
p
oten tia l i sefec tive ly ins er
iesw ith t hec ontro l gr
id ,w ith t he
o
pe ra tion.
r
esul t th a
ti fn oe xte rnal g rid bi asi sa pplied g r
id c urr en tw il
l
The amoun t o f d i
s to rtion p roduced b y a n on -linear
f
l
ow i nt hee xte rna lc i
rcui t int hes ame manne ra si n ad iode.
amp lifie r i su sua l ly e xp ressed i n t e
rms o f t he h armon ic s
I
fa n i ncrea s
ing e xterna l g r
id b ia s i sa pplied , av alue o f
which a r
e g ene ra ted b y i t
. I ft he i npu t h as ac omp lex w ave -
n
ega tive b ias isr eached w hen t heg r
id c ur rentc ea se sa nd t h
is
f
orm , t he a naly sis o ft he d istor tion i sv ery d if icult a nd i ti s
i
s am ea su re oft hec ontac tp otent ialf ort h
is p art
icu la rv a
lve.
much mo re c onven ien tt oc on side r t he d i
s to rtion o f as imp le
I
n o rde r too pera te t h
e v alve s atis facto rily i ti sn ece ssa ry i n
s
ine -wave i npu t. When a s inu soida l i npu t i sa pplied t o a n
mo st ca ses t oi n crea se th e b i
a s st
ill f urthe r to ap oin t w here
amp lifi er o pera ting o ve r ac urved p ortion o f i ts c ha rac -
t
he m ax imum p ositive s igna l inpu t d oes n ot s wing t he g r
id
t
eristic, t h ed i
s tor ted o utpu t isf ound t oc onta in n oto nly t he
mo re p o s
itive t h an t h
ec ontac t p oten tial.
amp lifi ed f undamen ta l b ut a lso an umbe r o fh armon ics ( a
ll
o
f w hich a re o f c our se s inu soida l). T his c an b e d educed
mathema tica lly b y w hat i sk nown a s F our ie r Ana ly sis. T he
USES OF VALVES r
esp ec tive amp litude o f e ach h armon ic e xpr essed a s ap er-
c
en tage o f t h e f undamen tal i s k nown a s t he p e rcen tage
T
he V
alve a
s a
n Amp
lif
ier harmon ic c on ten t. T aken c ol
lec tively t he t otal e f
ec t c an b e
c
alcu la ted b y a dd ing t og e
the r all t he i ndiv idua l h a rmon ic
When a va
lve has an impedance c onnected inser
ie s wi
th
componen ts. S inc e t he p owe r r epre sen ted b y t he osc illatory
i
t
s anode supply and the voltage on i t
s gr
id isvaried, th
e
wave i saf unc tion o ft hes qua re o ft hev oltage ( ort hec ur ren t)
r
e
sultantchange inanode currentw i
llc ause av
oltage change
t
h e e f ective t ota lh armon icc onten to ft h ed is
tor ted w ave w il
l
a
cross t
he impedance. This impedance m ay b
e ar e
sistance,
be g iven b y th e s qua re r oot o ft h
e s um o ft he s quar es o ft h
e
a
n induc
tance, o
r ins ome cases i
tm ay behave li
ke ac apaci-
voltage ( or c ur ren t) amp litude s o f t he r espec tive h armon ic
t
ance
, as fo
r examp le in ac i
rcui
t r e
sonan t a
t af r
equency
componen t s a nd n ot b y s imp le a dd it
ion .
b
e
low t he o
perat
ing frequency.
D
is tortion o f as im ila r k ind o ccur s w hen t he inpu t s igna l
has ac omp lex w ave fo rm . I nj us
t t he s ame w ay a s t he d is
-
C
las
s A Opera
tion
tor
ted o u tpu t o f t he o rig ina l s i
nu so ida l s igna l r ef
er red t o i n
T
he c
urve i
n F
ig
. 2.
6s hows g
raph
ical
ly t
heopera
tion o
fa t
he p reviou s p arag raph c an b e r esolved i n
to a n umb er o f
v
a
lve work
ing a
san ampl
ifi
er. T
hiscurve
,which i
sknown as componen t s c omp ri s
ing t he f undamen tal a nd a s erie s o f
2
.9

•
RSGB —RADI O CO M M UN
ICAT
I ON H A NDB O OK
p
u sh -pull o r inp aral
lel. F ig
. 2 .7 show s thec onne ct
ion s for
PUSH- PULL
AMPLIFIER t
hese t wo m ethod s
. T he p rinciple u sed i n the p ush-pul
a
rrangemen ts ist hat w heneve rt heg rid ofo ne valve isg oing
mo re p o s
itive t he othe r isgoing mo re n egat
ive, a ni inc on-
I
N PU OUTPUT s
equenc et hea node c urrento fo ne valve isri
sing ast heo ther
i
sf alling ; henc e then ame p ush-pu l
l.
I
np a
rallel o pera t
ion, t heg r
id sa rec onnected togethe ra nd
t
he a node s a re c onne cted t ogethe r with the result that the
outpu t isi ncrea sed i n propor tion t o the numbe r of valves
PARALLEL u
s ed. I n rega rd t od i
stor t
ion , the re
lative ha rmon i
.:c ontent
AMPL
IFIER i
st h e same a s f or one valve a lone, w hereas int he push-pu l
l
s
ystem a l
l e ven h armon ics ( s
econd , f ourth, s i
r
tth, e tc
.)
OUT-
a
r e c ancel
led o ut, d ue t o t he m e
thod o f ope rat
ion . I
t
PUT f
ollow s t herefo re t hat t wo v alve s connected i n p ush-pu l
l
I
NPUT w
illg ive ac on side rably greatero utputf orthes ame d egree of
d
istor tion t han t wice t hat o btained f rom "s i
ng le
-ended"
ope ration, i .
e
. f rom as ingle valve.

C
lass AB
I Opera
tion
F
ig. 2
.7
. P
ush
-pu
ll a
nd p
ara
lle
l amp
lif
ier c
ircu
its
.
Asm entioned above ,w hen valvesa r
eo perated i
np ush-pu l
l
s
ome o ft he d
istor
tion p roduc ed by curvatur e ofthe charac-
h
armon ics, so can ac omp lex input signa l it
se
lf b e resolved t
er
istic isc ancel
led o ut
. T h
is ist aken advan tage ofi ncl a
ss
i
n
to a f undamen ta
l a nd a ser
ies o f h armon ics. I f such a
ABI o perat
ion b y e mploy ing a n egat
ive g rid bi
al s l
ightly
c
omp lex inputsignali sfedinto an on-l
inea r amp lif
iere ach o f
g
reate rthan thatf o
rc las
s Ao peration and allowing •h
es ignal
t
he sinusoidal c
omponen tsc omp rised i ni twi
ll be subjec t to
i
nput v oltage tos wing o ver the entire curve u p t
o ;h
e p oint
d
istor
tion b y th e curvature of t he cha racter
istic a nd w i
ll
whereg rid currents t
art
s. Al a
rge p artoft hed i
stor
tion wh ich
a
ppea ri ntheo utputa s aser
ieso fh armon ical
ly r e
lated c om -
i
sthe reby introduced isa utoma tical
ly cance l
led by :h
e p ush-
p
onen ts. C ross
-modu la
tion w i
ll a lso o ccur a nd a dd c on-
p
ull mode o fo peration
.
s
iderably to the total d
istort
ion. T he c omp lete analy s
is o f
t
he distort
ion o f ac omp lex wave w ould n eed t o take i nto C
lass AB2 Opera
tion
a
ccoun t the r
ela
tive p ha
se so fit
s h a
rmon ic componen t s
, b ut
f
ortunately th
is i sunnecessary int he d e
sign o fc ommun ica- I
fc lass AB 1 opera
tion iscarried a stage fu
rther and the
n
egative grid bias isinc
reased t o av a
lue w here tae anode
t
ionse quipmen t
.
c
urrent isq u
ite low and ift h
e s ignal input isal
lowed t o
Push -
pull and Para
lle
l A mp
lif
iers i
nc
rea se so that t
hegrid vo
ltage swingsi nto t
he pos
itive g
rid
r
eg
ion , the p ower output isfurther i n
creased
. Ca ss AB2
When i
tisn
ece
ssary t
o o
bta
in more o
utpu
t than c
an b
e
o
peration i sin
termediate b
etween c las
s AB 1 and cl
Lss Ba nd
p
rovided b
y o
ne v
alve
, t
wo or mo
re may be c
onnec
ted i
n
i
sfrequen t
ly e mp
loyed for l
arge a.f. power a mp
lif e
rs. See
F
ig
. 2 .8
.

C
las
s B Opera
tion
Ith
asa lready b een e xp lained h ow av alve mu stb eo pe rated
ove
r t
he s traigh t p ortion o ft hec haracter ist
ic i fdistor tion i s
GLASS AB2 AB2
t
ob e a voided i ns i
ngle -ended o pera t
ion .T he s traigh t
p
or tion o f av alve c urve i so n
ly a s mall p art o f t he
k
f -- GLASS ABI -
-1.1
AB
1 who le, a nd c ons equen tly i fi tw ere p oss
ible t o u se
n
ea rly a l
l o ft h ec urve w ithou t introduc ing ds tortion ,
OUTPUT much mo re o utpu t w ould b e a vailable . T hi ; c an b e
S
IGNAL
a
ch ieved i n p rac tice b y am ethod k nown a ; cl ass B
GRID
ope ration,i nw hich t hev alve iso pe rated a tt hec ut-of
B
IAS CURRENT poin t o n t he c urve . T his iss hown i nF ig. 2 .9
, f rom
POINT _
which i twill b e e v
iden t that the n egative h alf-cyc le is
— GRID VOLTA E
a
lmo st c omp letely s upp ressed. I ft he v a
lve i ;u sed a s
a
n r .
f
. amp lifier,t h
isi su n
impo rtan t s i
nce t he o scilla-
t
ory c haracter istic o ft het uned c i
r cuitw ill resto re t he
o
the r half-cyc le a nd r emove t he h armon ic ctstor tion ,
butf o r a.f
. amp lification t he m ethod i fc on sd e red i n
t
his s imp le f orm i si mpo ssible
. I f
, h oweve r
, w o s uch
CLASS A B
v
alve s a re u sed i np ush-pu l
l, each v alve w i Is upp ly
t
h em issing h a
lf-wave o ft he o
the r a nd an orma l f u
ll-
wave w ill r esult i n t he o utpu t
. B ecaus e t h e m ean
I - -SIGNAL I NPUT
anode c urren t d epends u pon t he s ignal v oltage , t he
SIGNAL INPUT d
emand u pon t he h .
t. s upply f or a node c urren t w i
ll
F
ig. 2
.
1l
. Class Al operation s
howing how c
la AB! a
nd AB2 dif
fer. f
luctua te w i
th t he signal amp litude . H ence ap owe r

2
.10
 VALVES
o
f grid cur
ren t
, c onside
rable driving p ower isn ece
ssary.
Normally
, the part ofthe po
sit
ive h a
lfc yc
le during wh
ich
0 U
i c
urrent isd
rawn i sa bout 140°
. T h
is angle of f
low may b e
0 a r
educed toi n
crease the ou
tput ef
i c
iency. P u
lse operat
ion is
a
e
fective
ly super cl
a s
s C i n wh
ich t h
e a ng
le of fl
ow i sv
e ry
s
hort
.

OUTPUT
SIGNAL U
ltra
-linear Opera
tion
When ap en tode or tetrode valve i so perated n orma lly the
s
creen gr
id i sd ecoupled w ith ac apacito ro fl ow r e
actance t o
B
IAS
PO
INT
+
JA GR
ID VOLTAGE
c
a
a
n
thode o
t a
ec
l o
ted t
pe
rc
ra
o t
t
h
ha s
si
ing f
e a
s s
r
o th
equenc
node , th
at i
ie
e v
t
s p
s
. I
a
oten
ft
lve w
t
ia
h
l m
e s
ou
c
ld p
re
ay r
en g
er
ema
r
in c
id w
form a
e
ons
re c
s at r
tan
on
iode
t
-
:
i
f
, h oweve r
, t he screen g rid isc onnec ted t o ap a r
t o f the
o
utpu tcircui
t i n
termed ia te be
tween a node a nd h .
t., such asa
CLASS B t
ap o n the o utput t r
ans forme r
, af orm o f o pe
ra t
ion i n
ter-
1 mediate be
tween t h
a tof at r
iode a nd thato f ap entode r esul
ts.
I
-
a —I
NPUT S
IGNAL -
1.4 I
n e fect ap ropo r
tiona te a moun t o f n egative f eedback i s
a
pplied tot he screen grid w hich l owers th e ga
in b ut r educes
F
ig. 2
.1
. I
n ac
lass B amp
lif
ier t
he va
lve i
soperated a
t t
he c
ut-o
ff
po
int
. t
he distort
ion . When t he screen g rid s o f two p en todes

s
upply w ith good vol
tage regulation isessentia l
. Mo reover
s
i
nce t he gr
id isd
riven pos
it
ive, a ppreciable grid current wi
ll
f
l
ow a nd g ood regu
lation in t h
e g r
id -b
ia s s upply i s a
lso
n
ece
s sary. S i
nce the gr
id takes c ur
ren t itcon sume s powe r
,
a
nd this mu st c
ome f r
om thes ignal in
pu t
. T he preceding or
d
r
iver s tage mu s
t f u
rnish thi
s p ower a dequa te
ly w ithout
d
i
stortion.

C
lass C Opera
tion
The cla
s s Bp rinciple can bec a
rried as t
ep f ur
the rt oclassC
o
p e
ra t
ion b y u sing the e n
tire v a
lve c haracterist
ic. H ere the F
ig. 2
.
11. Output c
ircu
it c
onnections i
n a p
ush
-pu
ll u
ltra
-linear
ampli
fier
.
g
r
id i sbiased t oa pproxima tely t w
ice t he c ut
-offv o
ltage a nd
i
sdriven f a
ri nto t hep os
itive r eg
ion i no rde rt or each satura-
t
i
on p o
int, as i ss hown i nF ig.2 .
10 . S ince t h
eg rid i sdr
iven o
r te
t rodes employed inp ush
-pull c
lass AB1 are connec
ted
a
pp rec
iably p ositive, conside rable grid c urrent flow s and the t
o ta ps on the o utput tr
ansformer, th
e mode o f opera
-
a
node i sr obb ed o f current a t the p eak o f each c ycle
, t hus t
i
on i sca
lled u
ltra-
linear;seeFig
.2 .
11. T he t
ap p
osit
ionsa r
e
c
ausing t he anode c urrent p ulse to b e f l
a
t tened a t the top. u
sually spec
if
ied a s ap e
rcentage of th
e tota
l n umbe r of
A
s t he wave form i sp oor a nd t he distortion v ery c onsider- t
urn
s, t he fi
gu re f o
r o p
timum p er
formance v arying fo
r
a
ble, clas
s C o perat
ion i sa lmo st entirely r es
tricted t o r.f
. d
iferentv a
lve types
.
amplif
icat
ion w here high e f
iciency i sv ery d es
irable a nd d i
s-
t
ort
ion r elat
ive ly u nimpo r
tan t. B ecau se o f the high v alues Neutra
lized Amp
lif
iers
Ear
lier m ention h as b een made o f t he i nstab i
lity o f
amp l
ifie
rs r esu
lting f rom t he feedback f rom t he anode o f a
U
i va
lve t othe g r
id t h
rough t he grid-to-anode c apacitance a nd
U
i
0 a o
f the possibil
ity of r educ ing t his feedback b y u s
ing a n r.f
.
t
ype o f tetrode o r p en tode. A t h igh f requenc ie s
,
p
articularly ift he g r
id a nd/o r anode c i
rcuit h as h
i gh
OUTPUT d
ynam ic re
si s
tance , th
isc apacitance m ay s t
il
l b e too
B
IAS
S
IGNAL l
arg e f
orc omp lete s t
ability. As olution i stoe mploy
POINT acircuitinw hich t here isf e
edback i no ppo site phase
TWICE f
rom t h e a
node c i
rcuit t ot he grid so t hat the e fect
CUT OFF CUT OFF GRID
VOLTAGE CURRENT o
f t hi
s c apacitance i sb alanced o u
t. T he c i
rcuit i s
VOLTAGE
t
hen s a
id t ob e n eutralized.
— GR
ID VOLTAGE +
A t yp
ical a r
rangemen t i s s hown i n F i g
. 2 .
12 .
Here t he a node c o
il i sc entre-tapp ed i n o rder t o
p
roduce av oltage a tt he "f r
ee" e nd w hich i sequa l
a
nd o pposite i n p hase t o that a tt h
ea node e nd. I f
t
he f r
ee end i sc onne c
ted t o t h
e g rid b y ac apacito r
CLASS C (
C.) h aving a v a
lue e qua l tot hat of the v a
lve g r
id -
—INPUT S
IGNAL t
o-anode c apac itance ( C,
..) s hown d otted, a ny
F
ig. 2
.
10. I
n c
las
s C o
perat
ion t
he v a
lve is b
iased t
o a
pprox
i ma
tely twice
c
ur rent f l
ow ing t h
rough C ,
,„ w ill b e e xactly
t
he cut
-offvo
ltage. b
alanced b y t hat t hrough C „. T h
is i sa n i deal
ized
2
.
11
RSGB -RAD
IO CO MMUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
athode and a node, w h
ich i s much smal
ler than the gr
id-to-
a
node capacitance.
C9-0
The i
nput i mpedance o f ag rounded gr
id stage i
sn ormally
+H
.T.
I
NPUT o
f the order o f 100 o hm s a nd ther
efore app re
ciable grid
i
nput power i srequired. S ince the i
nput ci
rcuit iscommon
t
o the anode-cathode c ircuit
, much o f thi
s p ower is
, h ow-
e
ver
, transf
er red direct
ly t o t h
e output ci
rcuit
, i.
e.
, n ot al
o
ft he d
riv
ing p ower isl o
st.
Cn

F
ig. 2
.
12. Neutral
izing a grounded-cathode tr
iode amplif
ier. The
c
ircu
it i
s e
qually s
uitab
le f
or a tetrode or ap
entode.
G
rounded A
node
Fo
r some p urpo
ses itisdes
irable t
oa pply t
he in
pu t tothe
g
r
id and toc onnec
t thel o
ad intheca
thode c i
rcu
it,t hea node
c
ase b
ecau se t
he a node tuned circui
t i sloaded w i
th t h
e
b
eing decoupled t
oc hass
is orearth t
hrough al ow-reactance
v
alve anode impedance a t one end b u
t n o
t at the other
;
c
apaci
to r
. S uch c
ircui
ts are o
ften r
eferred to a
s grounded -
a
l
so the power factor of C„ wi
ll no
t necessar
ily beequal to
a
node c i
rcu
its and are e mp
loyed in ca
thode f o
llowe r
s a nd
t
hat o
f The i mpor
tance of accurate neutra
lizat
ion i n
i
nf
ini
te-impedance d e
tectors
.
t
ransm
itter power-amp l
ifi
er ci
rcui
t s c
anno t b
e overs
tressed
.

G
rid D
riv
ing P
ower Vo
ltage Amp
lif
ier
s
When i ti sdesired t ouse av alve prima rily fort he purpo se
An i mpo rtan t conside ra t
ion i n the d es
ign o f c la ss Bo r
c
l
a ss C r .
f. p ower a mp lif
ie rs ist he p rovision o f a dequa te o
fincrea s
ing t hes i
gna l v
oltage ( as ina n a l
. ori f
. amp lif
ier)
d
r
iv ing p owe r. T he d riv ing p owe r dissipated i n t he gr
id - a
s di
stinct f rom i ncreas
ing t h e powe r ( as in a n a.f
. o r r.f
.
c
athode c ircui t and i n t he r es
istance o f t he b ias c i
rcuit is o
utput s tage), there a re four p os
sible m ethods . T hese are
n
o rma lly q uo ted i nv a
lve manuf actu rers
' d ata. T he se fi
gu res k
nown a s:
f
r
equen t ly d o n ot i n
clude t he p ower l os
t i nt h
e v alveho lde r (
a) resis
tance -capac i
tance c oupling
a
nd i n c omponen ts a nd w iring o r t he valve l o
sse s d ue t o (
b) choke -capacitance c oupling
(
c) tuned-anod e( or t uned-grid)coup l
ing
e
l
e ctron t r
ans it-
time p henomena , i n
terna l l ead i mpedance s
a
nd o the r f actors. Whe re a n o verall fi
gure i sq uo ted , itis (
d) transfo rmerc oup l
ing
g
iven a s d rive r powe r o utpu t. I ft h
is o vera l
l f i
gu re i sn ot I
n g ene ral
, t he f i
rst m ethod i ss ui
tab le o nly f or a ud
io
f
r
equenc ie s u n
le s
s t h
e gain p er stage i sv ery l ow a nd t he
q
uo ted , i tcan b e t a
ken t hat a t f
requenc ies u p to a bout 3 0
o
utput v oltage r equired fairly s mall
. T he s e
cond i ssuitable
Mc/ s th e f i
gure g iven s hou ld b e mu lt
iplied b y t wo , b ut at
f
or audio f r
equenc ies and f or mode rately h igh r adio f r
e-
h
ighe r f r
equenc ies e lectron t r
an s
it-time l osses i nc rease s o
r
apidly t hat i tisoften n e ces sary tou se ad rive rs t
age c apab le q
uencies, p rovided t hat the c hoke i ss ui
tab ly c hosen. T he
o
f s upp ly ing 3 -10 t ime s t he d r
iving p owe r s hown i n the l
a
st two m ay be u sed u pt ov ery high f r
equenc ie s
, th e lim
ita-
p
ub lished d ata. T he d riving p owe r availab le f o
r ac lass C t
i
on b e
ing t he shun ting capac itance s int h e t
uned c i
rcuit or
amp l
ifie r o r f r
equency mu ltipl
ier s hou ld b e s uf icient t o t
he t
ran sforme r a nd i nthe v a
lve i t
self.
p
erm it s atu ration o f t h e d riven v a
lve; i .
e. as ub stantial
i
ncrea se o r d ecrea se i n d riving p owe r shou ld p roduce n o R
esistance
-capac
itance C
oup
led Amp
lif
ier
a
pp reciab le c hange i nt he o utputo ft hed riven s tage . T h
is is The b asic c i
r cuit f or ar esistance -capac itance c oup led
p
articu la rly i mpor tant w hen t he d riven s tage i s anode - amplif
ier iss hown i n Fig. 2 .13 ( a) f or at r
iode a nd i n F ig.
modu la ted . C are mus t b ee xercised, h oweve r, toe nsu re that 2
.13 ( b
) f or at etrode o r p entode . A lthough t he e ssen t
ia l
t
he max imum g r
id c urr ent o r othe r rat
ing s o f the v a
lve a re f
eatures are t he s ame , t he v alue s o f the c ircuit c omponen ts
n
ote xc eeded . w
ill depend o n w h
ich t ype o fv alve i sused .
I
n des
ign ing a n amp lifier u s
ing t his form o fc oup ling t he
G
rounded C
athode c
hoice o f v alve s hou ld b e d e
te rm ined b y:
Mostva
lvesareused w
ith t
heca
thode c onne
cted t
ochass
is (
a
) t he h.t. line v oltage a va i
lab le,
o
r ear
th or whe
re a c
athode-b
ias r
es
istor ise mp
loyed itis (
b
) t he re quir ed s tage g ain,
s
hunted w
ith a capac
itor o
f low reactance at t
he lowes
t (
c
) t he r equ ired o utpu t v o
ltage o f t he s tage i n
s
i
gnal fr
equency used so tha
t the cathode i s e
fec
tive
ly q
ue st
ion ,
e
ar
thed. (
d) t heg rid -
leak v a
lue o ft hes ucceed ing v alve,
(
e
) t heh ighe st frequency t ob e amp l
ified.
T
he h .
t. l ine v oltage w ill u sually b e fixed b y th e d esign
G
rounded G
rid o
f t he rema inde r o f th e e quipmen t
, b u t f or a.f. amp lif
i ers
Al
though at r
iode mu st be neutral
ized toa void ins
tab i
lity a
s ag ene ral g uide t h
is v oltage mu st n ot b e l e
ss t han a bou t
when itisused a sa nr .f
. amp l
ifie
rt his isnota lwaysessential f
ou r times t he r equired r .m .s. o utpu t v ol tage a nd p re fer-
i
fanr .f
. type oft etrode o r pentode i se mployed. Howeve r
, ab
ly n ot less than s i
x t ime s
. T he a ctual a node v oltage w i
ll
a
t very high f requenc ies (above a bou t 100 Mc /s
) at r
iode o
f c ourse b e l ess t han t h
e h .
t. l i
ne v o
ltage b y a n amoun t
g
ivesb e
tterp erformance t han atetrode orp entode,providing e
qua l to the v oltage -d rop i nt he a node r esistor R , a nd p ro-
t
hat the i
n herent i n
stab i
lity can b e overcome . One w ay of v
ided t ha
t t h e anode v o
ltage a tz ero a node c urrent d oes n ot
a
chieving thi
s i stoe ar th the gr
id i ns
tead o ft h
e cathode s o e
xce ed then orma l m aximum r a
ting ,a l
lw ill b ei no rde r. T he
t
hatth egr
id a c
tsa sa nr .
f
.s creen between cathode and anode , va
lue s oft he resistor a nd t he m ean a node c urrent shou ld b e
t
he input b e
ing a pplied t o the c a
thode . T he capacitance s
oc hosen t hat th e actua l a node v oltag e isa bout 4 0 p erc ent
t
ending to make t he c i
rcui
t u nstable ist hen tha
t b etween of the h.
t. l i
ne v o
ltage . T he g r
id b ias s hou ld b e s uch t hat

2
.
12
 VALVES

w
i th t h
is a node c ur ren t t hev alve w i l
l o pera te o n t hes t
raigh t
portion o f i ts c ha rac te r
is t
ic a nd w ill n eve r b e d riven i nto
g
rid c urren t; h enc e t h e b ias mu st a lway s b e g rea ter t han
a
bou t — 1 v o
l t
.
When at e
t rode o rp entode i se mp loyed t he s c
reen v oltage
w
ill b e s uch a s t o p rov ide t he c or re ct a node c ur ren t a t a
s
uitab le g rid b ias, t h e v oltage b eing g ene ra lly 1 0-30 p er
c
en to ft heh .t. l i
ne v oltage . At r
iode p rov ide sl e
sss tage g ain
t
h an a p en tode b ut i sc apab le o f h and ling l arge r i nput
v
ol tage s , a nd t h e s ucc eeding g rid l e
ak RL i n
to w hich i t F
ig. 2
.
14. Cathode f
ollo wer
.
d
elive rsi tso utpu tc an b eo fl owe rv alue t han i nt hec ase o fa
t
etrode o rp en tode . T his m ay b e i mpor tan t b ecau se t he g rid
l
eak i se fective ly i np a rallelw ith t hea node r esisto ra sr ega rds v
alues ofanode re
sis
tor(forexample, 4
700 ohms) theanode
t
he s igna l a nd h ence i tlower s th e s tage g ain . T he o ptimum v
oltage i
snear
ly equal t
otheh .
t. l
i
ne v
oltage a
nd th
ev a
lve i
s
v
alue o fg rid l e
ak i sd ep enden t o n t he s i
ze a nd t ype o fv alve t
hen o pe
rated near
ly at th
e makers' cl
ass A ra
tings
. T he
emp loyed . Ou tpu ts t
ag e ss hou ld n ota s ar ule h ave g rid l eaks s
t
age g a
in and output v
ol
tage aresmal
l, however
, due t
othe
h
i ghe r t han 1 00,000 o hms ( un les s t hey a re u sed w ith a uto- l
ow value ofth
e res
isto
rse mployed
.
ma tic b ias i nw hich c a se u p t o 5 00 ,000 o hms may b e u sed )
,
whe rea s s ma ll v alve s may u se a Megohm o r h ighe r
. T he
c
oup ling c apac ito r Ct o t he f ol
low ing v alve s hou ld h ave a C
athode F
ol
lower
s
r
eac tance o f n ot mo re t han o ne -ha lf t o o ne -quar te r o f the I
f avalve iso perated with t h
eo utpu tl oad connected t ot he
r
esis tance o ft heg r
id l eak a tt he l owe st f requency t ob e u sed. c
athode i nstead o ft ot hea node , the load isc ommon t ob oth
S
im i
la rly t h e d e coup ling c apac ito r s f or t he c a
thode a nd g
rid a nd a node c ircuits a nd t he a rrangemen t isc alled a
s
creen g rid mus t h ave a l ow r eac tance c ompar ed w i
th t he c
athod ef o
llowe r: seeF ig.2 .14. H ere t he inputv ol
tage V ,,is
a
sso ciated r esistor s. a
pp l
ied b etween g rid a nd e arth w h
ile th e output l oad Rh:
T he h igh- frequency p erfo rmance d epend s u pon t heo utpu t a
cro s
sw hich t h
eo utput vol tage V„ i sobtained, isc onnec ted
c
apac itance o f t he v alve , t he i npu t c apac i tance o f t he s uc- b
etwe en c athode a nd earth . I fa ta ny i ns
tan t Vo,i s made
c
eed ing v a
lve , t h e v alveho lde rs a nd t he w iring c apac itanc e
. more p osit
ive, t he grid po ten t
ial wil
l b ecome mo re p o s
itive
A
llo ft hese a pp ea ra ss hun tr e actance sa cro s st hea node r es
i s
- a
nd t h
e a node c urrent w i
ll i ncr
ease : h ence t he cathode
t
or ( which i ne fect i si t
self i np a ralle l w ith t h e anode i mpe- c
urrent w il
l i ncrease a nd t he i n
creased v o
ltage-drop a cross
d
anc e o ft he v alve ) a nd w i
ll l owe r t he r esul tan t o utpu t l oad Rh wil
l c au se V „
,, t o increa se in ap osi
tive d i
rection a lso.
i
mp edanc ea nd t h ereby r e duce t heg ain . F ora ud io f requenc ies Therefore t he o utpu t vol
tage i si n p hase w i
th t hea pplied
t
he v alue o ft hea node r e
sisto rs hou ld n ote xc eed IMegohm g
rid voltage : i.
e. it "fol
low s "t he inpu t vol
tage.
a
nd s hou ld p re ferab ly b e l e
ss. T he e fe ct o f t he s hun t The a mplificat
ion o f av alve isconce rned w ith thea pp l
ied
c
apac itance i s mo re d etrimen tal w hen t he v alve i s ap en tode v
oltage b e
tween g rid a nd c athode, a nd i n t h
e c athode
t
han w hen i ti s at r
iode b ecau se t he a node i mpedance o f a f
o
llowe r t h
i s voltage V , i s not V ,, b ut V ,
,, — V ,
„„
. T he
p
en tode i s much h ighe r. I n a dd ition t h e h ighe r o utpu t h
igher t he amp lif
ica t
ion o f t he v alve t h
e n ea rer Vu„
i
mpedance o f ap en tode make s i tu nsuitab le f or d riving a n a
pp roache s V,,,
. T he v o
ltage g a
in o ft he stage is
:
o
utpu t s t
age t hat i so pera ted i n a ny c ond i t
ion o the r t han
s
t
ric tly c lass A . T hese f acto rs i n dica te t ha t p en tode s ( or
t
e
trode s) a re mo re s uitab le f or t he e arly s tage s o f a mu lt
i- + R} (
1 +
s
tag e a mplifier, b u t i tisw ell t o b ear i nm ind t ha t t hey a re
i
nhe ren tly mo r e n oisy t han t r
iode s. where µ i sthe amp lification f ac
to r o ft he v a
lve a nd r ,ist he
When a g ood h .f
. r espon se i se ssen tial, a s i n w ide -band a
node i mpedance . I t ise viden t t hat t he s tage g ain mus t
v
ideo a mplifi ers, i ti su sua l t o e mp loy h i gh -slope p en tode s a
lway s b e le
sst han u n
ity,a lthough w hen i ti slarge a nd Rh i s
w
ith v e ry l ow v a
lue s o fa node r esis to r a nd g rid l eak , so t hat l
arge c ompa red w ith t h e a node i mpedance r ,t he g a
in i s
t
he s hun ting e fect o ft he c apac itance i sr e duced . W ith l ow n
ea r
ly u ni
ty. B ecau se t h e
re i sn o a ctua l g ain i n v ol
tage
amplitude ,th ec a
thode f ol
lowe rc an h ardly b er egarded a sa n
amplif
i er. Howeve r, t he c i
rcuit h as c ertain a dvan tageou s
p
rope rties, inc
lud ing a l ow o u
tpu t i mpedance ( f
rom a bou t
+HT + HT 5
0 t o several h undred o hm s), ah igh i nput i mpedance , l ow
d
istortion ( owing t o t he hi gh deg ree o f n ega tive f eedback
OUTPUT t
hrough Rh)a nd n egligible p ha se s hift
. One o f i t
s mo st
importan ta pplications i sa sa ni mpedance t ransforme rw here
avery w ide frequency r ange i srequired .
T
he l oad i nt he c athode l e
ad may b e ar e
sis tor
, at uned
I
NPUT c
ircuit o r al oaded t r
an sforme r, b ut i fat uned c ircui
t o r
t
ransfo rme r ise mp loyed a nd i fiti so p e
ra ted a tf requenc ies
R
L
of resonance t he i mpedance w i
l l fal
l a nd t he circuit w i
ll
c
ease t oa ct as ac athode f o
llowe r.
F
or ag iven v a
lve t h
e o ptimum l oad f or m inimum d istor-
(
a) (a
) t
ion ist hes ame i r
re spective o fw hethe rt he load i sc onnec ted
i
nt hea node o rt h
ec athode l e
ad, b uti nt he l a
tte rca se,i.e
. in
F
ig. 2
.
13. Basic res
istance-capac
itance coup
led amp
lif
ier:
(
a) tr
iode , (
b) tetrode or p
entode. t
he c athode f ollowe r, th e distort
ion a nd o utpu t i mpedance
2
.13
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
a
re lowe r than int he forme r
. I ti sal
so c onven ien t att imes c
ompa red w i th R „, the a node l oad i mpedance . O rdinarily
t
od ivide the lo
ad s ot hat p
arto ft heload i sint hea node a nd R2 m ay b e m ade e qua l to i t
.
.
p
art int he cathode circuit
. T his ar
rangemen t give s agreater The t wo c apac ito r
s C l a nd C 2 s erve a s d .
c. b locking
g
ain t han the true cathode f ol
lowe r and r esul
t s i n le
ss d i
s- c
apac ito rs
, b ut s ince t hey a re asso ciated w ith t he f e
edback -
t
ort
ion a nd lowe r output i mpedance t han t he c onventiona l d
ete rm ining r esisto rs R I a nd R 2 i tisi mpor tant t hat t he
amplif
ier arrangemen t. t
ime c onstan ts R IC 1 a nd R 2C2 s hou ld be made e qua l so as
I
f at e
trode or ap entode w ere used as ac athode f o
llowe ri t t
o ma in tain af l
at f requency r espon se.
w
ou ld b ehave as at r
iode b ecause its anode, like t he sc
reen , P
rov ided t hat t h e grid l eak 1 2
, isn ot low c ompa red w ith
would b e at ac onstan t p
oten t
ial
. T he relevant v alue
s o fµ R2 i tw i
ll n ot a fe ct the p erfo rmanc e. I n prac tice itc an be
a
nd r .( anode imp edance )are therefore those q uo ted fort he made a pprox ima te ly e qual t oR 2.
v
a
lve s c onnected as t r
iodes
. The i nput i mp edance o fa n a node f o
llowe r i sd eterm ined
b
y t he v a
lue o ft he s e
ries g r
id i mpedance r epre sented b yR I
.
Anode F
ol
lower
s Becau se i ng ene ral t he i npu t impedance i slow , say 5 0,000
ohm s, iti se ssen tia l that t he i mpedance o f the s ource f r
om
When av ol
tage a mp
lif
ierw i
th au niform g ain over awide
which a n a node f o
llowe r i sdriven i sr e
la t
ive ly l ow. T hi
s
f
r
equency r ange i sr equ
ired a nd w hen t he gain i sto be
would o fc our se b es oi fap reviou s amp l
ifying s tage w a
su sed
i
ndependen t of c hanges in supply v o
ltage s
, valve rep
lace-
b
ecau se this s tage w ould h ave tos upp ly an a dequa te o utput
ments
,e tc
.,itisc onvenienttou se t
hea nodef ol
lowerp r
incip
le.
v
oltage o fl ow d istor t
ion i n
to al oad o fv a
lue R I: av alve with
T
he a node f ol
lower c i
rcui
t i s essential
ly a s ing
le-
stage
a
n i mpedance o f t he o rde r of 1 0 p er cent o f R I w ould be
ampl
ifier inw hich a high degree ofn egative fe
edback f r
om
r
equ ired.
t
he anode tot h e gr
id isprovided. At ypical ar
rangemen t i
s
The o utpu t i mpedance i s1 000 ( n 1
)Ig„„ w here n i st h
e
s
hown i nF i
g. 2.15. H ere acalcula
ted f r
action oft heoutput
s
tage g ain w ith fe edback a nd g„,i sth e mutua lc onduc tance i n
m
i l
liamp ere s p er v olt.
The o u
tpu t l o
ad n eed n ot ber esistive ass hown . I fd es
ired
i
tc ould b e i nt h e fo rm o f as uitable c hoke o r t r
an sforme r
.

P
hase S
plit
ter
s
Whe re a p ush -pu l
l t ype o f amp lifier i s r equ ired t he
s
imp lest arrangemen t isu sually o ne b a sed o n t h e u se of a
c
entr e-
tapp ed d rivert ransforme r
. I fi tisp referred , h oweve r,
t
o u se a r e
sistanc e-capac itanc e c oup led d r
ive r s tage , some
i
ngenu ity isn eeded t o p roduce t h e t wo o ppo site ly p ha sed
d
riv
ing v o
ltage sf r om as i
ngle v alve. S eve ra
l dif e ren t ci
rcu it
a
rrangemen ts h ave b een d evised f or t h
i s purpo se, b u
t o nly
f
our o f t
h em a re describ ed h ere
. T hey a re a l
l k nown a s
p
hase -spl
itterc ircuits.
F
og. 2
.
15. Anode f
o
llower
. Pa raphase Amp lif
ier. I n t his a rrangemen t t wo s imila r
t
r
iode s are used, t he grid o f t he second v a
lve b eing d r
iven
f
rom t he anode o f the fi
rst v alve t o produce t h e o ppo s
itely
v
oltage isi n
jected i
n
to the grid circui
t by ap o
tential d
ivider p
ha sed o u
tpu t. T he basic circuit iss hown i nF ig. 2 .16, H e re
c
on s
isting o f the t
wo resis
to rs R I a nd R2. T he efec t of V
I i san ormalr es
istanc e-capac itanc ec oup led v oltage a mp li-
t
h
i sfeedback i storeduce thes t
age g a
in to ava
lue atw hich it f
i
er, i t
so u
tpu ta ppearing a cros sR I a nd R 2i nserie s;t h
iss up -
i
sa lmo s
t i n
dependent ofa ny variations inthe a mp
lif
ication p
l
ieso ne phase o ft heo utpu t. T hep ar to fthisw hich a ppea rs
a
c
tua lly p roduced b y the v a
lve. T hus
, ift he st
age g a
in a
cro ss R 2 dr
ive s t he second v alve V 2 w h
ich a l
so a c t
s a s a n
w
ithou tfeedback isA, th
ee fect
ive g a
in with f
eedback d ue to r
.
c.c oupled voltage amp lif
i era nd supp lie st heo ppo site pha se.
R
I a nd R 2 i s
: The r a
tio ofR I t o R 2 isa d
jus ted s o t hat (R 1 + R 2)
/R2 i s
R2 e
qua l tot hev ol
tage g a
in o fV 2, and R I +R 2 ism ade e qua l
n

R1 ±
+HT
.

where t h
e resistance s are exp ressed i n o hm s. F rom t h
is
PUSH- PULL
f
ormu la itisa ppa rent tha
t espec ially w hen A i sl arge the OUTPUT
g
ain depend s main ly ont heratio R 2/R 1.
I
n ap ract
icale xamp le,ifthef requency c ha racteri
s t
ic ofa n
amplif
ier wi
thou t f eedback w ere s uch t hat t he gain f el
l b y
,
s
ay, 20d b ate i
the re nd oft h
e f requency r ange , t
his d iminu-
t
ion ing a
in could b er educed to amuch s maller amoun t
,e .g
.
3
-5 db b y the u se o f t
he anode f ollowe r p rinciple. A t the
s
ame t ime, howeve r, the maximum g ain w ould b e l owered
f
rom p erhaps 200 t os omething l es
s t han 1 0
.
Wh i
le itisther atio ofR 2toR I t hatm a
in ly determ ine sthe
amoun t of fe
edback , they shou ld b o
th b e reasonab ly h igh F
ig. 2
.
16. P
araphase A mp
lif
ier
.

2
.
14
 VALVES
t
oR 3
. T hen t he outpu t v o
ltage so fb oth v a
lve sw il
l b ee qual +H
a
nd o pposite. T he o pe rating c ondit
ion s for e ach v a
lve a re
R
o PUSH- P
ULL
c
a
lcu lated i nt he same w ay as f or vo
ltage a mplif
i ers b ut the OUTPUT
v
alues o f R I and R 2 a re cr
itical a nd ar e chosen t o suit the
v
oltage g a
in . Ac ommon c a
thode r e
sistorc an b eu sed a nd i t
s V
I
v
alue s hould b e half t hat for e ach v a
lve a lone. T he b ypa ss
c
apacito r may b e om itted w ith s ome l osso fb alance b e
tween
t
he two p ha ses att he h igher f r
equenc ies.
S
pl
it-load P hase I n
ver ter. T his typ e uses as i
ng le v alve
Vs
ig C
I
h
aving h a
lf t he load i n t h
e a node c i
rcu i
t a nd h alf i n the
c
athode c ircuit asshown i nF ig.2 .17. T he t wo load r esistors
a
reR I and R 2
. W ith r e
spec tt ot hel oad int h
ea node c ircuit
t
hev alve a c
t sas an orma l v o
ltage a mplif
ier, b utw ith r espect
t
ot hel oad i nthec a
thode l e
ad i tbehave sa s at ype o fc a
thode
f
o
llowe r
. S ince the c urren t in b oth l oads i st h
e s ame, t he F
ig. 2
.
11I
. Cathode
-coup
led p
hase s
plitter
.
v
oltage sar ee qual ifR I = R 2a nd R 3 = R 4, but b ecau se of
t
he large n egative feedback t hrough R 2 the g ain i sr educed g
a
in i sa bou t 25 per cent o ft hat o b
tainable f or e
ach t r
iode
n
early t o u ni
ty. S ince t h e rat
io o f the f e
edback v oltage t o when used a s anorma lresistance -capac i
tance c oupled amp li-
f
i
er. T he o pe
rating cond ition s c an b e determ ined for each
HT t
r
iode b ya ssum ing ana node l o ad r es
istance of1 2
, 2
Rb and
acathode -bias res
istance o f2 14 . T he value of Re should b e
R
I a
pp roxima tely 4R5.
Anode -fo
llowe r Parapha se Amp lif
ier. Ifa na node fol
lowe r
i
sde s
igned t oh ave ahigh d egree o ff e
edback ,t hegain willb e
PUSH- u
nity and t heo utput wil
l b ee qua l inv o
ltage b ut opposite in
PULL p
has e to the input
. As u
itab le c ircuit isshown i nFig. 2.19.
OUTPUT A
s i nth e anode fol
lowe rc i
rcuit ( F
ig. 2.15), ifRI = R 2 a nd
Vs
i
g C
l =C 2 and i fthe voltage g ain w ithou t feedback i sv ery
h
igh, the gain isu n
ity. T he o utpu ts have i mpedance s d
if er-
i
ng to some e xtent becau se o ne o utput has av a
lue equa l to
t
he sourc e impedance o f V „
„a nd t he other ise qual t
o 2 /g..
T
he c i
rcui tconstants ared erived a sf ora na node fol
lowe r
.
F
ig. 2
.
17. Sp
lit
-load p
hase i
nverter
.

+H
.T.
t
he o utpu t v o
ltag e i sR 2/
(R 1 + R 2)
, a nd s ince R I =R2 t he
f
eedback r atio i s0.5. I no therw ord s
, a n i npu t s i
gna l 1 1, of C2
1voltw il
l p roduce a no u
tpu to f 1v ol
ta cro ssb oth a node a nd
P
USH -PULL
c
athode l oads. B ecause o f th e f eedback d eve loped a c ross R2 OUTPUT
C
I
R2, the o utpu t i mpedanc e inr egard t o R 1 w ill b e increa sed
whi
le t h
eo u
tpu ti mp edance i nr ega rd t oR 2w il
lb ed ecrea sed, R
I
a
nd t he s ource i mp edan ce from w hich t he s ub sequen t p ush-
p
ullv alve sa ret oo pera te wil
lt h erefo re beu nba lanced . H ence Vs
ig
t
h
i s type o fp ha se s pl
itte rs hould n ot b e us ed i fth ep ush -pu l
l
s
tage i sd riven i n
to g r
id c urren t a ta ny t ime o r i so pe ra ted
u
nde ra ny c ondi t
ion o the r than s trictly cl assA . T he o pe rat-
i
ng c ondi tions s hou ld b e determ ined a s i ft he v alve w ere
working a sa n RC c oup led amp l
ifie rw ith R 2 om i
tted a nd R I F
ig. 2
.
19. Anode
-fo
llo wer p
araphase amp
lif
ier
.
t
wice t he v alue a ctua lly u sed. T he e fec tive o utpu t vo ltage
w
ill be h alf the v alue s o obtained . R
ect
ifier
s
The a node v o
l tag ei smea sur ed w ith r e
sp ectt ot hec a
thode , I
f ad iode i sc onnec ted i ns er
ies with a resi
s tor a cross a n
n
ott hee arth c onnec tion . a
.c. supp ly t he d iode w i
ll c onduct current only i no ne direc-
Cathode -coupled P has e S p
litter. I n this a rrangemen t t wo t
ion and ap ulsating d .c. v o
ltage acrosst heresi
s torw i l
l result
s
imilar t r
iode s a re u sed , the inpu t being a pplied t o the g rid f
rom e ach p ositive half-cyc le oft h
es upply tot hea node . I fa
o
fo ne o ft hetriode s w h i
le thes econd v a
lve r eceive si t
sd rive l
arge c apac itor i sc onnec ted a cross t h
e r e
sisto r itw ill b e
f
rom ac oup ling r e
sisto r Re int hec ommon c athode l oad : s ee c
ha rged d uring a d .
c. p ulse a nd maintain a v oltage ( fal
ling
F
ig.2 .18. When t heg r
id p otentia lo ft hef i
rstv alve V I s wing s s
omewha t d ue t o discha rge t hrough t he res
isto r) u nt
il t he
p
o s
itively t he c urren t t h
rough V I i ncrea se s a nd t he v oltage n
ex t puls e o ccur s ac ycle l a
ter. Sma ll diodes a re u sed f or
a
tt he p oin t Gb ecome s mo re p o si
tive w ith r e
spec t toe ar th; s
ignal r ectif
i cation a nd g rid-bias s upplie
s, w h
ile l a
rge r
i
.
e. thee ar th line b e come s mo re n ega tive w ith r espect t ot he d
iode s ar e used f or h.
t. s upplies
.
p
oint Ga nd theg rid o fV 2w h
ich i sc oupled t oe arth through I
n ap rac tica l powe r s upply the res
istor isr eplaced b y t he
i
t
s c apacito r C I c ons equen tly b ecome s mo re n ega t
ive w ith o
u tput l o
ad , a nd t o o btain t he max imum e f
ic
iency t he
r
espe c
t t o i t
s cathode . T he t wo g rid s thu s o pe rate ino ppo - f
orwa rd r esistance o ft hed iode mu stbes mal
lc ompa red w i
th
s
i
te p hase s. T he o utpu t s a
re ta ken f rom t h e t wo a node s a nd t
he r e
sistanc e oft he load . Al ow forwa rd res
i stance i sa l
so
a
re b alanced i n amp litude a nd i mpedance , a nd t he v oltage e
ssentialf o rg ood regulat ion o ftheoutpu tv o
ltag e,r egulation

2
.
15

•• I
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
i
nt his con text b e
ing t hc degree tow hich the o u
tpu t v ol
tage s
igna l r ectifier si nr e
ceive rsa nd i n mon ito ring a nd m easu ring
i
su naf f
ected b y the curren t load. One w ay of d es
ign ing a e
qu ipmen t.
r
ect
ifierv a
lve w ith al ow forwa rd res
istance i stofil
lt hed iode Diode D ete ctors. T he c ircuit o f ac onven tiona l d iode
b
ulb w ith m e rcury v apou r o r xenon . T he v oltage -drop d
etec to r iss hown i n F ig. 2 .20. An i ncom ing u nmodu lated
a
cro ss am ercu ry
-vapour r ec
tifier isa lmo s
t i n
dependen t of c
ar r
ie r Va l, produc es as teady d .c. v oltage a cro ss t he l oad
c
urren t v ariation s and i s o nly a bou t 1 5 volts
. This is RL t her .f
.c omponen to ft her ect
ified c arrie rb eing b y-pa ssed
c
on s
ide rably l ower than t hat ofa ny h igh-vacuum r ectif
ier. b
y t he c apac itor CL. When t he c ar rie r i s modu la ted t he
The cathode o f agas
-fi
lled rectif
ier mu stb eallowed t ime to i
nstan taneou s v oltage a cro ss RL v arie s i n a cco rdance w ith
a
t
ta in i t
s p rop er operating t emp erature b efore t he a node t
he amp litude v a r
iation o f t he c ar rie r a nd a t t he s ame
v
oltage i sa pplied. T his i sabsolutely e s
sen t
ial. F ailure t o f
requency a s t he modu la tion . T hu s, ac a rr
ie r w h
ich i s
o
b serve t h
i s requiremen t w i
ll r e
sult int he dis
integ ration o f modu la ted b y a1 000 cist one w illp roduc e a1 000 c /sv oltage
t
hec a
thode b y i on
ic b omba rdmen t
. I ns ome t ypeso fe quip- a
cro ss RL. T he s hunt c apac ito r CL i ss uf icien tly s ma l
l t o
ment, au toma t
ica l
ly d e
layed h .t. swi
tch ing isp rovided a s a h
ave n op erc ep t
ible e fecta ta udio f requenc ie s. T he c oup ling
s
afegua rd a gain st ca
relessness o fthe o perator. c
apac ito r Co i si n
cluded t op rovide d . c.i s
ola tion b etween RL
The u se o f d iodes a s p owe r r e
ctifie
r s is desc r
ibed i n a
nd a ny c ircu itc onne c
ted t ot h ed ete cto ro utpu t, s uch a sa n
Chap ter 17( Powe r Supplies)
. a
.f. amp lifie r
. T o o b
tain a h igh d eg ree o f e f
iciency RL
s
hou ld b e h igh c ompa red w ith t he i mpedance o ft h e diode,
which i nt he c ase of an orma l d iode v arie s f rom a bou t 200
No
ise D
iodes
ohm s f or l ow -impedance t elevision t ype s t o a bou t 1 0,000
I
f ad iode i so perated i n ac ondition w he re thee m
i s
sion is ohm s f or t hose i n
corpo ra ted i n mu ltip le v alve s s uch a s
t
emp e rature -l
im ited, t h
e a node c ur rent w ill con tain a c om- doub le -diode t r
iode s.
p
onen t of n oise w hich i sr e adi
ly c alcu lable. T he f requency Ad iode d etecto rw il
lc ause d i
stortion i ft h e s i
gna l v oltage
s
pectrum o ft he n o
ise w ould b e inf
in ite u nless itw as li m
ited a
pp lied t o i ti stoo l ow — say l e
ss than 1 0 v olts p eak —o r if
a
t t he h i
ghe r frequenc ies b y the s hun t capac i
tance o f the t
h e i mpedanc e of th e circu it f o
llow ing i ti sn ot h igh c om-
v
alve a nd i t
s h oldera nd b y t heelectron t r
an s
it-time b etween p
a red w ith t he d iode l o ad. I n F ig. 2 . 20, t he c omb ined
t
he c athode a nd t he anode . i
mpedance o f t he a.f
. o u tpu t c ontro l a nd t he a .f. amp l
ifie
r
T he n oise o u
tpu t isc ontro lled bya d
ju s
tmen to ft hea node s
hou ld b e a tl east 10t ime s t hat o ft he d .c. l oad , R L.
c
urren t. T hi si sachieved ,w h
ile ma in taining th et empe rature Leaky -g rid D etectors. T he o pe ra tion o f al eaky -g r
id
l
imited c ond ition , by v ariation o fc athode t empe rature . A d
etec to r iss omewha t comp lex b utc an b est b ec onside red a s
d
irect ly hea ted p ure tung sten f i
lamen ti sused and t hef i
lamen t a
na logous t o that o f ad iode f ollowed b y ad irect-coup led
c
urren t a djusted t o give t h e requir ed a node c urren t
. An amp lifie r
, i .
e
. o ne inw hich t he g r
id o f t he amp l
ifie r isc on-
i
ndir ectly-hea ted c athode o r ac oa ted o r thoriated f i
lamen t n
e cted d i
r ec t
ly t ot hea node o ft hediode d etec to r. T he a ction
c
anno t b e u sed s ince t h
e e m
issive p rope rt
ie s w ould b e c
an c onven ien tly b ei lustra ted b yr eference t oF ig.2 . 21. H e
re
d
estroyed b y o peration i n at emp e ratu re-
lim i
ted c ondition. t
hree e qu iva len t arrang emen t s ofa n o rd ina ry d iode d etector
Noise d iode s a r
e s pecially d es
igned f or t he p urpo se of c
i
rcu it a re s hown a t A , Ba nd C , th e f irst b eing s imilar t o
n
oise g ene ration a nd i f r equired f o
r u .h.f
. c ircuits t hey t
ha t s hown i nF ig. 2.20 ; i na ny o ft h em t he r ectified o utput
a
re f requen tly o fcoax ial con s
truction . c
an b e t aken f rom t he o ppo site e nd s o f t he l oad r esistance
R. I ft h e d iode i sreplaced b y the g rid a nd c athode o f an
D
etector
s o
rd ina ry t r
iode , as inD , t he a rrang emen t b ecome s al e
aky-
g
rid d etec to r,t heg r
id n ow b eing i ne f ec tt h ed iode a node . In
I
n ar e
ceiver t he de
tector s e
rves to rect
ify or demodu late t
his c i
rcu i t
,t hel oad r e
sistance RL i sk nown a st he g rid l e
ak:
t
he in
com ing carrier
. I fthec arr
ieri s modulated with s
pe ech i
fp re ferred i tmay b ec onnec ted a cro sst her eservo irc apac ito r
o
r vis
ion s ignals it must be demodu lated ino rder toextract CL i nstead o f b e
tween g rid a nd c athode w i thou t a fecting
t
he modu lation signals f
rom i t
. Ifthec arr
ieri sunmodu lated,
a
si ntelegraphy , itisnecessary tom ix with itanotherc arr
ier
o
f sl
igh t
ly d iferent fr
equency , usually generated b y al oca
l
o
sci
llator ( known a s the beat frequency o sc
illa
to r
) and t o
r
e
c t
ify the m ix
tu re and thus produc ea n audible beat n
ote or
h
eterodyne i n the loudspeake r. A v ariety of valve cir
cu i
t
a
r
rangemen tsa rec ommon ly u sed fort h
is purposea nd some
o
f t he
se a r e des c
ribed b elow. D iode s are also used a s

CL

F
ig. 2
.20
. A c
onvent
iona
l d
iode d
etector
. F
ig. 2
.21. Der
ivat
ion o
f t
he l
eaky
-gr
id d
etector
.

2
.
16
 VALVES
t
he mode o f o peration. Any d . c. v oltage d evelop ed a c
ro ss
t
he g rid l e
ak b y t he r ectif
ica t
ion o f a modu lated o r a n
unmodu lated s ignal w i
ll t hus c on stitute a n egative b ias f o
r
t
he grid a nd t he a node c urren t int he t r
iode w i
ll fall
. I ft he
c
arrier i s modu lated, t his b ias w ill v ary i na c
co rdance w i th
t
he modu la t
ion s ignal a nd s o l i
kew ise w i
l l thea node c u
rren t
v
ary. An e xce s
sively s t
rong s igna lw illt end t ob ias t h
e v a
lve
b
eyond t hec ut
-offp oint, a nd t her efo re al eaky -grid d e
tecto r
c
easest ofunc tion s a
tisfac to r
ily w hen t h
ei npu t vol
tage i st oo
g
reat. T o o vercome t his l imitat
ion , t hep owe rg rid d e
tec tor
was in
t roduc ed. T his i ss ubstan tially t he s ame a rrangemen t
e
xcep t that i te mploy s at r
iode h av ing al owe r amp lif
ication
F
ig. 2
.22
. E
ssent
ial c
ircu
it o
f a
n i
nf
inite
-i mpedance d
etector
.
f
actor a nd t hat i to pera tes w ith a g reater h .t
. v oltage; t he
v
alve t hus h a s al onge r g rid b a se a nd c ons equen tly i tc an
a
ccep t al arge rinpu tw hile sti
llo pe rating a s ad irect-coup led
c
apac ito r C . large e nough t o h ave a l ow r eactance a t b o th
amplif
i ero n t helinea rp ar to fi t
sc ha racte rist
ic. H enc eth ere
f
requenc ie s
. T he r ectified o utpu t i s a vailab le a cro ss t he
i
sl e
ss disto r
tion b ut gene ra l
ly l e
s s s ensitivity becaus e oft he
r
esistance Rk a nd i ss upp l
ied t o t he a .f
. amp lifier th rough a
l
owe rg ain.
f
i
lter c ir
cu it c omp r
i sing C .R. a nd C ,R ,
. S uch a f i
lte r is
T
he r .
f
.c arr
ieri so fc ourse a mplif
ied b y th
e n orma l tr
iode g
ene ra l
ly n ece ssary b ecau se t he re may b e q ui te a n a pp reci-
a
ction a nd w i
lla ppear int hea node c i
rcu i
t. Bya pply ing s ome a
ble c ar r
ie r v oltage r ema in ing a cro ss Rk d espite t h ee fec t of
o
ft hise ne rgy inth e form o fp osit
ive f e
edback ( i
.e. r eact
ion) Ca. T he r esistor R . may b e rep laced a dvan tageou s
ly b y a n
t
o the r esonan t ci
r cuit conne cted b e
tween t he g r
id a nd the r
.
f.c hoke i fthe re i sad im in ished r espon se att heh ighe ra ud io
c
athode , al e
aky -grid detecto r can be m ade to oscillate
. I n f
requenc ie s
.
t
h
is w ay i tcan be u sed for the r e
ception o fc.w. t e
leg raphy. The r esisto r Ra s hou ld h ave a h igh v alue c ompa red w i th
To preven t overload ing a nd o ther h armful effects i n sub- t
her eciproca l o ft he mu tua lc onduc tance o ft hev a
lve . S ince
s
equen t a .f. amp l
ifier c i
rcuits, t he r.f
. c omponen t i n the f
or mo stv a
lve st hisi so ft heo rde ro f1 00- 1000 o hms ,s u
i tab le
d
etecto r a node c ircuit mu s
t b e b ypass ed to ea rth b y a v
alue s f or 1 , w il
l b e f ound i n t h e r ange 1 0
,000- 100 ,000
s
uitable c apacitance i ncomb ina tion with ar es
istor o ra n r.
f. o
hm s.
c
hoke . T
he g ain o fs uch ad etec to r, l ike t hat o fc athode f o
llowe r
Te
trodes or pentode s can b
e s ubs
titu
ted for t
r
iodes in c
i
r cuits, w ill be l ess t han u ni
ty a nd o ft hes ame o rde ra st hat
l
e
aky -gr
id detec
tor circui
ts, a
l
though s ome dif
icu
lties m
ay o
f ad iode , b ut o wing t ot h e ve ry h igh i npu t i mpedance a nd
b
e e ncountered in a vo
iding threshold howl w hen the t
he much s malle r d amp ing e fe ct o n t he i npu t c i
rcu it t he
s
e
lf-osc
illa
ting cond
ition i sr
equir
ed f o
r c.w
. re
cept
ion. a
ctua l g ain w ill b e a pp reciab ly g r eate r th an t ha t of ad iode .
A node-bend D etectors
. T h
is t ype o fd e
tec to
r d epend s fo
r I
n t he s imp le s
t c ase —a d etec to r o pe rating d irec t
ly f rom a n
i
t
sa ct
ion o n th
ec urvature int hea node -cur ren
t/g r
id-voltage a
erial —a s t
ep -up o f s ignal v oltage f rom t h e a erial i nto t he
(
4/V ,) characterist
ic. I f av a
lve i sbia sed n ear
ly t o cut-off g
r
id o ft hes ame o rde ra st hata ch ieved i n
to a n r .f
. amp lify ing
a
nd a n a.c
. input i sapplied t o t he grid, t he negat
ive h alf
- s
tage w il
l b e o b tained .
c
ycle w il
l d r
ive t he grid mo re n egative a nd o n
ly a s mal
l I
np rac tic e ad etec tor c i
rcu it i nw hich t hec athode l oad Rk
c
hange i n anode c ur
rent w il
l o ccur, w hereas t he posit
ive s 2
i 5
,000 o hms a nd R . + R ,2 50 ,000 o hms w ith a n i npu t o f
h
alf-cycle w i
ll d r
ive t he g r
id mo re p os
itive a nd c ause a t
he o rder o f 10 v ol
ts r .m.s. w i
ll p roduce a t otal h armon ic
c
on s
ide rable increase i n anode c urr
en t. A v alve h aving a d
istortion n ot e xceed ing 3p er c en t a t 1 00 p er c en t modu la -
s
hort g r
id b a
se a nd the sharpe s
t p ossible b ottom b end i nit
s t
i
on . I npu tso fl ess t han a bou t 5v oltst os uch ad etec to ra re
c
harac ter
istic s
hou ld be c hosen. T he v alve may b e coupled n
ot a dv ised s inc e t he d isto rtion i n crea sesa tl ow i npu t l evels.
t
o t he n ext stage b y a ny m ethod a pplicable t o v ol
tage T
he v a
lue o f Ck mu stn o
tb em ade t oo s malls ince t hev alve
amplifie
rs. would t h en a ppea r a s an ega tive r esistance t o t h e t uned
As inthe case o
ft h
e leaky-grid de
tector
, the ou
tput con- c
i
rcu it,t h ereby c au s
ing i nstability o ra tl easts uch a ni ncr ea se
t
a
insa n amp l
ified r
.
f
. vol
tage a tth
ec arr
ierfrequency a
nd the i
n th e Qo f t he c oil t hat t h e sideband s w ould b e restric ted
c
i
rcuitc an be made toosci
llate byfeeding back s
ome oft h
is owing t o t he i ncrea sed s elec t
iv ity . As uitab le v a
lue f o r Ca,
r
.
f. energy from the anode to the gr
id ci
rcuit, a
nd c.w
. r e
- a
ssum ing t hat Rk i sa bou t 2 5,000 o hm s, i s2 50-500 p F f or
c
ept
ion i sth
ereby made possible w
ithouttheu seof as
eparate acar r
ie r f r
equency o f 1Mc /s
.
o
sci
llator.
I
nf
inite-imp edance D etecto rs
. I fan a node -bend d e
tector is Osc
illa
tor
s
r
earranged i ns uch a m anne r that t
h e outpu t load isi nt he An o sc
il
latori susua lly ac lass Ca mplif
ierw hich obtainsi t
s
c
athode l ead oft hevalve instead o fthea node l ead, theresult g
rid e xci
tation f rom i t
s o wn o utpu t circui t and e mploys
i
s at ype o f c a
thode f o
llowe r
. T he i npu t i mpedance i s e
i
the r a n inductance -capac itance t uned c i
r cuit or aq uartz
e
xtreme ly high o wing tot he 1 00 pe
rc ent nega t
ive feedback , c
rystal as the f
requency -dete rmin
ing e lemen t.
a
nd b ecau se o f th
is the a rrang emen t isr efer
red t o as a n Ifthe value oft he neu tral
izing c apacito rC „inF ig. 2.
12 is
i
nf
in i
te -impedance d etecto r
. F ig. 2
. 22 s how s the essential i
ncreased t o ah igh v alue c ompa red w ith t h e g
rid-to-anode
c
i
r cuit
. T he modu lated c arrier isapp l
ied b e
twe en grid and c
apacitance , th
is circuit w il
l readily o sci
llate, a nd in fact i
t
e
arth, t h
e o utput l o
ad I lk b e
ing in t he c a
thode l e
ad. T he b
ecome st hebasic H artley oscil
latorc i
rcuit. I fthe amoun tof
l
oad i sb ypa ssed b y ac apac itor C, w hich s hould h ave a f
eedback t hrough C „ ist oo s mal
l ( i
.e. ifthe re isinsuffi
cient
r
eactance w hich islow att hec arrierfrequency b uthigh att he e
xcitat
ion )
, as mall i n
crea se in load may t e nd to throw t he
modu la t
ion f requency. T he a node i sa l
so b ypassed with a c
i
rcu i
t o ut of osc
illation , w hereas i fiti stoo l arge the grid
2
.
17
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO MMUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
ur rentw il
l bee xcessive ly h igh a nd there w ill b e aw astage o f i
sno
ts inusoida
li twi
llgenerate odd a
sw ellaseven harmonics
p
owe r int he grid circu it. o
fit
so wn nominalo utputfrequency. T hus
, iftheinput toa
An i mpo r
tan t c on sidera tion i n o scillato r d esign i s p
ush-pu sh mul
tipl
ier w e
re 3.5 Mc /s and the anode circu
it
f
requency s tability. T he p rincipa l factors t hatc ause c hange s w
ere tuned to 7 Mc/s
, the output wou
ld c ons
ist mo s
tly ofa
i
nf r
equency a re( a
)t empe ratu re,( b
)a node v oltage, ( c
)l oad- 7Mc/sc omponent but i
tw ould al
so contain re
lat
ively weak
i
ng, a nd ( d) m echan ical v ariations o f t he t uned-c ircuit h
armon ics of 1
4, 21
, 28, 35 Mc/s
. T her
e w ould be no
c
omponen ts
. T empe ra ture v ariation w i
ll c hange t h
e v alve 1
0
.5 or 1 7
-5 Mc/s componen ts.
c
apac itance s b y c ausing e xpan s
ion o r c on trac t
ion o f the
e
lectrode a ssemb ly a nd w i
ll a lso a l
te r t he i nductance a nd
c
apac itance o f t he c omponen ts i n t he t uned c ircuit; t he F
requency C
hanger
s
r
esu l
tan t c hange i n f requency i sc a
lled d rift
. A c hange i n
For aNal‘c t oa c t as af requency c hange ri tg ene ral
ly o pe r
-
a
node v oltage w il
l c hang e t he p owe r l evel i n t he c i
rcu i
t,
a
tes o ver an on -linea r p art o fi t
s c harac teristic. T hi
s i mp lies
r
esu l
ting i n ac hange i nt emp e rature a nd a l
so ac hange i nt he
t
hatt h ep roce ssi ss imila rt os igna l d etec tion ,a nd i nf acta ny
e
f ective v alve c apacitance . Many o f t hese e fec
ts c an b e
t
ype o fv alve t ha t will o pe ra te a s ad etec tor w i
ll o perate a sa
r
educed b y using a t uned c i
rcu it ofh igh e f
iciency ( high Q )
f
requency c hange r. I td oe s n ot f o
llow f r
om t h
i s that a ny
a
nd al ow L /C r atio ( h
igh C ),a nd thec i
r cuit s hould b e o nly
s
uch v alvesw ill b ee ff
icien t. T he e ssen tialr equ iremen ti st hat
l
i
gh tly lo aded.
a
n i npu t s igna l o f f r
equency f i sa pp lied t oge the r w i
th a
There a re p robab ly mo re c i
rcuit a rrangemen ts f o
r o sci
l-
h
ete rodyn ing v oltage o ff requency j .a nd o fs uch a mp l
itude
l
a
to rs th an f or a ny o ther v a
lve a pplication a nd t h
e se a re
t
hat i ts wing so ve r an on -
linea rp arto ft hec ha rac ter
i s
tic a nd
mo re a pprop riately d ealt w ith i n t h
e v ar
iou s c hap ters
p
roduc es s um a nd d if erence f requenc ies11 +12 a nd /I — f2
d
esc ribing t ransm i
tter s a nd r eceivers.
i
nt heo utpu tc ircui t
. T he o ve rallv oltage g ain o f af r
equency
c
hange r (i.e. t h e r atio o f i .
f
. v o
ltage o u
tpu t t o r .
f. s i
gna l-
F
requency Mu
ltip
liers v
oltage i npu t) i sk nown a st he c onve rsion g ain, a nd t he r atio
F
requency mu l
tipl
iersare des
igned int he same w ay asr.f o
f t h e b eat -frequency c omponen t o f f requency A - js o r
amplif
iers for c l
ass C o pe
ration b ut the anode c i
rcuit is 1 +1 ,i nt heo utpu tc urren tt ot hei npu tv ol
tage o ff r
equency
t
uned t o ah armon ic (
i.
e. as imple mu ltip
le) o f the gr
id- i
sk nown a st h e conve r s
ion c onduc tance ( g,) a nd i su sua lly
c
ircuit frequency. B ecause of th
i s diference i n resonant s
tated i nm icroampe res p er v olt.
f
requency n eutral
izat
ion i s not n ormally r equired
. T he S
inc e the p rimary p urpo se o f f r
equency c onve rs
ion i n a
ef
iciency a t
tainable ishardly eve
r l i
kely to e xceed 50 per c
ommun ica tion s r eceive r i st oc onver t t he hi gh f r
equency o f
c
ent a nd itdim in
ishes as t
he order of harmon ic mu l
tipl
ica- t
he i ncom ing s igna l c ar r
ie r t o a mo re c onven ient l owe r
t
ion increases
, a sshown int h
e typ
ica l f
igures given her
e: f
requency , i ti so nly t h
e d if erence f r
equency t hat iso f a ny
i
n
te re st. T o p roduce ad if erence f requency , t h e h e
terodyne
Ha
rmonic . 2 3 4 5
o
scillato r f r
equency 13 c an , i n p rinc ip le, b e c ho sen e ithe r
Ef
ici
ency (%
) 5
0 4
0 3
0 2
0
h
ighe ro rl owe rt han t hes igna lf r
equency a nd s t
il
ly ield t he
I
f the o rde r o f h armon ic mu l
tiplicat
ion r equired i sa n s
ame r e
su l
t,b u tf o
rv ariou sr e
a son sc onnec ted w ith f r
equency
e
ven n umbe r and i ft he o utpu t o btainab le f rom as ing le s
tability a nd t uning r ange i ti sc u stoma ry t o make f , h ighe r
v
alve isb arely a dequa te, ac onven ien t arrangemen t ist ou se t
han j ,i nh .
f. r eceive rs a nd l owe r t h an f i nv .h.f. receive r s
.
t
wo v alves c onnec ted i n push -pu sh. I n t his m ethod t wo Gene rally t he s igna l v ol tage s hou ld b e s ma ll c ompa red
i
dent
ica l v
a lvesh ave th e
ir g
rid sd riven i no ppo site pha ses( as w
ith t heh ete rodyn ing v oltag e:t his i su sua lly t hec ase becau se
i
nt h
e p ush -pullc ircuit) but their a node s arej oined t oge the r t
hef requency c hange ri sn ece ssa rily o ne o ft h ee arly stage si n
a
nd are t r
ea ted a si fthey w ere as ing
le a node : s ee F
ig. 2 .23. t
he r ec e
ive rc ircu it.
The anode c i
rcui t receives t w
ice a s m any p ulse s in ag iven The v oltage g ain o f af requency c hange r i sa pp rox ima te ly
t
ime ast he p ulses produced i ne ithe roft h
e g rid s, and i fi tis e
qua l t o t he c onve rsion c onduc tance mu ltip lied b y t he
t
uned t otwice t hef requency o ft heg r
id c ir
cu iti twil
ld eve lop d
ynam ic r esistance o f the i .
f. t ran s fo rme r p r
ima ry. P rope r
avol
tage o ft wice t he input frequency . Au sefu l outpu t c an
a
l
lowance mu st b e made i n c alcu la ting t he Q a nd t he
b
e o b
ta ined a t h ighe r even-orde r h armon ics ( 4
, 6 ,8 . )
, s
e
lec tiv i
ty o f t he i .
f. t ran sforme r f or t he a node -ca thode
a
l
though o fd iminishing amp litude . T he p ush -pu sh a rrange - i
mpedance o ft hev a
lve i ns hun tw ith t h ep rima ry . I fiti sn ot
ment isinhe rently i ncapable o fp roduc ing o dd h armon ics o f p
o ssible t om ea su re t h ec onve r sion c onduc tance , t h
e g ain o f
t
he inputf requency , but ofc ou rse s i
nce i t
so utpu t w ave fo rm t
he s tage may b e c a
lcu lated a s i fi tw ere a n i .
f
. a mplifier
o
pe ra ting a tt hes ame p o
in t,a nd a s ar ough g uide t heg ain a s
afrequency c hang er w ill b e a bou t h alf t he i .
f
. g a
in .
The b asic t ype s o ff requency -change rc i
rcu it a re desc r
ibed
b
elow .
D
iode F requency C hange rs. A d iode may b e used a s a
f
requency c hange r
, at ypica lc ircu itb e
ing s hown i nFig.2 .24.
The t hree c i
rcu i ts o pe rating a tt h e s igna l f r
equency ( A), t he
+H T
, l
ocal h e
te rodyne o scillato r f r
equency ( j
2) a nd t h e outpu t o r
i
n
te rmed ia te f requency ( A - 12) r esp ectively a re a l
l c on-
n
ected i ns erie s w ith t he d iode . Ar esistive l oad Rk i sa l
so
G
.B
c
onne cted i n s eries t o p reven t t h e d iode f rom a ct
ing a s a
s
ho rt-circu it t oa ny o ft he t uned c ircu itsa nd a lso t oproduce
F
ig. 2
.23
. The p ush-push f
requency mu lt
ip l
ier. The circu
it produces
as uitab le b ia s f or d e
te rm in ing t h e o perating p o
int o n t he
o
nly even- mu
ltiple har monics: odd- multiple frequenc
ies t
end to be
a
uto matical
ly cancelled o ut. c
ha rac teristic. T he i mpedance p re sen ted t oa ny o ft he three
2
.
18
 VALVES
i
.
f
. output ist a ken from t he a node c i
rcuit, while in some
S
I GNAL
FREQUENCY
a
r
rangemen ts t he heterodyne v o
ltage isinjected int he con-
t
r
ol-gr
id orc athode c i
rcuit. Ins uch casest hevalve functions
i
nthe same w ay a sa n anode-bend d e
tector. T he same c on-
s
i
derationsa pply asf or the t
riode f r
equency c hanger, except
t
ha
td ue tothe much s mallerc apacitanceb etween thec on t
rol
g
r
id a nd th
e a node a ny i n
teraction b etween t he si
gnal a nd
i
.
f
.c i
rcuit
sw hen t h
ey a r
en o
tg r
eatly diferent infrequency is
l
e
ss li
kely t
oo ccur.
A
lterna tive
ly , the h ete rodyne v oltage may b e i njected o n
t
he s creen g r
id o r t h e s uppre s
sor g r
id, b ut b oth o f t he
se
method s s ufer f r
om t h e d i
sadvan tage o f requiring a l a
rge
I
NTER MED
IATE h
eterodyne v o
ltage t o a chieve ar e asonably g ood c onve rsion
FREQUENCY
ef
iciency .
F
ig. 2
.24
. Typ
ica
l f
requency c
hanger c
ircu
it u
sing a d
iode
. When s uppres sor-g rid i n
jection i se mployed , eithe r oft he
t
wo ma jo r bend s i n t he c haracte r
i s
tic may b e u sed ; i fthe
c
ut-offb end isc hosen ,t here i sap ossibil
ity thatt hem aximum
c
ircuits i sa pp rox ima tely e qua l t o h alf the value o fI lk. T he s
afes creen d i
ssipa tion w illb ee xceeded u n
le s
ss t
ep sa re taken
v
alue o f Ch i sc hosen s o t hat i t
s r eactance i sl ow a tt h e three t
ol imit t he s
creen c ur ren t. B ecau se o fthe large h e terodyne
f
requenc ie s i nvolved . v
oltage t hat isn ece ssa ry, i t may h app en t hat s ome o f it
T
riode F requency C hange rs. T he se are u sually o f the a
pp ears i nt he c ontrol -g r
id c ircuit, for ins
tance t hrough t he
a
node -bend t yp e. T he s igna l i sa pplied t ot he grid w hile the i
n
te r-e
lec trode c apac itanc e so ras ar e
sulto fp oor l ayou t,a nd
o
scil
la to r voltag e isi n
jec ted i ns eries w ith the c athode , a nd t
h
is u nwan ted h ete rodyne i njection w il
l b e amp lified i nt he
t
he i .
f
. t ran sforme r i sc onnec ted i n t he anode c i
r cuit. T he v
a
lve ( the s c
reen a ct
ing a s a n a node ) and i tcan b ecome
a
node s hou ld b e b ypa ssed t o e a
rth w ith ac apac itor o f low c
ompa rab le ine fect t ot he h e
te rodyne v oltage i n
ten tionally
r
eactanc e a t t he s ignal a nd o scillato r frequenc ies. T he a
pplied t ot hes upp re sso r. I fiti sofo ppo s
ite p hase,d emodu -
c
apac ity u s ed f or t h
is p urpo se w i
ll f orm p art o f t he i .
f
. l
a
tion w i
ll ta ke p l ace a nd t he c onve rs
ion e f
iciency w il
l
t
uning c ircu it. b
e l owe red. T his e fect i sp art
icu larly troublesome a t the
At ypical t riode f requency c hange r isshown i nF ig. 2 .25. h
ighe r frequenc ie s
.
The resisto r I lk and c apac i
to r Ck n ow p rovide t hea utoma tic Mul
ti-gr
id F requency C hange r
s. T hese va
lves, w h
ich a re
b
ias,t h er eactanc eo f Ck b eing l ow a ta ll t
hree f r
equenc ies. s
pecifi
cally i n
tended f or use a s f
requency c hange r
s, a re
The amp l
i tude o f th e h e
te rodyne v ol
tage u sed s hou ld b e d
esigned t o have ar easonably high conver
sion c onductance
s
uch t hat t he g rid v ol
tage s wing s f rom b eyond c ut-of f to w
ith asl ow av alue ofh eterodyne vo
ltage asp ract
icable a nd
n
early t he p oint w he re g r
id c urren t b egins to f l
ow . T riode s ahi gh anode i mpedance t o preven
t d amping t h
e i.
f. trans-
a
re u sed i n t h
is m anne r w he re a v e ry high s igna l-
to -no ise f
orme r u nduly. I n th e des
ign o f the rece
iver t h
e s ignal
r
a
tio i se ssen tial a nd w here t he i ntermed iate f r
equency i s f
requency c an b e al
lowed t o approach close
ly to the i n
te r
-
g
reatly d if eren t f r
om t he s igna l f r
equency . C are s hou ld b e mediate fr
equency w ithou tcaus
ing any in
teraction,and a .g
.c.
t
aken t om atch t he i.
f
. t rans forme r t ot he anode i mpedance . may beu sed ifrequired. T he o
nly d
isadvantage of multi-grid
The v alue o ft hec onve rsion c onduc tance g ,will b ea pp rox- f
requency c hangersi stheir l
imi
ted performanc eatt hehi gher
i
mately o ne q uarter o ft h e value o ft he mutua l c onduc tance f
requencies.
g
„
, w hen t he v alve i sc onside red a sa n amp lif
ier. Some t ypes a r
e d es
igned f or use w i
th as epa ra te o scillato r
Pentode F requency C hange rs. A p entode v a
lve may b e t
o provide t h e heterodyne v oltage a nd o the r
s h ave a s elf-
employed a s af requency c hange r i ns e
veral d ife rent w ays. c
ontained t r
iode t ogene ra
te t his voltage. I nc e rtain t ypeso f
Genera l
ly t he s ignal i sa pplied t o t h e control g rid a nd t he h
eptode m ixe r, ap art oft he v a
lve i sarranged t oo scillate a s
a
ne lect
ron -coup led o sci
llator, as ection o ft he o scilla torc oil
b
eing included i nt he cathode c ircuit. T he e ssen t
ia l f eatu re
o
ft heoscillato ri sthatt hev o
ltage w hich itg ene ra te s mu s
ta s
f
arasp racticab le remain con stanto vert her equir ed f requency
r
ange.
Ah eptod e( some t
ime sr eferred t oa s ap entag rid )h as s even
S
IGNAL
FREQUENCY e
lec
trode s
, f ive o f t hem b eing g r
id s
. G rid No . Ii s t he
o
sci
llator g r
id , No s
. 2a nd 4 a re s creen g rids, No . 3t he
c
ontrolg r
id a nd No . 5thes upp ressorg rid. I ns ome h ep tode s,
h
oweve r, the f unctions o f No . 1a nd No . 3g rid s ar e i n
te r-
c
hanged , No . 1b e
ing t he con trol grid. T h
is a pplie s a l
so t o
h
exod em ixers,w hich areb asically similar t oh ep tode se xc ep t
t
hat the s upp ressor i s omitted a nd a s ar esult t he a node
i
mpedance i ss omewha t lowe r
.
S
ome o b
solete t
ypesofh eptode employed g
rid No
. 2asa n
o
sc
il
latora node,gr
id No. 3b eing th
es c
reen g
rid. Th
isform
o
fconst
ruction wasfrequently c
al
led apentagr
id,par
ticu
la r
ly
i
nthe USA,a nd when provided with anaddi
tional g
r
id used
F
ig. 2
.25
. A t
r
iode u
sed a
s af
requency c
hanger
. a
s asuppressor i
tw a
s ref
erred toa san oc
tode.
2
.
19
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
I
t s
hould be bo rne i
n mind t
ha t mul
ti-gr
id fr
equency Mag
ic-eye T
uning I
ndica
tor
s
c
hanger
s a r
e inherent
ly no
isy, h
aving a h igh e
quiva
lent There a
ret wo basic t
ypeso fm agic-eye ind
icator. One t ype
n
oise r
e
sis
tance
. T he equ
iva
lent n
oise r
es
istance o
f amult
i- c
ontains ac one-shaped piece o fm e
tal, known a s the t a
rget,
g
r
id mixer isg
iven by— c
oated with fluorescent m a
terial. E lectrons e mi
tted f rom a
c
athode impinge o nt h
et argeta nd produce ag r
een g low o ver
=2
0 x 4(
4 — k
i
lohms apart or th
e w hole ofits surface. Two o r mo re s ma
l l rods
xgc2 a
cta s agr
id and w hen th
ev o
ltage a pplied tothem i sal
te red a
where I .a nd J a re t he a node a nd c athode c ur rents r espec- s
hadow o fc ontrol
lable width a ppea r
so n th
et arget
. As mall
t
i
vely ( i
n mill
iampe res )a nd g,i st hec onve rsion c onduc tance t
r
iode may a l
so be moun ted % ,
‘ith
in t he bulb to a mplify the
(
i
n m i
lliampe res p er v ol
t). v
oltage a pp
lied t o the g r
id r ods a nd thus i mprove t he
Ar ecently deve lop ed h eptode i su sed a s alocked o scillator s
ensi
tivi
ty. T he grid of the tr
iode i sn ormal
ly c onnec ted to
f
.m. d etector i nd ual s tanda rd t elevision r eceive rs. I ti salso
r
eferred t oa s a"c o-incidence d etecto r" b ecau se i ft wo s e
ts
o
fo sc
illation sa rea pp lied t og r
ids Ia nd 3a node c urren tw i
ll mn
o
nly f l
ow , assum ing t he amp litude s o f the o scillat
ion s are
s
uf ic
ien t, w hen t he p osi
tive h alf c ycles of t he i npu t w ave-
2
5 0k11
f
orm s c o
incide o n t he t wo g rid s
. I fb o
th a r e n egative o r
o
nly o ne isp ositive a nd t he othe r n ega t
ive n o a node c urrent
A
.G C
.
w
illf low. C oincidence o ft hep o s
itive h alf cyclesw il
l d epend L
INE
u
pon t he f requency a nd p hase r e
la t
ion ship o f t he t wo 0
.05p F T
ARGET
o
scillation s
. One o sci
llation i s o btained f rom t he TV
i
n
te r-car r
ie ri .
f
., u sually 6Mc /s, t he othe rb y u s
ing t he valve
g
r
id 3 a s as e
lf -oscil
la tor t uned t o 6 Mc /s a nd f r
equency
l
ocked t ot h
em ean i .
f
. A st hei .
f
. i sfrequency modu lated t he F
ig. 2
.26
. A " mag
ic e
ye" u
sed a
s at
uning i
ndicator
.
f
requency a pplied t o g r
id Iw ill v ary i nr elation t o t hat of
g
rid 3w ith ar esult t hat p u
lse s a tt he modu lation f r
equency
t
hea .g.c. line int h er ece
ive r, ther esu
lt being thatthe "e ye "
w
ill a ppea r int hea node c ircuit. T he a rrangemen t d e
s cribed
o
pen sa nd c l
o ses i na ccordance w i
th t hes i
gnal vol
tage i nt h
e
h
a s the a dvan tage s th at n o limite r isr equired a nd i tisr e
la-
t
i
ve ly e asy t o a l
ign c ompa red w i
th c onven t
iona l r a
tio r
eceive r
.
d
etec to r
s b ut g reat c are i sessen tial i nt he d esign t o e nsure The o the r a nd mo re r ecent t ype has af l
uorescent coating
o
nt hei ns
ide s urface o ft heb ulb a si n acathode-ray tube,b u
t
t
hatt he oscil
la tor w il
l l ock tot h e i.
f
. u nde ra l
l c ond it
ion so f
t
he o peration i se s
sen tially simila r
.
s
igna l level
, ma ins v oltage a nd t empe rature.
Ce r
tain t ype s g i
ve a d ouble i nd
ication, o ne f o
r s mal
l
v
oltage v a riation s a nd o ne for l arge variat
ion s
, a nd othe r
s
M ult
iple Va
lves g
ive a d if eren t
ial i ndication s u
i table for the output o ff .m
.
d
i
s crim ina tors. F ig
. 2 .26 s how s at yp
ical circuit arrange -
The t r
end i s to make r adio e quipmen t as c ompac t a s mentf or amag ic-eye i ndica tori n as uperheterodyne r eceive r
.
p
ossible a nd i ti s therefo re c onven ien t to t ake a dvan tage I
t
s a pplication s ar e b y n o m ean s limi
ted t otuning a d
ju st
-
o
fth es p ecial mu ltiple v alve sw h
ich h ave mo re than o ne u nit ment s
. I n f act mag ic-eye t ube s a re often used a s v o
ltage
c
ontained i n as ingle e nvelope b u
t o nly o ne mu lti-pin b ase. i
ndicato rs i n al a nd r .f
. m ea suring e quipmen t and a l
so
Many s uch v alves are a vailable a nd t hey g enera l
ly c ontain w
ide ly asi ndicato rs o fs ignal level for tape re
co rders
.
t
wo o r more u n
its w hich a r e a
s sociated w ith each o the r ina
c
onven t
iona l c ircuit a pplica t
ion .
Vo
ltage Stab
ilizers
Doub le -d iode s are u sed f or s ignal r e
ctification a nd f or
p
rovid ing a . g
.c . v o
ltage s; t hey a r e of
ten c omb ined w ith a Two m ethod s are e mployed f or v oltage s tabilization. T he
t
r
iode o r p en tode f ora .
f. o r i.
f
. amp l
ificat
ion . T reble -diode - c
hoice d ep end s o n t he d egree o f o utpu t
-vo ltage c ontrol
t
r
iode s a re u sed f or f requency -modu lation d i
sc r
im ina tors. r
equired a nd t hem agnitude oft h eo u
tpu tc urren t
. Whe re al
l
Doub le-triode s a re u sed f or p ush-pull a mplif
ica tion , f or t
hat i sn eeded i s al imited r ange o f c urrent a nd a c ontrol
mul
tiv ibra to rs a nd many o ther p urpo ses; t he t wo s ect
ion s w
ithin o n
ly af ew v o
lts, asimp le stabilize ro fth ec o
ld -cathode
may b e s im ila r o r di
s s
im i
la r inc ha racterist
ic s
. T riode s are t
ype i sa dequa te. T h
is c omp r
ises a n a node a nd a c athode
c
omb ined w ith r .
f
. p entode s f or use as f r
equency c hange rs (
noth eated ) moun ted i n abulb f i
l
led w i
th a ni nert gas:w hen
a
nd w ith a .f
. p entode s f ora udio e quipmen t o ra sg ene rators as uff
iciently h igh v o
ltage i sa pplied t o the a node t he gas
f
oru se w ith c athode -ray t ube s. Doub le-tetrode sa nd d ouble- i
onizes. T he v ol
tage a tw hich t h
iso ccur si scalled th estriking
p
entode s may h ave c ertain e lectrode s commoned t o a void v
oltage o rs ta rt
ing v ol
tage. I ft hec ur ren t th
rough t he t ube is
e
xterna l c ircu la t
ing c urren ts o r may h ave a s epa rate c on- v
aried i ti sf ound t hat t he v o
ltage -d rop a cro ss th e tube i s
n
ection t oe ach e l
ectrode . a
lmo s
t c on stant w ithin ac ertain r ange o fc urren t variation.
The v oltag e
-d rop i nt he centre o ft hec urrent r ange i sc a
lled
t
he m aintain ing v o
ltage a nd i ss ignifican tly l ower t han t he
Meta
l V
alve
s
s
tr
iking v oltage . T he m aintaining v ol
tage d ep end s o n the
The
se va
lves, wh
ich atone t
ime were ve
ry p opu
lar inthe n
atu re a nd p ressure o f the g a
s e mployed a nd t o al imited
USA, are o
rdinary va
lve t
ypes a
ssembled i n ameta
l bulb, e
xten t o n it
s t empe rature.
t
he le
ad-out w
ires be
ing p
assed t
hrough eyelet
s mounted in S
ome t ype sh ave a na ddi
tiona le lectrode l i
ke ag rid,k nown
t
he bulb
. T hey ar
e n o
t n
ow f i
t
ted in newly manufactured a
s at r
igge r. T h
is e l
ectrode i ss i
tua ted c lose t o the cathode ,
e
quipment. a
nd i f as uf iciently high p osi
tive v o l
tage i sa pplied t oi tthe

2
40
 VALVES
H
.T. L
INE TRANSM
ITT
ING VALVES

+25 0 V I
n at ran sm itte r mo st o ft he v alve s e mp loyed i nt he ea r
ly
H
.T. TO
OSCILLATOR s
t
age sa r en orma lr eceiv ing - typ ev alve s
,b uti nt h ef inals tage s
47 0k 0
v
a
lve so fh ighe rp owe r-hand ling c apac ity a r en ece s sary. S uch
v
a
lve s f al
l i nto t wo c lasse s:
(
a) triode s a nd
(
b) t e
t rode s o rp en tode s.
Thos ed esigned f oro pe ra t
ion o nt heh ighe rf r
equenc iesa re
u
sua lly p rov ided w ith s pe cial c onnec tion s o n t he t op o r s ide
o
f t he b ulb f o r t he a node o r g r
id , o r s ome time s b oth, a nd
F
ig. 2
.27
. A c o
ld-cathode stab
il izer used t o provide a s
table v o
ltage
o
f 150 volts f
ro m a s
upply line o f 250 v o
lts for the osci
llator in a
h
ave s pe cia l b a se s o r i n s ome t ype s n o b a se a t all
. T hi s
s
uperheterodyne r ece
iver. Th is e
l
im inates frequency d rift c
aused a
vo id s t he b unch ing t oge the r oft he l ead s ato ne e nd o ft he
b
y h
.t. voltage v ariations.
v
alve a nd t hereby l owe rs t h e i n
te r
-ele ct rode c apac itance a nd
r
educe s t he p o ssib il
ity o f l eakage o r b reakdown a t h igh
v
oltage .
g
asw illi on
ize i nt hev ic
inity o ft hese e l
ec t
rode ss o thatw hen
Triode s. T riode t ran sm it t
ing v alve sa r eg enera l
ly u sed w ith
t
he a node v oltage r ise s its trikes a t al owe r value t han i t
g
rounded -ca thode o r g rounded -g r
id c onne ction s, t he forme r
would w ithou t t he t r
igge r
. F or t his r eason t he tr
igge r is
b
eing p re fer red a tf r
equenc iesb elow 1 50 Mc / sa nd t he latte r
s
ome time s k nown a s ap rim ing e lectrod e. Mo re elabo ra te
a
th ighe rf requenc ie s
. T hey r equ ire mo re d r
ive t han t e
trode s
t
ypesa r ep rov ided w ith as er
ie so fa node sa nd cold cathode s, o
rp en tode sb uta re mo re r eadily ma tched i n
to t hea s
soc iated
e
ach p ai r giv
ing t h
e s ame v ol tage-d rop a nd t he
r eby as eries
c
ircu it sa nd a reo ften mo re c onven ien t t o modu late : they a r e
o
fd iscre te step s ofst abil
ized v oltage i s made a vailable.
s
eldom s at isfac tory a s f r
equency mu ltip lie rs
.
A t ypical c ircuit fo r at r
igg er t ype o f c o
ld-cathode t ube Tet rode s a nd P en tode s. I n ama teu r e quipmen t
, t et
rode s
u
sed t os t
abilizet hev oltage o ft heh .t
.s upp ly tot heo sci
llator
and p entode sa reu sed b ecau se o ft heirh i gh e fficiency . Many
i
n as up erheterodyne r ece
ive r i sshown i nF ig
. 2.27. o
f t he p opu la r t e
t rode s a re i n f act b eam v alve s a nd h ave
Whe re al arge rrang eo fcu rrentt han c an b eaccommoda ted
pentode -type c ha rac teris tics. T hey r e qu ire l i
ttle o r n o
b
y ac o
ld -cathode t ub eo rw he re acl oserr e gulat
ion o fv oltage
neutra liza tion b ecau se t hei r g r
id -to-anode c apac itance s a re
i
sn eces sary, at r
iode, t e
trode o r pen tode v alve may b e used
s
uf i cien tly l ow , b ut i ft h ey a r e to b e a node -modu lated i ti s
i
n s er
ie s w ith t he h .t. s upp ly. A f r
ac t
ion o f t he o utpu t
nece ssa ry t o modu late t he s c
re en v o
l tage a s w e
ll a s t he
v
oltage i s amp lif
ied a nd app lied as g r
id b ia stot hes tabil
ize r
anode v oltage a nd t h e r espec t
ive amp litude s mu st b e c o r-
o
r regu la tor v a
lve: t his mod ifies the v oltage -drop a cro ss the r
e ctly p ropo rtioned . Some p entode s h ave a s epa rate
v
alve a nd s o s t
ab i
lize s t h e o utpu t v ol tage a t a v a
lue
connec tion t ot hes upp res sor g r
id a nd c an b es upp ressor -grid
d
epend ing o n t he circu it a djustmen t
s. F requen t
ly n orma l modu lated ,t hough t h
iss y stem i sn otw ide ly u sed o na c
coun t
amplifier-type v a
lve s a re used f or t his p urpo se b u
ts pecially
ofi tsl ow a node e ficiency .
d
e s
igned v a
lve s having al owe r voltage -drop p erm it amo re
Doub le -te trode s a nd D oub le-pen tode s. A r ange o f d oub le
e
conom ical d esign, d etails of p ractica l cir cui
ts a r
e g iven i n v
alve s h av ing a node d issipa tion s i nt he r ange 6 -50 w at ts i s
Chap ter 1 7 ( Powe r S upp l
ies).
availab le a nd i sw ell s uited t o ama teur r equ ir emen ts. S ome
h
ave t wo s epa ra te u nitsw i thin o ne e nve lope F ig .2 .
28,w hile
o
the r s h ave ac ommon f l
atc athode ,o ne f ace b eing u sed f or
V
oltage
-re
ference T
ubes
o
ne s ection a nd t h eo ppo site f ace f ort heo the rs ection. T he
A voltage
- refe
rence t ub
e i s a c old-cathode stabi
lizer con tro l g rids a re "h alf g rid s
," o ne o n e ach s ide o f t he
d
es
igned t opa s
s av ery s
mal
l cur rent but mainta
in av o
ltage- cathode , a nd t he s creen i s ac ommon g rid s ur round ing t he
d
rop within exceptiona
lly c
lose t o
leranceso verlong p
eriods. t
wo c on tro l g rid s a nd t he c athode , w hile t he a node s ar e f l
at
S
uch t ubes are u sed to provide a r e
ference vol
tage f or p
late s, o ne o n e ach s ide. T h
is f o rm o fc on st ruc tion a void s
c
al
ibrat
ion p urpo ses a
nd th
ey s hould n ot be u
sed for heavy
c
urren
t int h
e manne r o
f an orma l st
abil
izer.

E
lec
tron Mu
ltip
lier
s
T he p roduc t
ion o f seconda ry e mis
sion b y b omba rdmen t F
ig. 2
.28
o
f ac old electrode i su sed i na n elect
ron mu ltiplier v a
lve to
Cut
-away view of a vhf.
i
ncrea se thed ensity oft hee lect ron c ur
ren t,i.
e.t oincreas et h
e double tetrode, t
he
s
lope o ft h
e v a
lve. S ince ac on siderab le ve
loci ty ise ssentia
l G
IV06-40A.
i
nt h e b omba rding s tream o fe lec
tron s a nd since each s t
age r
, r' —electrode s upport
o
fe lec
t ron mu ltiplication t h
e refor e requires ac er
tain m ini
- r
ods; c , c' —neutraliz
ing
c
apacitors; a, a
' —anodes ;
mum v oltage,t hen umbe ro fs tage st hatc an beo perated f rom B —bea m plate; M —m ica
an orma l h.
t. supply i slimited e
lectrode s upport ing
p
late; k—cathode; g
,—
T o p revent th e secondary e lectrons f rom b eing a ttracted c
ontrol g rid; g,— screen
b
ack t owa rd s an e ar
lier e l
ect rode b y reason o f t
he r elat
ive g
rid; S— internal s creen.

e
lectrode p otent
ia l
si tisn ecessary t of ocusth em t owa rd st h
e (
Photo b
y c
our
tesy o
f Mu
llard
a
node . T hisi sgene rally achieved b ym ean so fb eam -form ing L
td
.)

p
late s o r ac onstruc t
ion s imila r to ac athode- ray tube g un
.
E
lec tron mu ltipl
ie r tube s are s ome t
ime s used i nt e
lev i
sion
r
eceive rs and i n ama teu r te
lev ision t r
an sm i
tter s.
2
.
21
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
i
rcu lat
ing c urrents i n ac ommon c athode l ead or in t
he
s
creen l e
ad w hen t he t wo un
its a
re used i n push-pu
ll and ANODE ANODE
e
nab les agrea
te re f
iciency t
ob eobtained a
th igh fr
equencie
s.
S
ome t ypesa l
so e mbody i n
ternalneutra
lizat
ion. S at
isf
actory
D
EFLECT
ING
o
pe rat
ion u p toa bou t 600 Mc/s c
an be achieved with some E
LECTRODES
o
f t he
se d ouble v a
lve s
, both as cl
ass C amp l
ifie
rs and as
f
r
equency mu ltipl
iers using th
e th
ird orf i
f
th h armonic
. c
Li
GR
I D N
o 2
CATHODE 6 ---- e
r4 - 11- - GR
ID N
o I
S
PEC
IAL VALVES

Disc- sea l V a
lve s. T he c a
thode i si nt he f orm o f at himb le
c
oa ted o n t he e nd , w h
ile t h e g rid i sc ompo sed o f p a rallel F
ig. 2
.29
. Arrange ment o
f e
lec
trode s
' i
n t
he 7
360 b
ea m d
eflect
ion
valve
.
wire st i
gh tly s t
r etched a c ro ss ah ole
in am etallic d i sc a nd t h e a node i s
ap l ain f l
at d isc , th e v ar iou s p arts
be
ing s paced b y m ean s o fg las s o r g
rid s ( a cce lera to r)
. T he d i vision o f t he t o
ta l a node c urren t
c
e ram ic s eal s. T he o ute r r im s o f b
etween t he t wo a node s i sd ete rm ined b y t h e r e
la tive v olt-
the d isc s e xtend b eyond t he s eals a
ge d if erence o ft he t wo d efle ctor e lect rode s
.
for c onnec tion t o t he e xte rna l c ir
- L
inea r a mp l ifiers f or s .s.b. o pe ration a re r equ ired t o
cu
i t w hich c an a dvan tag eous ly b e amp lif yt hei n pu ts i
gna lw i thou ti ntroduc ing d isto rtion a bove
ofc ylindr ica l c o -axia l f o rm t o s u
it an a cc ep tab le l evel. T his m ean s t h e va lve mu st b e c apab le
t
h ec on struc tion o ft hev alve. S uch o
fd elive ring h igh p eak c athode c ur rent s w ithou t a pp roach -
va
lve s a re i n
tended f or u se i n i
n g e mis sion s atura tion w hich w ould c au se "f lat-topp ing ."
g
rounded -g rid c ircuit s a nd w ill o p- Two c lasse s o f o pe ration a re n orma lly e mployed : c lass
e
r ate u p t o f r
equenc ies o f s eve ral AB 1 w ith t e
trode o r p en tode v alve s a nd c l
a ss Bz ero b ias
t
housand m egacyc le s w ith q uite w
ith h i gh µ t r
iode s. T he re i sn o d oub t t hat c lass AB 1 g ives
good e f
i c
ienc ie s: th ey a re a va ilab le t
he b ette r p erfo rmanc e. I nte r-modu lation d isto rtion o f l e
ss
both a s t r
iode s a nd a s t etrode s
. t
han —25db f or b oth t hird a nd f if
th h a rmon ic s c an b e
The a node i sg ene ra lly c oo led b y r
ead i
ly o btained . V alve ss uch a st he TT2 1 , 6DQ5 a nd 6 HF5
an a ir b last t hrough r ad ia t
ing f i
ns w
ill g i ve b ette r t han —30 a nd —40db f or t h
i rd a nd f ifth
A 2 C39A d isc s eal o
rb yc onduc tion t ot hee xte rna lc o- h
a rmon ic d istor tion . T riode s o pe ra ted i nz ero b ia s cl ass B
trans m itting v a
lve . a
xia l c ircu it e lemen ts . V alve s o f r
equ ired c on side rab ly g rea te r d riv ing p owe r t han t e
trode s
(
Photo by courtesy t
his f orm a re a lso k nown a sp lana r
, o
rp en tode s i nc lass AB 1 a nd make mo re s evere d emand so n
o
f5 .1% &C .L td
).
l
ighthou se, r o cke t o r p enc il v alve s
. t
hed rive rs tage . I nb oth t yp es, l i
nea rity c an b ei mp roved b y
I
n t hec eram ic s tacked t r
iode t he a
pp lying 6 -10db n ega tive f eedback t o b oth t h e l i
nea r
e
lect rode d iscs a r e s ealed d ire ctly t o a ccu ra tely mach ined amp l
ifi e ra nd d rive rs tage s. T he mo st s atisf actory r esults a re
c
eram ic w ashe rs
. T he v a
lve c an g ive 1 5db g ain a t 1 000 obtained b y t h e u se o f l arge v alve s d raw ing r elative ly h igh
Mc/s w ith an o
ise f acto r o f 8 .
5db . z
ero s igna l i n pu ts, w hich c an b e a s h igh a s 7 0-80 p er c en t
Quick H eating V a
lve s
. A r ange o f s i
ng le a nd d oub le o
ft h et ota la node i n pu t p owe rc apab ility.
t
ransm itting t e
trode s h as r ecen t
ly b e en i ntroduced f or u s e in The d esign o f l inea r amp lifier s i sc on side red i n d eta i
l i n
mob ile e qu ipmen t. T hese v a lve s a re o f t he d irec tly h ea ted Chap te r 1 0 —S ing le S id eband T ran sm iss ion .
t
ype b ut h ave av e ry l ow f i
lamen t v oltage o ft h eo rde ro f1 .1 Nuvi sto r s. T hi
s t ype o f v a
lve i si n
te rmed ia te b e
tween
v
oltsa nd c anno t b eo pe rated d irec t
ly f rom a6o r 1 2v oltc ar v
alve s o f n orma l c on struc tion a nd d i
s c-seal o r s tacked
b
atte ry. T hey h ave c ha rac te ristic s s imila r t o t h e n orma l c
eram ic. T he e lectrode s a r e o fc ylind rica l s hape b ut s malle r
i
ndirec tly h eated t ype s
. T he f i
l amen t i s e ne rg ized f rom t
han t hos e g ene rally e mp loyed a nd a re r ig
id ly s uppor ted
a
dd itiona l c entre t apped w ind ing s o n t h e t ran sfo rme r o f a f
rom o ne e nd b y at r
ipod -like s truc ture o n ac eram ic b ase.
t
ran sistor d .c
. t o d .c. c onve rte r
. T he se w ind ing s h ave a The s uppo rts a r e c on tinua tion s o ft he p in s w hich a re s ealed
r
ectangu la r o utpu t w ave form , t he r .m .s. v alue o f w hich i s t
hrough t he b a s e —no u se i s made o fm ica o r gla ss s uppor ts
h
alf t he p eak t op eak amp litude . o
r s pace r s
. T his c on struc tion p roduc es r ugged a nd e ficien t
Valve sf orS ing le S ideband . T he r ecen t e xten s
ion o fs ing le v
alve sh av ing l ow l eakage a nd l ow m icrophony . B ecau se t he
s
ideband o peration h as r esulted i nt he p roduc tion o fs pec ial s
t
ruc tu re i ss o s mall t hec apac itance b etwe en e lec trode s a nd
v
alve s f or t h
is p u rpo se. L ow p owe r t ype s such a s t he 7 360 t
he l ead i nduc tance i sl ow , r esul ting i n ag ood p er fo rmance
a
nd 6 AR8 b eam d ef
l ection v a
lve a r e i n
tended f o
r u se a s a
nd l ow n oise a t v .h.f. A c urren t t yp e i n w ide u se i st he
b
alanc ed modu la tor s t og ene rate s ing le o r d oub le s i
deband 6C W4 a nd 6DS4 . T he se v alve sa re n o l ong er manuf actu red
s
igna ls. i
nE u rope b u t t r
iode s a re a vailab le f rom t he USA i n b oth
The a rrangemen t o f e lect rode s i n t he 7 360 i ss hown i n s
ingle a nd d oub le e nded t ype s
. An e xamp le o f t h e l a
tte r is
F
ig. 2 .29 . Af lat c athode ,c oa ted o no ne s ide, ac ontro l g rid s
hown i nF ig.2 .30.
a
nd a s cre en g rid, f orm a n e lec tron g un w hich p roduce s a Magne tron s. A m agne t ron i s ad iode w ith a c ylindr ica l
r
ibbon -like b eam . T he s creen g r
id a nd t he t wo d eflec ting a
nd c onc en tr
ic c athode a nd a node . I n i t
s s imp le st f orm t he
e
lect rode sa cta s ac onve rging e l
ec tron l enst of o cu st heb eam . a
node i ss p
l i
ti n
to t wo p ar tsb ut mo re g ene rally i tc omp r
ise s
Varying t he b ia s o r s igna l a pplied t o t he c on trol g r
id multip le c avitie s w h
ich r esona te a tt h
e o p erating f requency .
v
arie s t he a node c urren t a s i n ac onven tiona l v alve. T he The w ho le a s semb ly i sp l aced i n am agne tic f i
eld p ara llel t o
t
otal a node c u rren t to t he t wo a node s a t ag iven v oltag e i s t
he a xis o f t he e l
ec trode s . T he m agne t may b e a n i n
teg ral
d
ete rm ined b yt he v oltage sa pp lied t ot hec on tro la nd s creen p
a rt o f t he v alve a nd i ti st hen k nown a s ap ackage m ag -
2
.
22
 VALVES

modulated, a
nd s
ince thee nergy isreta
rded b y r
eason ofthe
A
node C
ap d
is
tance o f t
r
ave
l t o th
e r ef
lec
to r and back again su
s ta
ined
o
sc
illat
ion w i
ll take p lace. K ly
strons a r
e e mp
loyed a s
o
sc
illators
, th
e r
e f
lec
to r type being prefe
rred for low-power
A
node
work,e.g
.a s al
ocal osc
illatori n asuperheterodyne rece
iver
.
H
eater
Trave ll
ing-wave T ubes. At ravell
ing -wave t ube con s
is ts o fa
C
athode w
ire h el
ix s uppo rted i n al o ng g las s e nve lope w hich f its
.
-r -Ceram
ic I
n
sula
tor t
h
rough t wo w ave-guide s tub s used a s i nput a nd o utpu t
I G
rid N
o.1 e
l
emen ts. A t one end o ft he t ube i s ac onven t
iona l elect ron -
g
un a s semb ly w h
ich d irects a n e lectron b eam t o the o the r
Meta
l S
hel
l e
nd : se e Fig
. 2 .
3 1
. T he r .
f. s i
gna l i nput i sc oupled i nto t he
h
el
ix a nd w i
ll run r ound t h e turn s o ft he h elix atr ough ly i t
s
C
era m
ic B ase n
orma l v e
locity b ut it
s a xia l v e
loc ity may b e o n
ly a bou t a
Wafer t
enth o f tha
t v a
lue , dep end ing o n t he pitch o ft he helix . I f
t
he e l
ec tron b eam i ssent a long t he c entre o f the h e
lix a nd
f
ocu sed b y a magne t itw i
ll b e c ha rge-den sity modu la ted b y
t
he v oltage p u
lse ( i
.e. amp litude -modu lated ) o w
ing t o t he
i
n
te rac tion b e
tween t he magne tic f i
eld o f t he current i nt he
'I
ndex
ing h
elix a nd t heelectrons. T his modu la tion g row sin amp litude
L
ugs -
a
long t hel e
ngth o ft h
eh el
ix r ough ly a cco rding t ot he s qua re
F
ig
. 2
.30
. Cut-a way v
ie w o
f a doub
le e
nded Nuv iode s
istor t
r how
ing o
f t he a xial distance f rom t h e beg inn ing o f the h e
lix . B y
c
ycl
indr
ica
l e
lectrodes a
nd t
ripod-
like s
upports
. s
uitable d es
ign t he o u
tpu t w ave -gu ide c oup ling w il
l e x tract
mo re e nergy t han w as p ut i n b y t h e inpu t c oupling a nd a
c
on side rable p owe r g a
in c an b e a chieved . F or examp le,
n
etron. Ow ing t o t he a x
ia l magne tic fi
eld the path o
f the t
rave l
ling -wave t ube amp lifier s w ith a b andw idth o f 5 00
e
l
ec tron s l e
aving t he c a
thode i sc urved, and f o
r acertain Mc /s c entred o n f r
equenc ies i n t he r ange 1 700-8500 Mc /s
f
i
eld i ntensity t he electron s st
op s hort oft h
e a node a
nd r e
- a
re a vailable. Ou tputs o f 5 -10 w atts a nd p owe r g ain s of
t
urn t ot he c athode , travell
ing i n circu
lar orbits. The time 3
0-40db arepos
sible.
t
aken f or an e l
ectron t o comp le te its o
rbita
lj ourney d
eter- T
o prevent s
e
lf-osci
lla
tion
, th
e c
entra
l part o
ft h
e h
e
lix i
s
m
ine s the frequency o fo sc
illa
t ion .
The e nergy a s
soc iated w ith t he
OUTPUT
mov ing e l
ectron s
, i sg i
ven u pi nt he INPUT
COUPLING
COUPLING
s
pa ce a round t he ca thode , wh ence
i
ti stran sferred t o t h
e tuned c avi- ATTENUATOR
t
i
e s a nd p icked u p b y ac oup ling E
LECTRON

I
jI
GUN
l
oop . Du ring o peration t h
e v alve
t
ends t o become o ve rheated d ue t o NS

back b omba rdmen t of thec athode

unless t h
e h eater p owe r i ssuitab ly
r
e duced .

c
on
K
ly
ta
s
in
tron
ing a
s
. A k
n e l
l
ec
y stron i
tron g
sav
un s im
a
lve
ila r
HEATER
CATHODE ANODE MAGNET
IC
0
1-0
01-1
S
YSTE M r— I
COLLECTOR

t
o t hat u sed i n ac athode -ray t ub e GR
ID
(
IIEHNELT)
f
rom w hich a n arrow b eam o f
F
ig. 2
.3
1. T
rave
lling
-wave t
ube
.
e
l
ec t ron si sp rojected a long t hea x
is
o
f t he t ub e a nd f ocused t hrough
small a pe rture s a c ross w h
ich o ne
n
orma l
ly c ove red b y ar es
istive ma terial ( usually o n t he
o
r mo re o sc i
llato ry c ircu i
t s arec onnec ted ; the se c i
rcuits a re
o
utside oft he tub e) k nown a sa n attenua tor
.
i
nt he f orm o fh o
llow t oroidal c hambe rs k nown a sr humba -
Beam P arame tric Amp lifie
rs ( Adler T ubes). T he se tube s
t
ron s. T he b eam o f electron s i sv e
loc ity-modu lated b y t he
u
t
ilize a norma l electron g un gene rating a f o
cu sed e l
ectron
a
pp lica t
ion o fa n r .f
. fi
eld , fore xamp le b y p as sing t h
e b eam
b
eam w h
ich p as ses through e l
ectrode s t o w hich t he i nput
t
hrough s malla perture sh aving a nr .f
. v oltage b etween t h em.
s
ignal isc onne c ted ( general
ly c oaxially), t hen t hrough a
I
ft his v elocity -modu lated b eam i sn ow p a
s sed t h
rough a
q
uadrupo le of f our curved e lectrode s, w hich m ay b e cross
f
i
eld - f
re e s pace, k nown a s ad rift space , t he f aster
-mov ing
c
onnected o r c oup led b y i nductance s to w h
ich t he p ump
e
lec tron s w ill b egin t o o vertake t he s lowe r o ne s so t hat a t
s
ignal is a pplied . T he q uadrupo le l ies i n a t r
an sverse
s
ome p oint a l ong t he b eam a lte rna
te r egion s o f high a nd
magnetic fi
eld p rovided b y ap ermanen t or e lectromagne t.
l
ow e lectron d en s
ity w i
lle x
ist. T he rhumba tron sa rel o
ca ted
The next electrode s are the o utput e lectrode s f o
llowed b y
a
t p o
in ts o f max imum d en si
ty . I f t wo r humba tron s a r
e
o
ne o r more c ollecto rs or anode s
. T he p ump f r
equency , of
coup led t oge the r b y m ean s o f af e edback l oop, o r i fa
p
owe ro nly af ew m il
liwa tts,isusua l
ly a ta pp roxima tely t w
ice
r
efl ecto re lectrode ma in tained a t as l
igh tly n ega tive p oten tia
l
t
he s i
gnal f r
equency . T hey h ave s o f ar b een made f or
with r espec t t ot hec a
thode i s moun ted a tt hee nd o fth et ube
f
requencies between 2 00 and 4 000 Mc /s a nd a chieve an o
ise
t
he e ne rgy w ill b e r ef
lec ted b ack i nto a s ingle r humba tron.
f
actor of abou t 2 db, ag a
in o fo ver 2 0db a nd a w ide b and-
T he e lectron s b ecome b unched d ue t o b eing v eloc ity-
2
.23
 R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
w
idth
. U nl
ike mos
t paramet
ric d
evic
es they a
re in
heren
tly F
ig.2
.33
. The b
eam p
asse
sbetween t
hepl
atesand i
sbentup-
s
t
able because t
h
e inpu
t, pump and outpu
t connec
tions a
re wa
rds a
nd downwa
rds by p
oten
tia
ls b
etween t
he h
orizon
tal
q
ui
te separate
.

Y
- AXIS
C A T H O DE RAY T U BES
ELECTRON GUN
I
n ac a
thode -
ray t ube , t h
e e l
ectron s e mitted f rom a h ot
c
athode a ref i
rs
t a cc e
le rated t ogive t hem ah igh v elocity a nd
a
r e then f ormed i n
to ab eam a nd f inally allowed t os tr
ike a X
- AXIS
f
luore scen t s c
reen , t hereby c ausing as pot o fl ight t oa ppea r
a
t t he p oin t w he re t he b eam s tr
ike s. T he p art o f the t ube
which g ene rates t he b eam o fe l
ectrons i sk nown a s t heg un.
A b eam o f mov ing e lectron s can b e deflec ted l aterally b y F
ig. 2
.33
. E
lectrostat
ic d
eflect
ion of t
he e
lectron b
ea m i
n ac
athode
-
ray t
ube
.
e
lectric o r magne tic f i
elds , and s i
nce i t
s w eigh t a nd i n ertia
a
re n egligib ly s ma ll itc an b e made t of ollow a lmo s
t i nstan -
t
aneous ly t he v ar
ia tions o fp er
iodica lly c hang ing f i
e
lds e ven p
air of pl
ates (
the Y -plate
s) a nd from side to side by th
e
up tov e ry h igh r adio f r
equenc ies, produc ing av i
sible i mage v
ert
icalpair (
the X-plates
). F orm agneticdef
lec
t ion two p
a
irs
o
ft he se v ariation s. o
fc o
ils ar
e moun ted r ad
ial
ly o n th
e n e
ck oft he tube, a
s in
I
n as imp le t yp e o f t ube t he g un c ons ists o f ah ea ter, F
ig.2.34
,o ne pa
ir causing ver
ticaldeflec
tion (Y-axis)and t
he
c
athode ,g rid a nd t wo a node s:seeF ig.2 .32. T he i n
ten sity o f o
ther pa
ir hor
izontal d ef
lec
tion ( X
-axis)
.
t
hee lectron b eam a nd t h
e refore theb rightne sso ft het r
ace o n
t
he s creen i sr egula ted b y the grid p otential a s i n av alve .
Anode No . 1h a s ap ositive p o
ten tial w ith r espect t o t he )
4,
c
athode a nd a cce lerate s t he electron s w hich h ave p a ssed Y
- AX
IS
t
hrough t h eg rid: i tisp rov ided with s mall a perture s through ELECTRON GUN
which t he e lectron s t
ream p asse
s. T he s t
ream , o n e merg ing
f
rom t he a perture s, i s f ormed o f e lectron s t r
avelling i n
p
arallel s t
ra ight-line p a ths. T he electro static f i
elds s e
t u p b y X
- AXIS
t
he p oten t
ia ls o n a node s No s
. 1a nd 2f orm a n electron l ens
wh
ich c aus es the e lectron p aths to c onve rge o r f ocu s t o a

GR
ID
F
ig. 2
.34
. E lectro magnet
ic deflection of the e
lectron bea m i
n a
(2
nd AN ODE c
athode-ray tube. The co
ils a
re s o met
i mes p
rov
ided with magnetic
1
s
t AN ODE) c
ores.

HEATE R I;
FOCUS

I
nt hee le
ctro static-de flec tion t ype o ft ub e,t heb eam c an b e
CATH ODE s
plit i nto two b y as epara to r plate t hu s e nabling t h e s creen
V
g
. Val SCREEN t
os how t wo i ndependen tt racess imultaneou sly . S uch at ube
i
sk nown a s ad ouble b eam t ube . Two o r mo re b eam s c an
Yo2
a
lso b e produced b y t ube s h aving mu lt iple g un a ssemb lies
0 moun ted w ithin as ingle n eck .
The b r
igh tne s s o ft he t race o n t he s cre en d epends o n t he
F
ig. 2
.32
. The electron g
un u sed i
n one t
ype ofcathode-ray t
ube f
or f
i
na la node v oltage a nd o nt h eb eam c urr en ta nd thes peed a t
f
ocusing t
he e
lectron bea m i
nto a n
arrow penc
il ofrays
. The e
lectr
ic
f
i
elds offorce a
ct in t
he m o
f I f
or def
lect
ing the p
aths of which t he s pot move s. C are mu st b e t aken t o a vo id t oo
t
he e
lectrons b
righ t as po t s ince a n i nten se c oncen tra tion o f high -speed
e
l
ec tron s wi
ll b urn t he s creen , and t oo g rea t ab eam c urren t
w
ill s horten t he l i
fe oft h ec a
thode .
point att he fluore scen t sc
reen . T he f ocal length o ft he lens Many t ube s a r e prov ided w ith ame tallized s creen w hich
d
epend s o n the spac ing o ft hese anode s a nd t he
ir r e
spec tive r
educe s the r isk o f bu rning a nd a lso c on s
ide rably i n crea ses
poten t
ial s
, a nd t h
is t ype off ocusing i sk nown a se lectro s
tatic t
he l i
gh t o utpu t. A fter t he fluo rescen t c oa ting h a s b een
f
ocu sing. T he b eam c an , h oweve r, also b e focused b y a d
epo sited o nt heg lassf a ced uring manuf actu re a ne xt reme ly
c
ur ren tp assing t hrough ac oil moun ted axially ont hen eck of t
h
in f ilm o f a lum inium i sf ormed b y v apo r
iza t
ion o ver t he
t
he t ube o r b y ap ermanen t m agne t
. T he se m ethods a re b
ack o f the s creen . T he l ayer i ss o t h
in t hat t he f l
ow o f
known a s magne tic focu s
ing. An e lectron g un, ini t
ss imp lest e
lectron s to t he s creen i sn ot s er
iou sly r educ ed, b ut i tis
f
orm , c an b e at r
iode i nw hich c ase it mu st be m agne tically s
uf icien t
ly s moo th a nd m irro r-l
ike t o r eflect t h e l i
gh t
f
ocu sed, b u
t mo re c omp licated g uns int h
ef orm o ft e
trode s, p
roduc ed, much o fw hich w ould o therw i se b e l o
st.
p
en tode s a nd h exode s are c ommon ly u sed. I n g eneral, Apa rt f r
om g iving a much b r
igh te r i mage , me talliz ed
e
lectro s
ta tic f ocusing i s much mo re c onven ient f or o sc
illo- s
creen s e nable t ub es tob e o perated a t much h igher v oltage s
s
cop e t ube s
, b ut e i
the r m e
thod i sa ppl
icab le t ot e
levision o r a
nd a lso r educe t h
e b u rning c au sed b y b omba rdmen t b y
r
ada r tube s
. h
eavy n egative i ons g ene rated a t t he c a thode . T he l a
tte r
The f ocus ed b eam c an b e deflected e lectrostatically o r e
f ect n orma lly o n
ly b ecome s as eriou s p rob lem i n t ube s
e
lectromagne tically. F ore l
ec trostaticd efl
ec t
ion t wo p airs of which a re o pe rated a t h igh v o
l tage s s uch a s i n telev ision
p
late s a re moun ted a t right a ngle s to e ach o the r, a s in s
e
ts a nd r ada r e qu ipmen t.
2
.
24
C H A P TE R 3

S
EMICONDUCTORS

CEM ICONDUCTOR d evice s perform s imi

la r f unction s to s
ubstance t he movemen to fe lectron s b ecome s ag ene ral d ri ft
1
3 t hose p erformed b y t herm ion ic v alves i n r adio e quip- t
owa rds t he p ositive p ole o ft h
e a pplied v oltage .
menta nd fal
l b road ly i n
to t wo c atego ries: crysta ld iode sa nd E
ach t ime a n elec tron b reaks a way f rom i t
sa tom i tl eave s
t
ransistors. Un like t heir t hermion ic c oun te rpa r
ts s emi- av acancy , o r "h ole," w h
ich r ema in s u ntil i tisf i
l
led b y
c
onduc tors r e quire n o h eate r v o
ltage a nd a r e c urrent a
no the r e lectron f rom a n e
ighbour ing a tom . T hu s t h e
o
pe rated, aso ppo sed t ov oltage o perated, dev ice s. "h o
le "e fectively move s i n ad ire ct
ion o ppo s
ite t o t ha t o f
t
hee l
ectron , a nd ag ene ral f l
ow o fe le ctron s i no ne d irec tion
A
lthough t he c rystal d iode i n i t
s modern f o
rm w as
a
ccep ted e as
ily b y r adio ama teur s a s av arian t o f ad evice c
an b e l ooked u pon a s af l
ow o f "h o
les "i n th e r eve rse
w
ith w hich t h
ey a re already f amiliar, th e t
ran sisto r presents d
irection. A lthough t his may a pp ea r t o i n
troduce a n
amo re dificult p roblem , and d emands a n unde rstand ing o f u
nnec essa ry o r p ure ly h ypo the tica l c oncep t i tu ndoub ted ly
i
t
s c ha racter
istic s b efore i tc an b e s uccessfully u sed. Mo s
t s
imp lif
ies t he p rob lem o f u nde rstand ing t h e w ay i n w h
ich
t
exts o n thes ub ject a re directed t owa rd s the sp ecialis
t i nt h
e c
rysta l diode s a nd t ransisto rs o pera te.
f
i
eld a nd i tist h e p u
rpo se o ft his c hapte r th
e re fore toi n
tro- The c onduc tivity o f ag erman ium c rys
ta l may b e g r eatly
duce t he reade r t o t he fundamen tals i n particu la r of sem i
- i
ncrea sed b y t he a dd i
tion o f as ma ll amoun t o f i mpur ity
c
onduc torc ircui try w i
thou t resorting t oa dvanced p hy s
icso r i
nto t he c rysta l
, a nd t wo d ife ren t t ypes o f i mpu rity a re
c
omp lex e l
ectron f l
ow t heo ry a nd w i
th p a
rticu la r reference purpo sely a dded i n t h
is w ay — tho se w i th f i
ve v alency
t
ot he requiremen t
s o ft he Ama teu r R adio en thu s
iast. e
lectron s a nd t ho se w ith o n
ly t hree . S uch a n i mpur ity i s
I
tw as n ot u n
til 1 948 t h at the f i
rst p ractica l t r
an sis
to rs a
rsen ic w hich i s ap enta-va lent s ub stance . When a dded t o
g
e rman ium i ti nte rrup ts t he crysta l f orma t
ion b ecause e ach
w
e re made b ut d evelopmen th asb een s ointensive s i
nc et hen
t
hat av ery w ide r ange o f t
ypes i snow a vai
lab le i nclud ing a
rsen ic a tom h as o ne exce s s electron w h
ich p reven ts i tf rom
t
ho se s
uitab le for v .
h.f
. a nd u.h
.f. T he practical a dvan tage s f
i
tting i nto t h e p attern . T he s urplu s e lectron s a re v e ry
i
nclude l ow p owe r c onsump tion, s ma l
l p hy s
ica l s i
ze a nd mob ile a nd a re r ead ily a va i
lab le a s c urren t car r
ier s w hen a
r
uggedne ss. vo
ltage i sa pp l
ied . G erman ium w hich h as b een t r
eated i n
A possible d i
sadvan tage li
es in th e fact that, u n
like t he th
is w ay i sk nown a s nt yp e german ium b ecause t he c ur ren t
t
he rmionic v alve, many o f the tr
an s
isto r charac terist
ic s a re c
ar r
ie rs a re e lectron s a nd t h e
refo re n egative ly c ha rged . I f
t
empe ratu re-dependen t. I n most applications, h oweve r
, t he ind
ium i sa dded a s a n i mpurity , h oweve r, as imi lar e fect
efect can b e ve ry l a
rgely o f
set b y careful attention t o t he occu rsb u tt h
is t ime e ach i mpur ity a tom i ntroduce sa " h ole"
c
i
rcu itd esign a nd b ys k
ilful d
evelopmen to ft heb ias circuits. becau se i ndium i s at r
i-valen t e lemen t. A s exp la
ined a bove ,
The requ iremen t s are so diferent fr
om t hose o f t herm ionic
v
alve c ircuits t h a
t i t is advisable t o c onsider t he b asic
e
lectron-flow p roce s
ses before at
temp t
ing af ull u nder stand -
i
ng o ftran sis
to rc ircui
t technique.

THEORY OF S
EMICONDUCTORS
The a bi
lity of as ubstance t o conduct electricity depends
o
n t he readine s
s w ith w h
ich e l
ectrons can b ecome d etached
f
r
om t he
ir p arent a toms . I n the c a
se of p ure g erman ium ,
w
hich i s ac rys
talline s ubs
tance , there ar e v ery few f ree
e
l
ectrons a tr oom t empe ratures, and t h
e m a
te rial isclassed
a
s as emicond uctor. E ach a tom h as four v a
lence e lectron s,
w
hich a re t he e lectron s o n w hich c onduc tive p roper t
ie s
d
epend , a nd a tom s "k ni
t" w ith t he
ir n eighbour s i n a
f
a
sh ion t ypical ofc rys
ta l
line substance s as indicated i nF ig. G
ER MAN
IU A A
TOMS ARSEN
IC I
MPUR
ITY A
TO M

3
.
1. T he f ew e l
ec trons t hat m ay b e a va
ilab le a s curren t F
ig. 3.1. I n pure g er maniu m
, wh ich is acrystal
line substance, the
c
arriersa ret hose w h
ich h ave been" s haken "f ree byt h
e rma l f
our e lectrons i n t he outer orbit of each ato m for m tight bonds
with t hose in neighbour ing a
to ms and leave few electrons ava
ilable
a
gitation. T he e fecto ft herma la g
itation istoc aus eelectrons f
or c arrying e lectric t
. The a ddition of a small amount o f
t
ob reak a way f r
om t heir b onds a nd dr
ift in
to t he orb
i t
s o f impur ity s uch a s a rsen
ic, which h as fi
ve electrons in t he outer
orbit
, i ntroduces f ree el he s
tructure a nd i
ncreases the
n
eighbou r
ing a tom s. Norma l
ly the process isq u
ite random , e
lectr ical conduct ivity. Ger maniu m " doped " i
n this way iskno wn
b
ut w hen a v o
ltage i sa ppl
ied b etween t wo p o
ints o n t he a
s ntype.

3
.1
 R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
a"h ole" may b
e mobile a
nd thus i
ncreas
e theconduct
ivi
ty 7
o
ft h
e cry
sta
l. G ermanium doped wi
th i n
dium isknown a s
p t
ype because conduct
ion is due t o pos
it
ive
ly c ha
rged
c
arr
iers (
i
.e
. "h o
les "
).

T
he P
-N J
unc
tion
4—
F
ig
.3 .
2s how s ag
ermanium crystal
, h
alf o
fw hich ha
sb een
d
oped w i
th a r
senic a
nd theothe
rh alf w
ith i
ndium. One half
3—
i
sthe
r efore p ty
pe and th
e other ntype
. I fs
uch ac rys
tal i
s
p
repared, then atthejunct
ion between th
e two reg
ions, f
ree
2—

M
AJOR
ITY C
ARR
IERS
-

ee e e e e
-6-C) 6 8+
e
0 0
.
1 0
-2 0
-3 0
-4 0
.5 0
.6
6 C
) APPL IED VOLTAGE

0- 0 8+ 8 F
ig. 3
.4
. F
or ward c
haracter
ist
ics o
f ap
-n j
unct
ion d
iode
.

0 0\ 0 8+ G e
M
INOR
ITY C
ARR
IERS doe sf l
ow i sd ue t ot he pre sence o ft herma lly -gene rated h oles
F
ig. 3
.2. I
lan impurity with only three e
lectrons in the outer o
rb it i
s and f ree e l
ectron s. T hus , at r oom t emp e rature t here w il
l
added to a ger maniu m crystal, e
lectron d ef
iciencies, or " holes " a
lway s be af ew nt yp ec arriers int he pr egion a nd, l i
kew ise,
a
re introduced and the ger maniu m is k
no wn as pt ype. A co mb ina-
t
ion of p reg
ion a nd n region in as ingle c
rystal, as sho wn in this s
ome pt ype car r
ie rsi nt he nr e
gion . S uch c arrie rsa rep resen t
d
iagra m
, is t
he b as
is of ajunct
ion d iode. i
no nly s mall p ropo r
tion s a nd a r e te
rmed m ino rity c arrier s
.
Becau se t hey a r e s o f ew i n n umbe r
, t he r e ve rse c urren t
e
lectrons wi
ll move a cross from t he nr eg
ion a nd b egin t o r
eache s s a
tura tion a t av ery s mall a pplied v oltage . F ig. 3 .5
f
i
l
l u p the "holes "i nthe pr e
gion . B ecauset h
er e
comb ina- s
how s the c omp le te f o
rwa rd a nd r everse c ha rac teristics o fa
t
ion process entail
s af l
ow o f c harge c arr
iers t h
rough t he t
y pica lp-n junc tion ; it
ss uitab i
lity a s ar e
ctifierc an b ec lea rly
j
unction, acontact p o
tential isdevelop ed acrosst hejunc tion s
een a nd t he d evice i sk nown a s aj unction d iod e.
o
f such a p o
larity a s to oppose t he flow o f c
arriers a nd a I
ti s i mpo rtan t t o n ote t hat t he r evers e c onduc t
ion i s
s
tate ofequi
libr
ium i sq u
ickly reached . T here r
ema ins at h
in e
ntire ly d ependen t o n t he rma l
ly -gene rated c ar r
ie rs, a nd i t
r
egion i nt
he vic
inity o fthej unction w hich has been c leared t
he re fore v arie s ma rked ly w i
th t he t empe rature o f t he
o
f mob ile c
arr
iers a nd isknown a st hed eplet
ion l a
yer. j
unc t
ion . I n fact, t he relation ship i nt he ca se o fg erman ium
I
n Fig. 3
.3 th e p-n junction i ss hown w i
th a n e xternal i
ss uch t hat thec urren t app rox ima tely d oub les f ore ach 8 °C .
v
oltage appl
ied s uch that the pr e
gion i s made p os
itive a nd r
i
se i n t h
e t emp e rature o f t he j unction. T his f eatu re i s
p
e rhap s the mo st s ignifican t dif erence b etween t h
e rmion ic
a
nd c ry s
tal diode s.
9 0 8 8 8 Many c rystal d iode s inc urrent u se areo ft hep oint-con tac t
-9- 9 8 8+ t
yp e. T hese d if er f rom t h
e j unc tion d iode i n t hat t hey
9® ® 99 9
9- 9 e+ e
9 9 e
+e 8 +7
IAMPS)

+6 —

+5 —
(ILL
M

+4 —
F
ig. 3
.3
. A p-n junction w ith an external vo
ltage a
pplied a
s above i
s
s
aid to b
e for ward b iased. The r elat
ionsh ip b
et ween vo
ltage and
CURRENT

current is not linear but fo

llo ws a
n exponentia
l law
. +3 —

t
he nr eg
ion n ega tive. Unde r these c ondition s the d evice +2 —
b
ehave s as ag ood c onduc to r becau se t h
e h o
le s i n t
he p
r
eg
ion a nd t he e lectron s i n th
e nr eg
ion a re o f the correct +1 -
p
olari
ty t o s uppor t c urrent f low
. T he magn itude o f t he -
1.5 —0
.5
c
urrent f l
ow ing w ill d epend o n (among o ther t h
ing s
) t he 1 11 1 1 1 1 ii i li i i Ii
ii I f
a
pplied p otential, b ut the relat
ion ship b etween c urrent a nd REVERSE CHARACTER
IST
IC +04 +0
.3 +04
v
ol
tage i sa fected b y thep resence oft hed epletion l ayer
,a nd
t
he re
sultan t c harac terist
ic t akes the form s hown i nF ig
. 3. 4
.
T
his isth e forwa rd c harac ter
istic oft hep -n junction.
I
ft h
e p olarity o ft he external voltage i snow r eversed, the
a
vai
lable c urr ent c ar r
iers i nt he two h alves a re then o f the
—3
w
rong p olarity f orc onduc tion a nd thed evice b ehave sr a
the r
F
ig. 3
.5
. Co mp
lete character
istics o
f a p-n j
unct
ion diode s
ho w
ing
l
i
ke av ery h igh r esistance . T he re
la t
ively s mall curren t that t
he way i
n which reverse current saturates a
t a v
ery low value
.

3
.
2
 S
EMICONDUCTORS

employ a s ingle p i
ece o f nt ype german ium w ith a "c a
t's
whisker" i nc ontact with it
s s u
rface. A lthough the under- BASE

l
y
ing p
d
iode
p
lete
r
inc
, t
ly u
h
ip
e e
nde
le o
xac
rs
tood
fo
t m
pe

; i
ra
t
echan
ti
ion i
i
sb
sm o
el
sb

ieved
ased o
f the p
, h
n t
roce
oweve
ha
s
r
t o
s i
, t
ft
sn
ha
o
hej
t y
t t
h
e
unc
t c
e efe
t
ion
om
c
t o
-
f
EM
ITTER
I I COLLECTOR

t
he "c at
's w hiske r" ist o c r
eate a s mall reg
ion of pt ype METAL
s
ub stance i n t he vicin
ity o f t h
e c ontact. T he part
icular ENCAPSULAT
I ON

c
ha racter
istics o f the point
- contact diode are high fo
rwa rd
r
esistance a nd g ood high frequency p erformance.

T
he T
rans
istor GLASS HER MET
IC
I
nF ig
.3 .6a ne l
abo ration o ft heb a s
ic p-n j
unc t
ion isshown a SEAL

i
nw hich t he nr eg
ion i s made v ery t h
in a nd as econd r e
gion
o
f ptype ge rman ium i sa dded t of orm ap -n-p sandwich. T his
F
ig. 3.7
. Construct ion o a t ypical p-n-p a udio frequency o r r
.f
.
d
evice can b ec onsidered a st wo p-n j unctions moun ted b ack t
ransistor. Th is i
s known as the al
loyed j unction type in which the
t
ob ack: e ach junc t
ion i sc apab le o fb eing biased separate ly j
unctions a re for med by a
lloying p type i mpurities into opposite
f
aces of a wafer of ntype ger maniu m
. The c entre region is k nown
a
nd o fr eproduc ing t he charac teristics d e
scr
ibed p reviou sly. a
s the b ase electrode, t
he forward biased e lectrode is ter med the
I
f
, h oweve r, both junction sa re bi ased s imul
taneou sly rathe r emitter, and the r
everse biased electrode the collector.

s
pecial condition s apply. T he lef
t -hand j unction isbiased i n
t
hef orwa rd direction and t he refore p resents al ow re
sis
tance
E
arly t ransistors were notjunction types bu
t we
re known
t
ot heflow o fc urrent,w hi
le t her ight-hand j unction isbiased
a
s poin t
-con tact transi
stors
. T he
se e mployed a method o
f
i
nt he reve r
se, i .
e
. high r es
i stance , direction
. B ecause th e n c
onstruc t
ion s imilart othato fthepoint-contac
tdiode e
xcep
t
t
hat t wo "c at
's w hi
ske r
s" w e
re involved. They te
nded t
o
b
e un rel
iab le a nd inconsis
tent and h ave been a
lmost c
om-
p
le
tely s upe rseded by thej unc
tion type.

BAS
IC C
IRCU
IT CONF
IGURAT
I ONS

YO
•
02 0
48 Sofari nt h
isd es cription t het ransi
sto rh asb een c ons
ide red
a
so pe
rating i ns uch aw ay tha t the base connec tion i sc om -
mon to b o
th t he e mitter a nd t he collector circuits. T his i s
k
nown a st hec ommon b ase configu ra
tion a nd i scharacterized
b
y acu r
ren t "g ain "o f al i
tt
le l es
s than u nity, and b y al ow
F
ig. 3
.6. A p-n-p sand wich for ms two frn junctions mounted b ack t
o i
nput re s
istance a nd a v ery h igh o utpu t r e
sistance. A
back and is the b as
is o f the trans
istor . The l eft-hand junction is r
ecogn
ized s ymbo lf ort hec urren tg a
in i nthis arrangemen ti s
f
or ward biased but a large proportion o f it
s input c urrent b
eco mes
t
ransferred t o the r ight-hand j unct
ion , wh ich i s b
iased
. a(a
lpha). F rom F ig. 3.8, w hich i nd
ica tes the current dist r
i-
Power g a
in a r
ises b ecause a n input c urrent into a l ow res
istance bu
tion w hen o ne u n
i t of cur rent isf ed into t he e m
itter o r
appears in ac ircuit of much h igher resistance.
i
nput electrode, i tc an b e s een t hat t he rat
io o f col
lec tor
c
urrent to b ase c urr ent isa /(1 — a ): t h
is ratio i sgiven t he
r
egion i sv ery t h
in, many o ft hec urren tc arr
ie rs flowing i nto s
ymbo l s( beta)
. I n at ypicalt r
an s
isto r
, si sa bou t 50
. T hu s
,
t
he nz one f rom t he forwa rd b iased c ircuit b ecome c aptu red i
f ac ommon e mitter a rrangemen t isa dop ted, t he dev ice
b
y t he pr egion i nt he reverse biased c i
rcu it
. F orexamp le, i f b
ecome s c apable o f providing a w o r
thwh ile c urrent g ain.
acur rent of ImA f l
ow s i n
to t h
e l e
ft
-hand p r eg
ion, i nstead The ava
ilab le powe r gain i sv ery high a nd, f o
r t h
is rea son,
o
f t he w hole o f this current a pp earing i nt h e c onnection t o t
he common e mi
t te r a r
rangemen t isb y f a
r t he mo st wide ly
t
he nz one, a bou t 98 p er cent of i t may f l
ow i nto the r igh t
- u
sed
.
h
and p r eg
ion a nd t hus a pp ear i n t he n orma l
ly v ery h igh N
eve
rthe
les
s w
hen u
s
ing a t
r
ans
isto
r a
t f
r
equenc
ies n
ear
r
e
sis tance c i
rcu i
t. On ly a bou t 2p er c en t o f the "i npu t"
c
urren t will th en be extracted f rom t he nr eg
ion . T h
is i st he

1
b
asic t ransisto r act
ion, p owe r gain b eing a chieved b y v ir
tue
o
f t he f a
ct t hat a n inpu t curren t f ed i n
to a l ow r es
is tance
c
i
r cu i
t r e
app ea r
s i n ac i
rcu it of much h ighe r r es
istance . I f
t
he "s andw ich " i s made n -p-n i n
stead o f p -n-p th e s ame

T
p
roce s
s w il
l o ccur prov ided t hat t h
e p olar
i ties of t he b i as
c
i
rcu i
ts a re r eversed. Many t ransisto rs a vailable a t t he
p
re sent t ime a re of the p -n-p t ype a nd o f ac on s
truc tion
s
im ilar to t hat s hown i n Fig. 3.7. G erman ium a nd s i
licon
a
re t he mo st c ommon ly u sed s ub s
tance s; s i
lico ih as t he
a
dvan tage o fb e
ing l e
ss tempe rature d ependen t. F
ig. 3.5
. I n this d
iagra m t
he p-n-p s
tor is represented by i
ts
Ina l
l tran s
isto rs t
he o utere lectrode o ft he f orward b iased c
ircuit sy mbol. The sy mbol ai s u
sed to express the rat
io of co
l-
i
tter Current and i
s typical
ly 04S. Thus t he
j
unc tion i st e
rmed t he e mit
ter, t he cen tre electrode t he b a se, a
rat
io o f c
ollector to base i
s a
nd isknown as (
3.
and t he reve rse biased electrode t he collecto r
.
3
.
3
 RSCB —RAD
IO CO M M I
NICAT
ION HANDBOOK
+40 1
The th
ird poss
ible conf
igurat
ion i sthe c
ommon c oll
ector
a
rrangemen t b
ut th
is has on
ly special
ized app
lica
tion. Itis
COM MON a
nalogous t o the ca
thode f o
llower v alve ci
rcuit and is
EMITTER
c
haracter
ized by ah igh input re
sistance and a fa
ir
ly l ow
+
30
o
utpu
t r
e
sis
tance
. T
he c
urren
t g
a
in i
s I.
-
1
- 2 , w
hich i
sequa
l

t
o 13+ 1,and th
erefore approximately the same as t
hat of
IN

t
he common-emitter ci
rcuit
. I n sp
ite o f the h
igh current
GA

+
20
g
a
in , t
he p
ower g
ain isnot very g
reat because oft
he adverse
PO WER

i
mpedance tr
ansformation. T his arrangemen t i
s however
w
ell s
ui
ted f
or u
se asan input s
tage f
o r acrys
tal m
icrophone
+
10
ILABLE

4
0
AVA

3
0

i
n
1
0 a
.
o 1
0 1
0
0
F
REQUENCY (Mc/s)
_
1
F
ig. 3
.9
. B ecause ofthe f
in
ite t ransit t
i me oft he c
urrent c arriers
, the 2
c
urrent gain of atransistor falls of a s f
requency i s i
ncreased . The
f
requency a t which the co m mon b ase current g ain has fal
len b y 3 2
0—
db i
sk nown a s the a
lpha c ut
-of ffrequency a nd isgiven t he sy mbol
f
x. The availab
le po wer gain fal
ls of at ar ather f
aster rate,a sshown
i
n th
is graph wh ich is p
lotted f or a trans
istor w ith an f x of about
1
0 Mc 's
.

t
he p ract
ical limi
t for it
s t ype there may be a n advantage in
u
sing t he c
ommon -base c i
rcuit. T his a
r
ises because,although
t
he c ommon -em i
tter arrangemen t i scapable of greater low
f
r
equency p ower g ain
, t he g a
in f a
lls ofat af as
ter rate with
i
ncreasing f requency t han i t does i n the c ommon -base
L
OAD L
INE FOR 3
5mM
a
rrangemen t
. T ypica
l g a
in f r
equency c haracterist
ics o f a O
UTPUT S
TAGE R0.0
.300
11
t
r
ans istor ine ach of these t wo c onf
igurat
ions a re shown i n
F
ig. 3 .
9.
3 4 5 6 7 B 9 1
0 I
COLLECTOR — EM
ITTER VOLTAGE

F
ig. 3
.
11. A t yp
ica l f
am ily ofco
l lector characterist
ics for a t
ransistor
I
NPUT OUTPUT C
URRENT P
OWER i
n the co m mon em itter c onf
igurat ion. Their g Ishape i s v
ery
C
ONF
IGURAT
ION
R
ESISTANCE R
ESISTANCE G
AIN GAIN s
imilar to t
he a node character istics of apentode v a
lve a nd they can
b
e used in asim ilar way . To d e monstrate this
, al oad line has been
s
uperi mposed t o represent t he work ing conditions o f the class A
E C o
utput stage o f Fig. 3 .15
. Note t he low "k nee " v oltage wh ich
e
nables very high ef f
iciencies t o be obtained in at ransistor p ower
s
tage.
I
N O
UT
40 O
HMS 1M O
HMS 0
.98 1
,000
B
(
30dB
) o
r pick-up ow ing t o it
s high input impedance and low
C
OMMON B
ASE o
utput impedance .
T
ypical character
ist
ics of atr
ans
istor opera
ting i
neach o
f
C
e t
he t
hree configurat
ions are l
i
sted i
nF ig
. 3.10
.
O
UT
I
N 2KO
HMS 30K O
HMS 50 1
0.000
E
(
406
13)
I
MP ORTA NT TRA NS
IST OR CHARACTER
IST
ICS
C
OMMON E
M
ITT
ER
I
ns pi
te o fthefactt ha
tt he basic operation o ft he t
ransistor
E i
ss o dif erent from t ha
t o f the therm ionic v a
lve , there are
e d
is
tinc t resemb lances between s ome o f the
ir c haracterist
ics.
O
UT
I
N C 1
00K O
HMS IK O
HMS 50 40 F
ig. 3.11 show s af amily ofc ollector charac teris
tics for a
(
I6dB) t
ypical transistor i
nt he common em itter configura t
ion . T he
C
OMMON C
O
LLECTOR g
ene ral a ppearance i s very s imi
la r to t hat o f the a node
c
harac ter
istics of ap entode v a
lve, b ut e ach c urve i n the
f
am i
ly i sp lot
ted for ap ar
ticular v a
lue o f inpu t current (4)
F
ig. 3
.10
. Typ
ical sma
ll-signa
l low frequency c
haracterist
ics of a
j
unct
ion t i
s
tar i
n e ach of t
he three bas
ic conf
igurations are
t
o the b ase el
ectrode i ncontrast to the inpu t v
o l
tage a ppl
ied
s
ho wn i
n th
is t
able
. t
o t he grid o f t
he thermion ic valve. T his clearly ilustrates
3
.4
 SE MIC ONDUCTORS

The f requency l im
ita t
ion o f a t ransistor i s normally
e
xp re s
sed b yq uoting thef requency a tw hich thec urrentgain
h
a s f a
llen t o 7 0 per cent o f it
s l ow frequency v a
lue i n t
he
c
ommon b ase a r
rang emen t. T h
is i susua l
ly k nown a s the
f
requency o fa lpha cut-offa nd i sd enoted b y t
he symbo lf t
.
B
e cau se o fv ariou s c
apac it
ive e fects, t
he p ower g a
in b eg
ins
t
od ecrea se a t amuch l owerf requency a nd itisn o
to rdinar
ily
V„ = -6 V
OLTS
IA MPS)

p
rac ticab le t oo perate at ransistora tf r
equenc iesg reaterthan
f
i
c/2, e xcep t p erhap s a
sa n oscillator.
A
lte rna tive t e
rms d ef
ining t he li m
iting f requency o f
ILL

o
pe ra t
ion i nclude/ w
e;_ A( the fr
equen cy atw h
ich / 3= 1)a nd
URRENT (M

J
r( t
he g ain b andw idth p roduc t 1 3 5f5 where /3
* is measured
a
t f5 a bove t he /3c u
t o f frequency )
. A ll these terms are
0
.
5 - a
pp rox ima tely t he same a sf i
x b ut
, i fthe /3cut o ff r
equency
f
cc
J
7
3orf
,
.. i
sencoun
tered
, t
he v
a
lue i
sapp
rox
ima
tely -
-
•
p
C

A very i
mportant ra
ting fo
r atr
ansi
stor i
st h
e m ax
imum
ASE

c
ol
l ec
tor d
is
sipation. Mo s
t manuf
acturers q
uote th
is fo
r a
B

s
pecif
ied ambien t temperatu
re a
nd g ive a fi
gure w h
ich
i
ndicatest
hed e
ra t
ing fa
ctortobeappl
ied ath
ighe rtempera
-
t
ures.

S
TAB
ILIZAT
I ON OF THE W ORK
I NG PO
INT
Tog i
ve some i dea oft he impor
tance o fgood s t
abilization
0 0
.1 0
.2 0
.
3
BASE - EM
ITTER VOLTAGE o
f the w o
rk ing p o
in t
, Fig . 3.
13 s hows ac urve o f c o
llector
F
ig. 3
.
12. The input c haracter
istics of atrans
istor r ese mb
le the l
eakage current plotted a gainst t
hej unction tempe rature for
f
orward ch i
st
ics of ajunction d
iode. The slope of the c
urve atyp
icall ow p owert ransistori nthec ommon e mitterc ircui
t.
g
ives the sma
ll-signal l ow frequency i nput resistance o f the
transistor and var
ies with b
ias l
evel. A
t room t empe ra
tu re the l e
akage c ur
ren t isq uite insignif
i-
c
ant, bu
t a t4 0° C. (104° F.) itri
se s t
oa lmost 1mA , w hich
may becon s
ide rably greatert han thedesired w orking c urrent
t
h e i mpo rtance o f r ega rding t he t ran s
is to r a s ac urren t i
n as mall signal st
age. Ag ood b ias c
ircuit will reduce t he
ope rated d evice. T he l owe st c urve o f t he f am ily r epr esen ts maximum l eakage c urrent t o an acceptable l evel o ver the
t
h e c ollecto r c ur rent t h at w ill f low e ven w ithou t a ny i npu t r
equired w orking t empe rature r ange a nd a l
so r educe t he
c
ur ren t a nd i st ermed t he c ollec to r leakage c urrent. T his is
t
h e b a s
ic t empe ra ture d ependen t p arame te r a nd c aus es t he
who le f am i
ly o f c ollec to r c ha rac te r
istics t o move u pwa rd 1
0 1
w
i th i n c
rea sing t empe ratu re.
When u sing t he c o
llec to r c ha racte r
istic s f or d e
term in ing
(mA)

t
h e w orking p o
in t a nd t he l oad i mp edance f or ap a rt
icu lar
CO M M ON EMITTER
a
pp lica tion t h e p rocedure i ss im i
la r tot hat f o r at herm ion ic
EAKAGE CURRENT

V
ce = -6 VOLTS
v
alve : s ee C hap ter 2( Va lves ). A s an e xamp le, al oad l i
ne
has b een d rawn a cros s t he c ha racteristic s t o r epr esen t a
c
la ss A p owe r s tage o perat ing f r
om a 6 v olt s upp ly a nd
d
elive ring ap owe ro utpu to fa bou t3 5 mW i nto at r
an sforme r
c
oup led 3 00 o hm l oad . ( Thi s l o ad l i
ne r epre sents t he c on-
d
ition s i n as tage o pera ting f rom a6v o
lt s upply b ut w ith a
voltage d rop o f 1 -
2 v olts a c ross a n e mitte r s tabilising
L

r
esis tor.) B ecaus e o f t h e v ery s mall "k nee " v oltag e i ti s
COLLECTOR

possib le t o a chieve v e ry h i gh o utput c ircu it e f

ic
iency i n a
t
ran sisto r stage .
The s mall s i
gna l o utpu t r esistance o ft he t ran s
istor a ta ny
p
o in t isg iven b y t h
es lope o ft hec harac teristic a tt hat p oint,
while t hec urren t g ain ( I
3)c an b e r eadily d educed b y r e
la ting
t
he b ase a nd c olle ctor c u rren t s att he s ame p oin t
.
F
ig . 3.12 r ep r esents t he i n pu t c harac teri st
ic s of at ypica l
0I
c
ommon e mitte r c onnec ted t ran sisto r a nd i s o bviou sly
1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0
s
im ilar t o t he n orma l f orward c harac teris t
ic o f aj unc tion JUNCT
ION TE MPERATURE (° G
)
d
iode . T hi sc urve may b eu sed f ord ete rmin ing t hei npu tb ias
F
ig. 3.13
. Var iation o f c ol
lector l eakage c urrent w ith j unction
c
ond it
ion s w hen t he r e quired c ol
lec tor c u rrent h as b een t
e mp for a t
ypical 1.
f transistor .Leakage i
e
stab lished . T he s mall s igna l i npu t resistanc ei sindica ted b y s
o r apid
ly w ith t e mp hat it is possible f or a c ondition
known as "t her mal runa way" t o occur. This arises when a n initial
t
he s l
op e o f t he c urve a tt he w orking p oin t a nd, a s c an b e i
ncrease of tem l
eads to suficient r
ise o f leakage c urrent
s
een , v aries q uite c on s
ide rab ly w ith t he b ase c urren t. On ly t
o cause a f
urther signif
icant rise oft e mp . The process then
beco mes rapidly c u mu
lative a nd t he i
stor i s destroyed . A
one c ur ve i su sua lly s hown b ecau se th e inpu t charac te r
i stics c
arefully des
igned b ias circuit and a k nowledge o f t he i
stor's
a
r e f a
irly i ndep enden t o ft he c ollecto r v o
l tage . l
im itations are the best safeguards a gainst this
.

3
.5

•
•
•• • •
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
v
oltage a vailab le for p
roviding b ias, and t herefore the b
ias
c
ur rent will d ecrease and t ry to o ppo se t he change i n t
he
c
ollectorc u rren t
. T he efectivenes s depend s o n (a
) the b
leed
c
ur rent int h e base potentiome ter b eing s uficient to e
nsure
t
hat V5 r emain sc onstant,a nd ( b
)t h ev a
lue o fR 3 b
eing la
rge
e
nough t o p roduce a s ignificant v oltage c hange a cross i
t
when t h
ec ol
lec torc ur
rentc hange s. Ag ood rule ofthumb for
small signal s tages ist o arrange t hat t he bleed current i
s
a
bou t one fif
th o ft he de
sired c ollecto r current and to drop
a
bou t o ne-f
i f
th o f t he t o
tal b attery v o
ltage a cross the
emitter res
istor R 3
. T his isb est demon s
trated b y aw orked
e
xamp le
.

The P
ract
ica
l Des
ign o
f aB
ias S
yste m

Suppose that t he transi

stor ha s th
e c haracter
ist
ic s shown
i
nF igs
. 3.
11 a nd 3 .
12 a nd that itistob e used i nthe 35 mW
o
utput s t
age r epresented b y t he load l i
ne i n Fig. 3 .
11 .
S
uppo se al
so t hat the battery vo
l tage is6 v and the required
c
o
llector curren t is1 5 mA . F o
llow ing t h
e recommenda tion
a
bove, the bleed c urrent int he base p o
tentiome ter ist here-
f
ore 1 ,x 15 = 3 mA , a nd t h
e v o
ltage d rop a cross R 3
i
s 1 x 6= 1 .
2 v ol
t s
. I gnor
ing t he b ase c urr
en t t aken
b
y t he tr
ansisto r ( which i s much s mal
ler t han th e bleed
c
urrent) t
he r e
qu ired t o
tal re
sis
tance o ft he potent
iome ter is
6V
3mA x 1 03 = 2 ,000 o hm s
. A s a l
ready e xplained, t he

e
mitter c
urrent is app
roxima tely e qua
l t o t
he co
llec
to r
Typ
ica
l modern t
rans
istors
. Those o
n t
he r
ight a
re p
o wer t
ypes
. c
urrent(s
ee Fig
. 3
.6
)a nd i
ti sth
ere fo
re conven
ienttof
ind the
v
a
lue o f R3 by d
iv
iding the voltage drop acro
ss i
tb y the
1
.
2V
c
o
llectorcurren
t, t
hus - 1
5 mA x103 = 80o hms
. F
rom the
efects o f th e variat
ion o fc harac teris
tics b etween t ransistor o
utpu t c haracter
istics s
hown i nF ig
. 3.11, the r equired b ase
s
amp les. c
urrent 1 .i s0.25 mA , and r e
ference to t he input c haracter-
In Fig. 3 .14 a t ransisto r i sshown w ith a s keleton b ias i
s
tics s hown i n Fig. 3.12 i ndicates that the b ase e m
itter
c
ircuit o f af orm w hich i s applicable t o mo st t yp es of v
oltage r equired top roduce this curren
t i s0.
19 v o
lt. A dding
t
ran s
isto r s tage s used i n c ommun ication s e quipmen t a nd t
his voltage t o V. gives V5 = 1 .
2 +0 .
19 = 1 .39 v olts and
which u ses as i
ngle b attery t o s upply t he input b ias a nd 1
.39V
c
ollecto r v oltage. T he b ase o f the transistor i sf ed from a t
herefore R 2 = — x1 0 3= 4 63 ohm s
. S ince t he total
3mA
potentiome te r formed b y R I a nd R 2
, w hile a third r es
istor
p
otentiome ter res
istance required h as been calcu lated t o be
R3 i s i nserted i n th e e mitter l ead. T he a moun t o f bias
2
,000 o hm s
, R I mu s
t be 2,000 — 4 64 = 1 ,
537 o hm s
.
c
ur rent 4f ed i n
to t he b ase e l
ectrode , a nd t herefo re the
Thiso utput st
age i su
sed i nt h
e 35 mW amp lifiers hown i n
amoun t o fc ollector cu r
ren t I,tha t wi
ll f l
ow , isd ecided b y
F
ig. 3.15 a nd i twi
ll be noticed t ha
t resis
to rs o f t
h e nearest
t
he d ife renc e b e
tween t he v oltage s V5 a nd V . I f
, f o
r a ny
p
referred v aluestot hose c
alculated ares pecif
ied. D ecoup l
ing
r
ea son, t hec ol
lec torc urren t tr
iest oi ncrease then t hev oltage
c
apacito rs a re used t o isolate t h
e b ias c i
rcu it a t signal
d
rop a c ro ssR 3( i
.e
. V .
)w illa lso increase. T h
is will leave le
ss
f
requenc ies.

C O UPL
I NG C
IRC UITS FOR TR A NS
IST OR ST AGES

Aud
io F
requency S
tages

B
ecaus et hetran s
istor is acurrento perated device and h a
s
F
ig. 3.
14. The b as
ic ele ments o f a
are
lat
ively l ow i mpedance i npu t c
ircui
t c ompa red with t h
e
s
ingle battery b
ias c ircuit
. Good u
sual the
rm ionic v a
lve arrangemen t
, iti s more importan tlo
s
tability o
f work ing p o
int c an be
obtained with a b ias s yste m of
e
nsure prope r impedance m atch ing of the coupling circui
ts
t
his t ype at t he e xpense o f a l
i
nking s mal
l signal trans
istors t
ages than i nthec or
respond -
r
elatively sma ll b
attery
drain. i
ng va
lve circui
ts. T he procedu re i
sc omp licated by the fac
t
t
hat tr
an s
istor i mp edances v ary with o perating conditions
a
nd i tisn ecessary t o establi
sh t he w orking p oint b efo
re
a
t
temp ting toc alculate thec oupling requiremen ts
. T his wil
l
n
orma l
ly b e chos en o n the ba s
is of al
low ing a s ufi
cien t
ly

3
.
6
 S
EMICONDUCTORS
l
a
rge q uie scen t collector currentt o han- 6V
d
l
e t he s igna l w ithou t any c l
ipping o f
t
hec urren t w ave fo rm.
For a udio f requenc ies, the input a nd
o
utpu t i mpedance s c an then b e deter- 3n
m
ined b y m easu r
ing t h e slope of t he Ls
s
t
atic c ha racteristics a t t he w orking
p
oint discu ssed p reviously or b y re
ferr-
i
ng t o s po t v alue s w hich t he manu -
f
a
ctu rer may i n
clude i n the p ub
lished
d
ata. T he t urns r a
tio o f t he coup -
l
i
ng t ran s forme r i s then g iven b y

N = — w
here Zi, i
s t
he i
npu
t
-
I
- 6V
r
esistance o f t he d riven s tage a nd Z .
i
st he o utpu tr es
istance o ft h e p reced ing
s
tage . S uch l ow p owe r c oup ling t ran s- F
ig. 3.15 . A c lass A 3
5 m W a ud
io output stage a
nd d r
iver. Many " p
ersona
l " t
rans
is-
t
orized r
eceivers u
se a
n output s
tage o
f t
his t
ype
.
f
orme rs c an b e made q uite s mall, p er-
hap s w ithin a h alf-
inch c ube , b ut c a re
mu st b e t aken t o e nsure t ha t t he d .c.
r
esistance o ft hew ind ing si sn ott oo h igh . W ind ing r esistance s
tage. T he amp
lif
ier thus r
el
ies solely on th
e cur
rent ga
in of
i
s much mo r e i mpo r
tan t than i ni nte rva lve t ran sforme rs: for t
he t ransis
tor, and t he common b ase st
age is th
erefore
i
nstance av oltag ed rop o ff i
ve v oltsa cro ss t h ep rima ry o fan u
n sui
tab le for th
is type o f coupling. Howeve r
, common
i
nte rs
tage t rans forme r i n av alve amp lifie r w ou ld b e o fl i
tt
le emit
ter a nd common c o
llec
tor stage s us
ing RC coup
ling are
c
onsequence b u
t as imilar d rop i nt h e c ollec to r c ircu it o fa p
re f
erred f or c er
tain a ppl
ication s b ecause of t h
eir
t
ran sisto r stage c ould b e d isa strou s w hen o p erat ing f rom a s
imp l
icity.
6v olt supp ly . Wh i
le o n thi s p oin t, i ti sw orth n oting t hat a
s
im ilars i
tua tion m ay o ccu rw hen h igh r esistance h eadphone s
a
re u sed i nt ran s
isto rc i
rcu its. R
adio F
requency S
tage
s
The d esign o f t ran sfo rme r s f or p owe r o utpu t s t
ages
d
emands ar athe r dif eren t a pp roach . H ere t he r e qui remen t I
n the ca se o ft uned r adio f r
equency t r
an s
isto r a mplif
i ers
,
i
sn ot t o ach ieve max imum p owe rg a in f rom t he s tage , b u
t s
uch a st ho se i nt h e if. st
age so f ac ommun ication s receive r
,
max imum p owe r o utpu t, a nd t his e ntails a l owe r l oad c
omp l
ications a re a dded t o the g ene ral problems o f powe r
i
mp edance t han f or t h e m atched c ond ition . T he c la s
s A matching. T hese a rise because o ft he n eed to p reserve a de-
o
u tpu ts tag ei nF ig.3 .
15 r e qui re s ac olle cto rl oad o f3 00 o hms q
ua te f r
equency s electivi
ty a nd b ecause o f the p resence o f
a
nd t his isp rov ided b y a1 0 :Is tep -down t ran sforme r f e
ed- i
n
te rnal feedback w ithin t het ransisto rw h
ich b ecome s ignif
i-
i
ng a3o hm l oudsp eake r. At ypica l s pecifica tion f or s uch a c
ant a th ighe r frequenc ies and c an r esult ininstab il
ity.
t
rans fo rme ri sgiven i nT able 3 .1. B ecau se t h e3 5 mW o utput To m a
in ta in s e
le ctivity itisn ece ssary tot ap t he transistor
s
tage r equire s very l i
ttle d r
ive , t h e d r
ive r t ran s forme rc an be e
lectrode s i n
to t h e t uned c ircuits i n such a w ay t hat a
d
esigned o n t he b as
is o f t hat f or as mall s igna l s tage ; b u
t r
easonab le w o
rking Q v a
lue i s m aintained. F ig. 3 .16
t
his may n ot a lway s a pply . I n s ome c ase s w he re l a
rger i
lustrates t he w ay i n w hich t h
i s i su sually a chieved i n a
p
owe ro utpu t s are re quired i tw ill b e n ece ssary t o c ompu te s
ingle-tuned i .
f
. t r
an sforme r f or u se w i
th a n 0C45 t ype
t
he i n put r es
i stance o ft he p owe r s tage , n ot o n t h e b a si
s o f t
ransistor. S uch ac oil wou ld bee nclosed i n aferrite pota nd
t
hes loper es
is tance a tt heo pe ra t
ing p oin t b utb yc on side ring t
hew hole a ssemb ly ,i ncluding t het uning c apacitor , moun ted
t
he p eak -to -peak i npu t v oltage a nd c ur ren t r equ iremen ts at i
n as ma
ll a lum in ium c an a bou t fi n
. diame te r. I f
, i n an
f
u
ll d rive. B y dividing t he i npu t v oltage e xcur sion b y t h
e e
for t top re se rve ah igh w orking Q v alue ,thet app ing p oints
c
ur ren t excur s
ion amo re r ealistic f igure f o r i n put r es
is tance a
re b rough t n ea rer t o th e "ear thy" e nd o f t he t uned
i
st hen o btained . w
ind ing, t h e i n
sertion l o
s ses inc rease s harply a nd o ve ra
ll
Resistance -capac itance c oup ling may a lso b eu s ed i nt r
an-
s
i
sto r amp lifier sb utt hes tage g ain i st h en n ots oh i gh a sw ith
t
ran sfo rme rc oup l
ing b e caus e t hee fec tive c ollec to rl o ad can
n
eve r b e h i ghe r t h
an t he i npu t r esis tance o f t he f ollow ing COLLECTOR T
AP

TABLE 3
.
1
BASE
Transfor mer d
eta
ils f
or t
he c
ircu
it o
f F
ig. 3
.
15 W
IND IN G
(
B t
urns)

T
I T2

T
urns R at
io 1
0 I 1
0: I F
ig. 3
.
16. Typ ical i
.
f. t
ransfor mer f
or use with t
ransistors. To main-
R
esistance o
f pri mary 1
, 2
50 oh ms ›' 1
0 o
h ms t
ain a s
atisfactory working Q v alue, the trans
istor electrodes are
R
esistance o
f secondary 3
0 oh ms s
.0.3 o
hm t
apped into t he t
uned w inding. The u n
loaded Q v alue is a
bout 100
P
ri mary i
nductance 2
0H .
40•3H a
nd the tappings are chosen such that the working Q value isabout
S
O.

3
.
7
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
E
XTERNAL N
EUTRAL
IZING COMPONENTS c
ase q uo ted a bove , wou ld r e duc e t he n et feedback c apaci-
RF NC t
ance f rom 1 2pF t oa bou t 2.5pF .
I
ti sinte resting t on ote t hat many v .h.f.t r
an sis
to rt ypeso n
t
he ma rke t h ave a ctual i nterna l f eedback c apac i
tie so fa bout
2
pF , w hich i sl e
ss t han t he neu tra l
iz ing e r
ro r w h
ich mu st b
e
c
ate red f or o n l e
s s soph istica ted t yp e
s. Obv iou sly i fsuch a
l
ow i n
i t
ia l c apac i
tanc e i s n eutra lized t he l i
kely e rro r is
e
xtreme ly l ow a nd a v ery c arefu lly d e
signed s tage c ould
TRANS
ISTOR a
ch ieve h igh p owe r gain, b ut amo re signif
ican t o bservation
i
st hat t he l ow -capac itance t ran sisto r isc apab le o fg i
ving a s
much g ain w ithou t an eu tralizing c i
rcuit ast he high-capac i
-
t
ance s amp le g ives w hen c arefu lly n eutra
lized . F or t h
is
r
ea son, a nd b ecaus e o ft he
ir h ighe r i nput and o utpu t res
ist
-
a
nce s,v .h.f. t ransisto rsa reb ecom ing i ncreasingly p opu lari n
F
ig. 3
.17. Representat ion of an eutra l
ized t ransistor i f
, stage. The
i
nternal feedback p ara meters of the t ransistor a re neutra l
ized b y I
f. amp lifiers, e ven a t t he r elative ly l ow f requenc ies c om-
f
eeding b ack a n antiphase s ignal to t he input c ircuit via a s er
ies
mon ly u sed i nb roadca st re ceive rs.
RC n et work
. F
or p erfect n eutralizing, t he e xternal f eedback
c
o mponents a re r e
lated t o the interna l p ara meters b y a f actor As ag u
ide t o i .
f
. a nd r .
f. t r
an sforme r d esign, T able 3 .
2
e
qual to the ratio of the col
lector t urns to b ase turns o n the output
l
i
sts s ugge sted b ase c ircu i
t r es
is tance a nd c o
llecto r circui
t
i
.
f, t
ransfor mer .
r
esistance v alue s a t v ariou s f requenc ies f or a c ommon
emitter s tage o pe rating a t 1mA a nd w ith a n et f e
edback
g
ain w ill d ec rea se. Howeve r
, t he c omp rom ise b etween c
apac ity o f a bou t 2 pF. F o r mo st t uned t r
an sforme r
s, t h
e
s
e
lec tivity a nd g ain i sn ot ass t
raigh tforwa rd a s it may s e
em r
esistanc eo f aw ind ing a t at app ing p oint m ay b ec alculated
b
ecaus e the max imum s tage g ain w hich c an b e sa fely u sed RD
f
rom R 2
- 4p -1,w
N he re RD i st he d ynam ic r es
istance o f
w
ithou t ri
sk o fi nstab il
ity i sc l osely t i
ed u p with t he i nterna l
f
eedback c apac itance o f th e t ransistor, i .
e
. t he h i ghe r t he t
he w
hole t
uned w
ind
ing a
t t
he f
r
equency c
oncer
ned
c
apac itance , t he l owe r i st he max imum u sable g ain. T his
(RD — Q a
nd N i
sth
e r
a
tio o
f t
o
tal t
urn
s t
o
l
imitation c an b ec onside rab ly r e
lieved i ft he interna l c apac i- 2
7
rfCr u j '
t
anc e isn eutra lized b yf eeding b ack a na ntipha se signa lf r
om t
apped t
urn
s.
a
n e xterna l c ircu it. T he n eu tra lizing f eedback may b e con -
v
enien tly ta ken f rom t he s econdary w ind ing o ft hef ollow ing
t
rans forme r b u t c onnec t
ion s t o t he w ind ing mus t b e i nt he
p
rope r sense t o p rovide t he o ppo s
ite p ola r
ity r equi red . C
omp
lementary S
y m metry Amp
lif
iers
T
o o btain c omp lete n eu tra liza t
ion , ac apacito r i n s er
ie s
w
ith a r e
sisto r i sr equ ired b ut t he r es
i stor may o ften b e Tos upp ly t hed rive r equ iremen ts o f ap ush -pu llp a
ir ,s ome
omitted i n p rac tice : s ee Fig . 3 .17. C or rect v alue s f or t he f
orm o f p ha se- splitting a rrangemen t i scommon ly i nvo lved .
n
eu tralizing c omponen ts c an b e d e
term ined b y t aking t he For many c onven tiona l amp lif
ier s t h
is t ake s t he f orm o f a
manuf acture r's p ub l
i shed d ata o n i nterna l feedback p ara- t
ran sforme r, b u t t r
ans isto rs n ow p erm it this r e quiremen tt o
meter s and a pp lying af ac
tor e qua l tot h e turn s ratio o ft he b
e a voided b y u sing d evice s o fo ppo sing p olarity ( i
.e. n -p-n
t
rans forme r w hich i ss upply ing t he f e
edback v o
ltage . F or p
aired w ith p -n -p) i n t he d r
iven s tage s o t hat t he i npu t
e
l
ec trode s c an b e c ommon a nd d riven i np ha se w ith e ach
e
xamp le, ift h e t ran s
isto r feedback p arame te r
sa re q uo ted a s
acapac itoro f1 2pF i ns eriesw ith ar esisto ro f3 000 o hms ,a nd o
the r. F ig. 3 .18 s how s a n a mplifie r o f this t ype w h
ich i s
d
esigned t od elive ra bou t 3 00 m W i nto as peake r. I tc an b e
i
fth ep rimary -to -se condary t urns r at
io o ft heI f
. t ran sforme r
i
s d eno ted b y N , t h e n eu tralizing c omponen ts s hould s
een t hat a pa rt f rom t h e s peake r t here a re n o b ulky c om -
c
on s
is t o f ac apac ito r e qua l t o N x1 2pF i n s e
rie s w ith a p
onen ts, t he e l
im ina tion o f t r
ans forme rs g reatly r educ ing
3000 t
hew e
igh ta nd s ize o ft heu nit. T he re are,h oweve r
,f ar mo re
r
esistor o f -- o hm s. s
ignifican tr ewa rd st han t his becau se i ron-co red t r
an sforme rs
h
ave m any u nde sirab le e l
e c
trical c haracte ristic s a nd t heir
P
erfect neutra
liz
ing w i
ll rarely be ach
ieved and it i
s r
emova l o pens t he w ay t o new s tanda rds o fs ound q uali ty.
i
mpracticab
le to des
ign on that bas
is. Ag ood a
pproach i
s Apart f rom t he d irec t e f
ects o f t r
ansforme r d i
stor tion ,
t
o as
sume t ha
t n eu
tral
izing er
ror m ay b
e as h
igh a
s 20 p
er d
ifi cult
ie s o ften a ris e d ue t o p ha se s h
ift w ithin t he c om -
c
ent ofthe nominal co
llec
tor
-ba se c
apaci
tance wh
ich, i
nthe ponen t att h e h ighe r a ud io f r
equenc ie s
. T hi s s e
ts al imit t o
t
h e amoun t o f n ega tive f e
edback w hich c an b e s a
f ely e m-
p
loyed a nd may m ean t h a
t d is
tor tion i n
troduced b y o the r
TABLE 3
.
2
c
omponen ts c anno t b e re duced t ot he d e
sired l e
vel.
S
uggested ba
se circu
it and co
llec
tor c i
rcuit r
es
istance
s at var
ious f
r
e- In Fig. 3 .18, t h e d r
ive r t ransisto r isa n AC 113 i nc l
a ss A
q
uencies f
or ac
ommon e m
itter s
tage opera
ting a
tcol
lector c
urrent o
f 1mA
a
nd with anet f
eedback c
apaci
tance of 2pF.
c
ommon -em itte rc onf igura t
ion . T he c o
llector i sd .c
.c oup led
t
ot he outpu t t rans is tors w hich h ave ad .c
. a nd a .c. n ega tive
f
eedback p a
th t o t h e d rive r stage i nput via ap re set r e
si sto r
Base c
ircuit Collector c
ircu
it
F
requency r
esistance at s
tated r
esistance a
t sta
ted which i s u sed t o a dju st i n
it
ial w orking c ond it
ion s. T he
f
requency f
requency p
re ferred m ethod o f a d ju s
tmen t i st o e xam ine t he o utpu t
10 kis 2
00 o
h ms S
O Kohms waveform o n a n o scillos cope a nd s et t he r esis
tor t o t he
470 k
e/s 1
00 oh ms 2
0 Kohms pos
i t
ion w here t h e w aveform c l
ip s s ymme trica l
ly u nde r
MO f0 o
h ms 1
0 Kohms
1
0
.7 Mc/s 3
0 oh ms 3K o
hms o
ve rload c ond i t
ions , b ut i ft h
is f acil
ity i sn ot a vailab le i tis
s
ufficient t oa djus t t og ive aq u
iescen t voltage o f5 .0v olts a t
3
.
8
 S
EMICONDUCTORS
p
rob lem o f o b
ta ining ma tch ing b etween n -p-n a nd p -n-p
t
rans isto rs a t h igh p eak c urren ts a nd o pen s t he w ay t o
much h ighe rp owe ro utpu t l evels. E ach h alf o ft hep ush-pu l
l
outpu ts tage c on sis
t so f ap air o ft r
an sistor sc onne cted i nt h
e
s
o-ca lled s upe r o
r Da rling ton c onf igu ration . S uch a p a
ir
b
ehave s r athe r like a s ingle t ransistor o f very h igh c urrent
g
ain a nd f urthermo re
, b y using al ow p owe rn - p-n t ran s
istor
c
oup led w ith ah igh p owe rp -n -p t ran sisto r
, t hec omb ina tion
b
ehave s a s t hough i tw ere a h igh p owe r n- p-n d evice . I tis
t
hu s p ossible i n ac omp lemen tary p u sh-pu ll s tage t oo btain
r
ela t
ive ly h igh o u
tpu t p owe r l eve ls w ithou t t he d if icul
t
r
equ i remen t o f ma tch ing t he c ha rac teristics o f a n n -p-n
* T
HE EFFECT
IVE powe r t ransisto r t o t hose o f ap -n -p p owe r t ran s
i s
to r
.
S
OURCE RESISTANCE
Amp lif
i ers o f t his typ e
, d elive ring o utpu t p owe rs o f many
R SHOULD NOT B E
L
ESS THAN 2 K11 t
en so fw atts,arer eplac ing t herm ion ic v a
lve amp lif
ier si nh igh
quality s ound a ppa ra tu s
.
I
nt he amp lifiers hown ,i ti sv ery i mpo rtan tt hatt h e AF 167
outpu t t r
an sisto r
s a re moun ted i na n e fective h ea t s ink t o
e
n sure s atisfactory o pera t
ion u p toa n amb ien t tempe rature
o
f4 5 ° Ca nd a lso t ha t the AA 120 c omp ensa ting d iode s are
moun ted o n the s ame h ea t s ink s o t ha t t he
i r t empe ratu re is
c
lo sely r e
la ted t o t ha t o f t he t ran sisto rs w ho se c ond itions
t
h ey a r e i ntended t o s tabilize . T he p reset r es
isto r s hould
i
dea lly b e a d
jus ted t o g ive s ymme tr ica l o verload c ond itions
a
sd e scribed f or thep reviou s amp lifi er b ut a l
te rna t
ive ly may
b
es ett og ive thev alue so fq uie scen tc ollecto rc urren ts s hown
on t he d iag ram .
B
ecau se t he o utpu t p airs a r e in s eries c onnec t
ion a cross
F
ig. 3.
18. A 3 00 m W c lass B p ush-pul
l amp lifer u sing n-p-n a nd t
he s upp ly l i
ne, e ach p ai
r o perate s f rom o nly h alf o f the
p
-n-p trans
istors in the c o mp
le mentary s y m metry c onfiguration. a
va ilab le s upp ly v o
ltage . T hi s exp la in s w hy t h e u nu sua l
ly
This g
e ment avcids t he n eed for a pha e s p
litting d river
t
ransfor mer and l
eads t
o ac o mpletely t
ransfor merless a
.f
. amp lifier
. h
igh l evel o f 2 6 v o
l ts i su sed o n t his a nd many s im i
lar
amp lifiers. F o r o pera tion f rom a ma ins s upp ly t h e p ower
u
ni t n eed c on sist o nly o f at ran sfo rme r-fed b ridge r ectifi
er
t
h e junc
tion o f t he two 2.2 o hm resi
stors in th
e e m
itte
r c
i
rcu itw ith as i
ng le r eservo ir c apac ito ro f2 000µF . No o ther
c
ircu
it s of the o u
tput trans
i s
to r
s. T he AA 120 germanium smoo thing i sre quired . I ft he amp lif ier i sb e
ing o pe rated
j
unction d iode int he d
river col
lecto
r circu
it isopera
ting in f
rom b a t
te ries i ti sa dv isab le t o u se ac apac ito r o f s im i
lar
t
h e forward d i
rection a nd h e
lps
t
o s tabi
lize w o rking conditions
a
gain st t
he e f
ects oftempe rature
c
hange a nd variations of supply
v
oltage.

An AC 154 p -n-p t ransistor a nd * T

HE EFFECTIVE SOURCE
R
ESISTANCE R S HOULD
a
n AC 157 n - p
-n t ransisto r fo rm N
OT B E L
ESS THAN S KR
a ma tched o utpu t p air, i tb eing
e
ssential t hat their c harac teris
tic s
a
re c omp lemen tary o ver t he AA 1
20

e
nt
ire w orking r ange o f c urren t AAI2 0
a
nd v o
ltage . T h
is i sv e
ry i mpor t-
a
nt a nd i ti so f lit
tle u se t o p a
ir
n
-p-n wi th p-n-p device sa tr andom
i
n this a pplication . T he 1 5 o hm
l
oudspeake r isf ed v ia a2 00ILF
e
l
ect rolytic c apac i
to r w hich i s
s
uficien tly large t o e nsure g ood

1
b
ass r esponse . T he 9v olt s upply
i
ss hun ted b y as imila r c apacito r 4
.7K
t
op rov ide a l ow -
impedanc e path
f
or t h e h igh p eak c urren ts
i
nvolved .
(
ADJUST T
c)
The amplif
ie
r o f Fig
. 3 .
19 is
s
imi
lar t
ot h
ec i
rcui
tj u
std i
scussed F
ig. 3
.19. A 2 watt transfor mer
less a
.f. ampl
ifier us
ing a mod if
ied c o mple mentray sy m metry
a
rrange ment which per m
its the use o
f matched p-n-p t
ransistors i n the fina
l p o wer s
tage. This
b
ut u se
s a c oupl
ing a rrange- i
s advantageous because of the dif
iculty o
f match ing a n r
i
-p-
ri d evice t o a p
-c-p transistor at
ment w h
ich p ar
tly a vo
ids t he h
igh po wer l
evels
.

3
.
9
R
SGB-RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
i
tc an b e seen t ha
t t h ey are s mall w ire-ended c omponen ts
wh
ich c an beh ung i nt h ewir
ing i n much t hes ame w ay aso ne
wou ld moun t ar e
sisto r or c apacito r o f compa rable s ize.
D
iode s f or l a
rge r p owe r requiremen ts may b e fi
tted w ith
mean s f o
rc lamp ing t o am etal c oo
ling p la
te.
Mo sto ft he l o
ssesi n ap owerr ecti
fy ing diode are incurred
dur
ing t he c onduc tive p art of t he c ycle by t h
e pa s
sage o f
c
ur rent t hrough t he f orward r e
sistanc e of the dev
ice . F ig.
3
.20 c ompa res t he f orwa rd charac te rist
ics of at herm ion ic
d
iode w ith t ho se of s imi
larly rated s i
licon and g erman ium
d
ev ices a nd c learly s how s the a dvan tage s to be ob
tained i n
t
his r espec t
. T he a ppa rent advan tage o f g
erman ium o ve r
s
i
licon i s larg e
ly o fset by i t
s l owe r maximum w orking
t
emp eratu re (90° Ca ga insta bout 1 50° Cf orsi
licon)a nd a l
so
by i n
ferior r everse c ha racte
rist
ic s.
Apa rt from r educing d evice c onsump tion, lower f o
rward
r
esistance r esult sinh igherd .c.o utpu tv o
ltage for agiven a. c
.

S
emiconductor d
iodes
. Top r
ow, po wer r
ect
ifiers; b
elo w
, s
igna
l- 47 0K 47 0K
d
iodes
.

v
a
lue t o shunt the supp
ly to avoid premature overload.
T
he frequency respons
e of the amp
lifi
er issub
stan tial
ly
l
e
vel between 2 5 c
/s and 10 k
c/s and the to
tal harmon ic
d
i
stort
ion a t max
imum r ated o
utput i
sl e
ss t
han 1p e
r c ent
.

S
EMICONDUCTOR D
I ODES

S
emiconductor P
ower R
ect
ifiers

Rectif
icat
ion alway si nvolves ac er
tain l o
sso fp owe ri nthe
f
orm o fh ea
t. I n t
hec ase o fp owers upplies for radio equip-
F
ig. 3
.21. C
ircuit of atyp
ical po wer s
upply us
ing two s i
licon r
ect
i-
ment
,t h
e amoun to fh ea
tt ob edisposed o f may bes ignif
icant f
iers t
ype BY100 i
n ser
ies to p
rovide 3
50 vo
lts at 4
00 m A. The s
upply
e
nough t o i n
f
luence ma rkedly t he m echanica
l d esign i f embod ies f
eatures d
iscussed i
n the text
.
t
herm ionic diode s or s elenium d iodes a re u sed a s the
r
ect
ifying elemen t
s.
By using german ium o r s i
l
icon junc t
ion d iodes, h oweve r
, i
npu t leve l
, b u
t a lso i nvolve s h ighe r p eak f o
rwa rd c urren ts
r
ect
ificat
ion e f
ic
iency c an b e so greatly i mproved t hat it i
nt h
e d iode c i
rcu i
t, p articu larly i f ac apac i
to r inpu t fi
lte r i s
b
ecome s poss
ible f o
r ad iode n o larger than a f l
ashlamp u
sed f or s moo thing. I n t h e c ase o f mo st tran sforme r -fed
b
ulb t o rect
ify the h .
t. p ower f o
r a1 00 w att t r
an smitter
. r
ectifying c ircui ts
, ther es
i s
tance o ft he transforme rw ind ing s
E
xamp lesofs uch diode s are shown i nt he photog raph s and w
ill l imit t h e c harging c u rren t t o as afe value , b ut t his
f
eatu re s hou ld b e c on sidered c a refully a t the d esign s tage
a
nd r ef
e renc e made t o t he manuf actu rer's data t o estab lish
m
in imum p erm issible c ircu it r esistance f or t he v a
lue o f
r
eservo irc apac itore nv isaged . Any e xt ra res
istance r equi red
S
E MIC ONDUCTOR (GER MAN
IU M)
s
hou ld t hen b e c onnec ted d irectly i ns er
ies with t he diode .
One o ft he d ifi
cu l
tie s encoun te red i nt he deve lopmen t o f
s
em iconduc to r p owe r d iode s w as t he h igh r ever s
e v oltage
A MPS)

.
..
.-
--SE M
ICONDUCTOR (
SIL
ICON)
r
ating r equi red i n as ingle j unc tion i fthe need f or s eve ral
unitst ob ec onnec ted i ns eriesw a st ob ea voided . T op rov ide
CURRENT (

as ui
tab le s afety f a
cto r, ar eve rse v o
l tage r a
ting o f at l east
t
hree t ime s the r .m.s. v alue o f s ine w ave inpu t i srequ ired .
J
unc tion s h aving v o
ltage r a
ting s o f 8 00 to 1 ,000 v o
lts a re
b
eing p roduced c heaply a nd a r e inc ommon u se i nd ome stic
t
elevi s
ion r eceiversb ut, ifi ti sne cessary t oo pera te diode s i n
I ODE

s
e r
ies, r athe r s pecial p recau t
ion s mu st be t aken t o en su re
D

e
qua l d istribu tion o f v oltage b etwe en s amp les. I nequa lities
a
ris e du ring t he n on-conduc ting p e
riod d ue tod iference s i n
r
e verse r e
sistance a nd s hou ld b e r educed b y s hunting e ach
5 1
0 I
S
d
iode w ith i d
en t
ica lfixed r esisto rso fs uf ic
iently l ow v a
lue t o
VOLTAGE AC R OSS D
I ODE (
V) "t ake-cha rge" o f r eve r
se v oltage d is tr
ibu t
ion y et n ot l ow
enough t o c au se e xce ssive h eat d iss
ipa t
ion w ithin t h
e
F
ig. 3
.20
. Co mpar
ison of t
he voltage d rops across sem
iconductor
a
nd ther m
ionic po wer r
ectif
ier d
iodes. r
esisto rs t hems e
lve s
. F or p recise a dju stmen t
, k now ledge o f

3
.
10
 S
EMICONDUCTORS
t
he r eve rse l e
akage t olerance s o n t he d iode s inq ue stion w il
l +1
R
EGION OF H
IGH
b
e r equ ired b ut f or mo st ama teur r adio p urpos es, m atched

R
C
ATHODE
"
r C
ONDUCT
ION
r
esisto rs i nt he o rde r o f5 00 K o hm s w il
l b e a dequa te.
F urthe r p recau t
ion s m ay b e r equ ired i n orde r t o p ro te c
t
t
he d iode s a ga in st p ermanen t d amage d ue t os ho rt-du ra tion G
ATE
P
ICK-UP
pu
l se s s uch a si n
te rf er ence s pike s w hich may "r ide "o n t he C
URRENT
p
eak s o ft h e i ncom ing ma in s w avefo rm a nd c au se e xce ssive ) H
OLD
ING F
ORWARD
A
NODE
r
eve r se v oltage . Un like t he rm ion ic d iode s, sem iconduc to r C
URRENT ,
BREAKOVER
.
.
.9tay VOLTAGE
d
ev ice s m ay b ev ery s uscep tib le t ot h
i sf orm o fo ve rload , b ut
p
ro tec tion m ay b e p rov ided b y s hun t
ing e ach d iode w ith a —
v
o
f
"
c
apac itor o f a bou t 0 .00 1pF , b ea ring i n m ind t he w ork ing F
ORWARD
v
oltage r e quiremen ts. E
VERSE B
LOCK
ING B
LOCKING R
EGION
R
EGION
A t ypica l p owe r s upp ly i nco rpo rating t h
es e s afety p re-
c
au tion s i ss hown i nF ig. 3 .21 .
R
EVERSE
A r ecen t d eve lopmen t i n t he s em iconduc to r f i
eld i st he B
REAKDOWN
(b)
R
EGION
d
ev ice k nown a s t he c on tro lled a va lanche r ect
ifi er w h
ich i s
s
im ila r t o t he d iode s d iscu ssed a bove b ut h as as pecia lly
s
haped r eve rse c ha rac te ris tic w hich a l
low s t he r ec t
ifie r t o
a
bso rb mo re t ran sien t e ne rgy. T he s o -called a valanche
c
ha rac teristic i sp ar ticu la rly u sefu l f or s er
ie s o pe ration o f
r
ectifi ers, e spe cially w hen a c hoke -inpu t f i
l
te r i su sed o r F
ig. 3
.22. (a) Circuit s y mbo l f
or a si
licon c ontrol
led r ect
ifier (b)
when i n
te rfe rence s pike s a r e p len tiful. E
lectrical characteristics o f an SCR. App licat
ion o f a r elatively
small s
ignal to the g ate electrode can sw itch the device fro m t he
I
f as ing le d iode w ill n ot d elive r t he cur rent r equ i remen t s
, f
or ward blocking region t o the high conduction region. The b lock-
i
ng condition can only b e restored by reducing the for ward c urrent
i
tw ill b e n ece ssary t oo p e ra te t wo o r mo re i np ara llel. T he
be
lo w the holding l evel. The a ct
ion c an be likened t o t hat of a
d
ang e r t hen i so f u nequa l d i
stribu tion o f forwa rd c u rren t thyratron va
lve .
which may h ave t o b e c or rec ted b y t he i nsertion o f al ow -
v
alue r es
i sto r i ns erie s w ith e ach d iode . Any d oub ts a bou t
t
hew ell-be ing o fd iode s i nt h
i sr e spec tc an b em et b y includ - The s i
gnif
ican t dif erence b etween a s witching t ransistor
i
ng as u
itab le f use i ns erie s w ith e ach d evic e. a
nd a n S CR ist hat at ran s
isto rd oes not exhibit the la
tch ing
I
ti sa ssumed t hat mo stp owe rr ectif y
ing e quipmen tw illb e a
ction o f aS CR a nd re quires amuch h i
ghe rc ontrolc urren t
.
o
pe ra ting f r om t he d ome stic ma in s s upply , b ut o c ca s
iona l ly Whe rea s ab ase c ur
ren t o fp erhap s 1amp w ould b e needed
i
tm ay b er equ i red t or ectif yw avefo rm sa tf r
equenc ie ss e ve ral t
oc ontrol ac o
llector c urren t of2 0 amp s, the required g a
te
t
ime sh i
ghe rt han 5 0-60 c /s. T he u se o fs em iconduc to rp owe r c
ur renti na nS CR w ould b ea bou t5 0 mA. B ecau se t
h eS CR,
d
iode s may p re sen t s ome d ifficu lty h e re b ecause o f a b
y v irtue ofi t
s c onstruc t
ion , i sa ble to make mo re efective
p
henomen k nown a s "h ole s to rage" w h
ich c au se s ad elay u
se o f thej unction a rea f or c urren t conduc t
ion , itiss ome -
i
ns w
i tch ing o f t he d iode a fter e ach p eriod o f c onduc t
ion . wha ts malleri np hysicals i
ze t han at r
ansis
to ro fc ompa rable
When t he d elay b ecome s s ignif ican t, c ompa red w ith t he r
ating b ut wil
l n eed t ob e fixed t o ah eat sink a nd isu sua l
ly
d
ura tion o f t h e a pplied w aveform , l o
ss o f e f
iciency a rise s f
i
tted w ith as tud f or this pu rpose .
a
nd , p erhap s mo re i mpor tan t, v oltage i nequa l
itie s b etween Al
though i tseem su nlikely t of ind extens
ive u sei n ama teur
d
iode si ns erie sm ay b ee xagge rated . T he l attere f ectm ay b e r
ad io a pparatus, t he S CR i sp rov ing to be av ery v :
rsa ti
le
r
e
lieved s omewha t b y a dd ing s hun t c apac i
to rs o f v a
lue s d
ev ice, with a pplication t o s uch i t
em s as contro l
led p owe r
s
imi la r t o t ho se d iscu ssed i n c onnec tion w ith p ro tec t
ion s
upp lies, powe r r egulato rs
, d . c
. t o a
.c. inverters and t ime
a
ga in st i nter fe rence s pike s. b
a ses forc athode r ay t ube s cann ing.

S
i
licon C
ontro
lled R
ect
ifiers Z
ener D
iodes
The s i
licon c ontrol
led r ectif
ier i s much t he s ame a s a n Zei
ler d iode s a re s emiconduc tor d iode s w ith s pecially
o
rdinary s i
licon r ec
tif
i er e xcep t that i ti s "blo cked " i nt he s
hap ed r everse c harac teris
tic s w h
ich e nable t hem t o be u sed
f
orwa rd d ire c
tion u n
tils w
itched o n b y as malls ignal applied a
ss t
able v o
ltage r e
ference sa nd aren amed a ftert hedi
scove rer
t
o at h
ird e l
ec t
rode t e
rmed t heg ate. Once s witched o ni twill o
ft he e fect u pon w hich t h e
ir o peration d epend s.
c
onduc te ven a fte rtheg a
te s i
gna l isr emoved a nd w i
lls witch Typical r eve rse cha racteristics ofs uch ad evice are shown
ofo n
ly w hen t h eforwa rd c urrent h as b een r educed b e
low a i
nF ig. 3. 23. A s rever se voltag e isi nc
rea sed f r
om z ero , the
c
r
itical l e
ve l k nown a st he h o
lding c urren t
. d
iode b ehave s i n much t hes ame w ay aso the rs emiconduc tor
As c an b e s een from t he s t
atic c ha racteristics s hown i n j
unction s u ntil ac r
itica l vo
ltage k nown a st he Zener v o
ltag e
F
ig.3 .22, t he S CR c an a lso b es wi
tched o n by i ncreasing t he i
sr e
ached w hen ap henomenon k nown a s Z enerb reakdown
v
oltage a c ross t he ma in e lectrode s t o t he l eve
l w he re o
ccur s a nd c urrent b egins t o ri
se v ery ste eply a s vo
ltage i s
a
valanche b reakdown b eg in s too ccur , b ut int ypical op era- f
urther i ncrea sed. I n t h
is r eg
ion , p rov ided t he p owe r
t
ion t he a ppl
ied v o
ltage i s k ept b elow t h
is p o
in t a nd d
iss
ipa t
ion l imits are n o
t e xceeded , the d iode m ay b e u sed
t
r
igg er
ing i saccomp lished b y in
jecting c urren t into the g ate i
n as imila rw ay t o an eon s t
ab i
lizert ube,w ith t headvan tage
l
ead. T he a c
tion i sv ery s imilar to t hat o f ag a s thyratron t
hat ar ange o ft ypesw ith w ork ing voltagesb etween three a nd
v
alve b ut w he reas t h
e t hyratron i s e ss
en tially v o
ltage 2
00 i sa vailab le. T he mo st c ommon t ypes o perate ata bou t
t
r
igge red, t he S CR i sc urren t tr
igge red. T his mu s
t b e borne 4-8 volts a nd i ti sw orth n ot
ing t hat d iode s in th
e r ange
i
n m ind w hen d es
ign ing f i
ring c ircu i
ts b ecau se t he S CR 5-6 vol
t s c an b e made t o have a t empe ratu re co-eff
i
c ient of
r
equires al ow i mpedanc e s ou rce. near ze
ro a t r oom t empe ratu re. T his m ean s that th
e Z ener
3
.
11

•
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK

Z
ENER VOLTAGE (VOLTS) a
pprox
ima
tely p
ropor
tiona
l t
o where V i
st hereverse
7 6 5 4 3 1 VV
b
ias voltage. A lthough any p -n junction w i
ll exhibit t
his
e
f ec
t, d evices w ith carefully c ontro
lled p arame ters are
-1
0
p
roduced s pec
ifically f
or this purpose a nd fi
nd a ppl
icat
ion
f
or proce s
se s such a s a
utoma t
ic frequency c on
trol, or for
SLOPE RES
ISTANCE AT 20 mA = 2
.511
p
arame tric a mp
l if
icat
ion (see C hapter 5)
.
TE MP COEFF
ICIENT +2.5 mV PC
- 20 T
he c haracterist
ics of av ar
iable capac i
tance d iode are
g
iven inF ig. 3.
25 .

20 -

I
S
- SO

60

F
ig. 3
.23. S tatic c haracter
istics of a t yp ical l o w vo
ltage Zener
d
iode a t 25 C. The efect o f i
ncreas
ing t he t e mperature is to d
is-
p
lace the c urve along t he vo
ltage axis in ad irection depend ing on
t
he po lar
ity o f t
he t e mperature coe ficient . Reverse c urrent at
vo
ltage b e
lo w the Zener level i s about 30p A.

v
oltage w i
llb es ub s
tan tial
ly in dependen to ftempe rature o ve
r
ause ful r
ange ; 5-6 v ol
ts may t h
e refore bet heb e
sts tabil
izing
l
e
ve l to se
lec t if ac hoice isa vailab le when d es
igning e quip-
men t
. 0 1 1 1
Fig. 3.24 s how s th e basic manne r in w h
ich t he diode i s 0 2 4 6 8 1
0
APPL
IED REVERSE VOLTAGE (V)
u
sed . T he v a
lue o f Rs hould b ec hosen t opass the required
n
om inal d iode c ur
ren t w hich, f or many p urposes, w i
ll be F
ig. 3
.25
. Variation o
f c
apac itance w
ith voltage i
n av ariable capac
i-
t
ance diode. Although it i
s m ore usua
l t o o in the
a
bou th a
lf oft hem aximum d iode r at
ing,t yp
icalv aluesb eing b
ias mode , t
he c h i
stic d d i
nto the for ward bias
a
bou t 50 mA f or mode ra te s i
zed d evices
. T he o rder o f r
egion where c are must b e taken not t o exceed the max i mu m
d
issipat
ion limit
.
v
oltage r egulation o btainable i sabou t0 -
0 1 p
erc entc hange o f
o
utpu t voltage f or a n i nput l eve
l c hange o f 1p e r cent
.
T
he T
unne
l D
iode
A dev
ice w hich may p rove superior to the transistor in
c
er
tain v.h
.f. o
r u.h.f. appl
icat
ion s
, a nd which isu nde rgoing
i
n
ten s
ive deve
lopmen t, isthe tunnel diode
. T h
i s der
ive s it
s
y
in n
ame f rom t he q uantum -mechan ical tunnell
ing e fect o n
Vo
ut w
hich it
s o pe
ra t
ion d ep ends and p romises to b e useful at
(
STAB
ILIZED) f
r
equenciesa bou t 100 t
ime s g
reater than curr
ent t r
an sis
to r
s,
y
et re
quir
ing o nly af r
action oft h
e p ower.
B
rief
ly, i
tcon s
ist
so f ap-n d
iode m ade f
rom h eavi
ly -doped
F
ig. 3
.24
. Basic method o f c onnecting a Zener d iode t o produce a
s
tabi
lized vo
ltage
. The v alue o f Rshould b e chosen , a
fter r
eference
t
o the pub
lished characteristics, t
o give a d
iode c urrent which wi
ll 5
0 -
a
cco m modate expected l
oad and supply v
ariations w
ithout
e
xceeding the dissipation limits of the diode.

4
0 -
P
oss
ible uses inc
lude stab
il
izing w o
rking condi
tions of
t
r
ansis
tor amplif
ie
r st
age
s, providing cons
tant b
ias s
uppl
ies
f
o
r thermionic va
lves a
nd p roviding vo
ltage r
e
ference
s in NEGAT IVE
RES
ISTANCE
s
t
abi
lized power s
uppl
ies
. REGI ON

Variab le-capac itance D iodes

Y
et a nothe r a pplication f or thep -n j
unction diode isas a
v
oltage -dep enden t c apac itor inr adio or el
ectronic c
ircui
try.
As w as e xplained e ar
lier in this c hap
ter, w hen a junct
ion
1
0-
d
iode i sb iased i nt he reverse direct
ion ar e g
ion atth ejunc-
t
ion b ecome s s wep t clear o f current ca
r r
iers and isk nown
a
s the d epletion l aye r
. T he th
ickne ss o
ft he region in
creases
a
s t h
e a pplied v ol tage i sincrea sed and c an be considered 0
.4 0.6 0
43 1
-
0
01
4
a
s a n insulato r betwe en t wo electrodes
. T he capac
itor thus B
IAS VOLTAGE (VOLTS)
f
ormed i st herefo re v oltage-dependen t and, i nthe c
ase of a F
ig. 1
.26
. S
tat
ic c
haracter
ist
ics o
f typ
ica
l g
all
iu m-arsen
ide t
unne
p
a r
ticula r c omme rcial samp le, h as ac apacitance w h
ich is d
iode.

3
.
12
 S
EMICONDUCTORS
mate r
ialsa nd with a ne xtreme ly thin junction region . Un like TABLE 3
3
t
h e transisto r ito p
e rates l a
rgely o n t he passage o fm ajo r
ity Co m mon
ly-used s
y mbo
ls a
ssoc
iated w
ith t
rans
istor p
ara meters
.

c
arrier s acro s
s t hej unction , a nd as i
gna l i
st hus transm itted
S
y mbo
l P
ara meter
t
hrough t he diode a t much t he same s peed as i tw ould b e
t
hrough a m etall
ic c onduc tor, h ence t h
e e xcellent h igh - mor Ns smal
l -
signal current g a
in, common b a
se
r
ior h
i, smal
l -
signal current g a
in, common em itter
f
requency p erformance . h
FE d
.c. current g a
in, c ommon em itter
When b iased t o ap ar
ticu lar pa rt oft hec haracterist
ic, t he l
e
e° c
ollector leakage c urrent
, common em itter
1
010 c
ollector leakage c urrent, c
om mon base
d
ev ice p resents a n i ncremen tal n egative resis
tance , see F ig. VCE c
ollector-em itter v o
ltage
3
.26 ,a nd t husm ay b et r
ea ted a s at wo-terminal amp l
ifie
r. A t V
eb c
ollector-ba se voltage
b
a se-emitter v o
ltage
p
re sent, am a
jo rd i
sadvan tage l i
es i nt h
e dificulty ofd esign - Vbe

i
n g coup ling c ircui
ts f or c ascaded s t
ag es
. W ith an egative
r
esistance c haracteristic p erhap se xtend ing u pto af requency
The c
ircuit o
f asimp
le unneu
tra
lized t
uneab
le 5
00-800
o
ft hou sands o fm egacyc les t he ri
sk o fs puriou s osci
llat
ion s
Mc
/s r
.
f
. s t
age i
sshown i
nFig
. 3.
27.
occur r
ing c an ber eadily a ppreciated . T he problem i sl a
rge ly
t
ied u p w ith t he m ethod o f mak ing c onnection to t he diode
j
unc tion , a nd the t ype o f e ncapsu lation b ecome s e x
treme ly P
RACT
ICAL APPL
ICAT
I ON OF TRANS
ISTORS
impo rtan t. T
rans
i s
to rs
,a lthough m e chan ica lly q uite r obu st,c an e a
sily
b
ed amaged o rd estroyed b yc arele ssu se a nd b efo re attemp t-
T
rans
istor
s a
t U
.H.F
. i
ngtob ui
ld o rs ervice tran sisto rized a ppa ra tus i tist her efore
The gene ral pattern o fevents h as been f o
r tran s
istors to w
ise t
ob ear i nm ind t he f ollow ing p o
in ts :
c
ompe te mo s
te f
ec t
ively with valvesa tthel owerf requencies, (
a
) N eve r app ly p rolonged h ea t w hen s o
lde ring t h e c on-
e
xpan s
ion o f use being b roadly r e
lated t o improvemen t of n
e c
ting l eads o f at ran sisto r w ithou t using a t h erma l
h
igh frequency p erfo rmance. Mo re recently the t r
end h as s
hun t b etwe en t he t ran sisto r a nd t he s o
lde r
ing i ron.
b
een a ccelerated i n ap erhap s u nexpected f a
shion b y the Ap air o f p l
iers w ill d o, b ut i ti s mo re satisfactory t o
i
n
troduc tion o fg erman ium t ransistors which wil
l g i
ve b e
tter f
abricate as hunt b y s olde ring ap ai r ofc oppe r p lates
n
oise perfo rmance t han comp etit
ive v a
lves atf requencies in t
ot h ej aw s o f ac rocod ile c l
ip .
t
he range 4 00-900 Mc /s. (
b) Do n otc ut thet ran s
i sto rl e ad ss hor tert han a bso lutely
The stimu lus for t h
is deve
lopmen t has undoub tably b een n
ece ssary. R emembe rt hatt het h
in w ire u sed f or t h e
se
t
he spread ing o f dome s
tic te
levision transm iss
ions i nto the l
eads c an b reak o fc los e t ot he t r
ans isto r.
u
.h.f
. b ands w here a tmo spheric a nd man -made i nterference (
c
) Do n ot u se a n ohme te r o n t ransisto rc i
rcu itry w ithou t
f
i
rst r emov ing t he t ran sis tors. Apar t f rom t he
0+
12V
poss
ib i
lity o fo b
ta ining f alse o hme te rr eading s,t here is
dange r ofd amag ing t he t ran si
sto rs.
75
.C1 IK 2
.2K /
I4 WAVE COPPER L
INE (
d) Do n ot a pply e xces s
ive s ignal amp litude f rom t est
I
NPUT AF
I3 9 (
1 m m x 5mm x 20mm) o
scillato rs o r signa l g ene ra tor s
. S ome t est appa ratu s
may b e c apab le o f d elive ring s uff
icien t p owe r t o
1
000pF
OUTPUT damage t he transi s
to rs
. S tar t with as mall s i
gna l a nd
inc
rea se i tu nti
l t he d esired i ndica tion i so btained .
COUPLING
LOOP (
e) Alway s c heck c onnec tion s c arefu lly b efo re s witch ing
1
0 0 0pF 8
.2K on p owe r t o tran s
isto r e qu ipmen t f o
r t h e fi
rst t ime.
Pay p articu lar attent ion t oc orrect b at
te ry p olari ty.
A simple t ran sis
to r t este r i s d escribed i n C hap ter 1 9
(Measu
remen ts). On n o a ccoun t s hou ld amu lt
ime ter o fless
F
ig. 3
.27
. Transistor uhf. amplif
ier tuneable fro m 5
00 to 8
00 Mc /s
. t
han 20
,000 o hms p erv olt s ensit ivity b e u sed t o measu re t he
The s
ize a
nd posit
ion of t
he output coupl
ing loop should b
e adjusted i
nte
rnal resis
tance s of at rans is to r.
t
o su
it the l
oad. The po wer ga
in isa pproxi mate
ly 10db a
t 800 Mc/s
a
nd the no
ise factor about 8db
.
D
eve
lopment T
rends
e
f e
ct sar es o much l esst r
oub lesome t han o n thev . h
.f. b and s The f ac
to rs w hich c hiefly dete rm ine h igh f requency p e
r-
t
hat r eceiver n o
ise p erformance s e
ts t h
e l imit t o u sab le f
ormanc e are, fi
r st, the fi
n ite time t aken f or cur ren t c ar
riers
s
ensi
tivity . T he o rde r o f i mp rovemen t c ur rently b eing t
o d ifus e a cross t he b ase r e g
ion o f the t rans i stor, a nd
o
btained b y us
ing t h
e AF 139 t ransisto r ins
tead o ft he PC88 s
econd ly, th e i n
te rnal f e
edback p ath b etween o utpu t a nd
v
alve fore xamp le isa bout 2 -3db . i
npu t c i
rcuits.
Toa chieve t h
is t h
e AF 139 i so pe rated i nt hec ommon -ba se I
n o rder t o m in imise t h e d
istance t hrough w hich c urrent
mode a t ac o
llector c urrent o f a bou t 2 mA . A 7 5 o hm c
ar r
ie rs mu s
t t rave l, seve ral in volved manuf ac tur ing t ech-
u
nba lanc ed a erial c ir
cuit may b e f e d directly i n
to t he n
ique s have b een d eveloped f or r educing t h e w id th o f the
emi
tter, w hi
le t h e col
lecto r circu it i s usually t uned b y a b
a se r egion, a nd t here a r e an umb er o f t ype s i n w hich
q
ua r
te r w ave line. A justmen t o ft uning m ay b e by v ariab le i
mp roved h igh -
frequency p erformance h as b een o b
tained
c
apac i
tor a cross the e nd of t he l i
ne o r b y as l
id
ing s hort- s
olely i n this w ay. A s a n exten s
ion o f t his p roce ss, the
c
i
rcui ttov ary thel i
ne length. P owe rg a
in ist ypically 1 0db a t d
rift t ransistor h as ab ase re gion w hich i sn ot o n
ly v ery
8
00 Mc /s. No is e fa
cto r var
ie s b etwe en a bou t 6t o 8db b ut, n
ar row b ut h as ag raded i mpur ity c oncentra t
ion a c
ro ss it
s
i
ft he st
age i sfollowed b y as e
lf -oscillating m ixer u sing t he w
id th. T his h as t hee fect o fprov iding an a ccele ra t
ing f orce
s
ame t ype o f transi
sto r
, t h
e o ve rall n oise pe r
fo rmanc e w i
ll t
o t he carriers, w hich t hen t raver se t he ba se r e gion mo re
d
eteriora te b y a bout I -2db d ue t o t he intrusion o f m ixer r
ap idly t han i f t hey w e re m erely d ifusing t h rough t he
no
ise. c
ry stal la
ttice.
3
.
13

0 .--1
11 .••
••••
• M
i ...
 R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
Among v ar
ious i n
terpre
tations o f th
is techn
ique, the
a
- BREAKDOWN
a
loy-dif
fu
sedt rans
isto
r has ag raded base r
egion wi
th base VOLTAGE
w
idthsofo n
ly afew microns
. Ano ther li
ne o
fd eve
lopmen t z
h
as b
een tocontro
l thearea overw hich d
ifus
ion takes p
l
ace
i
norder t
o reduce t
he capac
itanc e of aj
unct
ion. 7

F
ig. 3
.30
. Gate d iode
i
nput character
istic
.
F
ie
ld E
fec
t T
rans
istors 1
— + - 1
s-
I
n this t ype o fd evice t
he connec
tion s a
re k nown as g ate
,
GATE VOLTAGE V gs
s
ource a nd d rain. F or normal ci
rcuits the source c an be
c
onsidered t o b e t he te
rminal common t o t he input a nd
o
utput i sc ompa rable to the em
itte
r o f abipolar transis
to r
.
T
he dra in i st he o u
tpu t t
erminal e
quivalent to the co
llector
a
nd the c on trol elec
trode, the g
ate issimi
lar ino perat
ion t o
t
he base e xcept t hat the FET is avoltage control
led d evice
i
n
stead o f c urrent c ontro
lled as ist he case in ab ipolar
t
r
ansisto r
.

I
dsncan flow since the ga
te s ource diode conduc ts
, c l
ipp ing
DEPLET
ION LAYER
oft he e
xcess gate-
to-sourc e voltag
e (Fig. 3.
30). T he useful
N T
YPE — GATE p
o r
tion oft hejunction F ET mu tua
l cha rac
teri
stic t herefore
CHANNEL P TYPE
S
ILICON o
ccursb e
tween t helimitsofz e
ro a nd Vpfo rthegate-to -
sou rce
v
oltage. T h
is limi
tation can b e removed b y e mploy ing o ne
SOURCE
CONNECTION CONNECT
ION
o
f t he form s o f I NSULATED -GATE c onstruc tion, i n
w
hich a v ery t
hin l a
yer of gl a
ss isi n
terposed b etween t he
g
ate and th e c
hanne l to form a n i
nsulator
, as i n I GFET s
a
nd MOSFET s. Itist hen possible toa r
range that n o drain
c
urrent f
low s unti
l t he gate-
to -channel i s f
orwa rd b iased.

F
ig.3
.28
. Construct
ion o
fri
-type c
hanne
l. T
RIODE
R
EGION

P
INCH-OFF
R
EGION
The g eneral fo
rm o f aj unct
ion FET i sshown i nFig.3 .28.
V
gs 0
I
tc ons
i stso f apiece of Po rNt ype ma terial,u sual
ly s i
l
icon ,
t
ow h
ich t wo o hmic c onnec t
ion sare made f ort hes ource a nd Fig. 3
.31
. Drain
CURRENT

characteristic
d
rain e lectrodesa nd having p -n o rn-p j unctionss i
ted s ot hat Curves
. I
t
hed epletion layerse xist
ing a round t h
ej unction sc an extend • V
gs V
i
n
to t he p a
th b etween t h e source a nd d rain c onnec t
ion s.
F
ig.3 .29 s how s thec orrespond ing draw ing symbo ls.
IN

When t he gate iss uficiently r e

ve rse-biased t he depletion
DRA

V
GS = Vx 2

l
ayer s will ex
tend i nto the c hanne l a nd m eet, cutt
ing o ft he
s
ou rce-to-d ra
in c u r
ren t
. T h
is i st he "p inched -of " s tate, V
GS = V . 3 1
.
a
nd t he g ate source v ol
tage V p a tw h
ich i to ccurs isk nown
a
st he "p inch-off "v o
ltage .
I
f
, h oweve r, th
e g ate-
to -sou rce v o
ltage i sr educed t oz e
ro , DRA
IN SOURCE
VOLTAGE V
DS —) "
t
he max imum p o
s s
ible d rain c urrent f lows,d enoted b y Ian .
A
t t hi
sp oint, t
h ew idth o ft hed epletion l ayeri nt hec hanne l
h
as b een r educed t o zero. Conve rsely, ift he gate-
to -sourc e
v
o
l tag ei sincreased b eyond V p,n og rea terd ra
in c urrentt han
These ar
e called ENHANCEMENT -MODE d ev
ices: those
which operate like n orma l junc
tion FET s inw h
ich reverse
b
ias may b e used t o r educ e the d rain current are c a
lled
D
RAIN DEPLET ION -MODE t ype
s. F inally, there a re DUAL -
G
ATE GATE FET s,w hich may b eo perated a ste
trode s. These are
o
fv alue for mixing a nd for the applicat
ion o f gain control
S
OURCE
v
oltages toa n amp l
ifie r s
tage handling l a
rge signals
.
Pt
ype C
hanne
l N t
ype C
hanne
l The re
sis
tance o f a n no r pt ype channel, even w hen n o
b
ias isa pp
lied t o t h
e g ate, isv ery much h igher than t he
F
ig. 3
.29
. S
tandard F
ET s
y mbo
ls. e
quivalent e m
itter-to-collector r e
sistance o f a b ipolar
3
.
14
 S
EMICONDUCTORS
c
hange t o t
he g
ate v
ol
tage change
. A s w
ith the va
lve t
he
(
a
) (
b)
ampl
ifica
tion f
ac
tor i
sthe p
roduct of t
he d
rain i
ncremen
tal
Id)

r
es
istance and t
he mutua
l conductance
.
(
OUTPUT VOLTAGE

B
asic C
ircu
its
FET B
ipo
lar
One o f the o bv
iou s a pplications o f FET s is fo
r h igh
i
mpedance i nput stage amp lif
iers, ei
ther a t audio or i .
f
.
f
r
equenc ies
, t he la
tter al
low ing v a
lve type transformers to
b
e used.
The gain o f an amp l
ifier s uch as shown i n Fig. 3.
33 i s
a
pproxima tely equal to the p roduct of the mutual conduct-
a
nce a nd the load ( Ri
). T he s ource res
istor (R.) and the
GATE SOURCE vGS BASE EM
ITTER vB
E c
apacitor( CO function in much t he s
ame w ay as t
hec a
thode
I
NPUT VOLTAGE I
NPUT VOLTAGE
r
es
istor and c apaci
tor o f av a
lve amp lif
ier.
F
ig. 3
.32
. Co mpar
ison o
f F
ET a
nd b
ipo
lar t
rans
istor c
haracter
ist
ics
.
B
IPOLAR F
IELD EFFECT
VALVE T
RANS
ISTOR
T
RANS
ISTOR
O
UTPUT

t
r
ansistor when " b ot
tomed " . T he c hannel r
esistance a t
"pinch-off"i s many t imes greater than t ha
t of ab ipo la
r
t
r
ansistor at cut of and t he leakage c urrent i
sv ery much
l
ower.
An i-type channe
l i sshown i n Fig. 3.28
. W ith a p-type
c
hannel t he s
upply polarit
ies are r eversed, t
he drain being
c
onnected t o apo
tent
ia l negat
ive w ith r e
spect t
o the s
ou rce
.
Com mon Gr
id C
o m mon B
ase Co m mon Gate

F
ET Character
ist
ics O
UTPUT

F
ig. 3 .31 s hows a t ypical f amily o f drain v o
l tage —dra in
c
urren t c urve s. A s can b e s een t here is agrea t s imila r
ity to
t
hose o ft he p entode v a
lve .
With t heg ate t i
ed t ot he s ource,t he dra
in c ur
ren ti ncreases
w
ith t he d ra in v ol
tage u ntil a max imum v alue o f drain
c
urren t i sr e ached . T his o c curs a t adrain v o
ltage a pproxi-
mately e qual t o Vi,. When t he gate bias voltage i si ncreased
t
he max imum v alue o fd rain c ur
ren t isreduced a s s hown . Corn mon Co m mon Co m mon
T he r elation ship b etween t he v a
lue o f dra in c ur ren t (I
d) Cathode Emitter S
ource
a
nd t he g ate- to -
sou rce v o
ltage ( Vg s) i
ss qua re l aw h aving a
mutua l c ha rac te r
istic as s hown i nF ig
. 3.32(a ). T his s hould
b
e c ompa red w ith t he s ame c haracter
istic o f a b ipolar
t
ransis to r shown i n Fig. 3. 32(b).
An i mpo rtan t feature o f a n F ET i n which i ti ss imilar to
t
he n orma l t herm ionic v alve , is that the r atio o f as mal
l
c
hange i ng ate v oltage t ot he r e
sulting change i nd rain c urrent
f
or ac on s
tan t d rain v ol
tage i sthe mu tual c onduc tanc e gm.
Typica l v a
lue s are o ft he o rde r of 3mA /V.
T he amp lifica tion f ac
to r µi sdefined a sfo
llow s. I fthe gate
Cathode Emitter S
ource
v
oltage i si ncrea sed b y as mall amoun t and t he d rain v o
ltage F
ollo wer F
oll
o wer F
ollo wer
i
sc hanged t o r e
store t he d rain c urrent to the o rigina l v a
lue, (
COMMON ANODE) (
COMMON COLLECTOR) (
COMMON DRA
IN)
t
he amp lifica t
ion f ac
to r i s t he r a
tio o f the d rain v o
ltage
F
ig. 3
.34
. E
quiva
lent c
onf
igurat
ion,
.

The FET f unc tions a s an a lmo s

t i deal mixer s ince the
s
quare l aw cha racterist
ic i ss uperior to t ha
t o f either the
b
ipolar trans
istor o r av a
lve. T his isb ecause t he mu tual
OUTPUT c
haracte
ristic of a n FET c onsis
ts a lmo st ent
irely o f li
near
I
NPUT
a
nd square law t e
rms ,h igher order te
rms b eing almo s
te nt
irely
a
bsent, i n contra st to v a
lves a nd e ven more t o bipolar
t
rans
istors where h igher o rder t erms g reater t han t he
s
econd, lead to s evere dis
to r
tion i nt he mixing p rocess with
c
onsequen t gene ration o fspu r
ious s ignals
.
F
ig. 3 .34 s hows t he g ene ral r e
lationship b e
tween
F
ig. 3
.33
. Typ
ica
l F
ET amp
lif
ier c
ircu
it. v
alves
, bipola r a nd fi
eld e f
ect transistors.
3
.
15
 - -

-
C H A P TE R 4

H
.
F. R
ECE
IVER
S

R CEIVERS f or Ama teu r R ad io p urpo se sv a ry w idely i n s

hould b e a pp rec
iated t ha
t f or a lmo s
t a l
l a pp l
ication s
c
omp lex ity ,f rom s imp le t wo v alve d esign st os etsw ith r
oughly equiva lentc i
rcuitse x
i stf ortransis
tors,a l
though t h ey
u
p t oa bou t 2 0v alve s o re ven mo re t ran si stor s, b ut w hethe r w
ill d
ifer ind etai
l.
s
imp le o r c omp lex , h ome -con struc ted o r f acto ry -bu i
lt, a re Atthep resen t" s
tate-o f
-the-a rt" itcan besumma r
ized t hat
u
nlike ly t o p rove s at
i sfac to ry u nle ss c a refu l a tten t
ion h as s
imple receive rs using t rans
i stors are p robably e as
ier a nd
b
een p a
id t ot he many p rob lem s p re sen ted b y modem t wo - more econom ica l to construc t than w ith valves; b ut t hat
way h .f. o pe ra tion . f
or highe s
t p e rformanc e, t ransistor d es
igns a re l i
kely t o
The r adio ama teu rn eeds ac ommun i ca tion s r ece iverw hich p
rove rather mo re comp lex, ma inly o w
ing tot hea ppreciab ly
w
ill p rov ide max imum i ntell
ig ibi l
i ty f rom s igna ls h av ing g
reaterd ifi
cul ty ina chieving ah igh dynam icrange — tha t is
,
e
xtreme ly w ide v a riation i ns t
reng th ( incom ing s i
gna ls may t
he abil
ity t o c ope w ith b oth v ery w eak a nd v ery strong
e
asily d if e r i nv oltage b y 1 0,000 t ime s a nd o ccas iona lly b y s
ignal
s —due t ot he tendency o ft rans
i s
tor stoo verload mo re
u
p t o a bou t 5 00,000 t ime s) i n r e
s tric ted f r
equency b ands e
asi
ly.
which a re o ften e xt reme ly c onge sted . I dea lly , e ach ma in
BAS
IC TYPES OF R
ECE
IVERS
mode o f t ran sm ission — te leg raphy ( c.w .), a nd t e
lephony b y
amp litude modu la tion ( a
.m .), s ingle s ideband ( s
.s.b . )
, Regene ra t
ive D e tecto r ( "S t raigh t" ) R ece ive rs. T he
d
oub le s i
deband ( d.s.b .), n arrow b and f requ ency modu la- s
imp le st p rac tical r eceive r for ama teu r c ommun ica tion i sa
t
ion ( n.b.f.m .)o rR ITY — requ ire s ar eceive rh aving d if eren t r
egene rative d etec to r f ollowed b y o ne o r mo re s tage s o fa .f
.
r
esponse c ha rac te ris t
ic s
. I n prac tic e, h oweve r, t he ama teu r amp lif
i cation ( 0-V -1 e tc.): s ee F ig. 4 .1(a). B ecau se o f t he
u
sua lly w ishe s t ou se o n
ly as ing le r ece ive rf or a ll p urpo se s
, h
igh g ain w hich c an b e a ch ieved i n ac o rre ctly a dju sted
o
n a ll ama teu r b and s b e
twe en 1 .
8 a nd 3 0 Mc /s. A ll b ut t he r
egene rative d etec to rw hen s e
t t o ap o
in tj u
s t b eyond t ha ta t
mo st s pecia lized d esign s a r e the re fo re l i
ke ly t oi nclude s ome which o scilla tion b egin s, t hist ype o fr eceive rc an b eu sed o n
mea su re o f c omp rom i se i n orde r t o p rov ide a r easonab le s
urp rising ly w eak c .w .s igna ls
. S ince t heg ain i smuch r educed
d
eg re e o ff l
exib ility . a
s t h e r egene ration ( "r eaction " ) c on tro l isb acked o f, i t
The ma in r equ iremen ts f or as atis fac to ry r eceive r f or t he w
ill r eceive o nly f airly s t
rong t elephony s tat
ion s. B ecau se o f
h
.f. b and s a re: r
egene ra tive f eedback , t h e e fec tive Q o f th e s i
ng le t uned
(
a) H igh s en sitivity a nd s igna l-to -no ise r atio,t op erm itt he c
ircu it a nd h ence i t
s s e
lec t
ivity, i sr easonab ly g ood f or c .w.
r
e cep tion o fw eak s i
gna ls. r
ecep tion , p rov ided t hat t he t uned c ircu it i s n ot h eav ily
(
b) Good s elec tivity , t o p e rm i t t he s elec tion o f t he d
amped b y t he e f ec t oft hea erial. T he s electiv ity, h oweve r
,
r
equ ired s igna l f rom among o the rs —po ssibly much i
smuch r educed i nt hep res ence o fs trong s igna lso na djacen t
s
tronge r —on c l
o sely a djac en t f requenc ies. The f
requenc ie s, a nd e ven i nt he mo st f avou rab le c i
rcum stance s
d
eg re e o fs ele ctivity s hou ld p re fe rab ly b e v ariab le t o c
anno t b e made a s g ood a s i n a mode rn s up erhe t r eceive r
.
s
uit t he d if ering r e quiremen ts o f t he v ariou s mode s Af urthe r d i sadvan tage i st hat t h e a erial i sd ir ectly c oup led
o
ft ran sm is sion . t
ot heo sc illato ry circu its a nd s oi nte r ference may b ec au sed t o
(
c) Max imum f reedom f rom s pu riou s r espon se s
. o
the r r eceive rs. T hi s f orm o f r ece ive r w as p opu la r i n t he
(
d) Ah igh o rde r o fm echan ica l a nd e le ctrica l s tability. e
arly d ay s o fs hort w ave w o rk a nd e ven n ow c an p rov ide a
(
e) A dequa te, p re fe rab ly c alibra ted ,b and sp r ead t uning o f u
se ful i ntroduc tion t or ec e
ive rc on st ruction .
t
h e ama teu r b ands , c oup led w i th t he a bility t o r eset Tuned R adio F requency ( T
.R .F .) R ec e
ive r s
. Con side r
-
t
h e r ece ive r a ccu ra tely a nd q uick ly t o a d esired ab
le i mp rovemen tc an b eo btained i n ar e gene ra tive d etecto r
f
requency . T he t un ing r ate s hou ld b e s uf ic
ien tly l ow r
ec e
ive rb yi nclud ing as tage o ft uned r adio f requency amp li-
t
o f aci
lita te t h e e xac t t uning o fs .s.b ., d .s.b. a nd c .w. f
i
ca tion b efo re t h ed etec to rs tage : F ig. 4 .1(b). T his p rov ide s
s
igna l s. g
rea te r g ain, i mp rove s s e
lectivity ( main ly b ecau se t he d e
-
(f
) I nte rna l b ea t f r
equency o sc illa to r ( b
.f.o .) f or t h
e t
ecto r t uned c i
rcu it c an b e l e
ss h eav i
ly d amped ), i s
ola tes
r
e cep tion o fc .w . a nd s upp re ssed c a rrie r s ignals. t
her egene rative d etec to rf rom t hea e r
ia la nd s o much r educe s
(
g) S tu rdy a nd r e
liab le c on struc tion a nd c omponen ts r
ad iation f rom t he r eceive r.
p
rov id ing e ase o f r epa ir, a lignmen t a nd g ene ral Although t h e selec tiv ity o f at .
r.f. r eceive r i sd eficien t b y
ma in tenance . mode rn s tanda rds a nd i ti sn ow r are t of ind s uch s etsr e
ta ined
The se r equ i remen t s c an b e m e
t u sing e ithe r v alve s o r f
or n orma l ama teu r o pera t
ion , i th as s ome a dvan tage s f o
r
s
em iconduc to rs o r am ix ture o f t he t wo. L ate r i n t hi
s t
he h ome c on struc to r
:
c
hap ter, t h ep a rt
icu lar p rob lem sp os ed b y t rans i storsi nh igh (
a) S imp licity o fc on struction w ith n o i .
f. a l
ignmen t o r
perfo rmance r e ceive rsw i
llb ediscus sed . S ince ,i nt he ma jo rity oscilla to r t rack ing p rob lem s.
o
f c a ses, ama teur s tation r eceive rs s t
ill t e nd t o u se v alve s
, (
b) Good s igna l- to-no ise r a
tio o n w eak c .w . s i
gna l s
.
mo st o f t he c ircu its d e
sc r
ibed emp loy v alve s ; h oweve r, i t (
c) C omp lete f reedom f rom s pu riou s r espon se s.

4
.
1

I •
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
V F
ig. 4 .
1. B lock d iagra m o f si mple
h
.f. r ece ivers s uitab le p r
i mar ily
f
or Morse r ecept ion . ( a) Regener -
REGE N REGEt r
kY a
tive d etector f ollo wed b y o ne
R F AF
DET DET or more s tages o f a .f. amp li-
f
ication . ( b) The a ddition o f a
(
a) (
b
,) t
uned r
.f
. amp lif
ier improves
s
elect ivity a
nd s
ens itivity a nd
a
lso r educes r ad iation bo r n t he
r
ece iver . ( c) S i mp lest p ractica l

-
C
H
A
N
G
E
s
uperhet r ece iver . By u s
ing t riode
V I
F AB OUT V I
F ABOUT
pentode v alves ( ECF82 ,6 U8) a ll
1
60 0 k
c/s 1
600 kc/s
s
tages c an b e a cco m modated i n
FREQ REG F_ FREQ a two -valve a rrange ment . (d) The
AF addition o f o ne o r more i
.
f.
DET A MP
amp lifiers g reat ly i ncreases g ain
a
nd p er mits t he r eceiver t o b e
(
G
) (
a
) used f or t elephony r ecept ion •

Overall ga
in w hen thed e
tecto r isn o
t o sci
lla
ting isusually r
eceiver for ama teu r c ommun ication i ss hown in Fig. 4.2
i
nsuff
icient to provide good te
lephony p erformance o n very w
ith t h
e main amp lificat
ion i nthei.f
.s t
age s
. T he i
mpo rtance
weak signals
. o
fa chieving h igh selectivity f
or Mo rs e r
eception
, permi t
ting
Super-regenerat
ive D e
tectorR eceiver
s. T he high ga
in o fa t
he r e
ject
ion o f the a udio "i mage " s i
gnal, isilu
strated in
r
egenera t
ive detecto r c
an be f u
r ther increased a nd uti
lized F
ig. 4.3.
f
or te
lephony r eception by int
roduc ing av o
ltage at asuper- Selectab
le S ideband R eceivers
. A s explained inC hap ter1
s
onic frequency ins uch away thatr .f
.o sc
illation cea
sese very (
Principles
), c onven tiona l a.m. si
gnal s radia
te se
ts of s i
de-
h
alf cycle of this second frequency , k nown a s th
e q uench b
and s o n each s ide o f the ca
rrier frequency, up top lus or
f
r
equency . T h
is q uenching v o
ltage c an b e genera
ted i n a m
inu sthehi ghestt ran smitted aud
io f r
equency . S
ince thet wo

V c_A G

-
(
1
0 10 0
Im Vo
. 30 mV I
V IV
RF DET OUT- F
ig. 4
.2. B
lock d iagra m of at ypical
MIXER I
FI I 1
. I
F 2
AGC PUT s
uperhet h
.f. co m munications
r
eceiver s ho wing t ypica
l p attern
4 MA NUAL t M A NUAL o
f voltage gain . The inter mediate
GAI N CONT R OL f
requency ( if.) i s usual
ly o f t he
GAIN CONT ROL
order ofe
ither 4 70 kc sor 1600 kc s
.
O
SC BF O

s
epa rate v alve o r, mo re c ommon ly, i n t h e r egene rat
ive s
et
so fsi
deband sarem irrori mag eso fo ne anothe r
,e i
the rset
dete cto rs tage . A lthough e xt reme ly h igh g a
in i n as ingle s t
age o
f sideband s can b e comp letely r emoved w i
thou t a fect
ing
i
sp ossible, t h
is t ype o f r eceive r h as h igh i n
ter stat ion n o
ise t
hei n
tel
ligence o fthetransm ission,t hough ( s
ee C hapter1 5—
and p oo r s electivity w hile a dditiona l c omp lica tions a re Noi
se) th ere wil
l b e as l
igh t reduc t
ion o f signal-
to-no ise
nece ssary t or eceive c.w. o r t oa void t hee miss
ion o f ar ough r
at
io. I n ac rowded b and i tw il
l b e highly advan tageou s to
s
igna l c apab le o f c ausing i nte r
f erence o ver c ons ide rable r
es
trictth ereceiverb andwid th sot ha
tt hes etresponds t ot he
d
is tance s
. S upe r-regene ra tive r eceive rsa res ti
llo fi n
tere stf o
r c
arr
ie r and o n
ly o ne se
t o f sidebands a nd t h
en t o tune t o
s
imp le p o rtab le e quipmen t o n 2 8 Mc / s and a bove b ut h ave wh
icheve ri stheles
sa fec
ted b y interference. S ince thei n
ter-
l
i
ttle a pplica tion o n th e lowe r f r
equency b and s
. f
er
ing stations may c hange a ta ny momen t, i
tw il
l bec lear
ly
Superhe t R eceivers. B y c hang ing t he f requency o f the b
enefic
ial t o a
rrange t he set so t hat itc an immed iately b e
i
n com ing s igna lt o alowe rf ixed i n
te rmed iate frequency i none
s
tep ( single c onve rs
ion ), t wo s t
ep s ( doub le c onve rsion ) or
t
h ree s tep s( triple c onve rsion ), i tbecome sp ossible t ob ui
ld a
h
i gh g ain amp l
ifier of c on trolled s e
lectivity. A l though t he
mix ing p ro ce ssb yw h
ich t he f requency o ft h ei ncom ing s i
gnal
RESP ONSE

i
sc hanged i si nherently mo re n oisy t han amp lifica tion a tthe
s
igna l f requency , t h
is d isadvan tage c an b e o ve rcome b y
i
n c
lud ing o ne o r mo re rad io f r
equency a mplif
ie rsa head o fthe
f
i
r st m ixe r.
The ma in p rac t
ical d isadvan tage s o f th e sup e rhe t a re it
s F
REQUEKCY B
FO A BFO A
s
u scep tibility t ov ariou sf o rm so fs pur iou s respon se ,a nd the S
IGNAL — 1
F
REQ I
S
IGNAL
F
R:Q

r
e
la t
ive c omp lex ity o f c on struc t
ion a nd a lignmen t
. T he F
REQUENCY AUDIO F
REQUENCY AUD
IO
IMACE I
MAGE
s
upe rhe t p r
inc iple i s n ow u sed i n th e v ast ma jority o f
ama teur c ommun ica t
ion s r eceive r
s a nd t h
isc las s w ill receive
F
ig. 4
.3. Ho w a r
eal
ly selective receiver provides single-s
igna l r
ecep-
mo re d e
ta i
led t r
ea tmen t i n t h
i s c hap ter t han o the r t ypes of t
ion of Morse s
ignals. The b road se
lectivity of the response curve cn
r
ece ive r
. T he s imple st f o rm s o f s upe rhe t a re s hown i n t
he left i
sunable to provide substantial rejection at the aud
io image
f
requency wh w
ith t he more s e
lective c urve on the right
, the
F
i g.4 .1 (c) a nd ( d). T he b lock d iag ram o f at ypica ls upe rhet audio image i s inaudible.

4
.
2
 A
H
.F. RECE
IVERS
s
upp re ssing b o
th t h e othe r s et ofs ideband s a nd th e c arrie r
,
t
hu si ne fectc onve rting a na .m .s igna l i nto a ns .
s.b.o ne ( Fig.
L
OWER UPPER
S
IDEBAR() S
IDEBAND 4
. 4B ). I tist hen n eces sary t o re-ins er t ac a rrie ra s f or s .
s.b.
r
e cep tion . Ag rea ta dvan tage o ft hisf orm o fr eception i st hat
M
AX F M
AX F+IF
i
tp rov ide s f or a.m . s i
gna ls t he r e
la tive f reedom f rom p ha se
AF AF d
is tor tion e njoyed b y s .
s.b. s igna ls. I ti sf a ci
litated b y t he
u
se o f a na symme trical b andpa ss f i
lte rw i th t hes harp er c ut-
ofl ocated o n t hec ar r
ie rs ide.
T
rans ce
ive rs. I nr ecen ty ear s many c omb ined t r
an sm itter-
L
OWER U
PPER U
PPER L
OWER r
ece ive rs, mo stly i n
tended p rima rily f or s .s.b. o p eration ,
S
IDEBAND S
IDEBAND S
IDE B
ANO S
IDEBAND have a ppea red o n t he ama teu r ma rke t. When , as i su sua lly
t
h e c a se, s ome o f t h e circu its f unc tion d uring b oth t ran s
-
I
F I
F mis sion a nd r ec eption , s uch e quipmen ts a re t ermed
F
ig.4.4A .Al ocalosc
illator frequency h igher t han t
he s
ignalfrequency t
ran sce iver s
.
(
i
.e.f e l
.) keeps t
he u pper a nd l
o wer sidebands ofthe inter mediate
S
ince s ome o f t he mo st e xpen sive p ar ts o f a n s .s.b.
f
requency s ignals i
n t heir o r
iginal p ositions. However , when t he
l
ocal osci
llator isplaced b elow t he signal frequency (f —i.f
.) the if
. t
ransm i tter, i nclud ing t he h igh s ele ct
iv ity s ideband f i
lter
s
ignals transpose the p osit
ions o f the sidebands . By incorporating
a
nd t he h igh s tab ility o sc i
lla to r
, a r e e qua lly n ecessary f or
two osc
illators,one above , the o
ther b elow t he i
nput s
ignal,sideband
s
election isfacilitated. h
i gh p e rformance r eceive rs, t here a rec lea rly b oth s pac e a nd
e
conom ic a dvan tage s i n a n i n
teg ra ted u nit. T ransc eive rs
h
ave b ecome f airly p opu lar, d espite t h e s i
gn ifican t i nitial
s
wi tched f rom o ne t o t he o ther s e
t o f s ideband s wi thou t c
o st. T he h ome -con struc tion o f mu ltiband t ran sceive rs h as
h
av ing t oa d
ju stt het un ing k nob. T here a rev ariou sa rrange - b
een s uc ces sfully a chieved b y many ama teu rs
, b u
t d oes
men tsw hich p erm itt hist ob ed one, u sua lly b yp rov iding t wo r
e pre sen t ac omp lex a nd a dvanced p roje ct.
f
requency c onve rsion o scillator s
, o ne p laced o ne ach s ide of The r eceive r c i
rcu its u sed i n t ransce ive r s d o n ot d if er
t
he s ignal f r
equency ( F
ig . 4.4A ). ma te r
ia lly f rom t ho se o fs epa rate r ece ive rs, a lthough t h ere i s
In orde r t o receive w ithou t d is
to rtion o ne s ideband a nd at endency t ou se h .f
. c rystal f i
lter s fo r i.f
. s elec tivity, r athe r
c
ar riero f ad ouble s i
deband a .m .s igna lt h er eceive rb andpa ss t
han t ho se a ts ay 4 55 k c/s i no rde rt o r educe t he numbe r o f
mu st c onform t o c er
ta in r equ iremen ts. F or e xamp le, i fa s
tag e s n ec essary i n t he t ran smi tte r
. Howeve r, 4 55 k c/s
r
ece iver w ith as harp ly p eaked b andpa ss i st uned t or eceive mechan ica l f i
l
te rs( s
ee p age 4 .17)a re o ften u sed . S ome t ran s-
o
ne s ideband , the s e
lec tivity may b e s uf f
icien t t o r e
ject t he c
e
ive rsa red esigned s o that i ti sp os s
ib le t ot une t he r eceive r
o
the r sideband b ut w hen s o t uned t he c a rrie r w ill a lmo st a f ew k i
locyc le s a way f rom t h e t r
an sm it te r f requency
c
erta inly b e plac ed w e
ll d own t he s lope o f t he r espon se w
ithou t a fec ting t h e tran sm itte r t uning ; i no the r c ase s t he
c
u rve. I n these c i
rcum stance s the s ideband r e ce
ived w ill be r
ece ive ra nd t ran sm i tterc an o n
ly b e t uned t oge the r
.
t
oo s trong f ort hec arrier;t h
is r esults i nd isto rtion ,a st hough Ar ela ted t echn ique , found i ns ome s epa rate r e
ce ive rs, i s
t
he o rigina l signal w as g reatly o ver rnodu la ted . I f
, h oweve r
, t
op rov ide a n o utletf rom t heh igh s tab il
ity t unab le o scil
la to r
t
he r e
ceive r b andpa ss a pp roache s t ha t o f t he i deal f l
at t op t
o p rov ide a v .f
.o . f o
r a n s .s
.b . t ransm i tte r; t h
is i so ften
s
hape ( say, 2 .5 to 3k c/s w ide ) w ith s teep s ide s, t he re ceiver a
rranged t ot une 5t o5 -
5 Mc /s.
may b et uned s ot hat t hec arrie ri sl ocated a tt hee dge o ft he A
lthough mo st t r
ansce ive rs i nco rpo ra te a 3 k c /s b and -
b
andpa ss o r n ot mo re t han a bou t 5 db b elow max imum w
id th s ideband f i
lte r fo r s .
s.b. a nd s ome f ac
ilities f or c .w.
r
espon se. T he car rier a nd o ne s et ofs i
debands c an t hen b e (
and o ften f o ra .m . a sw ell), its hou ld b en oted t hat f ew h ave
r
ece ived w ithou t u ndu ly r es
tr icting t he a .f
. r espon se. S ince an ar row b and f i
lter, o fs ay 3 00 c /s b andw id th , d esirab le i n
f
l
at -top r esponse c urve s ar e difi cult t o a ch ieve w ithou t t he a
ny r e ceive r r equ ired f or f requen t c .w. o pe ration .
a
id o f e fect
ive b andpa ss cry stal o r m echan ica l f i
lters, t h
is
f
orm o fr eception i sn ot a lway s prac ticab le w i thou t af a
irly
c
omp lex r eceiver, t hough r easonab ly e fec t
ive r esults c an S
ynchronous R
ece
iver
s
o
ften b ea chieved o n receive rs h aving af inal i .
f. o ft he o rder Form s o f synch ronou s o r c ohe rent d emodu lation h ave
o
f8 5 k c/s
. r
ecen tly b ecome o f p a
rticular i ntere s
t t o c ommun ication s
W i
th a n e xtreme ly c are ful
ly c ontro lled b andpas s c harac - e
ng inee rs, a nd w ould s e em t o h ave u seful a pp l
ication s i n
t
er
i stic iti sp oss
ib le t oc ar ry t h
is p roce ss as t
age f urthe r: the ama teu r radio . A c oheren t s ystem i mpl
ie s th e incorpo ra -
r
ece iver c an b e s e
t t o r eceive e i
the r s et o f s ideband s w h
ile t
ion i nt he receiver ofa n oscillator w hich c an b e locked i n
f
requency a nd p hase tot hei ncom ing s ignal (th
is t e
chn ique i s
u
sed i n d ome st
ic c o
lou r t e
levi s
ion r ece
ive rs a nd i n stereo
multiplex d ecode rs). Wh i
le t rue c ommun ica tion s p ha se-
l
ocked r e
c e
ive rs have b een d eve loped f or certain f orm s o f
p
rof essiona lc ommun ica tionst hey a reu sual
ly r egarded a st oo
c
omp lex f orn o rmal ama teu ra pplica tion. T here are,h oweve r
,
r
e
la tive ly simp le f
o rms o fh omod yne o rsynch rod yne receiver s
which h ave b een k nown f o
r many y earsb utw hich a ppear t o
ofe rs cop ef orf ur
the rd evelopmen tf or amateu ra pplication s.
(
a
) (
c
) This t e
chn ique i ssome time sc alled ' d
irectc onve rsion'.
F
ig. 1.16. (a
) Response c urve wh ich r esults in the c arr
ier b eing
For e xamp le, a n e fect
ive s .
s.b /c.w . homodyne r eceive r
rece
ived atr educed l eve
l c o mpared w ith t
he sidebands .(b) Selectiv
- may c omp ri
se b asically a n r.
f. amp lif
ier, feeding d irectly a
i
ty characterist
ics more s u
itab le f
or carrier plus one s
et ofsidebands.
This per m
its r ecept
ion t hough i t results in quad d
istor t
ion.
b
alanced m ixe r or p roduc t d e
tec to r w i
th t unab le car r
ie r
(c) Reception ofa n a
.m . "
,,ion ass.s
.b i
nser t
ion o sci
llator att h e si
gna l f requency , fol
lowed d i
rec tly

4
.
3
RSGB —RADIO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

F
b
y t he a udio s t
ages a nd w i
thou t a ny f o
rm o f i .
f
. amp lifier.
P
rov ided t ha t t he balanced m ixe r ist r
uly l inea r, then t he ,Less t
han
e
f ective s electivity o f t he r eceive r may b e d ete rm ined 6 r0
. 5kci
s
—1
0kc/s k
c/s k
c/s
e
ntirely i n t he a .f
. circuit s thu s e l
imina t
ing t h e n eed f or
r
e
la tively e xpen s
ive c ry s
ta l o r m echanical f i
l
te rs o f c on -
v
en t
iona l supe rhet receive rs
.
(
a) (
b) (
c) (
a)
S
uch ab asic c onf
igu ration c an b e e
xtended t oc ove r a.m .
a
nd d .
s.b. recep tion ( w
i th s ubstan t
ial theoretical a dvan tage s F
ig.4 .5. The ideal character istics o ft he overall bandpass o f arece
iver
o
ve r t h
e u se o f envelope d etection ) provided t ha t the l ocal a
re d eter mined b y the t ype o f signals to be received . (a) This wou ld
be suitable for n or mal b roadcast r ecept ion (a.f
. r esponse t o 5k c
/s);
o
scillator c an b e locked i n frequency a nd p hase t o t he (
b) su itable for a
.m . co m mun icat ions (a.f
. to 3kc 's); (
c) the bandpass
c
an b e ha
lved f or single s ideband r ecept ion w ithout afect ing t he
i
ncom ing signa l. One r elatively s imple w ay in wh ich t h
is h as a
.f. response ( st
ill 3k c
,$ ); (d) e xtre me ly narrow c hanne ls (about 100
b
een s hown t o be p ossible i n t he past ist he s ynch rodyne c
/s) a re occup ied by manua l ly k eyed Morse s igna ls, but so me al
low -
ance most b e made f or r ece iver a nd trans m itter i nstabil
ity —by
r
eceive r
, in wh ich a n incom ing a .m. c ar
rier cause s th e o sc
il- adjust ment o f the b.f
.o. a ny d es ired a.f. beat note c an b e produced .
l
a
to r t o be l ocked o n t o it
.
S
uch r eceive rs can b e c on s
ide red e i
ther a s a "s upe rhe t "
w
ith a ni.f
.o f 0k c/
so ra l
terna t
ive ly ass t
raigh tr eceive rsw ith
g
ive b etter t han 2 0db s igna l-to -no ise r atio w ith a
b
alanced l inea r h e
terodyne d etecto rs
. Wh ile a f ew e xpe ri-
men tal designs h ave a ppear ed u sing t he
se t echn ique s, t here p
as sband o f 1-5 k c/s; o r
(
b) t e
l ephony : 1O f s igna l modu la ted 3 0 p e r c ent t o g ive
would a ppea r t o be scope f or much f urther w ork o n t hese
b
ettert han 1 0db s igna l-to-no ise r atio w ith ap as sband
l
ines.
An i n
teresting p os
sibility i sthat o fdevelop ing s imple c .w. o
f 6k c/s.
For a ccura te a sse ssmen t o f ar eceive r's p e rfo rmance , a l
t
rans ceiverss ince the local o sc
illato ro n the signa l frequency
c
ou ld b e u sed d i
rectly a s th e t ransmitter v .f.o. w i
thou t t
hef acto r sq uoted a bove mu stb es pe cified s ince v ar
ia t
ion o f
h
ete rodyn ing . a
ny o ne w i
ll a fect th eo the rs. T he s en sitivity o f ar e
ce ive ri s
i
ncrea sed b y r educ ing t he b andw id th t ot he l imi ts i mpo sed
b
y t he t ype o f tran sm ission ; t he e fec t o n r ec e
ive r n oi se o f
P
ERFORMANCE R
E QU
IREMENTS r
educ ing t he i .f
. b andw id th i sd i
scu ssed i nd etail i nC hap ter
1
5t ow hich t he reade rs hou ld r efer. S inc e in dividua l o pe ra-
B
efo
re typ
icalci
rcu
itry c
an b
ediscu
ssed, i
tisnece
ssa
ry t
o
t
ors p os sess t o dif e r
ing d eg rees t he a b
ility t oc opy a w eak
c
ons
ider c
e r
tain o
f t
he bas
ic p
erformance r
equi
rements i
n
s
igna l w ell d own i n the n oi se, i tw ou ld n ot m ean t ha t t he
s
ome de
tai
l.
quoted s igna ls w ould b et h ew eake stt hati tw ould b ep o ssib le
S
ens
itiv
ity t
o c opy , b ut n eve rthele ss f orm a v e ry u sefu l g u
ide w hen
c
ompa ring r eceive rs pecifica tion s.
Weak s ignal sn eed t ob e amp lifi
ed mu ch mo re t han s t
rong
Un for tuna tely f ew ama teu rs h ave a vailab le t h e t e
st
o
ne s i no rde r t op rov ide as a
ti sfactory o utpu t l evel toh ead- a
ppa ratu s needed t oc heck manu f actu re rs'f i
gu res. As imp le
phone s o r l oud speake r. T he re a re
, h oweve r
, d efinite l im
its b
ut q uite e f e c
tive ( and s e ve re) t est o fs ensit
iv ity w hich c an
t
o t his p roce ss, a nd s imp ly a dd ing mo re amp lif ying s tages b
e a pp lied t o mo st w e
ll s creened r eceive rs i st o r emove t he
w
ill n ot prov ide a s olu tion , t he l imita t
ion b eing t he n o
ise a
erial a nd r eplace i tb y ar esistore qua l tot h er ece ive r
's i npu t
g
ene ra ted b oth e x
te rna lly a nd w ithin t her eceive r( pr
inc ipa lly i
mpedance : i ft her eceive rn oise t hen p eak su pw hen t h ef i
rst
i
nt he ea r
ly s t
age s), w hich may ma sk a ny v e ry w eak s ignals r
.
f. c ircu it i st uned t hrough r esonance ( often p oss
ib le b y
p
re sen t
. T h
is n oise, w hich i sd escribed i nd eta i
l i nC hap ter mean s o f ap anel -moun ted a er
ia l t rimme r) o n t he h i ghe st
1
5( Noise), arise s p artly f rom s ou rcesw ith in t hee ar
ly s tages f
r
equency b and s i ti sr ea sonab ly c erta in t h at t he r e ceive r
o
ft her eceive r( and i st hust o ac ertain e xten tu nde rt hec on- p
os ses ses h igh s en s
i st
iv i
ty .
t
rol o ft he de s
igne r) a nd p artly f rom e xterna l s ou rce s. T he The s ensi
t ivity o f ar ece ive r i so f
ten d efined , i ndep end -
weake st s igna l w hich c an b e s atisfac to r
ily u sed f or c om -
e
ntly o f t he i .
f. b andw id th, i n t erm s o f n o ise f ac to r
,
mun ica t
ion p urpo se s i sth erefo re n ot g over ned u l
tima tely b y u
sua lly q uoted i n d ecibe ls ( db)— see C hapte r 1 5 ( No ise )
.
how much o vera l
l amp lification i sa vailab le f rom ar ece iver Usab le s ensitivity o n t h e h .f
. b and i sl imited t o r ough ly
but b y h ow w eak a s igna l c an b e h ea rd a bove t he g ene ral 6
-7db a t t h e h ighe r f r
equenc ie s
, a nd l e
sse r s en sitiv ity
no
i se l e
vel. T his c ha rac teristic o fa nh .f
. r eceive ri sn orma lly
(
h
ighe r n oise f acto r) a t l owe r frequenc ie s
. An h .f. re ceive r
d
efined b y stating t he m inimum s igna l v oltage a tt hea er
ial
w
ith a n oi
se f actor o f 1 0db o r l e
s s i sl ikely t o p rove f ully
t
erm ina ls r equ ired t o p rodu ce a s pec ified o u
tpu t w ith a a
ccep tab le f or a mateu r o pe ration . O lde r mode ls o f
ten h ave
c
ertain r at
io o f s igna l a bove t h e n o
i se l e
vel a t as p ecified an oise f igureo f1 2
-16db o ra bove d ue t ot heu se o f" n oisy"
s
etting o ft hes e
lec t
iv ity c on tro l: this i sk nown a st hes igna l
- v
alve s i n t he f i
r s
t s tage s. B ecause o f t h e very much l owe r
t
o-no ise r a
tio ( or mo re s tr
ictly a st hes i
gna l
-p lu s-no ise
- to-no i
se e
xte rna l n oise , far g rea te r s en s
itiv i
ty c an b e u sed o n v . h
.f.
r
atio).
Tog i
ve a ni dea o fp rac t
ica l p erformance , ar eceive rw ith a
S
elect
ivity
1
0db s ignal-to -no ise r atio ( at n orma l s e
lec tivity ) w ith a n
i
npu to f 1t o 3µ V isi nt heh igh q uality c lass w h
ile ar e ceiver The abili
ty o f arece
ivert oseparate s t
ation so nclose
ly ad
-
which w il
l p rov ide t his r atio f or a5µ V s igna l w ill n ot m i
ss j
acentf r
equenc ies isdete
rm ined b yi t
s sel
ec ti
vity
. C hapter 1
many w or
thwh i
le s igna ls. I n mo st l ocation s
, t he w eake s
t (
Princip
le s) exp
lains w hy iti sgenerally n ecessary to use a
c
.w. s igna l re adab le o n ah igh c l
as s r eceive r w ill b e a bout s
upe rhe
t r ece
iver with a low i n
termed iate f r
equency t o ob
-
0
-5µ V. t
a
in a v e ry h i
gh d egree o f se
lect
ivity — though t oday i.
f
.
Ar eceive r
' s sen sitivi ty p erformance c ould t hus b e q uo ted c
rystal fi
lters are avai
lable u p to abou t 1 0-7 Mc /s wi
th ex
-
i
nt he follow ing manne r : c
e
llen t s
electivi
ty, they a
re n o
t h oweve r c heap t ob uy.
(
a) t e
legraphy : 1A Vc .w. s i
gna l a cro ss t he i npu t socke ts to The ul
tima te l
imi
tst op ract
ical s
electivity a reg overned b
y

4
.4
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
t
h e b andw id th o f the t ype o f transm ission w hich i st o be t
hat the same s t
ation c an u sua
l ly b e received a t mo re than
r
ece ived . F o r h igh f i
deli ty b roadca st r ecep tion t he r espon se one posi
tion o f t h
e t uning d i a
l, o r a l
ter native
ly t hat t h
e
o
f ar ec eive r n eeds t oe x tend t os ome 1 5 k c/s o n e i
the r side v
arious osci
llators within t h e s
et p rovide s ignals w h
ich c an
o
f t he c arrie r f requ ency , e qu ivalen t t o ab andw id th o f 30 b
et uned ina tvariousp ointso n t he diala st hough t hey w e
re
k
c /s; f or a ve rage b roadca st r ecep tion t his f igu re c an b e e
xternal carr
iers. I n practice, t h
is mean s t hat s
trong c om-
r
e duced t o a bou t 1 0 k c/s. F or c ommun ica tions -qua lity mercia
ls t
ations are of
ten h eard a st hough t hey were operat-
t
e
lephony i nt he ama teu r b and s 6k c/s f or t he r ecep tion o f i
ng w i
thin t he ama teur b ands, w hile se arching f or w eak
both s i debands o r 3k c/s f o
r t he recep tion o fo ne s ideband s
tat
ion sismade mo re dif i
cul tb yt uning t hrough t hec arr
iers
w
ill s uf ice ; f ort e
leg raphy a t manua l k ey ing s peeds t he total g
enerated within thereceive r
,o ften r efe
rred t oa sbirdies.
b
andw id th c ou ld b er e duced t ol esst han 1 00 c /s
,a l
though t o The most i mportant cause s ofs puriou s response s are
:
a
ccommoda te t ransm itte r a nd/or r eceive r i nstab i
lity a
(
a
) T
he re
cept
ion o
fsi
gna
ls o
n t
hei
mage f
r
equency o
fth
e
3
00 c /s b andw id th i sg ene rally r egarded a s mo re p rac t
ical.
r
ece
iver
.
The se i d eal r eceive r c ha rac teri st
ics a re i n dica ted i nF ig. 4. 5
.
To c ompa re t h
e s elec tivity o f dif eren t r eceive rs o r t he (
b
) T
he r
ecep
tion o
f h
armon
icso
f t
he v
ar
iou
s o
sc
il
lato
rs
s
ame r ece ive r i nd if eren t p osition s o fi ts s e
lec tiv i
ty c ontrol, i
n ar
e
ceiver
.
c
u rve s o ft he t yp es hown i nF ig. 4.6c an b eu sed . T he re are The se are c onsidered i n mo re de tail l a
teri nt hec hap te r
.
t
wo w ay s i nw hich t hese c urve s mu s tb ec on s
ide red.T he fi
r s
t A
ll s uperhe t r eceive rs s ufe r f rom i mage r espon se ( s
ee
i
st hen ose f igu re w h
ich r ep resen ts theb andw id th i nk i
locyc les Chap te r 1)w hich b ecome s prog res s
ive ly mo re i mpor tan t a s
o
ve rw hich as igna l will b eh ea rd w ith r ela tively l i
t
tle l oss of t
hes ignal f r
equency i n
crea ses. I n p rac t
ice t he e f ect may b e
s
t
reng th ; t he o the r figu re — rega rded b y mo s t ama teu rs as r
educed t o av ery l ow f igure b y r aising t he i ntermed iate
t
he mo re i mpor tan t— is t he b andw id th o ve r w hich a r eally f
r
equency . I n g ene ral t e
rm s
, t he i mage r esponse o f ag iven
p
owe r
fu l s i gnal i ss t
il
l a ud ib le ( of
ten t aken a s ar e duction r
eceive rc ompa red w ith i t
s respon se o n it
sc orrec t frequency
o
f 1 000 t ime s o n t he s t
reng th o f the s igna l w hen c or rectly n
eeds t ob er educed b ya tl east 32 t ime s( 30db )att heh ighe s
t
t
uned i n) a nd t his i so f
ten t e
rmed t he s kirt p erformance . f
r
equency t ow hich t hes ett une s( usua lly a bou t 3 0 Mc /s). A
These t wo s e
ts o ff i
gu re s a re r e
lated b y w hat i st e
rmed t he f
u
ll s p ec
ification s hou ld g ive th er eceive r's respons et oi mage
s
hape f ac toro ft her eceive r,f ound b yd ivid ing t heb andw idth s
i
gna l sa tv ariou sf requenc ies
,t h
er espons ea tt heh ighe stf r
e-
a
tt he s kirt b y t hat att he n ose. q
uency t ow h
ich t h e s e
t tune s isu sua lly t he mo s
ti mpor tan t
.
The i deal r eceive r w ou ld h ave a s hape f acto r o f o ne o n In as ingle c onve rsion s uperhe t
, b irdies c an b e c au sed b y
e
ach p o s
i tion o fs e
lectivity ;s uch ar eceive rw ou ld i np rac t
ic e h
armon ics o f t he bea t frequency o scillato r
, b ut i n p ractice
b
e i mpo ssible t od e
sign a tt he p resen t s tate o ft hea r
t. E ven t
h
is s eldom h appens . On t he othe r h and, w ith d oub le- a nd
t
he v ery b e
s t mode rn r ece ive r i su n
like ly t oa ch ieve as hap e t
r
iple -conve rs
ion r eceiver s ( and w ith s ingle- conve rsion
f
acto r much l e
ss t han 1 .5, a nd mo st g ood r eceive rs r ange r
eceive rs o pera ted i nc onjunc t
ion w ith ac onve rte r mak ing,
f
rom a bou t 2 .5 t o 5.5. Ar eceiver w hich h as as kirt b and - i
n e f ect, d oub le c onve r
sion ), t he e lim ination , o r a t l ea
st
w
id th a t — 60db , o fl e
ss t han 1 0 kc/ s c an b e c on side red t o r
educ tion o fb irdies b ecome s ama jo r d es
ign p rob lem . I ti s
h
ave q ui te g ood s e
le ct
iv ity c harac teristic s. s
e
ldom p ossible i n aw ide c overage mu l
ti-conve rsion r eceiver
t
o a vo id b i
rd ies altoge the r a nd t h e p roblem t h en r esolves
S
pur
ious R
esponse
s i
t
self t o ensur ing t ha t t hey d o n ot f al
l i n f r
equen t
ly u sed
O
ne o
f t
h
e m
ajo
r d
efec
ts o
f s
imp
le s
upe
rhe
t r
e
ceive
rs i
s p
ortion s o f t he ama teur b ands . T he i deal s pe c
ifica t
ion s
w
ou ld b e i n t he f orm " in terna lly g enera ted s pur iou s
A r
e
sponse s ar e below t he n oise leve
l i na ll case s
."
1
00 Spu riou s response s a re d i
scu ssed i n mo re d eta i
l o n p age
4
.
38 .

1
0 -0
.1 1
0
S
tab
ility

The a b
il
ity o f ar ece
ive r t o rema in t uned t o ap art
icu lar
1
00 '
0.0
1 f
requency d ep ends u pon b oth e lectrical a nd me chan ical
s
tab il
ity o ft he t uned c i
rcu its, mo re e spec ially t ho se i nt he
l
oca lo scil
lato r(s). T he p rima ry cau se o fe lect rical instab i
lity
i
na n o scil
la tor ( see C hap ter 6 )i st he e fect o fh eat o n the
1
000 0
-00
1 0
.1
t
uned c ircuit a nd v alve e lectrode s
. E ven i nt h e best d esigns,
t
he re will usua lly b e as teady v a
riation a ppear ing a sd rift in
t
he f i
rs
t 1 0
- 15 m inu tes a fter s wi
tch ing o n ac old s e
t, b ut
1
0000 0
- 000
1 0
.01 i
ts hould t hen s ettle d own w ith l i
t
tle f u
rthe r c hange .
1
5 0 5 0 5 10 1
5
k
c/s OFF RES ONANCE After u nde rgo ing a n umbe r o f h eat c ycle s, some c om -
F
ig. 4
.6. The i deal vertical s ides of Fig. 4.5 c annot b e achieved i n
ponen tsd on otr etu rn pre cisely t ot heiro r
ig ina l value s
. T his
p
ractice The s
hown h ere a re typica l
. These t hree curves make s itve ry d ificu lt to ma intain a ccu rate c alibration o fa
r
ep t
he o veral
l s e
lect ivity of receivers v arying f
ro m t he" j ust b
andsp read d ia
lo ve r al ong p eriod . Many r eceive rst here fore
a
dequate" b roadcast c urve o f asuperhet r eceiver h av
ing a bout f our
t
uned i.
f.c ircu its on470 k c st ot hose of a moderate ly good c o m mun i- i
nclude a c rystal c ontro l
led o sc
illato r o f h igh s tability t o
c
ations r eceiver . A, 13
, Ca nd D i ndicate f our d iferent s cales o ften
u
sed to ind icate similar r esults : A i
s ascale b ased o n the attenuat ion
p
rov ide 1 00 k c/s o r 1000 k c/s marke r s i
gna ls o n w hich t he
i
nd ec
ibe ls fro m max i mu m r esponse ; Br epresents t he relative signa l c
alib rat
ion c an b e r egularly c hecked a nd a dju sted. Ac al
i-
i
nputs for a c onstant o utput ; Ci sthe output v oltage co mpared w ith
t
hat a t max i mu m r esponse ; D i s the r esponse e xp d a s a
b
ra t
ion marke ro ft h
ist yp ei salso e x
treme ly u sefulw he re the
percentage. s
et h a
s b oth a c oa rse ( band set) tun ing k nob a nd a f ine
4
.
5
4 —.I
R( I
RSGB —RADI O CO M MUNICATI ON HANDB O OK

(
bandsp ie ad) tuning k nob a s itenable s the m ain dial to b e c
op ing w ith e x treme ly s t
rong l o cal o r d istan t s igna ls . E ven
r
e
- set accurately w hen c hanging b ands. when s uch as tation i st ransm itting o n af requency w ell o ut-
Mechan ical in
stabi l
ity, w h
ich u sually appear sa s ad ef
in ite s
ide t h e i .
f, p as s b and o ft her e
ce ive r, i tmay a fect r ecep t
ion
s
hift infrequency w hen t he re
ceiver iss ub
je cted t oa ny f orm b
y c ro ss m odu la tion o r b lock ing .
o
fm echan ical shock o r vibration, canno t e asily b e defined When av ery s trong s ignal r eache s t he i npu t o f ar eceive r
i
nt he form o f ap e
r formance s pecif
ication. S turdy c onstruc - who se g ain c on tro l iss et f or t he r ecep tion o f w eak s i
gna ls,
t
ion, ah eavy c hassis a nd s u
itable moun ting o f c omponen ts t
he r ela tive ly p oo r s e
lec tivity o f t he e arly s igna l f requency
a
rer equired t oreduce t h
is form o fi n
stab i
lity. R eceiverd rift a
nd i ntermed ia te f requency c ircu it s (prio rt os elec tive f i
l
te rs)
c
an b e s pecif
ied i n t e
rm s of max imum d rif
t i n cyc
le s p er w
ill n o t b e s uf icien t t op reven t t he s t
rong s igna l f rom b eing
s
econd o ve rgiven p eriods o ftime, usua l
ly q uo t
ing as epara te amp lifi ed , s o t hat o ne o ft he s tage s may b e d r
iven i n
to n on -
f
i
gu re t o cove r the w arm ing u p p eriod. F or g ood s .
s
.b . l
i
nea ri ty. T hisr esult si nt her e qui red w eak s igna lb eing e ithe r
r
eception s hort term s tabi
lit
ies o f th
e o rde r of af ew cycle s r
educed i ns treng th ( b
lo cking )o rb ecom ing modu la ted b yt he
a
re desirable. s
t
rong s igna l ( c
ro ss modu lation ).
Clea rly, t h e mo re amp lifying s tage s t here a re i n ar eceiNe r
T
uning R
ate b
e fo re t he c ircu its w hich d eterm ine i t
s s e
lectiv ity c harac -
Tot une a ccu rately a nd r ap idly t o as upp re ssed c arr
ie rt ype t
eristic s
, t he g r ea tera re t h ec hanc es t ha t o ne o ft h em w i
ll b e
o
ft ransm is sion ( s
ee C hap te r 1 0
), i tisd esirable t obea ble t o o
ve rloaded . F rom t h
i s i tf o
llow s t hat i n ad oub le ( or t r
ip le)
s
e
t t he r e
ceive r t o with in a bou t 2 5 c /s or s o o f the station's c
onve rsion r ece ive r —whe re t here w i
ll b e a t l e
a st o ne r .f
.
f
r
equency . S uch a ccu racy o f t un ing , w hich i sa lso mo s
t amp lif ie ra nd t wo m ixe rs tage s b e fore t hes e
lective c i
rcu its —
b
ene f
icial f orc .w. recep tion , i sunlike ly tob ea chieved u nle s
s p
a rticu la rc are i sn ecess ary t oa vo id o ve rload ing .
e
ach c omp le te r e
vo lut ion o ft het un ing k nob r epresent s o n
ly Iti sd if icu lt f or t he a mateu r t o a sse ss i nt erm s o fa ctua l
amode r
ate s hift int h e f requ ency o ft he r ece
ive r. At ypical f
i
gu re s t he p e rfo rmance o f r eceive rs i n t h
is r esp ec t. Un -
f
i
gu re f o
r amode rn h i gh g r ade r eceive rw ould b e 5k c/so rs o d
oub ted ly i n m any s ets a r e a
lly p owe rfu l signa l c an a ffect
p
er r e
volution , b u t e qua lly i mpor tan t w ould b e at un ing r
ecep tion o ve r ac onside rab le p ortion o f ab and . E ven o n a
mechan ism w ith as moo th a ction, f r
e e from b ackla sh. T he h
igh g r ade r ece ive r c o sting s eve ra l h undred p ound s
, i th as
t
r
end t ov ery l ow tun ing r a
te si saf eature o ft he mo st mode rn b
een s hown t h at c ro ss-modu lation e f ects c an o ccu r 5 0 k c/s
d
esigns . T he u se o f s tep d own g ea rs to r edu ce t h
e t un ing away f rom a n S 9 + 6 0db s igna l a nd 1 5-20 k c/s a way f rom
r
ate o ft h
ec on trol k nob i st ermed m echan ica lb and spread ing. a
n S 9 ± 4 0db o ne. A t t he l owe r l evels, t h e s tag e mo s
t
The s ame e f ectc an b ea chieved e lectrica l
ly b yp lac
ing a cro s
s l
i
ke ly t o p rodu ce t he se e f
ec ts i st he s e
cond m ixe r, b ut f or
t
he m ain t uning c apac ito rs ( which m ay v ary i nc apac itance r
eally s t
rong s igna ls ( S9 + 5 0db o r mo re) t he f i
rst m ixe rc an
s
wing f r
om 1 50 toa bou t 5 00 p F) much s malle rv alue v ariable b
e t he p r
ime s ou rce o f t his i nte rference . Many d oub le-
c
apac itors o ft he o rde r o f2 0 p F s wing : see F ig. 4.7
. B and- c
onve r sion r e ceive rs w ill h ave a c ros s-modu la t
ion p er fo r
-
s
pread ing i sa lso p os sib le b y t he u se o f v oltage v ariable mance much i nfe r
io rt o t hee xamp le q uo ted.
c
apac itance d iode s
. P ermeab il
ity t uning make s p os s
ible The s u scep t ib il
ity o f ap articu la r d esign t o t his f orm o f
v
ery g ood b andsp read ing . I n p rac tice a c omb ina t
ion o f i
nte rf erence d epends o n an umb er o f f actors : n otab ly t he
mechan ical a nd e lect rica l b and spread ing i so ften u sed, w hi
le p
at te rn o f g ain d istribu tion t hrough t he r eceive r a nd h ow
t
here i sa n i ncrea sing t endency t o r e
strict t h
e f requency t
his i s mod ifi ed b y th e a ct
ion o f a .g.c. o r the m anua l g ain
c
ove rage o fr eceive rs t ot he ama teur b ands o nly. E xcep t f o
r c
on t ro l ( some s etsh ave ad ua lt rack p o ten tiome te rt op rov ide
r
eceive rs h a‘ing a t unab le i .
f
. t he t uning r ate w ill u sua l
ly d
if e ring g a
in t ap erso nr .f
.a nd i f
.v alve s
),a sw ella st het ype s
v
ary o n each w aveband , a nd s ome t
ime s a l
so w ithin e ach o
fv alve u sed . One m ethod o f.reduc ing t he amoun t o f r .
f
.
b
and , a l
though t h
is p rob lem c an b e o vercome b y th e use o f g
ain n eeded t oo ve rride t h en o
ise o fth ef i
rstm ixe ri st ou se a
r
a
the rc omp lex f r
equency s yn the s
iso ri n
terpo la t
ion o scillato r t
r
iode m ixe r, c a
l l
ing f o r af a
irly h igh f irsti f
.,a nd r equ iring a
t
echn ique s
. g
rea te r p ropo rtion o ft her e
ce ive rg a
in t ob ep rov ided b yt he
i
f. s tage s. A no the r te chn ique i st he u se o fb eam d eflection
C
ross
-modu
lat
ion a
nd B
lock
ing v
alve s ( e.g. 7 360 ) a s l ow -no ise m ixe rs. T he f i
tting o f a n
a
dju stab le a t
tenua to r b etween t h e a erial a nd t h e f i
r st s tage
A
fte
r ar
ece
ive
rhas b
een m
ade high
ly s
e
lec
tive, p
refe
rab
ly
i
sa l
so au se ful m ea su re.
d
own toth
e —60db l
e
vel
, t
here may r
ema
in the p
roblem of

F
RONT
-END C
IRCU
ITS
R
.F. Amp
lif
ier
I
n as upe rhe tr e
ceiver, amp lif
i cation a tt h
es ignalf r
equency
i
shighly d es
irab le ino rdert oo vercome t hen o
ise c ontribu
ted
20pF
b
y the m ixe r. A lso impor tant i sthe pro tection p rovided b y
t
he additiona l tuned c ircuit a gain st second c hanne l (image)
a
nd certain o the r form s ofs pu riou s re
spon se. E xc ess
ive r.f
.
COARSE F
I NE FI NE COARSE ampl
ification , h oweve r, i n
crea ses t he l ikel
ihood o f the
TUNE , TUNE TUNE TUNE r
ece
ive r suf e r
ing f r
om b locking o rc ross modu lation .
(
BAND -SET)(BAND-SPREAD
)
I
ti sp ossible, w ith l ow-noise m ixers, toa chieve max imum
(a )
(5 ) u
sable sen s
i tivity w ithou t an r .
f. stage, b ut its hou ld not be
f
orgot
ten t hatt h em aximum p re-m ixe rs e
lectivity isav aluable
F
ig. 4
.7
. Two c o m mon methods of providing b andspreac
i t
uning. (a)
Small va
lue capac
itor connected i
n p aral
lel a cross the ma
in tun ing a
idi nreduc ing s puriou sr e
sponse s,a nd such s e
lectivity ismost
c
apacitor. (b) Tapped c oil per mits diferent d egrees of b and.
e
asi
ly ach ieved w ith o ne or mo re r .
f
. stage s
. Ga in, h owever,
s
preading to suit the var
ious amateur b ands , but can resu
lt i n
u
n wanted resonances . s
hould b e l imited t ot hat nece ssary t o o verride m ixe r no
ise.
4
.6
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
HT+ i
snottheo n
ly pos
sib
le arrangement:ofincreas
ing popu
lar
ity
i
sth
es e
ries
-cascode c
ircu
it,w hi
le t
hegrounded-gr
id ampl
ifi
er
i
ssu
itable fo
r use w
ith at r
iode mixe
r or other a
ppl
ica
tions
w
here high ga
in isn
ot required.
I
nthe ma t
tero fo p
timum s ignal-to-noiser a
tio and o veral
s
tage gain, there isl i
t
tle to choose — for f requencies b e
low
3
0 Mc /s —betwe en ac orrec
tly d
esigned r .
f
. p entode a nd the
d
oub le-
triode c ascode. Howeve r
, t he cascode i ss ometime s
l
e
s s su
sceptible toc ross-modulation a nd some c onstructors
c
on s
ider i tl e
ss c r
it
ical i n ad
jus tmen t a nd o peration. A
t
ypical se
ries
-ca scode c i
rcuit i
ss hown i nF ig. 4
.9. S uitable
v
alves inc
lude t he ECC I89/6ES8, ECC84 /6C W7 a nd 6 BQ7.
F
ig. 4
.8. Typ
ica
l t
uned r
.
f. amp
lif
ier
.
The correct ma tching o ft h e aer
ia l t o t he va
lve i npu t i m
-
pedance i so fg rea t impo rtance i ns e cu r
ing o pt
imum s ignal-
to-no ise rat
io : t he v ol
tage g ain o btained f r
om t he step-up
T
he d e
sign o ft hea . amp lifi erstage (s) isg ove rned b y t he
ra
tio o f the i npu t c i
rcuit i sn ot d eg raded b y valve n o
is e
.
type o fm ixe ra nd th ei nte rmed iate frequency o ft h
er e
ceive r.
G ene ralc overage r e c
eive r
sa r eo f
ten d esigned w ith amed ium
W ith a c onven tiona l h exode o r h eptode m ixe r, the g a
in
impedance i npu t (300-600 o hm s) w ith l oo se aerial coup ling
r
equ ired f rom t hea .a mp lifierw i
llb eo ftheo rde ro f2 0db a t
t
o t he grid circuit, t he aerial c o
il h av ing a f a
ir n umbe r of
t
h e highe s t frequency ( say 3 0 Mc /
s) t oe nsu re t hat the o pti-
t
u rns. F or ama teur -band s-only r eceive rsi tisusual tor educe
mum s ignal-to -noise r at
io i sa chieved . T hisc an b eo b
tained t
h e i nput impedance t o 7 5 o hm s
, w ith t he few t urns o f the
f
r om as ingle g ood p en tode amp l
ifier. I ft he receive r use s a
a
e riali nputc oilo verwound o nt hee arthy e nd oft heg rid c o
il
t
riode m ixe r
,w h
ich h a s amuch l owe rn o
isec ontribu tion,t h
e
t
op rov ide very t igh t coupling . T his s ystem i sto be r ecom -
gain o f t he r .f
. amp lifier b e come s l ess i mpor tan t
, b ut t h
e
mended a s ite nab les t he max imum v oltage s tep-up t o be
s
tage i ss t
ill u seful inr educ ing s pu r
ious r e
spon se s
. obtained . W ith t i
ght c oupling i ti sa dvi sable t o i
nclude a
For as ingle-conve rsion s upe rhe th aving a ni .
f
.o ft heo rder
panelc ontrolled a erial tr
imme racros st het uned grid circu i
t.
o
f4 70 k c
/ s (or for ad oub le-conve rsion mode l i nw hich t he
When l ow i mpedance i nput c i
rcuits a re t o be used i nc on-
h
i gher i f
. i so f this o rde r), t wo t uned r .
f. amp lif
i e
rs a re
j
unc tion w ith e nd -fed a nd sim ilar a erials h aving ar ange o f
n
eeded t or educe i mage r espon se ton egligible p ropor tion so n
i
mpedance s, iti sh ighly d es
i rable t o f i
t a n external a erial
f
requenc ies a bove a bou t 1 0 Mc /s
, though a s n oted a l
ready ,
match ing u n
it: o ften t hat u sed f or t h e t r
an smitter can b e
one s tage i ss ufic
ien t t o s ecu re o ptimum s ignal-to-no ise
emp loyed b y m ean s of ac oax ial change -ove r relay.
r
atio. I ft he i n
termed iate f requency i sinc reased t o a bou t
1
.5 Mc /s, t hen as ingle r .
f
. s tage s hou ld b e a ble t o prov ide The fi
r
stt uned circu i
ti n ar e
c e
iveri sofe speciali mportance
g
ood i mage r ejection u p t o 3 0 Mc /s
. i
nd eterm ining thes ensi
tivity oft her e
ceive ra nd i tshould be
I
n p ractice , t he r.f
. amp lifier usua lly c on sis
ts o f o ne o r n
oted t hat the al
ignmen t oft his ci
rcuit tot hat o ft he mixer
p
resen ts part
icula r p roblems o wing to t he ef ects produced
mo re high g ain r.f
.p en tode s( valve type ss uch a s EF93 /6 BA6 ,
when c oupling dife rentt ypeso faerialtot h
er eceiver
. I fthe
EF85 /6BY7 , EF 183 /6EH7 , EF95 /6AK5 , 6 BZ6, 6 SG7 ,
6CB6 , EF9 I/ 6A M6 a nd 6DC6 a re s uitable ) with a t uned a
erial isreact
ive i t
sc onnection w i
llu sually cau se detuning of
t
he i n
pu t ci
rcuit
. As at
isfactory m e
thod o fo vercom ing this
i
npu t circu it b etween g rid a nd c athode a nd w ith t he v a
lve
o
pe rating i n
to a n i nduc tive l oad w h
ich may b e e i
the r t he d
iff
iculty ist ofit ap anelc ontrol aeria
l trimme rt oal
low t he
p
rimary w ind ing o fa n i nterstage r .f
. t ransforme ro r at uned c
i
rcu it tob ereadily b rough ti nto accurate a d
ju stmen tb y the
c
i
rcu it
. At ypicalc ircu it iss hown i nF ig .4. 8
. Howeve r. t h
is u
serw hen changing b ands o rae r
ials. If areceive ri sde
signed
s
o
le ly foruse with an on-reactive feedero fk nown i mpedance ,
t
h
is c ontrol w ou
ld b e u nnecessary.
As hort-base r.f
. pen tode w i
ll usually have al ower noise
c
ontribu tion than av a
riab le-mu p entode,b u
ti npractice thi
s
6B 07
i
slikely tob en ot
iceab le o nly above 21 Mc /s; av ariable-mu
ECCB4
HT + t
ype i so f
ten u sed for c onven ience ofa .g
.c. a c
tion , and the
3 r
educ tion o fcross modu lation. O ft h
ep resen t range ofp en-
t
ode v alves, the 6CB6 a nd EF9 1 (6A M6 ) provide l ow noise
l
oon bu
t may p rove susceptib le to cross-modu lation e f
ects; the
I7
K
1
04
.
p
F
EF85 /6BY7 o r th
e Ame r
ican 6DC6 i sbetter int h
is r e
spec t
.
Whe re ah igh sl
ope,s hor t
-ba se r.
f
.p entode isu sed ina na.g
.c.-
c
ontro lled stage, t
h e screen feed resis
to r s
hou ld b e off a
irly
1
00pF
h
igh v alue (33 Kt o4 7 Ko hm s)t olengthen theg rid base,a nd
s
oc on t
inue t ogive li
nea rt hough r educed amp lifi
cation ast he
n
egative b ias isincreased.
Con t
rolled re
generative f
eedback ina nr.f
. amp l
ifie
rc an be
o
f ma ter
ial ass
istance inincreas
ing stage gain and i ng i
ving
g
reater protect
ion a ga
inst image re
spon se
. A s explained in
A
rr. L
I
N
E C
T
hap
hu
te
s a
r 1
l
5, t
his w
though r e
ill b
gene
ea
rat
tsome c
ion i ss
o
st i
omet
ns
ime
i
gna
s u
l-to
sefu
-no
l fo
ise r
r s
a
ma
t
io
l
le
.
r
F
ig. 4
.9
. Bas
ic s er
ies-cascode r
.f. amplif
ier
. Although f
or mer
ly used
mainly f
or v.h
.f, receivers
, th
is a rrange ment i
s now found i
n hi. r
ece
ive rs
, iti sto be avoided in high-performance d e
signs.
r
eceivers. Opt
imum s ignal
-to-noise r
at
io s c
anno t be obtained from a n

4
.
7
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

VI
a 6
6
AQ8
E
CC85

750 HF
I
NPUT
OSC
ILLATOR
0- 4
0
- 00
1 F- 9
1 "
-

2
20 0 o
IpF

H
F OSC
ILLATOR

F
ig. 4
.10. Low noise r.
f. amplif
ier-mixer using a
n ECC85/6A6 18 doub
le
t
riode v a
lve. The first tr
iode s ect
ion functions as agrounded g r
id
amplif
ier w ith u ntuned i nput; the second t riode i
s the mixer
i
nductively c oupled t o t he h.
f. osc
illator. Note 1M and 5 60 (1 F
ig. 4
.11
. Although h eptode frequency c hanger v a
lves such a s t
he
r
esistors should be transposed . 6BE6
/EK90 can b e u
sed a
s ac o mbined mixer-osc
illator
, their u
se as a
mixer with a s
eparate h
.f. o
scillator i
s pre
ferred for high perfor m
-
ance receivers
.
r
.
f. amp l
ifier u nle
ss a ll forms o f p ositive feedback d ue to
s
t
ray c apacitance s, i neff
icient s c
reen d ecoupling a nd t he
e
fect of c o mmon c athode l e
ad i nduc tance a re r educed t o c
i
rcu
it n
eed no
t be t
uned
. An a
rrangemen
t o
f t
h
is t
ype i
s
t
he l
owe st possible figure. Coup l
ing b e
tween i nput and o ut
- s
hown i
nFig
. 4.10
.
p
utcircuits mustb ek epte xtremely low ;o ne f
orm o fcoup ling
wh
ich i ssome t
ime s o ver
looked i st hat d ue t
o t he common M
ixer
r
otor spindle o f ag anged t uning c apac itor b e
ing s l
igh t
ly I
nChap
ter 1i
thas b
een shown t
hatany n
on-l
inear ci
rcu
it
a
bove e arth p otential
. S ome r .
f
. v alves h ave t wo c athode e
l
ement w
i
ll a
ct a
s amixer
, tha
t i
sto s
ay i
ffr
equencies
p
ins ( one f or i npu t c onnec t
ions , t he o ther f or o utpu t a
re comb ined i n the e l
emen t, f r
equenc ies 1,f 2
,1 1 +f ,a nd
c
onnections ) to o vercome t he i nduc tive c oup ling o f a -f,w i
llb ep resen t int he o utpu t. T hu sa lmos ta ny v a
lve ,
c
ommon c a
thode l ead. c
rystal d
iode o r transisto r can f unc tion a s af requency c on -
Where a l ow n oise m ixe r isu sed , the r.f
. g a
in c an b e v
erter
. I n h.f. r eceiver p ractice , h owever , t he mu lti
-g rid
a
ppreciably reduced w ithout l
oss ofsignal
-to-no ise r
atio and v
alves, s pec
ially d e
s igned f o r t he p urpo se ( EK90 /6BE6 ,
w
ith b enefi
t t o c ross-modulation c haracteris
tics; w i
th a ECF82 /6U8 , ECH8 I /
6A J8 o r t he older a nd much n oisier
t
r
iode m ixer as i
ng le g
rounded-g rid t
r
iode r .
f. amp l
ifier may 6
SA7 a nd 6K8 ),a re g enerally u sed b ecau se oft hea ppreciab le
s
uff
ice
, p ar
ticular
ly o n 14 Mc/s and above. When f ed from a c
onve rs
ion g ain w h
ich t hey p rov ide a nd t heir r e
la t
ive f ree-
l
ow-
impedance a eria
l t r
ansmis s
ion l i
ne, t he v a
lve i nput dom f r
om i n
te raction b etween t he s i
gna l tuned c ircuits a nd
t
he osci
llator s ect
ion . O ccas iona lly t he tr
iode m ixer i su sed
b
ecause o fi t
s l ow n oise c ontribu tion, b ut tends t o be al i
tt
le
TABLE 4
.
1 more crit
ical i n o pera t
ion a nd p rovides much l ower o u
tpu t;
i
ti ssubject to o scil
la tor "p u
lling" u nless t he i n
termed iate
E
quiva
lent No
ise R
esistances (
e.n
.r.) o
f Typ
ica
l Va
lves
f
requency i sh igh , b ut c an b e u sefully e mployed i n d oub le
c
onve rs
ion r eceiver s w ith a h igh f i
rst i .
f
. a s a means o f
R
.F. A mp
lif
iers
r
educing c ross-modu la tion e fects.
6AC7 720 E
F42 7
50
6AC7 (
triode connected) 220 E
FS(
) . 1
400 I
tissome time sd ificultw ith c onven tiona l m ixerc ircuits t o
6AGS 1
900 E
FS4 7
00
6AK5 1
880 E
F85/6BY7 1
500
6AK5 (t
riode connected) 385 E
F91/6AM6 1
200
6BA6 3
520 E
F183/6EH7 4
90
6B Q7A 390 E
F184/6E
17 3
00
6BZ6 1
460
6CB6 1
440 Mixers
6F23 670 6AK5 7520
6F24 370 6BA6 1
4080
6
16 470 6BA7 6
0000
6K7 1
6400 6BE6 1
90000
6SG7 3
300 6
16 . 1880
6SH7 2
850 6K13
/ECH35 2
90000
6517 . 5
840 6L7 2
55000
6SK7 1
0500 6SA7 2
40000
6U8/EFC82 (pentode ) . 2
280 65B7Y 6
2000
6 U8
/ECF82 (tr
iode ) . 2
95 6U13/ECF82 (
pentode) . *
9300
12ATI/ECC8 1 3
80 6U8 /ECF82 (
tr
iode) . 2000
12AU7/ECC82 140 12AT7 /ECC81 2400
12AX7/ECC83 1560 12AU7 /ECC82 7280
ECC84
/6C W7 •420 E CF86/6HG8 .2700
ECC85
/6AQ8 5
00 ECH8 1/6 A
18 66000

•Ca
lcula
ted.
The above v
alues are norma
lly o
ptimu m manufacturer
s f
i
gures and t
he
e
.n.r. wi
ll ri
se s harp
ly when t he mutual conductance i
s lowered by F
ig. 4
.
12. One mu ltiple va
lve t
hat can b
e efectively u
sed as acom -
b
ined mixer-osc
illator ist
he ECF8Z6 U8 t
riode-pentode i
n which t
wo
i
ncreas
ing the b
ias or due t
o v
a
lve a
geing
.
s
ect
ions a re iso
lated by means of i
nternal s
creening.

4
.8
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
mixer have a l
l t o b e efective ats ignal, osc
illator a nd in
te r
-
mediate frequenc ies: ac eram ic typ e of0-0 1 j/
F capac i
tanc e
w
illu sual
ly p rove s u
itable. T ypical m ixe
rc i
rcuits ares hown
i
nF igs. 4.
10-4 .14.
Arather dif eren t twin-triode m ixer arrangemen t t hat has
b
een u sed i n s everal r e
cen t design s isshown i n Fig. 4.15.
The fi
rstt r
iode s e c
tion f o
rm s acathode f ol
lowe r
, feeding the
s
ignali n
to thec a
thode o ft hem ixers ect
ion,w ith theo sci
llator
s
ignal fe d to t h e g r
id. T he mu tua l condu c
tance o f the
•
••••=•
•••
c
athode -fol
lowe r s ect
ion mu st be h igher t han that o f the
t
".)
mixer section ; t h
is c an b e achieved w i
th i d
entical t win
t
r
iode s b y redu c
ing t he v ol
tage o n the anode o f the m ixer
s
ection b y f
eed ing i tthrough ar e
sistor oft he order o f3 K
ohm s or by ap oten t
iome ter netwo rk a ss hown .

F
ig. 4
.13. A Colp
itts osc
illator f
or t he ECF82 6U8 frequency changer.
This requires o
nly a two-ter minal c o
il and i
s most suitable f
or use
with i
ndependent o sc
illator tuning, as t
racking p
roble ms do n
ot t
hen
a
rise.

maintain con stantc onve r

sion g a
in o vert h ef u
ll tun
ing r ange
o
f ar ece
ive r
. T his isp ar
tly b ecause o f the v ary
ing e fect
o
f i n
ter-e
le ctrode a nd s t
ray w ir
ing c apac i
tance a nd p ar
t ly
b
ecau se o f the dificulty of providing a c on stant oscil
lator HF
i
n
je ct
ion v ol
tage a s the frequency i sv ar
ied . A h ighe r and SOpF
OSC
ILLAT OR

more c onstan t osc

illa
tor v o
ltage can g enerally b e obtained
b
y u s
ing a s eparate v a
lve f o
r the o sc
illator i n place of t he
o
scil
lato rs ec
tion o fthen ormal frequency c hange rvalve. An
e
xception i s the ECF82 /6U8 t r
iode p entode w hich c an
p
rovide e f
ic
ien t c onversion i n a s ingle v alve e nvelope ,
p
articularly a t the higher f r
equenc ies. A s uitable p entode F
ig. 4
.15
. Tw in triode mixer in wh
ich t he mutual c
onductance o f t
he
m
ixe rf oru se with as eparate osc
illatori sthe EF94 /6AU6 . s
econd s ection is reduced b y a low h.t. s
upply. A relatively low
i
nject
ion vo ltage (1-2 vo
lts
) i s required. The c o m mon c athode
r
esistor may be optim ized bet ween 100 a
nd 1000 oh ms
.

To as
sist int he re
du ction o fc ros
s-modu lation a nd some
f
orms of spu r
iou s re
spon se, th
e u se of ab alanced f orm of
m
ixer h a
s much i n its f avour. T h
is may c onsist of twin
t
r
iodes (e
.g. B 329, 12AU7 , ECC82 ), two tr
ansi s
to r
s, two or
p
refe
rably fou r diodes ( for examp le in th
e r ing modu lator
c
i
rcuit of F ig. 4.16), o r as i
ngle b eam -deflect
ion v alve
(
7360)
. A ll t
hese technique sc an b efound inr ecentr ece
ivers
f
or amateur orc omme rcial commun ications. T he low-noise
b
alanced beam -deflect
ion m ixer (equivalen
t n oise res
istance
(
e
.n.r
.) a bout 1 500 o hm s) iss hown i n Fig. 4.17 (a); an
u
nbalanced v ers
ion h as a l
so b een used.

T
he H
.F. Osc
illa
tor
HF OSC
ILLATOR T
he frequ
ency t
o wh
ich a s
upe
rhet r
e
ceiver r
e
sponds i
s
F
ig. 4
.14
. A doub
le t r
iode va
lve used as alo w noise mixer with the g
overned no
t by t
he s
igna
l f
r
equency c
ircu
its b
ut b
y the
s
econd sect
ion f
unctioning a
s acathode fo
llo wer to p
rovide i
solat
ion
bet ween t
he mixer and hi
. osci
llator.

To i mprove o sc i
llator s tabil
ity b o
th i nc omb ined m ixer/ RF I
NPUT IF OUTPUT
o
sc
illa to r valve s a nd w here a s epara te oscillator v alve is Z = 500 Z SO O
u
sed, t he d.c. p otentials a pplied tot he g r
id a nd s creen grid
o
ft hem ixers hou ld rema in r easonably c on s
tan t. I ti sin
ad -
v
i
sab le i n ah igh p erformance r e
ceiver toa pply a .
g.c. tot he CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
m
ixe r s tage
. A lso f or t his reason, a nd b ecau se t he sc
reen
Z= 60
11 0
-3V
v
ol
tage o f am ixe r isf a
ir
ly c rit
ical for o pt
imum c onve rs
ion ,
F
ig. 4
.16
. Ba lanced r ing modu lator u sing f our c rystal diodes. Th is
t
hes creen s upply f ort hem ixers hould b ed er
ived e itherf rom t
ype of mixer is less susceptible t o cross- modu lation and to v ar
ious
f
or ms of spurious r esponses . The p articu lar circuit s ho wn i s a
are
lative ly low i mpedance s ources uch a s ap otentiald iv
ide r w
ideband v .h.f
, first mixer b ut i t can b e a dapted t o h.f
. operat ion.
n
etwo rk n o
t c onta ining h igh v a
lue resistors or f rom ar egu- P
rovided an r.f
. stage w ith a g
ain ofa bout 20db p recedes it
, this for m
o
f mixer can b e used i n h
igh p erfor mance r eceivers. Hot c arrier
l
a
ted s upply wi th n o high v alue ser
ies f eed res
i stors. d
iodes (Schottky d iodes) can g ive high p erfor mance e ven w ithout
The c athode , s creen a nd a node b y-pa ss capac i
to rs oft he r
.
f. amp lification .

4
.
9
RSGB —RADI O CO M MUNICATI ON HAN DB O OK

HT+ HF
1
70V OSC
ILLATOR

HF
OSCILLATOR

Ip
F 1
0
1
20K

S
IGNAL
7
360

2
2K

0
.002 3
90f
1 00
1
0
. 002
(
a
) (
b
)
F
ig.4
.
17(a) Unbalanced v
ers
ion o fthe 7
360 bea m d
eflect
ion mixer. b) A balanced for m o
f the 7360 bea m d
eflect
ion mixer des
igned for v
ery
l
ow c
ross modulat
ion character
istics
. Osci
llator v o
ltage at t
he de
flect
ion plates i
s1 -
10 volts r
.m.s. Ti a
nd T 2 a
nd t
he general l
ayout s
hould
be a
rranged to mainta
in balance.

s
e
t ting o ft hel oca lo scil
la to r. Any f requency v ariation so ft he Bas
ica lly,a ny oft hes tanda rd f orm so fo sci
lla tora res uitab le
o
scilla to r are r eflected i na ppa ren t v ar ia t
ion o f ther ece ived p
rov ided t hatt heh armon ic o utpu ti slow. T he mo stc om mon
s
igna l. T he o vera ll stab ility o f as ing le -conve rsion r eceive r a
rrangemen t, shown i n Fig. 4 .18, i st he t uned g rid c ircu it
i
sd ete rmined l argely b y t he d e s
ign o ft he h .f
. ( local) o s cil- w
ith a node p os
itive f eedback w ind ing. T he C olpitt
so sc il
la to r
l
a
to r: t hat o f ad oub le-conve rsion s e
t b y t hat o fb oth l o cal s
hown i nFig.4 .
13 i sa l
so p opu la ra st hec oi
lh aso nly as ing le
o
sc illato rs, b ut a s o scilla tor s tability i s mo re d iff
icu lt t o w
ind ing .
o
b tain w ith i ncrea sing f requency , t he f i
rst l ocal o scilla to r The s tabili
ty r equ iremen ts o fa n h .
f. oscillatora r e a k
in t o
(
wh ich n orma lly f unc t
ions o n ah i ghe r f r
equency t han t he t
hose f o
r av ar
iab le f requency o sci
llato r (s
ee C hapte r 6)b ut
s
econd l ocalo sc il
la to r)w illu sually b et h ed e term ining f a cto r
. w
ith t h e added d isadvan tage t ha t the oscil
la tor o pera tes o n
The p r
ime r equiremen t s t herefore o fa n h .
f. oscillato r a re i
t
s f undamen tal f requency t o a bove 3 0 Mc /s
. W ith t he
f
reedom f rom f requency c hange s r esul ting f rom me chan ica l g
row ing i n
terest i ns ingle s ideband r ecep t
ion , ith as b ecom e
v
ib rat ion o rt empe ra ture c hange s
,s ufi cien tb ut n ot exce s sive e
ven mo re i mpor tan tt oe nsu re av ery h igh o rder ofo sci l
la to r
f
undamen talo utpu tf o r max imum c onve rsion e ff
iciency , l ow s
tability. One r esult i s ag row ing t e
ndency t o use ac rys tal-
h
a rmon ic o utpu tt om inim ize s puriou sr esponse s( par t
icu la rly c
ontro lled h.f.osc il
la tor, at ypicalc ircuiti sshown i nFig. 4 . 19.
i
mpo rtan t i n d oub le- a nd t r
iple-conve rsion r eceive rs)
, a nd Whe re t he t unab le h .f
. o scillato r isr etained , many o f t he
n
ou ndue v aria tion o fo utpu tv oltage t hroughou tt he t un ing t
echn ique s of th e v .f
.o. h ave b een i n
troduced ; for examp le
r
ange . F or o ptimum a nd c onstan t c onve rs
ion g ain, t he t
he i nc
lu sion o fa n i so
lating s t
age b e
twe en t heoscillato ra nd
o
sci l
la tor i njec tion v oltage t o t he m ixe r i sf ai
rly c r
i tica l t
he m ixe r; see Fig. 4 .20.
(
usua lly i nt he r egion o f9 -10 v olts). Mo sto sc
illator sv a
ry i nf r
equency w ith ac hange i na pp lied
Fig. 1 .64 i nC hap ter 1s how s at ypica l c omb ined m ixe r/ v
oltage . S ince s ome v ariation i nh.t. isl i
kely w hen t he g ain
o
sci l
la to rf requency c hange ru sing at riode h exode o r tr
iode o
f ar eceiveri sc hanged , iti sh ighly d es
irab le tos tabilize t he
h
ep tode v a
lve . Mode rn mu ltiple v alve s d esigned f or o
scil
la tor h .t
. supp ly b y mean s of av oltage r egulato r t ube .
f
requency c onve rsion a re c apab le o fg ood p erformance , b ut S
ome f actory-built r eceivers a lso stabilize t he heate rc ur ren t
as epa rate h .f
. o scillator i sstill pre fe rred f or h igh p er fo r- b
y m eans o f ab arretter.
mance r eceive r s. Apar t f r om t h
e a dvan tage s already g i ven ,
t
his p erm its t h e u se o f av alve h av ing h igh mu tua l c onduc -
t
ance s o t h
a t t he amoun t o fp os
itive f e ed-back r equ ired f or
o
s cillation i s l e
ss, r esulting i n a mo re c ons tant o utpu t HT +
150V
S
TABILIZED
v
ol tage a nd b ette rs t
ab ili
ty . T he u se o f as epara te v a
lve a lso
a
l
low s t he i n
jec t
ion c oup ling t ot he m ixe r t o be mo re a ccu -
r
ate ly c on tro l
led a nd r educ es i n
te rac tion e fects b etwe en
s
igna l frequency a nd o scilla tort uned c i
rcu it s
. W ith d oub le .
c
onver sion r e ceive rs, t he s econd l oca l o scil
la to r
, w hen
ope ra t
ing o n af i
xed f requency , iso ften c omb ined w ith t he
mixe r
.
H
igh -s
lope r .
f
. p entode s, s ome time s t r
iode c onnec ted , a re
c
ommon ly u sed ( e
.g .
, EF94 /6AU6 )
. T o r educe s puriou s r e
-
s
pon sest he h armon ic c on ten t oft h eo scillato ro utpu ts hou ld 7
F
ig. 4
.18
. Typical h
.f
. osc
illator using a t
r
iode v a
lve. Alternat
ive ly
b
e k ep t a s low a s p ossible , a nd f or t hi s r eason ah igh -slope apentode, s
uch as t
he 6A U6 or 6
8A6 , may b
e used. The va
lue oft he
powe r tr
iode v alve , s uch a s t he EC90 /6C4 , i so f
ten u sed . c
oupling capac
itor C wil
l d epend u pon t
he type of i
njection used.

4
.
10
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
g
ene ral
ly f it
ted o n g ang c apac i
to rs c an g ive t rouble, a nd
1
0/< HT+
s
ome d esigne rs p refe r to u se a s epa rate v ariable c apac i
to r
mechan ica l
ly l inked t ot heg ang c apac itoru sed fort h
em ixe r
SOpF f
,3f a
nd r .f
. t uned c ircuits. F or max imum s t
ab i
lity, ar eal
ly w ell-
OUTPUT
made c apac i
to r, w ith s tout, w el
l-spaced v ane s, a nd d ouble
b
earing s s hou ld b e s e
lected . A lte rna t
ive ly, t he v ariable
0
-01
t
uning c apac ito rc an b ee l
im ina ted b ya dop ting p ermeab ili
ty
1
2AT7 t
uning i nw hich ac ore i s moved i na nd o ut o ft he coil (see
ECC8
1
l
a
te r)
.
Hum i n t he o scillato r s tage r esul ts i n t he a ppea rance
1
0K
o
fh um modu la tion , n ot
iceab le only w hen as ta
tion i st uned
i
n
. T or edu ce h um i nt heo sc i
llator s tage ,i tisr e
commended
t
hat t he c athode s hou ld b e c onnec ted d irectly t o the earth
l
i
ne a nd a b ypa s s c apacitor s hould a lway s b e c onnec ted
F
ig. 4.
19. Crysta l osci
llator circuit suitable for providing output
d
irectly a cro ss t h e hea terp in s on t hev alve s ocket.
on t
he s er
ies r esonant funda mental frequency o f t
he crysta
l or on A c ircu i
t w hich i sfinding i ncrea sing f avou r b oth a s a
the third o vertone f requency ( approx i mately three ti mes the
f
unda menta l frequency ) depending on t he frequency of the tuned
t
unab le h .
f. o scillato r a nd a s af ixed o r v a
riable s econd
c
ircuit
. c
onve rsion o scilla to r
, i sthec athode -coup led o sci
lla toru sing
ad ouble -triode v alve : see F ig. 4.21. T his c i
rcuit o fers th e
a
dvan tage o f at wo-te rmina lc oi
l, isc apab le o fg ood s tabil
ity
O
scil
la to r dr
ift i scau sed p rimarily b y the e fects ofr is
ing a
nd h asl ow h armon ic o utput.T he circu iti salso mo stt o
le ran t
t
emp eratu re o n t he v alve c apacitance s, t he coils a nd t h
e
t
uning c apacito r
. D rif t c an t hus b e m inim ized b y s uch
measuresa s:
(a
) Adequa te v entila tion t ok eep o perating t empe ratures 1. 0
.01pF 2
2 K
fl
1
0pF
l
ow .
(
b) S wamp ing o f s mall c apacitance c hange s by al a
rge M
IXER 6S
L7GT
f
ixed c apac itance a cro ss t
h e tun ing c apacitor( part o
f I
NJECT
ION E
TC
G
RID
t
hi ss wamp ing c apac itance c an u sefully take t hef orm
o
f ac apac itor h aving a h igh n ega t
ive -
tempe rature
c
o -eff
icient).
(
c) Pl acing o fh eats en s
itive componen tsa sf a
ra sp oss
ible
f
rom t he ma in s ou rces ofh ea t
.
(
d) C a reful c hoice o f t uning c apac ito r a nd o f th e coi
l
f
orme rs and w ind ing t echnique .
(
e) Rig id, vibra t
ion -r e s
istan t con stru c
tion .
Conside rable i mp rovemen t can b e o btained b y u sing
c
omponen ts w hich r eact i no pposite d i
rection s to heat, thus F
ig. 4
.21. The so-ca
ll,c1 cathode
-coup
led osc
illator is su
itab
le f
o
e
ither f
irst o
r second c
onvers
ion osc
illators
.
p
roviding ad egree o fa utoma tic compen sation .
The v ane s o f t he o s ci
llato r tun ing c apacito r mu st be
r
ig
id e nough t oe l
im ina te t he vibration e fects ( microphony )
wh
ich c an o therw ise o ccur w hen this c omponen t isn ear the o
fh igh C o pe ration, au se ful fea
tu re w he re as table orw ide -
l
oudspeake r. App reciab le r .
f. c urren t f lows t hrough t he r
ange o sci
lla tor i sr equired . Unde r c e rtain c ond itions t he
o
sc
illatort uning c apaci to ra nd ap oor r otor c ontact ofv ary- c
i
rcu i
t may "s qu egg," p art
icula r
ly i f t he g r
id c oup ling
i
ng res
istance w il
l c aus e n oise and t witter (s
ligh t discontin- c
apacitor i si n
crea sed much b eyond t h e s ugge sted 1 0 p F.
u
i
ties a nd j ump s i n t un ing )
. T he t ype o f w iper c ontacts Th
isc an beo vercome b yf i
t
ting as malln on -induc tive (carbon )
r
es
istor ofb etween 1 0 a nd 5 0 ohm s i mm ediately a tth e g r
id
p
in oft hef i
rst tr
iode s ec
tion . If amu lti-band o scillator w ith
s
witched g r
id c ircuit isr equ i
red, iti sa dv isab le tos et u p th e
1
50 v c
i
rcuitf i
rstw ith a3 -30 p Ft r
imme ri np l
ac eo ft hef i
xed 1 0p F
R
EGULATED
c
apacitor a nd t o expe r
imen t with d ife ren t sett
ing s a nd /o r
d
iferent s eries g r
id r esis
to rs o n t he h ighe s
t a nd l owe st
f
r
equ encies r equired, r eplacing t h e t r
imme r w ith a f ixed
c
apacitorw hen as ui
tab le value hasb een f ound — iti su n
like ly
t
hatt h
isw il
lp rove c rit
ical. T he h.t
. b ypa ssc apacitor s hou ld
b
e connec ted d irectly b etween t he a node o f the fi
rst t r
iode
s
ec
tion a nd t hee arthing p oin to fth eo scilla tort oe nsure l ow
h
armon ic o utpu t. F or h armon ic s upp r ess
ion , t he s e r
ie s
i
nductance o ft he b ypass c apacitor i s mo re i mpor tant t han
i
t
s actual value a nd itmay p rove w orth t rying s everal t ype s
,
. 0
.002k
if
— t
o achieve o pt
imum h armon ic s upp re ssion , o r t o u se a
S
ECTION O
F 3G
ANG C
APAC
ITOR
c
omb ination o fd iferent type s.
F
ig. 4
.20
. A c athode fol
lower iso
lating stage connected bet ween a
v
ariable f
requency osc
illator a
nd the mixer (as u
sed in t
he receiver
The rig
id s t
ability requ i
remen ts o fs .
s.b . a nd s ome f orms
descr
ibed on page 4
.62)
. o
ft e
legraphy h ave l ed comme rc
iald e s
igne rs towards t he u s e

4
.
11
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
o
f f r
equency s yn the s
is techn ique s fo r t he h .f. osci
llato r o f c
onduc tance ( gm)o ft hevalve,t he Qa nd t heL /C r atio o ft he
r
eceive rs. F requency s yn the sis i s th e n ame g iven t o t he r
esonan tc i
rcuits i nt he i.
f
. transform ersa nd t he c oupling ( k)
f
orma t ion b y mean s of m ixing ( hete rodyn ing), f r
equency b
etween t he t ran sforme r w ind ing s. F or as pe c
ified f r
e-
d
ivision a nd mu ltiplication o f ar equ ired f r
equency f rom a q
u ency , the gain w i
ll be max imum w ith t he h ighe st p os s
ib le
s
ingle c rystal o scilla tor or f r om a r e
la tively s mall b ank o f L
/C r a
tio b ut i ft h
is i si ncreased t oo much , i tb ecome s
c
rystal s. T he f ull s ynthesi s o f f r
equ enc ies a t i n
terva ls o f i
ncrea singly difi cultt o maintain g ood s t ability a nd l ong t erm
1k c/s o r le
ss t h roughou t t he h .f
. r ange w ith t he nece ssary a
ccu racy o falignmen t;t h
is may a lso b ea fec ted b yv aria tion s
p
u ri
ty o fo utpu t i s ac omp lex a nd c o stly p roce ss. Howeve r o
f t he i nput r esi s
tance o f the f ol
low ing s tage w ith a .g.c.
s
ome f ac
to ry r eceivers ( HR0500 , PR 155 ) h ave u sed a
ction .
s
imp lified forms . Gain w i
ll b e max imum w hen t he p roduc t kQ i se qua l t o
I
n t he HR0500 a 1 Mc /s o scilla tor w ith a ssoc iated o
ne . I .F. trans fo rme rs des
igned f o r th
i s c ond i
tion a re s aid
s
pectrum g ene ra tor i su sed t o p rovide 1 Mc /s ma rke rs t o t
o b e c ri
tically c oupled. When t h e c oup ling i si ncrea sed
which a f r
ee r unn ing o sci
lla to r iss tab ilized b y mean s o f a b
eyond t h
is p oin t (over-coup led) t he max imum g a
in o ccur s
p
has e-lock l oop. I n the PR 155 , a n i nterpo la t
ion o scillato r a
t t wo f requenc ies e qual
ly s paced a bou t t he r esonan t f r
e-
w
ith a 1 -2 Mc /st un ing span i sa l
so i ncorpo rated s o that t he quency a nd t here i s as l
igh t r edu ct
ion i n g ain a t e xact
p
hase -locked o scillator p rov ides o utpu t t hroughou t t he r
esonance : thisc ondition may b eu sed i nb roadca str eceive rs
r
equ ired r ange . Ano therr e
la ted, t hough n ot s t
rict
ly s ynthe - t
oi ncrease the b andw idth forg ood q uality r eception. I ft he
s
i
s,t echnique u sed i nthe RA 17, RA2 17 r eceive rsi sbased o n c
oup ling f acto r i sl owered ( unde r-coup led ), t he s tage g ain
t
he Wad ley t r
iple -m ix system t oe l
im ina te a utoma tically t he f
a
ll sb utther e
sponse c urve i ssha rp ened ( se eC hap ter 1p age
efects o fa ny d rift o ft he l ocal oscilla to r so t hat the o verall 1
.20 ) a nd t h
is may b e useful i n c ommun ica tion r ece ive rs
.
s
tability i s tha t o f a s table c rysta l-con tro l
led r e
f erenc e I
nt hep asts ome d esigns used me chan ica lm ethods o fv ary ing
o
scillato r. t
hec oup l
ing b ya c
tua l
ly mov ing t hec oils,b u tt h
isi sd if icu l
t
Home -con stru ction o f r eceiver s u sing a ny o f t hese t
o a rrange . A lte rnative a nd mo re p rac tica l m ethod s o f
t
echn ique s, t hough f eas
ible , mu st b e r ega rded a s ap ro ject v
ary ing s e
lectivi ty are discussed l a
te r int his s e
ction.
s
uitab le o nly f o r t hose w ith v ery c on s
ide rab le e xperienc e.
Facto ry receive rso ft h
isc lassi n
evitab ly c os
ts everalh undreds
o
fp ounds .
C
hoice o
f I
.
F.
I
.
F. AMPL
IFICAT
I ON Cho ice o f i n
te rmed iate f requency i s a mo s t i mpo rtan t
The i.f
. amp l
ifi eri stheh earto f asup erhetr ece
iver,f ori ti
s c
on side ration f or t he d esigne r
. T he l owe r t he f r
equency t he
h
ere t ha
t t he ma in v oltage gain o ccurs (usually oft heorde r e
asie r i tw i
ll b e t o o bta in h i gh g ain a nd g ood s e
lec tivity.
o
f8 0db ) and t he o verall se
lectivity r
espon se i sshaped. Conve r se
ly , t he h ighe r t hef r equ ency , t he g rea ter w ill b e the
F
ig . 4.
22 s how s at ypical pentode i .
f
. amp lifierstage, very d
if erence b etween t he f r
equenc ie s o ft h es igna l a nd t he h .f
.
s
imilar b a s
ically t o t hose f ound i n n orma l b roadca st o
scilla to r
, f rom w h
ich i tfol
low s t hat th e gr ea te r w il
l b e the
r
ece
ive rs. I .F. t r
an sforme rs c omp r
ising p ai
r s of mu tually- p
ro tec tion a fo rded a gains t i mage ( second c hanne l) i nte r
-
c
oup led t uned c ircuits a r
e u sed t o couple th e va
lve t o the f
erence a nd t h e "p ulling " o f t he h .f
. o sc illa tor b y s trong
p
reced ing a nd s ucceed ing stages. T o p ermit the gain oft he s
igna ls. S ince t hese t wo b asic c ons idera tions a re d i rectly o p
-
s
tage t ob e contro lled b y an a u
toma tic g a
in c ontrol sy
stem , p
o sed , t hei .
f
. o f as ingle -conve r s
ion s upe rhe t mus t t here fore
t
he v alve u sually h as v ariable-mu c ha racter
i st
ics. T ypical a
lway s b e a ma tter o f c omp rom i se. I n p rac tice , i tw i
ll b e
t
ypes a re EF85 /6BY7 , EF93 /6BA6 , 6 BZ6, EF 183/6EH7 , or g
ove rned b ys uch c ons ide ration sa st hen umbe ro ft uned s ignal
t
he o lder octal
-ba sed t ypes 6 K7, 6SG7 , 6SK7 a nd EF39 . f
requency c ircu its b e fo re t he m ixe r, t he d eg ree o fs e
lec tivity
The g a
in o btained i na ni.
f.s tage d
ep ends u pon the mu tual r
equ i red , t he n umbe r o f i.f
. s tage s
, t h e a b sence o f s trong
s
igna ls o n o r a bou t t h e i .
f
., a nd t h e ava i
lab ility o fs ui
tab le
i
.
f. t ran sforme rs. B y i nterna tiona l u sage , f requenc ie s f o
r
s
ing le-conve rsion r e ceive rs a r e u sually w ith in t he b and
4
55 -470 k c
/ so r a round 1 .6 Mc /s.
I
n ar eceive r h aving n o (o r o n
ly o ne ) tuned r .
f. s tage, a n
i
.
f.o f1 .6 Mc /s o ra bove i srequ ired t or edu ce i mage r espon se
t
o as atisfacto ry f igu re a t 3 0 Mc / s
. W ith a n i .
f
. o f a bou t
460 k c/ s,t hree t uned c ircu i
ts( two r .
f.s tages )a re n ece ssa ry t o
r
e du ce t h e i mage t o n eglig ib le p ropor t
ion s a bove a bou t
15 Mc / s.
Two s tage so f4 60 k c/ s amp lifica tion ( s
ix t uned c ircui ts)c an
p
rov ide a f a
ir d eg ree o f selec tivi ty w ithou t a ny a dditiona l
mea su res s uch a s t ho se d esc ribed l a
te r; t ypica l b andw id th s
a
r e 6k c/sn ose , 20-30 k c/ss ki rt
. T his w ou ld b ep a ssab le f or
a
.m . t e
lephony , t hough o n ly f air f or c .w . r ecep tion , a nd
adjacen t c hanne l i nte rferenc e w ou ld a lmo st c erta inly b e a
ma jo r p rob lem o n c rowded b ands .
With a n i .
f
. o f 1.6 Mc / s
, s ele ctivity o ft h e o rde r n ec essary
for mode rn ama teu r r equ i rem en ts w ould b e e xt reme ly
difi cult t oa chieve w ithou t t h e u se o fc rysta l f i
lter s
, t hough
F
ig. 4
.22
. Modern amp
lif
ier us
ing high s
lope f
ra me
-gr
id v
ariab
le-
f
or s imp le s e
t s s e
lec tivi ty c an b e c onside rab ly i mp roved b y
mu pentode
. using r e
gene ration . Al ow i .f
. o f8 5-
100 k c/ s c an g ive w i
th
4
.
12
 H
.F. RECEIVERS

f
our t
uned c
ircui
ts (two i.
f. t
r
ansfo
rmers
) ap eaked no
se a
utoma tical
ly el
im inated and stabil
ity determ ined b y aIMc /s
b
andwidth o
f the order of 3kc/
s and a s
k
irt bandw
idth c
rystal o
scil
lator. A l
though as implif
ied f orm o ft h
is s y
stem
b
et
ter t
han 1
5k c/s a
t — 60db
. h
a sbeen used ins ome h ome-bu i
lts ets
,t her equiremen to fthe
b
andpa ss f i
rs
t i .
f
. f i
lter (40 Mc /s ±0 .65 Mc /s) p resents
d
iff
icult
ies. A f ixed f i
rs
t i .
f
. o f 3 7
.3 Mc /s i su sed i n the
D
oub
le-convers
ion R
ece
iver
PR155, al
low ing as e
le c
tive fi
lter tob e i n
serted i mmed iately
The c onfl
ic ting r equ ir emen to f al ow i .f
.f org ood s e
lect
iv ity a
ftert hefi
rst mixer.
a
nd a h igh i .
f. f or g ood i mage p rotec t
ion h as l ed to t he There i s one p ar
ticularly i nteres
ting f orm o f d ouble-
d
eve lopmen to fr eceive rsh aving t wo o re ven t hree c hange so f c
onve rs
ion technique u s
ed in many o fthe mo re elabora te se
ts
f
requ ency . I n t he d oub le -conve rsion s e
t, t he i ncom ing a
nd n ow fi
nding i n
creased favou rw ith expe r
ienc ed a mateu r
s.
s
igna ls a re f i
rst c onve rted t o af airly h igh i n
termed ia te I
n t h
is sys
tem t h e f
requency o f the fi
rst l oca
l o sci
llato r is
f
requency , o f t he o rde r o f 1 .
6-5 Mc /s, mak ing p ossible a f
i
xed f or each b and, usually b y ac ry
sta l
, a nd t he o utput
r
educ tion o f i mage r espons e t o n egl
igib le p ropo r
tions w ith f
rom t he fi
rst fr
equency c hang e r represents ab and o f fr
e-
only o ne r .
f. s tage, a nd s o
a
vo iding t h e c omp l
ica tion s
w
ith t he g anged t un ing o f
mo re t han t hree c i
rcui ts. T hen 8
5 Ads
:620kcis
i
n t u rn t hese i f
. s igna ls a r e
c
hanged , usua lly w ith t he a i d R
F M
IXER FR
EQU EN CY I
F D
E
T
OUTPUT
o
f af i
xed t uned l ocal o scilla - A
MPLIF IER C
HANG ER AM
PLIFIER A-GC
- iA
l F
t
or, t o al owe r i .
f
. w he re i ti s EF 85 ECFB2 ECH8 I EF93 EBC 90 EL9 0
6U8 I 6A.
113 6BA6 6AT6 6AQ5
possib le t o o bta in a h igh d e-
g
r ee o fs e
lectiv ity.T hiss econd
i
.
f. i so f
ten w ithin t he r ange C
RYS TAL HF F0 AN L:
C
A
LIB RATO R O
SC
ILLA TOR M
ETER
5
0- 100 k c
/s, b ut may b ei nt he
EF9 1 EF 91 E
F93 EB9 I
s
tanda rd i .
f
. r ange o f4 55 -470 6A M6 6A M6 6BA6 6AL5
k
c/ s
. I ti sa t t he second i f.
Fig. 4
.2. Block d iagra m o f a doub le c onvers ion c o m mun ications r ece iver.
t
ha t t h e ma in amp lifica tion i s
a
ch ieved a nd t he ma in s hap -
i
ng o f t he r esponse c u rve
occu rs. Ab lock d iag ram o fa lrep resen tative a rrang emen t i s q uenc ie s w hich r ema in s c onstan t
. T he f i
r
st i .
f
. s ection i s
s
hown i nF ig . 4 .23. T hu s ad oub le c onve rs
ion r eceiver c an t
hen made t unab le ove r ad ef
inite b and,f ore xamp le f rom 3 .
5
of er b oth g ood i mage p rotec tion a nd h i gh s elect
iv i
ty, b ut t
o 4Mc /s
,b e
ing c onve rted t o al owe ri nte rmed ia te frequency
a
tt he c ost o fa dded c omp lex ity i nd esign a nd c onstru ct
ion . b
y m ean s o f a v ar
iab le l ocal o scillator, s ee F ig. 4 .24
.
Grea t c are i sn ecessary t o a void t he r e
cep tion o f spuriou s The e ntire r ece ive r t hus c an b e c onside red a s as eries of
s
igna ls r e
sulting f rom h armon ic so fo ne o r mo re o ft hel oca l c
onve r
te rs, one f ore ach b and , a head o f as ing le w ave -range
o
s ci
lla to rs; t he re isa lso t h e r i
sk t hat t he f u
ll b enefits oft h e s
upe rhe t r e
ce ive r w hich, b ecau se o f th e a bsence o f w ave-
h
i gh s electivity may b e l o
s t o wing t o c ro ss modu lation c
hange s witch ing a nd w ith t hel ocalo scil
la tora lways w orking
r
esu l
ting f rom t he o ve rload ing o f one o f t h e e ar
ly s tage s, o
n ar e
latively l ow f i
xed h .f
. range , c an b e made e xtreme ly
s
ince s e
lec t
iv ity i snota chieved u n
tilf airly l a
te i nther eceive r, s
table a nd r etain a ccu rate c al
ib ra t
ion o ver al ong p eriod. A
unless as econd c rysta l f i
l
te r ( though n ot n ece ssarily w ith v
ery w ide ama teu rb and ,s uch a s2 8-29.7 Mc /s,w ould b espli
t
s
uch r igorou s r equirem en ts) i si nserted a fter t he fi
rst m ixe r. i
nto t wo o r mo re s ection s. T h
is p rinc iple i sa l
so w ide ly used
The u se o f a mu ch h i ghe r f i
rst i .
f
. —above 3 0 Mc /s —ha s f
or h .f. o r v .h.f. r ecep t
ion i n f ront o f al owe r frequency
s
ome a ttraction s; includ ing r educ tion o fi mage r espon se a nd r
eceive r: the c onve rte r isf i
xed t uned , w ith th e a c
tua l tuning
a
l
low ing c on tinuou s c ove rage o f a ll f r
equenc ie s u p to 3 0 done o n the ma in r eceive r, see F ig. 4 .25.
Mc /s. T his a pp roach h as b een u sed i n some c omm ercia l In t he c onven tiona l f orm o f d oub le c onve rsion r ece
iver
d
e sign s( e
.g. R acal F tA 17 , RA2 17, P l
e ssey PR 155 ). w
ith f i
xed f i
r st a nd s econd i nte rmed iate f r
equenc ies, t h
e
The RA 17 i ntroduced t h e ingen iou s Wad ley t r
iple-m ix s
econd o sci
lla to r i sn orma lly f ixed t uned , b ut an e fect
ive
t
un ing p rincip le a l
low ing t h ed rifto ft hel o calo scil
la tort ob e f
orm o f fi
ne b andsp read t uning i sp ossible b y mak ing t h
e

1
4-14
.5 M C
/A 3
.5-4. 0
Mc/s

DET
RF I
F I
F AF OUTPUT
AG.0

TUNE OR
PRE-SET

V
AR BE O
O
SC
1
7
.5 Mc/s 3
.970-4
.470 Mcis

F
ig. 4
.24
. Out
line o
f d
oub
le-convers
ion r
ece
iver w
ith c
rysta
l-contro
lled h
.
f. o
sci
llator a
nd v
ariab
le f
i
rst i
.
f
.

4
.13
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

V t
uned circuit sc an b ei ncorpo rated i nthei nte
r -valvec oupling s
T
he s e
lect ivity w h
ich c an b e o btained i sg overned b oth by
t
he Q o f t he i f. t r
an sforme r a nd i t
s c oup ling f actor, a nd
F
IXED g
ood c omponen ts shou ld b e u sed. T uned c i
rcuits o f highe r
TU NE D
2
1M O
M
IXE R Qt han c an r e adily b e o btained i nthe c onven tional t ype o f
AMPLIFIER MAI N i
.
f. tr
an sforme r (even w hen w ound w ith L itz mu lti-stranded
IF 5-
5- RECEIVER w
ire) can b e o btained b y u sing moder n p o
t c ores o f high
5
55
.5 Me/s ' TUNING
5- 5
.5 Mci
tt
p
ermeab i
lity f e
r ri
te ma terials. T o prov ide s w
itched d egrees
o
f s e
lectivity , s ome r eceive rs i ncorpo rate i .
f
. t ransforme r
s
CRYSTAL
CONTROLLED h
aving a l ow c oup l
ing f acto r b ut with a s mall a dditional
OSCILLAT OR
1
6W s
p
rimary w ind ing t ightly c oup led t ot h
es econda ry a nd w hich
c
an b e s w
itched i nto circu it to b roaden t he r e
spons e curve.
F
ig. 4
.25
. Ho w a fixed tuned converter i
s o
ften used ahead of a Thi
s a nd t h e p ot c ore s ystem s are v e ry e f
ective f or l ow
c
o m municat
ions r
eceiver
. All t
uning isdone on t
he main rece
iver
. f
requency s econd i .
f
. stage s.
Whe re s elec tive i .
f
. f i
lte r
s a re i n
co rpo ra ted, i ti s mo s
t
i
mpo rtant t ha ts t
ray c oup ling sa nd s i
gna l p aths b etween t h
e
s
econd o sc i
lla tor v ariab le, bym ean so f ap ane lc ontro
l, o ver
s
tagesb ek ep tt o av ery l ow f igure,o rs igna ls will leak round
arange o fa bout 5k c /s:t heb andw idth o ft hef i
rst i.
f.s e
ction
t
he fi
lter(s) a nd i mpair s e
lec tivity. E ven a r e
latively s mal
l
i
su sual
ly mo re t han a dequa te t o p ermit t his f orm o f fine
l
eakage b ecome s o fc onsequence a t — 60 a nd — 80db l evels
.
t
uning w ithou t loss o fg ain.
Good l ayou t a nd e fective d ecoup l
ing o ft he anode , screen,
Careful a ttention mu st b e g iven t o t he s c
reen ing a nd
c
athode a nd h eate r circuits a r
e o f p ar t
icu lar i mpo rtance.
d
ecoup l
ing o f th e s econd o scil
la tor i fb irdies a nd o the r
Decoup l
ing c apac ito rs s hou ld b e c ho sen f or l ow s er
ies
s
purious r esponse s a re t o b e a voided. O ften t he s e
cond
i
nductance a nd w ith s hort c onnec ting l eads.
f
requency -change r ( ac omb ined m ixer-oscillato r such as t he
EK90/6BE6 i ss uitab le ) can b e t ota
lly e nclo sed i n am e
ta l
s
creening b ox a nd a l
ll eadse merging f rom t heb ox decoup led
t
o earth. T he s econd o sci
llato r mu st b e d esigned f or hi gh
s
tabi
lity a l
though , a s i tw i
ll n orma l
ly b e w orking o n a
moderate ly l ow f r
equency , this i susually n ot so d if
icult a
p
roblem a st hed e s
ign o fthe f i
rst h.f
. oscil
la to r
. S o t
hat t he
s
econd o scil
la tor d oe s n ot ope rate o n af r
equency c overed
i
nt he tun ing r ange o ft he receive r
, iti susua l f or th
is to b e
s
e
to nth el ow f r
equency s i
de o fth efi
rsti .
f
. I n mo re comp lex
r
ece
ive r
s,t hiso sci
lla to r may b ec rysta
lc on tro l
led : some t
ime s
t
wo c ry
s ta l
s a re p rov ided —one e ither side o ft h e fi
rs
t i.f
.—
t
op ermi t s i
de -band s e
lec t
ion.
Occasiona lly d esigne rs include a n amp l
ifie r stage at t he
f
i
rsti.
f. T his arrangemen t,h oweve r, t
ends t oi ncrease thes us-
c
eptibi
lity o ft he rece ive r toc ross modu lation a nd blocking .

I
.
F. S
elect
ivity
The deg reeo fs e
lectivity w hich c
an b
eachieved a t4 50 kc/s
o
ra bove, solely b y th e use o f
t
wo o r three d oub le-tuned i .
f
.
t
ransforme r
s o f c onven tiona l
d
esign, isn ot l i
kely t o p rove
s
uficient f or o ptimum r esu l
ts
o
nb oth c.w.a nd t e
lephony i n
t
he c rowded ama teur b and s
.
I
n s ome d e s
ign s, a h ighe r
d
egree o f selectivity h as b een
a
chieved b y i ncreasing t he
n
umbe ro ft uned i .f
.circu its to
e
ight or e ven t welve, each o f
h
igh Q c on struction a nd u n-
d
er-coupled . S ince the t rans-
f
e
r o f energy t ends to b e l ow
b
ecau se o
ft hel ow t r
an sforme r
c
oup l
ing f acto r
, mo re o vera l
l
v
alve amp lification mu st b e
a
vailable
, a nd t hree s t
age s of
i
f
. amp lifica t
ion may b e F
ig. 4
.26
. I .F
. i nter
-valve c ouplings
. (a) The c onvent
iona l double-tuned i f
, transfor mer
.
n
eeded . F ig. 4 .
26 i ndica tes (
b) Special triple tuned i.
f, transfor mers have been u sed in so me d esigns t
o p rovide a
u
seful i mprove ment i n sk
irt s e
lectiv
ity. (
c) Two c onventional i .
f
. transfor mers c an be
s
ome o f t he w ay s in w h
ich connected i
n t h
is way t o p
rov
ide four tuned c
ircu
its p er stage
.

4
.
14
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
p
aral lel r esonan t f requ ency , a nd a mode rately h igh i m-
p
edance t os igna ls o n othe r frequenc ies, t ending t od ecrease
a
st he f requency i ncrea ses d ue tot hep ara l
lel c apacitance.
Wh ile t he
re a re a n umbe r o f w ays i n w h
ich t h
is high Q
c
i
rcu i t c an b e i nco rpo rated i n
to a n i f. s t
age , ac ommon
method —p rov id ing av ar
iab le deg ree o fs electivity —is shown
i
nF ig.4 .28 . When t hes e
riesr esonan tf requency o fthec rystal
c
oinc ide s w i
th t he i ncom ing i .
f
. s igna ls, i tform s as harp ly
t
uned "a c
cep to r" c ircuit, p as sing t he s ignals w ith o nly
s
l
igh t i n
se rt
ion l os s ( lo
ss o f s treng th ) t o t he g r
id o f t he
s
ucceed ing s t
age . T he e xacts etting o ft hea ssoc iated parallel
VR
I 100C
) or r
esonan t c i
rcuit, a tw hich t hec r ystal w ill o fer a n ext
rem ely
s
oon 200C) h
igh r esi
s tance , i sg ove rned b y t he s ett
ing o f t he pha s
ing
c
ont ro lw hich b alance so utt hee fec to ft heh o
lde rc apacitance .
S
u ch a f i
lter c an p rov ide a n ose s electivity o f t he orde r of
F
ig. 4
.27
. Control
ling r
egeneration of an i
.
f
, amp l
ifier by v
arying the Ik c/ s b andw id th o r l e
ss, w hile t he s harp r ejection n o
tch
e
ff
iciency of t
he screen decoupl
ing . The fi
xed r es
istor in para
llel which c an b es hifted b yt hep hasing c ontro lt hrough t hep ass
w
ith the c
ontrol may have t
o be added ift
he regeneration control i
s
too coarse
. b
and c an b e o f t he o rde r o f 4 5db . F ig. 4 .29 s how s t he
improvemen t w hich c an b eo btained b ys witching i n afi
ltero f
t
hist ype i n ag ood c ommun ications r eceive r( as imple m ethod
n
eeded) a
nd p
art
ly b
ecau
se of t
he di
f
ficu
lty of ma
intaining o
fs w itch ing t h e f i
lter i sto a rrange t h e p hasing t r
i mme r to
a
ccura
te a
l
ignmenta
tal
lposi
tions o
fthere
generat
ion contro
l. s
hor t-c ircu i
t a t o ne e nd o f i t
s t rave l)
. I nspe c
tion o f t he

C
rysta
l F
i
lter
s
1
4
The s elec tivity o f at uned c i
rcu it i sg ove rned b y its fre- r I
q
uency a nd b yi t
s Q( rat
io o freactance t or esistance )
. T he re 1,
,, CRYSTAL
a
re p ractica l l imits t o the Q o btainab le i n c oi
ls a nd i .f
. I OUT
PHASING I
t
rans forme rs. I n 1929 , D r
. J. Rob in son, aB rit
ish s c
ien tist, CONTROL I I
20 1
0
i
n
troduced t he q uartz crystal re
sona to r in
to r adio receive rs. M
ID-TRAVEL ,
I CRYSTAL
The a dvan tage sofs uch ad evicef orc ommun ica t
ion r eceive rs I
t I
N
w
e re a pp recia ted b y J ame s Lamb o f t he Ame r
ican R adio ;
I I

V
Relay L eague a nd h e made p opular t he i .
f. crystalf il
te r I
40 1
00
f
or ama teu r o perato rs
.
Fort his a pplication aq uartz c
ry stal may b ec on s
ide red a s
%
ar e
sonan t c ircuit with a Q o ff rom 1 0,000 t o 100,000 c om - I %
1I' ‘
p
a red w ith a bou t3 00 for av e
ry hi gh grade c oila nd capac ito r I
'
%
t
uned c i
rcu it. F rom C hapter 1 ,i tw ill b e n o
ted t ha t t he 60

e
lectrical e qu ivalent o f ac r
y s
tal i sn ot as imple s e
rie s o r / 1 %
p
a rallel tuned c i
rcuit, b ut ac omb ina tion o ft he t wo: i th as / 1 ‘
/ \
(
a
) af i
xed s eries resonan t frequency ( A
) a nd ( b) ap arallel / \
80 1
0000
r
esonan t f r
equency ( j
„). T he f requency ( f
p) i sd e
term ined
1
2 6 3 0 3 6 9 1
2
p
ar t
ly b y t h e capac i
tance o f the crysta l holde r and b y any k
c/s OFF RESONANCE
a
dded p ara llel capac itance a nd c an b e varied o ver as mall PC ADJUSTED FOR REJECT
I ON OF I
NTE RFE RENCE
3kc/s FRO M DES
IRED S
IGNAL
r
ange .
The c ry stal o fers low i mpedance t o s i
gna ls a t it
s s er
ie s F
ig. 4 . A g
.29 raph s
ho w
ing the improve ment in se
lect
ivity which
c
an be obta
ined b
y the use o
f acrystal f
i
lter o
f t
he type sho wn i
n
r
esonan t f requency ; av ery high i mpedanc e t os ignal
s a ti t
s F
ig. 4
.28
.

r
espon se curve will show t hat the imp rovemen t i nt he s k
irt
HT+ CRYSTAL s
e
lec t
ivity isnots ospectacula rasa tt hen ose
,a nd e ven wi th a
PHAS
ING CONT ROL
we
ll-designed f i
l
ter m ay le
ave s ometh ing tob ed esired i nt he
p
resence o fs t
rong signals.
The d egree o f select
ivity p rovided b y as i
ng le c rystal
d
epends n ot only upon t he Qo ft hec rys
tal and t he i .
f
. b ut
a
lso u pon t he impedance o f the input a nd outpu t circu i
t s
.
The lowert hese impedance sa re the greaterw il
l be t he e fect
o
f the f i
l
ter, though t h
is w i
ll usually b e accompan ied b y a
r
i
s e ini n
sertion loss
. T o broaden t he se
lectiv
ity c urve a nd
SELECT
IVITY make t he Qo ft h
e f i
l
ter appea r le
ss, itiso nly nece ssary t o
CONTROL
r
a
ise t he input or output i mpedance s. In Fig.4 .
28 t he i nput
F
ig. 4 . V
.28 ariable selectiv
ity crystal f
i
lter. S electiv
ity isg reatest i
mp edance may b el owered b yd etuning th esecondary o ft he
when the impedance o f t
he tuned circuit i
sr educed b ybringing the
v
ariable r
esistor fu
lly into c
ircuit F or opti mu m results t
here must i
.
f
. t ransforme r. T he o u
tpu t i mpedance w i
ll depend u pon
b
e adequate s creening to p s
tray c oupling between t he input t
hes et
ting oft hev ar
iable r e
sis
to rw hich fo rm sthes elect
iv ity
a
nd output circuits which would per mit s
trong o f
f-resonance signals
t
o l
eak r
ound t
he f
i
lter
. c
ontrol. W ith m inimum r es
istance i n ci
rcuit, t he t uned
4
.
15
R
SG1
3 -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK

T
\
X
I

X
3 X
4

(
c
) d)

F
ig. 4
.30. Half
-latt
ice crysta
l filters sho w
ing t
he i
nnprovernent in t
he shape o
f the c urve wh
ich can be obtained when the crysta
ls are
c
orrectly b
alanced or when e xtra crystals a
re u
sed t
o reduce the 'hu mps
. Typ ical crysta
l f
requencies would be XI 4
64 8 k
c,s, X2 4
66 7
k
c s, X3 4
63 kc
js, X4 4
68 5 k
c's.

c
i
rcuit w i
ll o fer max imum i mpedanc e, w h
ich c an b e gradu - t
h e
ir s erie sr esonan tf requenc ie sd if e
rb ya n amoun ta pp rox i
-
a
l
ly l owe red b y b r
inging mo re r e
sistance i nto c i
rcu i
t. ma tely e qua l t ot he b andw id th r equired ; f or e xamp le a bou t
Maximum i mpedance c orresponds w ith m inimum s electivity. 3
00 c /
s a par t f or c .w., 3 -4 k c/ s apart f or a .m . telephony o r
Adisadvan tage o fthes ing le cr
y stalfil
te ristha tw hen u sed 2k c
/ s a pa rt f or s.s
.b .
, s e e Fig. 4 .30(6). T h
is f o rm o f f i
l
te r
,
i
n the p osi
tion o f max imum s e
lec t
ivity, i t may i nt
roduce d
eve loped i nt he' thirt
ie s, h as i nrecenty ea rsc ome i n
to w ide-
c
onside rable "r inging," rende r
ing i tdifi cult t
oc opy aw eak s
p read a mateur u s e. A lthough i thas amuch i mp roved s lope
c
.w. signal : this i sdue t o t he tendency o f ah igh Q c ircuit o
ve r t he s ing le c rystal f i
lte r, i ni t
s simp lest f orm t he re w il
l
t
o osci
lla te f or as hort p eriod a fter being s t
imu lated b y a s
t
ill b ec ertain f requenc ie s
,j u st o u
tside t he ma in p ass b and ,
s
i
gnal, p roduc ing ab ell
-like e cho o n thes ignal
. a
tw h ich t hea t
tenua tion i sr educed . Un le ss ab alanc ing t r
im -
S
ince t he m inimum n ose b andw idth o f as ing
le c rystal me ri sc onnec ted a crosst heh ighe rf r
equency c rysta lt h es ides
f
i
l
ter may b e a s low a s 100 -200 c /s
, iti sn ot possible t o r e
- o
f t he r esponse c urve t end t o b roaden o ut t owa rd s t he
c
e
ive a .m . signa ls through t he fi
lter u n
le ss it
s e f
iciency i s b
o ttom . A s t he c apac itance a cross t hec rystal i si n creased ,
d
egraded b y ah igh impedance o rb y "s tenode "t one c orrec- t
h e s ide s o f t he c urve s teepen , b u
t t h e s i
de l ob es t end t o
t
i
on ( s
ee p age 4 .56). Ift his i sd one, such af i
lter w il
l o f
ten b
ecome mo re p ronounc ed. C apac i
tance a c ross t he l owe r
p
rove mo st u se ful for t elephony r ecep t
ion t hrough b ad f
requency c ry stal b roadens t he r e
sponse a nd d eepen s t he
i
n
terference , t hough a ts ome c ost tot heq ual
ity o frep rodu c- t
rough i nt hec entre o ft he p assband .
t
i
on. E ven t he mo s
t simp le f orm o fcrysta l f
il
ter, c onsist
ing To e l
im ina te t h e "h ump s "i n the r espons e c u
rve a ddi-
o
f ac rystal i n ser
ies w i
th t he i .
f
. s ignal p ath, w ithou t t
iona l c r ystals may b e i ncluded i nt he f i
l
te r,t hese may b eu p
b
alancing o r p hasing, can b e ofu se. t
oa bou ts i
xi nn umbe r,F ig .4 .31. E xamp le so fb andpa s sf il
ter
r
espon se c ha rac teristicsa re shown i nFig .4 .30. A l terna tively,
a
dd itiona lf i
l
te rsections may b ei ncorpo rated i nt h ei .f
.s ec
tion
B
andpa
ss C
rysta
l F
i
lter
s i
nc ascade . An a dvan tage o fu s
ing s eve ra lca scaded f i
lte rsi s
t
ha tl e
ssc r
itica l b alanc ing a nd a d
ju s
tmen t ar e n eeded . P ro-
As a
lready n oted
, t
hesharply p
eaked r e
sponse curve o
fa v
ided t hatt he re isn ol eakage o fi .
f
.s igna ls around t h e fi
lter
s
i
ngle-crystalfi
lterisno
t i
dea
l,a nd ha
sb y modern st
andards due t os tr ayc apac itance so ro the rf orm so fu nwan ted c oup ling
ar e
lat
ively p oor shape f
actor: improved r e
sults can be (
an i mpo rtan tc ons idera tion w i th al
ls elect ive fil
ter s),e xtreme -
a
chieved w ith w hat i
stermed a h alf
-lat
tice or bandpass l
yg ood s hap ef acto rso ft heo rde ro f1 .
5c an b ea ch ieved w ith
f
i
l
te r
. B asical
ly, th
is c
omprises t
wo c r
ystals c
hosen so t
hat a
bou t t h ree c a scaded f il
te rs o n a bou t 4 60 k c/s. T h
i s s ystem

F
ig. 4
.31. Up t o a bout s ix c rysta ls
may b e u
sed i n as ingle h a
lf -
latt ice
f
i
lter. Here i s av ariab le s elect iv-
i
ty unit for 4 65 k c
/s u sing FT241
c
rystals. X1 4 61 .1 k c/s ( 49); X2
4
624 k c/s (SO); X3 4 68 5 k c/s ( 53);
X4 4704 k c/s ( 54); XS 4 644 k c/s
(
51); X6 4 66-7 k c/s (52). Nu mbers
i
n brackets r efer t o channe l nu m-
bers for FT24 1 c rystals. T I and
S
ELECT
IVITY 5 0
.011
/F L
/C s hould b e t uned t o mid- f
ilter
f
requency .

4
.
16
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS

ap
re
liminary f
i
lte
ratth
isp o
int
, with t
he more s
e
lec
tive f
i
l
ter
l
a
terintherece
iver(
butst
i
lla tth
ee ar
lie
st p
ract
icab
le s
tage
).

C
rysta
ls f
or B
andpa
ss F
i
lters
F
or b andpa ss f i
l
te r
s, mo st ama teu rs u se s urplu s ty pe
FT24 I c rystals. T hese a re i n t wo g roup s l abe
lled i n fre-
q
uency a nd w ith a c hanne l n umbe r. T he f undamen tal
f
requenc ies a re f rom 3 70 t o 540 k c/s. T he f i
r s
t g roup a re
marked i n frequenc ie s from 2 0 t o 2 7.9 Mc /s with c hanne l
numbe r s u p t o 7 9
. T he a c
tual c rysta l frequency m ay b e
f
ound b y d iv
id ing t he f r
equenc ie s ma rked o n the h older b y
5
4. A s t he channe ls a re spaced 0 .1 Mc /s a part, t he c rystal
F
ig. 4
.32
. A crystal may be used in conjunction with an otherwise s
epara t
ions a re 1 .85 k c
/s. T he s econd g roup o f F T24 1
a
periodic (
untuned) amplif
ier. I
n pract
ice Iampl
ifiers may be
c
ascaded. Typica
l valves would be the triode ECC85,6A Q8 o r the
c
ry s
tals a re ma rked f r
om 2 7 to 3 8.9 Mc /
s i n0 .I Mc /s step s
,
t
riode-pentode ECF80 /61
3L1
1. w
ith c hanne l n umbe rs f rom 2 70 t o 3 89; t h
e f undamen tal
f
requ ency c an b ef ound b yd iv
id ing t he ma rked f requency b y
7
2. T he s pac ing o f this g roup i sa bou t 1 .49 k c/ s
. FT24 I
i
sused i nther e
ceive rd esc r
ibed o n page 4 .
56. T he
re wil
l be c
ry s
tals o fs imilar c hanne l numbe rs a re li
ke ly t os how s ome
a
n i n
sert
ion l oss oft he o rder of6 db per sec
tion. s
l
igh t s pread o f fr
equenc ies. Shou ld t he p recise f r
equenc ies
To provide as ha rp v ariable r e
ject
ion n otch, i tisadvan- r
e quired n otb ea vailable, itisp ossib le t or a
i se the f requency
t
ageou s to inco rpo rate s ome f orm o f br
idged -T f i
l
ter or of ac rystal b y edge g r
ind ing a nd t o l ower i tby p lating .
Q multipl
ier( see l a
te r)ino rdert ob ea ble t
oe l
im inate st
eady AN /TRC -
I c rystals i nsimilar h olde rs tot he F T24 1 series
h
eterodyne i n
te rference . a
r e available i nf undamen tal f requenc ies f rom 7 29 t o 1 040
To reduce s uscep tibili
ty t oc ross-modu la
tion o r blocking
, kc/sa nd ma rked i nchanne l n umbe rsf rom 7 0t o9 .9.
c
rystal and othe rs elective f i
l
te r
ss hou ld bep laced asn ear a
s
p
ossible tothef ront -end o ft her e
ceiver.
Whe re th
ef i
rst fixed i .
f. istoo hi gh for acr
y s
talf i
l
tert obe H
igh F
requency C
rysta
l F
i
lters
c
omp letely efective,i tisn everthelessa dvantageou st oinc
lude As t he f requency i ncrea se s
, i tb ecome s mo re d ificult t o
o
btain e ntir ely s atisf actory c ha racte ri
stic s f rom h alf-
la ttice
c
rystal f i
l
te r s. Whe rea s e xtreme ly g ood r esults c an b e
a
chieved o n 4 50-470 k c/s, b andpa ss c rystal f i
lters f o
r i nte r-
media te f r
equenc ie s o f 1 .6 Mc /s a nd a bove may p rove l ess
e
fec t
ive w hen v iewed b y t he h ighe st mode rn s tandards ,
p
articu larly w hen u sing t her eadily a vailab le s urplu sc rysta ls.
S
ince m any o ft he p rob lem s a s
so c
ia ted w ith s upe rhe t de s
ign
would b es olved i fs ufficien t s e
le ct
iv ity c ould f a
irly easily b e
ob
ta ined w ith h igh i nte rmed ia te f r
equenc ies,t he d evelopmen t
o
fs u
i table b ut inexpen sive h .f
. c rystal f i
lters i s am atte r o f
c
once rn t o ama teu rs. E xce l
len t f actory -bu i
l t 9 Mc /
s f i
lte rs
d
eve loped f or s .
s.b . a pp l
ica tion s a re a vailab le a t r eason -
a
ble c os
t. F ilters a t v .h.f. h ave b een u sed i n comme rc ial
(
a) d
esigns .
One c urren t l ine o f d evelopm en t o f i n
te re s
t t o h ome -
1
2pF c
ons truc tor s i st heu se o f an umbe ro fcr ystals i np lace o fi .
f
.
t
rans forme r s i na n a pe r
iod ic (un tuned ) amp lifier. T h
i s t ype
o
f s elective amp lifie r i s p art
icu la rly s u
ited f or r eceive rs
i
ntended p r
imar i
ly f o r c .w. r ecep tion. A t ypical c i
rcu it o f
asing le fil
te r i ss hown i nF ig. 4 .32. I n p rac tice a t least t wo
f
il
ter s w ou ld b ec as caded .
Ef ect
ive h .f. cr y
s ta l f i
l
te rs u sing FT243 c rystals b etwe en
5.
5-6 .5 Mc /s h ave b e en b uilt s ucce ssfully b y an umbe r o f
ama teu rs. T ypica l d esign s are s hown i nF ig. 4 .33.
The p ossib ili
ty o fu sing b andpas s crystal f i
l
te r
s a t signa l
f
r
equenc ie sh a sb een s hown t oa l
low an umbe ro ftransm it te r
s
t
ob e o pe rated i nc lo se p rox im ity.

F
ig. 4
.33. Typical h.f
. c rystal f
i
lters u sing FT243 c rystals. Mechan
ica
l F
i
lter
s
(
a) Filter using f our c rysta
ls ( F1 F
1'; F 2 F
2 Fl -4 1
500 to
2
500 c s)
; CI, 2000 p F
; Cl , 47 pF; C3, 33 0 pF; C4, 31 0 pF. LI and L3
The d
eve
lopmen t o
f mechanical fi
l
ters during t
he p
ast t
en
to r
esonate a t fi
lter frequency w ith Cl . L 2 to resonate w ith about y
ears or s
o has prov
ided t he amateur des
igne r w
ith acon-
1
5 p F sett
ing o f Cl . R s hould b e 2 000 o h ms. ( b
) F i
lter u s
ing six
c
rystals and c apab le o f "n ose" p assbands o f 2.4 3 k c's and 60
v
enient method o f ob
taining —at intermediate fr
equenc
ies
db skirt bandw idth o f 67k c
is. The s ets of X1 a nd X2 c rysta
ls b
etween 60 and 600 kc/s —a bandpa ss c
haracter
ist
ic h
aving
s
hould b e separated b y 1•7 kcis in s eries resonant mode . RI, R2
a
nd R 3 a
re 560 t o 820 oh ms.
a
lmo s
t any de
sired bandwidth comb ined with afla
t t
op and
4
.
17
 RSGB —RADI O CO M MUNICATI ON HANDB O OK

more c
omp e
tit
ive with c
rys
tal f
i
l
ters. Fo
r s.
s
.b. a
ppl
ica
tions
COUPL
ING
ROD t
here i
ssome a dvantage i
nthe u
se of a
ssymmetr
ica
l f
il
ter
s,
w
ith t
he s
teepest s
lope on t
he "ca
rrie
r "si
de.

B
ridged
-T F
i
lters
B
IAS
ING Af ur
the rm ethod o fp rovid ing ar ejection n otch w hich can
MAGNET
b
eu sed fort hee l
im ina tion o fs teady h e
te rodyne i n
te rference
i
st he bridged -T f i
l
ter.
The b asic f i
lter i sshown i n F ig. 4.35 w ith i t
s a ssociated
D
ISC RES ONATOR
r
espon se c urve, w hich i n dicate s t hat the fi
lte r provide s high
a
t
tenua t
ion a t t he r esonan t f requency . T h
is a ttenua tion
w
ill b e max imum ( provid ing t he deepe st n o
tch ) w hen t he
r
esi
sto r ise qual t o o ne-qua rter t he impedance o f t h
e t uned
c
i
rcu it
. B y p rov iding a v ariab le r esistor i tthu s b ecome s
COUPL
I NG CO
IL p
ossible t oa d
ju st t he n otch d ep th.
TRANSDUCER ROD
Fi
lters o f this s imp le f orm a re to b e f ound ma inly i n
F
ig. 4
.34
. The Co l
lins mechan ical f
i
lter. If
, signals are c
onverted into r
eceiversh aving al ow i f
.,u sua lly b e
low 1 00 k c/
s. Howeve r
,
mechanical vibrations by a magneto-strictive transducer and passed e
f ec
tive u se o ft h
i st ype o ff il
te rc an bem ade a t4 50 -470 k c
/s
a
long a s er
ies o f resonant discs
, t hen f ina
lly reconverted t o i .
f
.
s
ignals by as econd magneto -str
ictive t ransducer. The b and width b
y i ncreasing t he Q o f t h
e f i
l
te r co
il b y m ean s o f the Q
o
f the fi
lter is governed by the n u mber o f resonant discs a
nd t he multipl
ication t echn ique ,a si ndica ted inF ig
.4 .36
. A na dvan-
des
ign of the coup l
ing r ods.
t
age o f th e bridged -T f i
lter o ve r the p hasing c ontro l of a
c
rystal fi
l
te ri st hati tcause sl essd istort
ion o ft hei .
f
. respon se
o
n e i
ther s ide o ft he d eep , na rrow n otch .

s
t
eep s i
des. These f
i
l
ters are smal
lert h
an theusuali.
f.trans
-
f
ormera nd prov
ide inone s ma
ll un
it astab
le fi
l
terhaving th
e
c
ha
d
i
rac
ag
ter
is
ram o
t
ics o
f am
f a mu
echan
l
ica
tip
l f
le c
i
lte
r
ys
r i
ta
ss
l ne
two
hown i
rk
nF
. A f
ig
. 4.
34
unc
.
t
ional
ly
The f
il
ter c
onsis
ts ofthree bas
ic el
emen t
s:
(
a
) Two m agneto
-str
ict
ion t
ransduce
rs which c
onver
t t
he
i
.
f. signals into m e
chanica
l v i
bra
tions a nd vi
ce
v
ersa
. (
a
) (
b
)
(
b
) Aser
ieso fm e
tal d
i
scsm
echan
ica
lly r
e
sona
ted t
oth
e F
ig.4.35
. The bas
ic bridged-T fi
lter c
ircuit (
a)a nd a
ssociated response
p
ar
ticula
r fr
equency
. c
haracterist
ics (b) s
how ing deep n otch at resonant f
requency . The
notch a
ttenuation wi
ll be max i mu m when R is equal to one
-quarter
(
c
) D
isc c
oup
ling r
ods
. o
f the resonant impedance o f LC. In pract
ice t wo equal capacitors
a
re often used in ac apacit
ive p otentio meter instead of ac entre-
Each d isc i se qu ivalen t to as eries r esonant c i
rcu it w ith a t
apped c o
il.
h
i gh Q ( oft heo rde ro f5 000 o ra bove )
. V ary
ing t h em echan -
i
cal c oup ling b etween t he r od s —by mak ing them l arge r o r
sma lle r —va rie s the bandw id th o ft h
ef i
lter
. T he v ibration o f
t
hed isc sc anno t beo bserved , a nd t hee nt
ire fi
l
te r ise nclo sed Ceram ic F i
lters and T ransformer s
i
n ah erme tica l
ly s e
aled c ase. T he i n
se rt
ion loss o f o ne o f P
iezoelectric ef
ects a
ren otconfined t otheclass
ic ma teria
ls
t
he se f i
l
ter s i sa bou t 1 0db, a nd t h eo nly a dju
stmen t requ ired s
uch a s q uartz and R ochelle sa
lt c rysta
ls. I n recent year s
i
st o t une t he i nput a nd o utpu t t ran sducer c oi
ls w ith t h
e i
ncrea s
ing u se has been made o f certain ceram ics, such a s
a
pp ropr iate c apac itance. Norma lly, n on -
c
r
i tica l h igh i mpedance c ircu its a re
s
uitab le a t t h e i nput a nd o utpu t e nd s
;
f
or u se w i
th t ransistors h oweve r
, t he
f
i
l
te r sc an b e ma tched i nto l ow i mpedance
c
i
r cu its b y u sing a s eries-resonan t term i
-
n
ation . T o o btain t he f u
ll b enefi t of t he I
F AM P
6BA6
f
i
l
te r, t he i n put a nd o utpu t c i
r cuits mus t
b
e e fec t
ive ly s creened f r
om e ach o the r
.
Me chan ica l f i
l
te rs c anno t a tp re sent b e 6BA6
I
F AMP
h
ome -con struc ted ,a nd mus tb ep urcha sed (
455 k c/s)
c
omp lete. A p a
ir o f f i
l
te rs, o ne f or c .w.
t
he o the r f or t e
lephony —adds many
p
ounds t o t h e c ost o f ar eceive r
, a nd a n
ama teur c an o f
ten c onstruc t c rysta l fi
lter
n
etwo rk s ata pprec iably l owe rc ost.
10Kfl AVC
I
n r ecent y ears, t he ava i
lab ility o fb oth
Ame rican a nd J apane se m echan ica l fi
lte r
s F
ig. 4.36
. B ridged-T circuit co mb
ined with a Q Multipl
ier. The n otch can be tuned
h
ast ended t ol owe rp rices,a nd make t hem a
cross t he r eceiver bandpass b y means o
f the 3
-19 p
F tri m mer and the depth of t
he
n
otch a
djusted b
y t
he 1
0 Kv
ariab
le r
esistor
.
4
.18
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS

b
ar
ium t i
tanate ( for g ramophone p ickup s
) a nd t he l ead THE DETECTOR
z
i
rcona te tiana te (PZT )s er
ies. Sma lld iscsofP ZT c eram ics T
he ma in type s o
fd e
tecto r in mode rn rece
ive rs a
re:
w
hich r esonate i nt h e radial dimen sion t o t
he in
termed ia te (
a) The d iode d etecto
r , using e i
ther at hermionic or
f
r
equency c an b e used i nb andpass f i
lter s i
nt h
es ame w ay a s c
rystal diode, f
ound i nt he va
st ma jori
ty o f re
ceivers
.
q
ua rtz c rys
tals, though a tt he p
resen t s ta
te of developmen t (
b) The r egene ra
tive le
aky -grid d e
tector, r e
lat
ively li
tt
le
t
he Qi sconside rably l owe r
. P ZT c eram icscan also be us ed u
sed i ns uperhet
s bu t c
apab le ofh igh g a
in and g ood
d
i
r ectly t oprovide a n impedance t ran s formation: by prov id- s
e
lec t
ivity.
i
ng t wo s e
ts ofe l
ectrode s ac omplete r ep
lacemen t for an i .
f
. (
c
) T he in f
ini
te i mpedance d e
tecto r
, o fer
ing e xtremely
t
r
an s forme r c an b e o btained, giving i mproved s e
lect
iv ity l
ow l oading oft h
e fina
l i .
f
. transforme r.
c
ha racterist
icsc ompa red w i
th conven tiona lcomponen ts
. T o (
d) Var ious f orm s of h eterodyne d etector d eveloped
d
ate t his type o f p iezoelectric ce
ram ic i .
f. tr
ansforme r h as p
rima rily for t
he reception ofs .
s
.b. and c .w
. s i
gnals
.
b
een u sed ma inly f ort ransis
to rreceive rs,a sitprovides av ery
c
onven ient m ean s ofo btaining the low i mpedance srequired
f
or t r
an s
istor i npu t c i
rcu i
t s
. Wh ile h aving a g ood n ose D
iode D
etector
s
e
lec tivity the s k
irts t e
nd t o be too b road f or ce
ram ic fi
lters
t
o b e much u sed i na dvanced ama teur r ece
ivers atp resen t
. The c onven tiona l d iode e nve lope d etecto r f unction s
d
irectly o n a .m . s igna ls and i nc onjunc tion w ith a b .f
.o . or
c
arrier i nsert ion o scillator o n t e
leg raphy a nd s .
s.b . I ti sa n
u
ncomp l
ica ted d evice p resen ting a s table b ut r ather l ow
Q Mu
ltip
lier
s i
mpedance l oad t o t he f i
nal i .
f
. t r
an sforme r
, a nd f or many
T
he a ppa ren t Qo f at uned c ircu it a nd h ence i t
s s e
lectivity y
ea rs w as u sed a lmo st exclu s
ive ly . I th as t h
e d isadvan tage
c
an b e i nc rea s ed b y c onne cting i tt o a n amp lifier w ith t
ha t itprov ide sn og ain,a nd may i n
t roduc ed isto rtion a tl ow
r
egene ra tive f eedback . S uch a n amp lif
i er c an b e r egarded s
igna l levels. B ecau se o f it
s r elative ly l ow d ynam ic i mped -
a
s an ega tive r es
is tanc e wh ich w i ll canc el s ome o f the l oss a
nce a nd c on sequen ta .
c.s hunting o nt hef inali ltran sforme r
r
es
i s
tanc e i n t h e t uned c ir cuit t h ereby r aising t he Q . T h
i s i
ti sa dvan tageou s f or t he seconda ry w ind ing o f t h
is t rans-
a
rrangemen t i sf am ilia r to many i nt .
r
.f. r ece ive rs. I n recen t f
orme rt oh ave al owe rL /C r a
tio t han f ort h eo the rw ind ing s
,
y
ea rs i th as b een a pplied t o av ariety o f d ev ic e
s g enera l
ly a
nd t o b e mo re t i
gh tly c oupled t han f or t h
e e arlier t ran s
-
k
nown a s Q mu ltip lie rs a nd o f g r eat v alue i n s up erhe t f
orme rs; h oweve r, i n p ractice, s atisfactory r esul ts c an b e
r
ec e
iver s. B asica lly t h ese d ev ice s c ompr ise a s imp le v alve obtained u sing s imila ri .
f. trans fo rme r
st hroughou t as et. T o
o
r t ran sisto r amp lifi e
r w ith a dju stab le p o sitive f eedback . minim ize a .f
. d isto rt
ion o n w eak s ignals h aving a h igh
This i sc oup led t o a n e arly i .
f
. c oil i n s uch a w ay t hat r e- modu la t
ion p e rcen tage , c are s hould b e t aken t o k eep t h
e
g
ene ra tion c an b e a pp lied u p t o t he t hresho ld o fo sc
illation . c
apac itance a cro ss t he d iode l o ad a s low a sp os s
ib le.
A mo re e labo ra te v e r
sion c on tain s at unab le c i
rcu it w hich The diode d e tecto r i soften c omb ined i n as ingle mu l t
iple
a
l
low s t he n ar row p eak t ob e v aried i nf requency w i
th in t he v
alve w i
th a s econd d iode u sed a s ar ectifier t o p rovide a
norma l b and -w id th o ft he r eceive r. Af urthe r u se ful featu re n
ega t
ive a .g.c . b i
a s a nd a l
so at r
iode w hich i sg ene rally u sed
o
ft he mor e e labo ra te v ersion i st hat t he t uned c i
rcu it ( wi
th f
o r the f i
rst s tage o f a .
f. amp lifi cation : s ee F ig. 4 .
37 . T hi
s
i
t
s Qr ais ed b yr egene ration )c an b er e
-conn ec ted , b y s w
itch - p
rac tice c an i n
troduce u nde si rable c oup ling b etween t he
i
ng, i n t he n ega tive f eedback c i
rcu i
t o f at r
iode amp l
ifier. v
ar iou s circu its, b ut i seconom ica l.
The t r
iode w ith n ega tive f eedback p er form s t he o ppo site Suitable v a
lve t yp es fo r t he d e tecto r a nd a . g.c. d iode s
f
unc tion t o t h at d escrib ed a bove a nd p re sen ts t he i .
f
. w ould b e t h e EB9 1/6AL5 , E B34 /6H6 o rc rysta l d iode s type s
t
ran sfo rme r w ith a dd it
iona l l oss r esistance d epend ing u pon
t
h e t uning o f t h e Q mu ltip l
ie r t uned c ircu it. A t r esonanc e
d
ra stic d amp ing o ccu rs a nd a s ha rp r e
jec tion n otch r esults
which i st unab le o ve rt hep assb and s im i
la rt ot hea ction o fa HT+

c
r ysta l f i
lte r w ith p ha sing c ont rol.
The Q mu ltip l
ie r i s aw orthwh ile a ddition t oa ny s upe rhe t
receive r, e ven t ho se a lready p os sessing a b andpas s c rysta l
or m echan ica l f i
lte r.
Its hou ld b e c onnec ted t o t he e arl
ie st p os sible s tag e i n
t
he r eceive r s o t ha t t he e nhanced s e
lec t
iv ity c an g ive t he
maximum p ro tec tion a gain st c ros s modu lat ion i n the l a
te r
F
I NAL
s
t
age s w hich o pe ra te a t h ighe r i npu t v oltag e l evels. T he I
F
p
oin t u sua lly c ho sen i st he a node o f t he m ixe r i n single AMP
s
up erhe ts o r t he a node o f t he s econd m ixe r i n d oub le
s
up erhe ts.
The Q mu ltip lie r t echn ique c an b e ex tended t o th e use o f
c
rysta ls a st he b asic h igh Q t uned c i
rcu it ( suitab le p r
ima r
i ly
f
or c .w. r e cep tion ); a l
terna t
ive ly u se may b e made o f t he
e
xisting i .
f. t ran sfo rme r top rov ide Q mu ltip lica t
ion w ithou t
a
dd itiona l c o
ils . T he p rinc ip le h as a lso b een s ucce s
s fully
a
dap ted f o r i mp rov ing p re-m ixe r s e
lec tivity a t s ignal f re-
q
uenc ie s.
F
ig. 4
.37. Typical use o
f adouble tr
iode va
lve for d etect
ion. a
.g.c
.
Cons truc tiona l d etails o f a Q mu ltiplie r a r e given l a
te r i n a
nd a.f
. amplification
. A
.G.C
. delay i
sobta
ined fro m t
he cathode b
ias
t
his c hap te r. b
ut t h
is is n
ot a
ppl
ied t o t
he detector diode.

4
.
19
 RSGB —RADI O CO M MUNICATI ON HANDB O OK

F
I NAL I
FT 47pF b
e poss
ible with ad iode de
tector
. Ou tput from the b
.f
.o.o r
AF
u
L VOLU ME O
UTPUT
c
.
i
I
.o
ti
.i
sd
sf
if
e
i
dt
cu
l
ot
t t
h
eg
o u
rid o
se i
ft
n c
h
ed
on
ete
junc
c
to
t
rv
ion w
i
a as
i
th a
mal
lc
n a.
ap
g
.c
ac
itan
. sy
s
ce
.
tem
\
‘_
i
t -v u
nle
s s as
epara te a.g.c
.i .
f
.a mp
lif
ierisincorporated
,a l
though
.0
0 1)
.7F c
i
rcuits t
oo vercome t hi
s problem h ave been publ
ished (e
.g
.
Amateur Radio T echniques— R SGB )
.
0
.05yF
P
roduct o
r Heterodyne D
etector
AGC F
or the r
ecep
tion ofs.s
.b. si
gnal
s v a
rious forms o
fm ixe
r
F
ig.4.38
. Diode i
ntegrator d
etector. Either ther m
ionic valves (
6ALS, o
r hete
rodyne d e
tector h ave be
en i ntroduced to re
duce
6H6) orsemi-conductor d
iodes (
1 N41. 0 A79
, 01181, e
tc.) can b
eu sed
. i
n
termodu la
tion d
istor
tion atlow signa
l l e
vels
. In t
he f
orm

0A79, 0A8 1
, I N41. S u
itab
le d oub le-d
iode a nd t
r
iple- 200 0
pF
d
iode tr
iodes inc
lude t h
e 6 ATNEBC90 , 6AV6/EBC91 a nd
HT
t
he 6AK8/EABC80 .
It i
sp o
ssible to use two diode s i n av o
ltage d
oubler 1
0 0K()
I
2AU7
a
rrangement, o f
ering s ome a dvantage s fo
r w eak si
gnal
F
r
ecept
ion atlow dis
tortion, s
ee Fig
. 4.38. 0
.02 F

R
egenera
tive D
etec
tor
T
he r egene rative d etector o fe r
s t he advan tages t ha
t a
h
igh g a
in c an b e o b
tained ( perm i
tting it
s u se on w eak i.
f
.
s
ignals) and t hat itc an b e made t o contr
ibu te to the s e
lec
-
t
i
vity o f the r eceiver. I ts ma in d isadvantage i st h
a t itis
d
ificult t
ou se i nconjunc tion w ith a n a
.g
.c. s y
stem ; f u
rther
- F
ig.4
.40
. The p
roduct or heterodyne d
etector isusefu
l for t
he recep
-
t
ion o
f &Lb, a
nd c.w. s
ignals but i
s unsuitab
le f or a
.m , t
elephony
more itneeds v ery care ful adju s
tmen t iffu
ll b enef
it i stobe s
igna
ls. S
uitable v
alves inc
lude 65,47
, 12A U7 and EC C112
.
o
btained. I ti sp art
icu larly u seful f or s
imp ler receivers in
-
t
ended p r
ima r
ily f or c.w . r e
cep tion; i tdispenses w ith t h
e
g
ene ral
ly t ermed t he product detector two i nput signals are
n
eed f o
r as epa rate b.f.o . and c an d o much t o overcome a
f
ed t o wha t isbasical
ly am ixe r s
tage:
d
efic
iency o fi .
f
. g a
in.
(
a) T he incom ing signalatt h
ei n
te rmediate fr
equency ;a nd
I
.F
.t r
ans forme rsinco rpo rating af e
edback c oil s
uitable fo
r
(
b) As i
gnal f rom t he ca
rrier inser
tion o sci
llato r (c
.i
.o.)
t
h
i s purpo se a re n ot r eadily a vailable. One m e
thod i st o
or beat fr
equency o sc
il
lator ( b
.f
.o.).
r
emove t hei .f
.t ransforme rf r
om i t
ss c
reening c an and t oadd
T
he d if erence in f r
equency r epresents the a.f
. o utpu t and,
afeedback w ind ing, find ing t hec orrect numbe r o f turns fo
r
a
f
te r fi
l
ter ing to remove t he r.f
. componen ts of the original
smooth r egene ration b y t r
ial a nd e rror
. An a l
terna t
ive
s
ignal, isf ed t o the a l
. stages. F ig. 4.
40 s how s at yp
ical
method isd e scribed o n p age 4 .47.
c
i
rcu it u sing a d ouble-
triode v alve, t hough a lternative
a
rrangemen t
s using 6 BE6 o r ECH8 I mixer v a
lves a re also
I
n
fin
ite I
mpedance D
etector
c
ommon ly u sed. T he r eader w i
ll a ppreciate t hat t hese
The i nfini
te i mped ance d e
tector, F ig
. 4 .
39, h as certain d
etectors c an be u sed b o
th f or s.
s
.b . and c.w, b ut are u n-
a
dvan tage s b ut h a
s u n
til r
ecently only r a
rely been u sed i n s
u
i table f or the recept
ion o f a.m. t e
lephony t r
ansm ission s
,
c
ommun ica t
ion sr eceivers
. A taudio frequencies
,t here iscon-
s
i
de rable n egative c urrentfeedback a c
ro ssther e
latively high
v
alue cathode r e
sisto r
, reducing di
stortion to avery low l e
vel
. 2
1
1.0
. S
KR

A
s t he triode v alve i sn o
t driven into grid current, th
e re is
l
i
t
tle d amp ing o ft he i .
f
. tr
ansforme r,e nabl
ing ah ighe r volt
- A
UDIU
O
UTPUT
a
ge tob ed eveloped a crossth eseconda ry winding than w ould

AM
C I0 0 5
2
O
UTPUT
C
ta?C°-
.
SSB
CW

IF
T
S
ECONDARY

C I0
A
NODE COIL
A
UDIO
O
UTPUT
•
=
i
-
'
7
C
l-VALUE R
EQU
IRED T
O R
ESONATE C
OIL

F
ig. 4
.41 (a
) Th is ge ment us
ing t hree g
er maniu m d
iodes pro-
F
ig. 4
.31
1. I
nf
inite impedance detector f
or u
se i
n ac
o m mun
icat
ions v
ides de modu
lation for &Lb., c
.w. and a.m. s
ignals a
nd isincorpora
-
r
eceiver. t
ed in t
he receiver descr
ibed o n p
age 4
.62.
4
.20
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS

e
xcep t w hen t h e s i
gna ls a r e
c
onver ted t os .s.b. b ys elec tive
f
i
l
te r s.
Ano the rf o rm o fh ete rodyne
d
etec to r, c apab le o f e xce llen t 558/CW
CRYSTAL
s
.
s.b . p erfo rmanc e, i ss hown 1
00pF pa r BFO
IFT
i
n F ig . 4 .41a . T his u se s t wo AM S
I

g
erman ium c rysta l diode s i na
b
ridge r ing modu lato r ( as f or
s
.
s.b . g ene ra tion ) i n c on junc -
t
ion w ith af urthe rs i
ng le d iode AG C

which c an b e s witched i nto

c
ircu itf ora .m.r e
cep tion . T he
r
esona ting c apac itance a cro ss
t
he s econda ry o f t he f i
na l i f. CATH ODE OF
F
INAL
t
ran s forme r i n t h e r e ceive r IF AMPL IF IER
c
omp r
is est wo f i
xed c apac itor s 5 METER

w
i th a c apac itanc e r atio o f F
ig. 4.41(6) Ph i
lco c ircu it for co mb
ined a .m ./...
.b ./c
.w . t
hwector /a.g.c. syste m . CRI. IN91 o r s imilar
crysta l diode.
a
pp rox ima te ly 1 0: 1t of o rm a n
a
.c. p oten t iome ter, p rov id ing
al ow i mpedance l oad t o t h e diode s. T he c .
i.o ./b.f.o. v olt- c onve rsion o sc i
llato rs
. N eve rthe less t he r equ iremen t s a re
a
ge i sf edi np u sh-pu lla c ros s ab alanc ing p oten t
iome te rf rom fa
irly stringen t , and mode rn s .s
.b . d esigns t end t ofavou rt he
al ow i mpedanc e l i
nk w ind ing i nt h eo scil
lato ra node c ir
cu it
. u
se o fc rysta l c ontro l
led o scillato r s
.
When c orr ectly b alanc ed b y mean so ft he 2K o hm p oten tio- An o u
tpu t o f severa l volts i sr equi red f or e fect
ive s .s
.b .
m ete r
, t he re i sn oo utpu tw hen t hec .i
.o . v o
l tage i sr emoved . r
e ception , b u t b oth h armon ic o utpu t a nd s t
ray c oup ling t o
T h
i s t ype o fd emodu la tor i su sed i nt he a dvanced ama teu r r
e ce
ive rc i
r cuits o the rt han t hed etec to rs tage s hou ld b e l ow ,
receive r s hown o n p age 4 . 63 . t
hi s cal
l s f or e fective s creen ing o f t he o s ci
lla to r and g ood
Beam d eflec to rv alve s( e.g .7 360 )u sed a sp roduc td ete cto rs decoup ling ,i n c
lud ing t heh ea terc ircuit. T he s t age shou ld b e
can p rov ide much g rea te r a udio o utpu t t han c onven tiona l s
upp lied f rom as tabilized h .t
. l ine. T he re i ss ome a dvan tag e
c
ir cui ts att hee xp ense o fg rea terc ircui t comp lexity . t
ob eg ained f r om p rov iding v a r
iab le c oup ling t ot hed etecto r,
A d etec to r/a .g.c. c ircu it d esigned f or a .m ./c.w ./ s
.s.b. t
hough t his i sr arely f ound i np rac tice.
s
e rvi ce w ithou tt hen eed f ori ndependen td etec to rsw ith o the r F
ig.4 .42 s how s at ypicalc ircu it. T he v ariab le c apac ito rC 2
produc t d ete ctor s a nd p erm i
tting a .g
.c . to b e u sed o n a l
l provide s ac on trol p anel v ariation o f a bou t ±5 k c/s, t he
mode s i ss hown i nF ig. 4 .4 1b . knob o f
ten b e
ing l abelled pitch c on t
ro l; t hec i
rcu its hou ld b e
The a rrangemen t c on sis ts b asically o f a6 AS6 v alve u sed c
are fully a dju sted s o t hat a : m id -trave l o ft his c ont rol, t he
a
s ag r
id -leak p owe r d etec to r. When S i i s i n t he A. M. osci
llato r f r
equency i sat z ero b eat w ith t he i n
termed ia te
po s
ition , t heb .f
.o . isd isconnec ted . T he i ncom ing i f
. s igna ls frequency . T his p erm its e asy c hang e o f a .f. b eat n ote o n
are r ectif
i ed i n t he g rid /ca thode c ircu it a nd t he d etec ted c
.w . s igna ls, a nd p rov ide s f or s imp ler a djus tmen t o f t he
s
i gna l amp lified i n t he a node c ircu it
. A .G .C . i st a ken o f b
.f
.o. w hen r eceiving s .s
.b . Ou tpu t f rom t he b .f.o. c an b e
from t he c a
thode c ircu it w i th t h e 1 N9 1 cry stal d iode u sed taken f rom t he c a
thode , ac onven ien tly l ow i mpedance
tod elay t h e o p eration o ft he a .g.c
. u n t
il th e signa l s treng th point, t o m in imize p ulling o f t he o scillato r b y s trong
r
eache s as atisfac to ry l evel. S 2 s e
lec ts t he a .g
.c . t ime - signals.
con stan t. Top erm i t i mmed iate s e
lec t
ion o ft h e u pp ero rl owe rs ide-
On s e/cw t he b .f.o . s igna l i s f ed t o t he s upp resso r b
and s i ns .s
.b . r eception t wo c ar r
ie r i nsertion f requenc ies—
gr
id o ft he6 AS6 a nd m ixe sw i th t he i ncom ing s igna ls i nt he spaced a pp rox ima te
ly 3 k c/s a pa r
t —a re u se ful, since t his
anode c ircu it. S ince t he b .f.o. ( which may o r may n ot b e al
low st hec arr iert ob ei nserted o ne i
the rs ide o ft her espon se
crysta l-con tro lled ) i si s o
la ted f rom t he d etec tor c ircu it, i t
s
hou ld n ota fec tt hea .g.c .l evel. T he 1K o hm r esisto rsi nt he
a
node a nd s cr een l eads a re f or i solation . T o s ome e xten t
e
xac t v alue s o fc omponen ts w il
l d epend o n s upp ly v oltag e,
a
nd t he a s soc iated s tage s.
HT+
1
0K 3
3K S
TAB
ILIZED

1- 1 .
"
5 1
0pF
6BA6
T
he B
eat F
requency Osc
illa
tor
The b ea
t f r
equency o sc
illator ( b.f
.o .)
, termed f or s.s
.b.
r
eception t he carr
ier in
jection o scil
la tor (c
.i
.o.)
, e xe
rcises
0
.01
c
onsiderable inf
luence on re ceiver p erformanc e on c.w
. a nd
s
.
s.b. signa
l s
. Any v ariat
ion i nosc il
la tor fr
equency will be
r
ef
lected inv aria
tion o fthe a .f
. bea t n o
te o n ac.w. si
gnal,
a
nd w il
l h ave the efect of d etuning t he re
ceive
r o n s.s
.b.
S
ince th e b
.f
.o. istuned to af requency c l
ose to tha
t of the F
ig. 4
.42
. Typ ical b.
f.o. c
ircuit us
ing a n e
lectron-coup led oscil
lator.
A h
igh v a
lue o f C
I w ill he
lp stabil
ize the osc
illator . C2 i
s the pitch
r
eceiver
's fi
nalI f
.,itisane a
sie r matte rt oo b
tain t
her equired c
ontrol. W hen a b.f
.o. is u
sed with a product d etector for s.
s.b. i
t i
s
s
tabil
ity with a n L/C oscil
la tor t han f or earl
ier fr
equ ency so met
i mes c a
lled a c.i
.o. (
carrier i
nsertion o scil
lator
i.

4
.2
1

• • I
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
urve. T hi
s can be d one by using two crystals
, o ne a bove s
ay , the mo re c on stan t w i
llb et heo utpu t fo rw ide v ar iation s
a
nd the other be
low t he i
.
f. o
fs ignal s treng th .
An even mo re e l
egant sys
tem i sp oss
ible i n mu lti-con- Itisn ot g ood p rac tice t o a pply a n a . g
.c. p oten t
ial t ot he
v
ers
ion sets by u s
ing t wo cry
s ta
ls in th
e f ina
l c onve rsion mixe r v alve (s), a lthough t h
i s i so ften d one i n s imp le r r e
-
o
sc
illa
tor. F or examp le wi
th a set hav
ing i .
f.
's of 1 -
6 Mc /s c
eive rs
. T he e f
iciency o ft h em ixe ri sr educed a nd t hec hange
a
nd 450 kc/ss u
itable cr
ysta
l frequencies would b e 150 k c
/s i
ni npu tc apac itance w ith c hange o fo perating p o
in tc an l ead
a
nd 2050 kc/s
. T his hasthee fect o
fr e
versing thes idebands t
op u
lling o ft he o scillato r f requency . I n r ece ive rs w ith t wo
a
nd al
low s th
e use ofa n as
symme tr
ical f
i
lter
. r
.f
. s tage s, t he f i
rst s tage may s ome time s b e o pera ted u nde r
f
i
xed b ia sc ond ition st op reven td egrada tion o ft hes igna l-to-
noise r at
io .
AUTOMAT
IC GA
IN CONTROL
A typ ica l a .g
.c . s ystem i ss hown i n F ig. 4 .43. I n t h
is a
T he mo re r .f
.a nd i .
f
.s tage st here a re i n as up erhe tr e ceive r
, portion o f t he i .
f
. s igna l i st aken v ia ac apac ito r fr om t he
t
he g r eate r w ill b e t he a vailab le g ain a nd t h e g rea te r t he a
node o f t h e final i .
f
. amp lifie r t o th e a.g.c . r ectifier d iode
possib ili
ty o fo verload ing b y s t
rong s igna ls u nle ss t h
i s g ain a
nd an ega tive d .c. v oltag eb uilds u pa crosst hel oad r esisto r
.
c
an b er educed . T his may b ed one manua l
ly b ya l
te ring t he As i tisi mpor tan t t hat n o s igna l modu la tion s hou ld a ppear
b
ia s a pplied t o v ariable -mu v alve s b y v arying a c ommon o
n t he a .g.c. l ine, t he o utpu t i sf ed t hrough o ne o r mo re
c
athode b i as r esistor ( the re i s at endency i nc omme rc ia l
ly- s
ection s o f resistance -capac itanc e a.f
. f i
l
te rs. T he v alue s of
bu
il tr eceive rst ou se d ualt r
ack r es is
to r
sf ort hisp urpo se w ith t
he se f i
l
te r c omponen ts a fect t he r ate a t wh ich t he a .g.c.
d
if e ring t ape rs f or r.f
. a nd i .
f. v alve s)
. S ince h oweve r, h .f
. s
ystem f ol
low s t h e v ariation s i ns i
gna l s t
reng th . T he l a
rge r
s
igna l s a re s ubjec t to c on s
ide rab le s l
ow a nd r ap id f ad ing, t
he t ime -con stan t t he s lowe rw ill the a .
g.c. r espond t os i
gna l
i
ti sa dvan tageou sf ort heg a
in t ob ec on trolled a utoma tically f
l
uc tua tion s
. F or a .m . t e
lephony a t ime -con stan t o f t he
b
y t h e str eng th o f the i ncom ing s igna l. T his c an b e d one o
rde r o fa bou t 0 . 2 second i sc ommon ly e mployed .
f
a
i rly s imp ly f or a .m. t e
lephony s igna l s
; t h e b asic c ircu i
ts When a ni .f
.v alve i scon t rolled b ya na .g.c. l ine,t hes c
reen
c
an a lso b e a dap ted w ith s ome a dd itiona l c omp lex i ty f or i
su sually f edt hrough af airly h i gh v a
lue r esisto r( abou t2 2K
c
.w.a nd s .s
.b . r eception . I ns imp le ama teu rc ommun ica tion s t
o4 7 Ko hm s). T hise nsu re s t hat thes creen v oltage r ises as
r
ece ive rs
, a utoma tic g ain c on t rol o r a .g.c. ( s ome time s t
hen ega tive b i ast ot hev alve i ncrea sesa nd p rov ide s al onge r
a
utoma tic v olume c ont rol o r a .v.c.) may b e r e garded a s a g
rid b ase f ort hev alve . I ta l
so r educ est hec hance so f av a
lve
l
uxu ry r athe r t han a n e ssentia l, f or ap oo r a .gc .s ystem i s b
eing d riven i nto n on -
linea r amp lification , w h
ich w ou ld
o
ften much w orse t han n o a .g.c. a ta l
l. make c ro ss-modu la tion o r b lo cking mo re l i
kely .
The b asic f unc tion o f ac onven t
iona l a .g
.c. s ystem i sto There a re t wo ma in r e ason s w hy a c onven t
iona l a .g.c.
h
old t he a .f. o utpu t f rom t he d etector r e a
sonab ly c on stant s
ystem ,s uch a st h atd e scribed a bove ,i su nsa tisf acto ry o nc .w.
o
ve r w ide v ariation s o f s igna l l eve
l. T his c an b e d one b y a
nd s .
s.b. s igna ls. F ir st, inn eithe r o ft h ese mode s o ft r
ans -
r
ectif ying a p ortion o f t he amp lified U .s igna l t o o b ta in a m
is sion i st here a c on tinuou s c ar r
ier o n w hich t o b ase t he
n
ega tive d .c. v oltage w hich i st hen a pp lied a s bi as t oo ne or a
.g.c.a ction . S econd ly ,t h eo utpu tf r
om t h eb .f
.o .a c
tso nt he
mo re o ft hee arlie rs t
age s. An i n crea se ins i
gna la tt h ea .g
.c. a
.g.c. s ystem a s t hough i tw ere as trong e xte rnal c ar rier s o
r
ectifi er cau ses g reate r n egative b ias t o b e d eveloped a nd s o r
educ ing t h e gain o ft he r eceive r
.
r
educe s o ve rall g ain; c onve rsely , af a
ll i ns ignal c au se s b ias To o ve rcome t he a bsenc e o f ac on t
inuou s c ar r
ier, a s in
t
o b e l owe red a nd g a
in i ncrea se s. T he a pp l
ica tion o f the t
e
leg raphy , th e t ime c ons tan t o ft he a .g
.c. s ystem i sl e
ng th-
a
.g.c. v oltage s hou ld b e d elayed u ntil a fter t he s i
gna l h as e
ned s o t hat t he g ain n o lo nge r r i
se s and f alls b etwe en e ach
r
eached a l evel s ufi c
ien t t o p rov ide a g ood s igna l-
to -no ise Mo rse s ymbo l
. T he a .g.c.a ct
ion i st hen b ased o nt hea verage
r
at
io . s
igna l r eceived o ve r ag iven p eriod : w he rea s ad ischarge
The g rea te r t h e numbe r o fs t
age s c on trolled b y th e a .g
.c. t
ime c on stan t o ft he o rde r o f0 -2 seconds i ss atisf acto ry f or
l
i
ne a nd t he g r eater t h e g ain w i thin t he c on tro l loop , t he a
.m . t e
lephony , a mor e s uitab le f igure f or c .w . o r s .s.b. i s
b
ette r w ill b e t he e f
ic
iency o ft h e a. g
.c. s ystem — tha t i sto a
bou t0 .5- 1 .0 s econd . T he c ha rget ime f ort hea .g.c.s ys
tem

H
T
+ IFT
- I.
?
OU
T

'
TT *
2
5p
F

J 4
7 K
it
AUDIO
OUTPUT
t
OOKR

t
o
0
.
1
0
.05
0
.I? FT 0
.1pF T
f
r
)
F
AG L
INE

F
ig. 4
.43
. Typ
ica
l a
.g.c
. s
yste m a
nd d
iode d
e modu
lator u
sed f
or a
.m. r
eception. The n
egat
ive b
ias i
s u
sed t
o c
ontro
l t
he g
ain o
f r
.
f. a
nd I
.
E
.
amp
lify
ing s
tages.

4
.
22
 1
.F. RECE
IVERS

HT+ 150V '

:
212477
S
TAB IL
IZED
FRO M
DETECTOR TO THE
1
00K
OUTPU1
STAGE
0
.05 -
.
4
! -- -
10-

IM
K

+
105V
AVC REG
OUTPUT

1
00K

3
.3 M
0
.5 m
a

47K
1
0K
AGC 47K
CONTROLLED .
1
1 —NA M -0
STAGES 47K

F
ig. 4
.44(6)
. Aud
io d
erived a
.g
.c. c
ircu
it.
F
ig. 4
.44(a)
. The u
se o
f aseparate a
.g.c
. amp l
ifier a
nd switched t
i me
c
onstants enab
les t
he a
.g.c
. s
yste m to be u
sed for both a
.m, and c
.w.
recept
ion. i
se arl
ie ra nd th es e
lectiv
ity cha racteristicso ft h
ea .g
.c .system
a
re made b roade rt han the ma in i.f
.c hanne l
; t hisp erm i
ts t he
s
hou ld p ref erably b e as s hort a s p ossib le, for e xamp le 2 5 r
educ tion o fg ain b y st
rong a djacen t
-channe l signals w hich
m
illiseconds f or a.m., 200 m illisecond s f orc .w./s
.s.b. m
igh t otherw ise c ause sp
latter o rc ros s-modu lation.
The u se o f a"h ang "a .g.c. system , with ab riefr ise time An a l
terna t
ive a utoma t
ic v olume c ont rol s y
stem w h
ich i s
o
fa bou t 1 0m il
lisecond s, ah ang t ime ( that is at ime b efo re a
pp licable t oa l
lt ype soft r
ansm ission c on s
ists o fre ct
ifying a
a
ny d i
scha rge b egins int he a bsence o f ac arr
ie r
) o f4 00-500 small p ortion o f the a .
f. signa l a nd u sing t he v ol
tage s o
m
illise conds , and ad ischa rge t ime o fa bou t 50 m i
lliseconds , o
bta ined t o c ontrol t he outpu t o f t he r eceiver.— see F ig.
c
an a l
low t he use of the s ame t ime c on stant s on c .w., a.m . 4
.44 (b)
. T he a rrangemen t in i ts simple st forms t e nds to b e
a
nd s .
s.b. u
n satisfacto ry
, h oweve r
, as iti sgene rally n ecessary t o ta ke
To p r
even t theb .f
.o. from r educ ing g a
in, i tisnece ssary t o t
he v ol
tage f r
om ap o
int af
te r t h
e a .f
. g ain c ontrol
. A mor e
s
creen t h e b. f
.o. thorough ly a nd t hen a r
range a l ow l evel s
oph ist
ica ted a rrangemen t w hich d oes n o
t s uf er f rom t his
i
n
jec tion d irect tot he signal d etecto r d iode b ut iti sd ificult d
isadvan tage i ss hown i nFig. 4 .44(c).
t
oo vercome c omp letely thee f ectso fstray c oupling . A mo re
p
rac tical s ystem i st o feed t h
e a .g.c. d iode f rom a n e nti
rely S METERS
s
epa rate a .g.c. amp l
ifier,th ei nputo fw hich i sinp arallelw ith Am ete r w hich ind
ica tes t he a pp roxima te s t
reng th o f t h e
t
hato ft hef i
nali .
f
. amp lif
ierv alve :s e
eF ig.4 .44(a). W i
th t his s
i
gnal sa pplied tot h
ei nput term ina ls i s au sefu la d
junc t t oa
s
ystem t hes ignalf o
rt h
ea .g.c.s ystem i st hust aken o fb efo re c
ommun ication s r e
ceive r. I tc an b e u sed f o r c ompa r
ing
t
hei n
jec tion o ftheb .f
.o. I ns ome d esigns t het ake -offp o
in t t
he st
reng ths o f d
iferen t stat
ion s, f o
r o bse rving t he r esul ts
o
ft e
stso nr ec e
ive ro rt ran sm i
tte ra eria ls,
f
orcheck ing thed irectiona lcha rac teristic s
o
f ar ota ry a e r
ial, a nd f or u se a s a
AUDIO t
un ing in dica to r
.
FROM 0 HT+
DETECTOR 250V
Many d if e rent c i
r cu its h ave b een
0 d
eve loped f or t h
is p u rpo se
, b ut a l
l
VR 7t V
ia
C2 d
epend f ort heir o peration o nt hev oltag e
I
M 0.
1
PR
I d
eve loped a cro ss t he a .g
.c . l ine o f t he
Co R
2 r
eceive r
. S ince t hisb ia s v oltage c on tro ls
OPTIONAL MANUAL t
he c urren t f low ing i n o ne o r mo re i .
f
.
8P
FT 1
3
2011
GA
IN B Y VARIABLE
NEGATIVE VOLTAGE s
tage s
, t he s imp le s
t Sm ete rc omp r
i ses a
0 mete r of a bou t 1 0 mA f .
s.d . c onnec ted
2 i
nt he anode c ircuit o fo ne o ft he a .g.c.
V
3b
2AU7 c
I on trolled s tage s. This a r
rangemen t
V
I
G
AIN C ONTROL V2,V3 RALS howeve r
, p rov ide s a r e verse-read ing
DIODE mete r with m in imum c ur ren t i ndica ting
OR UNUSED
max imum s igna l s t
reng th . T oo ve rcome

TO A
VC L
INE0
- 1
-?
V2b R4
C3 R
e
C5
t
h
(
u
i
is d
sua
n a b
l
if
i

r
culty a mo
ly 1mA f
idge c
.
i
r
s
.d
cu
.
i
re s
) i
t w
so
i
f
en s
it
ive m
ten c
th z e
onnec
ro -
se t
e

t
te
ted
ing
r

4
70K 4
.7 M T a
djus tmen t, s o t hat ad ec rea se i na node
TO EARTH 0 c
ur rent t oo ne o r mo re a .g.c. c ontro lled
s
tage s p roduce s a n i nc rea se i n cur ren t
F
ig. 4
.44 (
c). The a
udio d
erived "
hang
' c
ircu
it. V
I i
s a1
2A U7 a
nd V
2. V
3 are 6AL5 v a
lves. f
low ing t hrough t h
e m ete r
. A s imp le
413

• 6 •
R
SG B-RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
AN ODES OF IK Z
ERO S
ETT
ING A
.F. STAGES
VALVES ON
The a .f. o utpu t fr om a d iode d etector i su sually o f the
AGC L
INE
I
mA o
rde r of0 .
5- 1 v ol
t. As ingle a l. amp lif
ier w il
l b e a dequa te
f
or h eadphone r ecep tion, b ut af urthe r s tage o f p ower
amplifi
ca tion w i
llb en eeded t oo perate al oudspeake r. S ince
SOK t
he s i
gna l-to-nois e ratio isd ete rm ined i nt he e a r
ly s tages of
HT —
t
he r eceive r
, t h
e re i sl i
t
tle p oint i n p roviding e xce s
sive a .f
.
amplifica t
ion, t hough s om e r ese rve may b e u seful t o over-
F
ig. 4
.45
. Bas
ic br
idge circuit f
or a f
or ward r
eading S meter
. I
n so me
c
ome i nsert
ion l osses i fan a udio f i
l
ter (de scrib ed l ater) is
d
esigns, v
ariat
ion o f c
urrent to one or more of t
he screen g
rids of f
i
tted. I n practice, t he b asic c ircu i
t a rrangemen ts i n th
is
t
he a
.g.c
. control
led v a
lves i
sused.
s
ect
ion o f t he r eceive r dif er l i
t
tle f rom t ho se f ound i n
b
roadca st r ece
ive rs, e xcept t o p rovide f or t h e c onne ction
o
fh eadphone s ins uch amanne r t hat the full o utpu t o fthe
f
orm o f b ridge c ircu it i ss hown i n Fig. 4 .45 b ut many r
eceiver i sn ot a pp l
ied a c
ro ss t hem, a nd t he l oudsp eaker
v
ar iations a re f ound i n p rac t
ice, ma inly i ntended t o o ve r- muted. F or c ommun ication s p urpo se s there i sn o n eed to
c
ome t he d ifi culty o fo btain ing af a
irly l i
nea r c a
lib ration o f p
rov ide a w ide a .f
. r ange, i ndeed a ny h igh modu lation
wha t i se ssen t
ially a l o garithm ic s cale o ver aw ide v oltage f
requenc ie s w i
ll n orma l
ly b e removed b y t he s elective i .
f
.
r
ange o ft h
eo rde ro f 1 00db ( voltage r at
io o f 1 00 ,000 t ime s )
. s
tage s
. I tisusefu la lso to restrictb assr e
sponse ,a nd t h
isc an
The re i sc onside rab le a dvan tage i ne mploy ing as epa ra te
v
alve t o mea su re t he p oten t
ial d eve loped a cro s s th e a. g
.c .
l
i
ne , a nd ar ecommended c ircuitu sing ad oub le -triode v alve
i
ss hown i nFig .4 .46 . T his i se
ssentia lly av alve v o
ltme tera nd
c
an b ea dded a s as mall e xternal u nit toa lmo s t a ny e x
i s
ting
I
NPUT
r
ece ive r h aving a n a .g
.c . l i
ne. R I i st he z ero a dju stmen t t o
c
ompen sa te f or d if eren t l evel
s o fr eceive r n o
is e. T he inpu t 6
5L7
v
ol tage t aken f rom t her eceivera .g.c.l i
ne isc on tro lled b y R2 . V
OLUME
The c alibra tion s ca
le o n a2 00 µA f .s
.d. me te r p rovide s
a
dequa te s pread f ort hel owe r Su nit sb uta lso a ccommoda te s
r
ead ing su pt oa bou t2 0db o verS 9
. M id-scale r ead ing s hou ld
b
ea dju s
ted b y R 2t or ep resenta bou tS 8 orS 9,a nd t hes c ale
c
alib ration t os uit t he r ece
ive rc once rned . T he b e s
t r e
lation
b
etween S u nits a nd d ecibe l ra
tio s h as long b een a ma tte r
o
f c ont rove rsy , a nd t o s e
t u p as cale a ccura tely t o ap re-
d
ete rm ined r at
io s uch a so ne Sp o
in t f or6 db r equ irest he u se
o
f as i
gna l g ene rato r h aving a na c cu rately c a
libra ted a ttenu -
a
to r; b ut u n
le ss t he g ain o f th e r eceive r isa pp rox ima te ly F
ig. 4
.47
. Audio f
i
lter, u
sing convent
ional c
o mponents, wh
ich employs
e
qua l o n a l
l b ands s uch c alibra tion w ill b e o f l imited n
egative feedback t o attenuate signa
ls other than those over a
n
arro w band a t about 950 c
/s
.
a
ccu racy . F or t he a ve rage ama teu r, iti sp robab ly b est t o
r
e ga rd t he c alib ration o f a n S me ter i n t erm s o f p ure ly
a
rb itra ry u n
it s
, c ho sen t os uit the a ctua l equ ipmen t a nd t he
ope rato r's o wn r equ iremen ts. F o r i ns
tance , w ith t he u nit b
e d one b y reduc ing t he v alue o f t he i n
terstage c oup ling
s
hown ,S I c ould b et h em in imum s ignald e
tec tab le a bove t he c
apacito rs f r
om t he c onven tiona l v a
lue o f t he o rder o f
noise l evela nd S 9 av ery s t
rong b utn on-
lo cals igna l,w i
th t he 0
.01 µ Ft oa bou t0 .
001 µ F or le
s s
; t his will also h e
lp r emove
s
cale d ivided e ven ly f or i n
te rmed ia te s t
reng ths . a
ny t race s of ma ins h um .
A t r
iode -pentode c an c onven iently b e u sed t o p rov ide
b
oth as tage ofa .f. voltage amp lif
ica tion a nd p owe ro utpu t:
o
ne e xamp le i sth e ECL 86/6G W8 .
The r es
trict
ion o fa .f
. r e
spons e can b e ca r
ried t oe xtreme
l
imits f or c .w. r eception b y p eaking t h e respon se s harp ly
b
etween s ay, 800 a nd 1 000 c /s
, t h
e f r
equency r ange s elected
b
y mo st o perato rsf ort e
leg raphy r e cep t
ion . T he de s
ign o fa
f
i
l
te r f or ap assband o f o n
ly 1 00-200 c /
s b andw idth o n a .f
.
s
ignal o fers much l e
ss d ificulty than o ne f or o pera t
ion a t
i
n
te rmed iate frequenc ie s
. An a .f
.f i
lte ri se fect
ive i nr educ ing
i
n
ter ference t o c.w . reception , b ut s hou ld n ot b e r ega rded
a
s as ub st
itute f or g ood I f. s e
lec tivity f or t he f ollow ing
r
eason s: ( a) itisu nable t odistinguish b etween t heu ppe ra nd
l
owe r s ideband b eat n o
te s and s o c anno t in i t
self
, p rov ide
t
rue s ingle-signal r eception ; ( b
) b e
ing p laced s o late i nt he
r
eceive r
, i td oe s n o
thing t o reduce t he s uscep t
ib i
lity o f t he
r
eceive r t o block ing. A f ur
the r disadvan tage o f as ha rply
p
eaked a .f
. fi
lter i sthat many o pera to rs find i tfatigu ing t o
l
i
sten f or a ny l ength o f time t o as ingle-tone n ote f r
ee o f
F
ig. 4
.46
. Va lve-vo
lt meter t
ype of 5 meter
. A s
uitable meter would b
e
2
00;LA full s
cale def
lect
ion. R3 a
nd R 4 s
hould b
e 10 per c
ent t
olerance
. h
armon ics. Whe re a s imilar d egree o f selectivity h as b een

4
.
24
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
a
chieved i n t he M. .stages, a .f
. h armon ics w i
ll u sua l
ly b e
r
e
in troduced i ns ub sequen t s tagess o that t hep eak ing i sn ot
s
o n o t
ic eabl e. OUTPUT

An i nduc tance /capac itance t uned c i

rcuitc an b eu sed a sa n
a
.f
. f i
l
ter b ut t he i nduc tor r equires as pe c
ial w ind ing t ech-
n
ique i fah i gh Q i st o bea ch ieved. Many a ma teu rsu se a n
i
t
em o fs urplu se qu ipmen t( t
he t ype FL 8f i
lter)w hich i st uned
t
oa bou t 1 00 c /
s.
B y u sing f r
equency s e
le ct
ive n egative f eedback a nd a n
e
xtra v a
lv e i ti sp os s
ib le toc onstruct as harp ly t uned f i
lter
r
equ iring o nly p re ferred v alue s of res
isto rs a nd c apac ito r s
.
F
ig. 4 .47 s how s o ne o ft he many p oss
ible a rrangemen t s. I n F
ig. 4
.49
. Posit
ive and negative p
eak limiter t
hat can be bu
ilt i
nto a
r
eceiver. The degree o
f lim
iting isdeter m
ined by the s
ett
ing of t
he
t
he O FF p os
ition t hef i
rsth a
lf o ft hed oub le t r
iode a c tsa sa n 1
0 K oh ms potent
io meter
.
a
.f
. a mplif
ie r
. W ith t h e fi
l
te r O N the second t r
iode s ection
i
ss witched i ns er
ie sw ith t h
ec athode o ft h ef i
rsts ection,a nd
p
rov ide s c on side rab le n ega tive f e
edback , a ttenua ting a l o
bta
ined b y cl
ipping or "sli
cing " al
l s
igna ls w
hich are o
f
f
requenc ie s o ther t han as mall b and a ta bou t 1 000 c /s, t he
a
pprec
iably g r
eater ampl
itude than the d
esired si
gna
l. T h
is
p
reci se f r
equency b eing d ete rmined b y t h e c ons tant s o f
c
an be done b y re
lative
ly simple a.
f. l
imiters a
s shown in
t
he RC n etwo rk b etween t he a node o f the f i
rst t r
iode a nd F
igs
. 4.48 a nd 4.
49. A l
ternative
ly the noise pu
lsescan be
t
he g rid o ft hes e cond t r
iode . u
sed to provide a fas
t-ac
ting bias
ing pulse used to r
educe
The f a
tigue i ndu ced b ytuned a .f
.f i
l
tersc an b ea vo ided b y momentarily the re
ceiver ga
in. D uring th e p
er
iod o f t
he
p
rov id ing as ha rp u ppe r cut-of ff r
equency , b ut w ith o nly a n
oise pul
s e, th
e o u
tput of the des
ired signal wi
ll al
so be
g
radua l a t
tenua tion c urve forl owe rfrequenc ies: t hisc an b e r
educed bu t t
his i
so fli
t
tle prac
tica
l consequence, s
ince t
he
a
rranged b y u sing a s tanda rd c hoke o r a .f
. t ran sforme r as
t
he i nduc t
ive e lemen t. A t ypical a r
rangemen t i ss hown i n
Chap te r 1 6 (M ob ileE quipmen t)
.
I
n t he section o n Q mu ltip l
ier s
, itw as e xpla ined t h at a
s
ha rp ly p eaked f i
l
te rc an beu sed e i
thert op rov ide an ar row
r
espon s
e c u rve o r a rranged s o th a
t itr esults i n as harp r e
-
j
ect
ion n otch . T his p rinciple c an b e app l
ied e qua lly a ta .f
.
and f orm s t he b asis o f a "s e
lectojeet "( selec t o r r eje c
t)
f
i
lter t hough t hisi sn ow r a
r e
ly u sed.

No
ise L
imiter
s
The h .
f. range , p articularly a bove a bou t 1 5 Mc /s, is
s
usceptib
le toe l
ectricali n
terference f rom cari g
nit
ion s y
stem s
a
nd e l
ectr
ical appliance su s
ing c ommu tat
ion , vibrating c on-
t
ac
t s or any othe r me chan i sm w he reby e lectr
ic s park s
, n o
ma
tte r how m inu te, are c reated. T he signal s radiated —o r
c
arr
ied a l
ong electric wiring —f rom s uch a ppliance sa rei nthe
f
orm o f high a mp litude , short du ration p ulses c ove r
ing a
w
ide r ange of frequenc ies
. I n many u rban d i
st r
icts, these F
ig. 430
. This t
ype of auto matic no
ise l
imiter is most suited o a
.m.
i
n
te rf
erence signals s e
t al imit to the u sable s e
nsitivity ofa t
elephony r ecept
ion. The no ise p u
lses provide fast-act
ing bias
ing
pu
lses which c
ut off s
ignal output dur
ing no ise peaks
.
r
eceiver
.
Because the inte rference p eaks, t hough h igh, a r
e o f ex-
t
r
eme ly short d u
ra tion, ac on s
iderab le imp rovemen t c an be
e
ar i s much l ess disturbed b y "h oles of si
lence" t han b y
p
eak s ofn ois e. An umbe r ofe fective noisel im
ite rs oft h
is
t
ype h ave b een d eveloped , and at ypical ci
rcuit iss hown i n
F
ig.4 .50.
Unfortuna tely, s i
nc e the n o
ise pulses contain a ppreciable
h
igh f r
equency c omponen ts, t he e fect of p assing t hese
p
uls est h
rough h ighly se
le c
tive If
.s tagesw il
lb et od is
to r
tt he
.
40 p
ulse s
,a nd t hisw il
l rende rn o
isel imi
ting mu ch lesse f
ective
CR2
o
n c ommun ica tion s receivers than o n aw ideband r e
ceiver
s
uch a st hose u sed f orte
levision reception. T oo ver come t h
is
I
NPUT OUTPUT d
ifi cu
lty, n o
i se l im
iting s y
stem shave b een develop ed w hich
d
e r
ive t hec ut-of fo r blank ing bias from n oise puls e
s w hich
4 • h
av e n ot p as sed t h
rough t he re
ceiver i .
f
. s t
age s b ut are
(
b) r
eceived o n ab road -band f i
xed tuned receiver
. S uch s ys
tem s
howev era ref air
ly c omp lex a nd tod ate have been u sed o n
ly
F
ig. 4
.48
. Si mple a
.f
. peak limiters. (
a
) Westector meta l rect
ifiers can
be u
sed w ithout back-biasing potentia
ls t
o provide suitable limit
ing i
nc onjunction w ith elabo rate fac
to ry-bui
lte quipmen t.
f
or headphone r ecept ion. (
b) The efectieeeee s o
f t
his limiter w ith The c ommon ly u sed s er
ies a nd s hunt l imi
te r o f the
c
rystal or metal rect
ifiers i
s go dby the s
etting of the variable
res
istor. Dicke rt type, w hi
lst ve ry e fect
iv e on a .m. s i
gna ls w hen
425
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
au se o fh um . T he h ome c on struc to r w ho may n o
t w ish t o
HT+
22 0K i
ncorpo rate a ccu ra te t herma l c ompen sation o f o scilla tor
c
ircu i
ts o r magne tic s creen ing w il
l o ften f ind i t ad ecided
AF advan tage t op lac e t he p owe r p ack i n ac omp letely s epa rate
0
.01 OUTPUT
unit.
AF A g reat r educ tion o f h eat i sp ossib le b y using s i
licon
I
NPUT L
IMITER
C
ONTROL powe r diode s r athe r t han a r ectifi er v alve . S u
itab le s i
licon
d
iode s are r ead ily a vai
lab le a nd t h e
ir u se i sr ecommended
0
.25
pF 3
3K f
o ra l
ls etsi nw h ich t h ep owe rp ack f orms a n i n
teg ra lp a rto f
t
h e r eceive r
. Whe re s i
licon d iode s a re u sed s ome p re-
c
au tion s w il
l u sua lly b e n ece ssary t o a void t he e fect s o f
7 ma ins o ve r
-vo ltage t ran s
ien ts a nd s wi
tch -on i nduc tive
F
ig. 4
.51. Variab
le peak l
imiter s
uitable f
or a
l
l t
ypes o
f signals
. Th is s
u rges; t his q uestion i s c on side red i n g reater d etai l i n
i
s an alternative a
rrange ment of the t
ype s
ho wn i
n Fig. 4.49
.
Chap te r 17 —Powe rS upp lies.
Apar t from t ho se s tage s fo r w hich c l ose
ly r egulated h .t
.
s
upp lies ar e requ i
red ( oscillato rs, m ixe rs creen s upp lies), t he
a
ctua l value o fh .
t. i sn otc r
itica l. P rov ided t h
e p owe r p ack
f
o
llow ing ad iode signal d e
tecto r
, isn ot suitab le for use o n
i
sr un w ell w ith in i t
s c apab ilit
ie s, s ufficient r egula tion w il
l
s
.
s.b
. o rc .w. n o
r tof ol
low ad etec
to r o fa no the r type.
u
sua lly b ep rov ided b yt hel o
ad i mpo sed b yt herece iver. An
S
epa rate demodu lators are o f
ten e mployed f or s.
s.b./c
.w .
a
nd a .m. and i tisc onvenient to place an ois e limiter int he h
.t. rai
lo f1 50 o r2 00 v olts, instead o ft he mo re common 2 50
v
olt s can ma teria lly r educe h eat g ene ra ted i nt he receive r.
a
udio inpu ttot hef i
rsta.f
. amp lifier. An a rrangemen t which
i
sknown a sth ev a
riable peak lim i
te r
,w il pe rmi tt hec l
ipping Heater v oltage i s mo re c r
itica l ; p oo r p erformance o r
o
fb oth negative and p os
itive half cyclesi sshown i nFig.4 .51. s
ho rtv alve l i
fec an o ften b et raced t ou nde r-o ro ve r-runn ing
t
he h eaters. Con s
t ructo rs s hou ld e nsure t hat t h e h ea ter
T
hisl im
iteri sn o
ta na utoma tic fol
low ing t ype b uti smanua lly
v
oltage —mea sured a t the v alveho lde rs— is w ithin 5p er c ent
a
djusted b y the pane l moun ted c ont rol. C orre ct o pe
ra t
ion
o
ft he n om ina l v oltage ( that i s
, w ith in t he range 6 -6-6 v ol
ts
o
fthisc ontrolw illb eo b
ta ined b ya djusting t hev alueso ft he
r
e
sistorso ne i
the rs i
de oft hep otentiome ters ot hata l
lo utpu t f
or an omina l 6 .3 v olt s upp ly).
i
sremoved a tt he fu
lly clockwise p o
sition. The circuits d escribed i nt his c hap te ra re i n
tended f oru se
An umbe ro fadditionalp racticalc ircuit
sf orv ar
iou sf orms w
ith d oub le-wound ma ins t ran sforme r s
, w h
ich c omp le tely
o
f noise limi
te rc an b e f
ound i n Ama teur R adio T echnique s i
solate t he cha ssi s from t he s upp ly ma in s, with h ea tersc on-
(
RSGB ) and i n the Ama teu r R adio C ircuits B ook ( RSGB ). n
ec ted i np a
ra l
le l a nd o pe rat
ing a t6 .3 o r 12.6 v olts. S ome
e
conomy i sp os sible b y u s
ing w ha t i sk nown a s a.c. /d.c.
t
echn ique —w idely e mp loyed i n b roadca s t r eceive rs— in
which t he ma in st rans forme ri s om itted a nd t hev alve h ea ters
PO WER SUPPL
IES c
onnec ted i ns er
ie s. T h
isi snece s sa ry f oro pe rat
ion f rom d .c
.
H
.F . r eceive rs f or use i n the home st
ation are n orma lly main s, a nd i s s ome time s u sed i n c ompe tit
ive ly-p riced ,
d
esigned f or o peration f rom t he a
.c
. ma ins supply u s
ing f
acto ry-builtc ommun ica t
ion sr ec eive rs. Howeve r
,i trequ ires
ad oub le-wound t ransforme r t o p
rov
ide 6 .3 or 12.6 v olts o
ne s ide oft hes upp ly ma in s t ob e d ire ct
ly c onne cted t ot he
f
or t h e v alve h eate rs
, a nd f ull
-wave rect
ifi
cation t o g ive c
has sis oft he re ceive r, a nd s t
ringen t p recau tions a re n ece s-
a
n h .
t. l ine o f 2 00-250 v o
lts
. T he current rat
ing s w ill s
ary t oa void r isk o fs hock . I ti ss t
rong ly r ecomm ended t hat
d
epend o n t he n umbe r o f
s
tages a nd t he v alve s u sed,
CH
I
a
nd i tw il
l b e mo s
t a dvan - RFC2
HT+
t
ageous t o h ave a vailab le
r
easonab le reserve sf oro pera- TI
1
.25 H
2
50mA 0
.011 0
t
i
on o f as soc iated e xter nal
I 5
00 1/
u
nits s uch a s p re-amp lifiers
a
nd c onver te rs. T he rect if
ier _
v
alve a nd ma in st ran sfo rme r
s
hou ld b e mo st g ene rou sly
r
a
ted t o a void e xce ssive 5K
h
ea ting w ith c on tinuous SW
(
OR S
UITABLE)
o
pe ration , p articula r
ly i n V2

0
.1
t
he t ropics
. VR
15 0/30

I
A
lthough i ti st he prac tice
i
n mo
t
o a
p
ack o
st c

n t
omme
ccommoda
h e r e
rc

ce
ia
te t
ive
l d
he p
r c
es

ha
ign
owe
ssi
s
r
s
,
F
USE
w
i
•
T5
EF
00V
1
5 0mA
i
tr epre sents a m a
jo r s ou rce
o
f h eat a nd c an p roduce 1
s
t
ray m agne tic f i
elds a round
t
het ran sforme ra nd s moo th- F
ig. 4
.52
. Typica
l r
ece
iver power supply incorporating ref
ine ments d
esirab
le w
ith
h
igh ga
in co m mun
ications receivers.
i
ng c hoke w hich c an b e t he AC MAINS

4
.
26
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
a
.c./d .c. t echn ique ss hou ld n ot b eu sed f orh ome -con struc ted
ama teu r r eceive rs o rf or mod ified e qu ipm ent. RF F
IRST I
F
A t ypica l r ec eive r p owe r s upp ly c ircu it u s
ing a r ectifi er AMPL
IFIER AMPL
IFIER

v
alve i ss hown i nF ig. 4 .52. T he ma in s f i
l
te r c onnec ted o n
M
IXER
t
hei npu ts ide o ft he ma inst ran sfo rme ri su se fuli np reven ting B
IAS B
IAS
e
lect rica l i n
te rfe renc e a nd r .f
. c ur ren t s f rom e ntering t he R
ESISTOR R
ESISTOR

r
eceive r. R .F .c hoke s LIa nd L 2 mu stb ec apab le o fc ar rying
t
h er eceive r ma in sc urren t w ithou th ea ting ( 0
.5 amp r ating i s
u
sua l ly s uitab le ), a nd t hef i
lterc apac ito rss hou ld b e r ated t o
w
ith stand 3 00 v olt s a .c. ( see p age 4 .36 ). T he se c omponen ts
s
hou ld p re ferab ly b e moun ted c lose t ot he ma in st ransforme r,
o
ra lte rna t
ive ly i n as epa ra te s creened a nd e a rthed m eta lb ox.
P
ro tec t
ive f u ses i n t he ma in s i n put c ircu it a nd a l
so i n t he
F
ig. 434
. Var iable sens
itivity s tandby c ontrol which faci
litate
s
h
.t.c ircuita re a dv isab le. An i nd irec tly h eated r e c
t if
ie rv alve monitor
ing ofo utgo
ing signals f
ro m the t
rans mitter
. I
n the s
tandby
i
sp re ferab le t oa vo id h .
t. b eing a pp lied t ot her e ceive rb e fo re pos
ition extra b
ias isapplied tothe r.f
. and i
.
f. s
tages
.
t
hev alve s h ave w armed u p. S u rge l imiting 2 0o hm r esis to rs
l
imi t t he p eak c u rren t t hrough t h e r ectifier. T he s moo th ing
c
hoke s hou ld b e v ery a dequa te ly r a
ted , a nd o ft he o rde r o f r
eceivers th
is t akes t he f orm o f as w
itch i n the main h .t
.
1
5t o2 0H en ry s. An a verage r eceive rw i
llr equ ire a bou t8 0t o l
i
ne,t hough t his may l ead t oc athode p oisoning oft hevalves
1
00 mA ( sma ll r eceive rs w ith h eadphone o utpu t much l ess) u
nle s
s ar es
isto ri sconnec ted a c ros
s thes wi
tch top ermit the
and i tisu sefu l t o d e s
ign t he p owe r p ack t o s upp ly a bou t v
alves t o continue o perating , b ut with r educed h .
t. T h
is
1
20 i nA, l eaving a r ese rve f o r t he o pe ration o f e xte rna l s
ystem i sn ot r ecommended p ract
ice f o
r h igh performanc e
c
onve rter s a nd o the r d evice s. r
eceivers as itp roduc e s at herma l change i n the operating
As t
ab i
lized v oltage r ail i sr equ ired f or t heo scillato r sa nd c
ond it
ion so ft heh .
f. oscillato r
,c ausing p oss
ible drif
td uring
t
his i sn orma lly o b tained b y m ean s o f av oltage r egu la to r o
pe rat
ion. A p ref
e r
red m ethod i st o increase substant
ially
t
ub e. C alcu la tion o ft hev alue o ft h es e r
ie sv oltage r esisto rt o t
heb iasa pp
lied t ot h
er .
f.a nd s ometime st hei .
f
.v a
lvesd uring
p
rov ide t he n ec essa ry v oltage d rop wh i
le ma inta in ing , i na l t
ran smiss
ion p e
riod s
. T h
i s can b e done b y s w
itching ina n
ope ra ting c ond i t
ion s, t h
e m in imum c ur ren t o ft he r e gula to r a
dd it
ional p re-set cathode b ias res
istor, set to the le
vel at
t
ube , i s d iscu ss ed i n Chap te r 1 7 —Powe r S upp l
i es. T o which t he receiver w ill p rovide u seful mon i
to r
ing o f the
p
rov ide l ow o pe ra ting t empe ra tu res t his r esisto r s hou ld b e t
ran smit
ter( F
ig.4 .54)
. A lterna tive
ly,t hea ddit
iona lbiasc an
v
e ry g ene rou sly r ated . b
e s uppl
ied f rom a n ega t
ive v ol
tage s upply or from a n ex-
I
f
,w ith aw ell-smoo thed s upp ly,t he re i ss t
ills ome r esidua l t
ernal negative p o
ten tial, s uch a s isp rovided f or re
ceiver
ma in sh um ,i tmay p rove a dvan tageou st ou se ah ea ters upp ly muting inb reak -in con trol s y
stems .
balanced a bou t e arth . T his c an b e d one b y m ean s o f a
c
en t re-tapp ed h ea te r w ind ing o n t he ma in s t r
an sforme r ( or
byt wo e qua ll ow -va lue r esisto rsa c ros st hew ind ing w ith t h e
ir TRANS
ISTOR
IZED R
ECE
IVERS
j
unc t ion c onnec ted t oe arth ). A ll l ead s i nt h er e ceive rc ar ry- During r ecen t y ears, high grade c ommun ica tion sr e ceive rs
inga .c.( hea te r,p i
lo tl amp a nd a .c.p rimary w iring )s hou ld b e b
as ed e ntirely o ns emiconduc to rsh ave b ecome a vailab le a nd
twisted a nd r ou ted a way f r om g rid c ircu its :a .c. l oop ss hou ld a
re i ncrea singly u sed i n the c omme rcial c ommun ica tion s
b
e a vo ided ( see F ig. 4 .53 ). O c cas iona lly h um may b e i n
t ro- f
i
eld . T hey o fer t he a dvantage s o f compac t s i
ze, g r eater
duced b ye lect ron ic c onduc t
ion b etween c athode a nd h ea te r
; r
e
liab ili
ty , l e
ss c hange o f cha racteri s
tic s with a ge, a nd l ow
t
h
i s c an b e o ve rcome b y p utting a p ositive b i as o f a bou t powe r c onsump tion p ermitt
ing o ptiona l u se o f b at te r
ie s
.
5
0 v olts o n t he h ea te r l i
ne r athe r t han c onne c t
ing t his t o No to nly a res em iconduc to rss i
gn if
ican t
ly mo re r e
liab le t han
earth . v
alve s,b utt hea ssociated low o pera ting v oltage sa nd r educed
h
ea t make f or i ncreased r e
liabili
ty i nt he othe rc omponen ts.
S
tandby S
witch
ing The s ma lls ize o fs emiconduc tor d evic es make s f eas
ib le mo re
s
oph istica ted c ircu i
try ;fore xamp le,t h eu se o fv ar
ious f orm s
When ac ommun ications re
ceive
r isl o
cated immed iate
ly
o
fs tabili zed o scillators orf requency s ynthe sizer s
, a nd c om -
a
djacent to at r
ansmit
ter, itwil
l usual
ly b e s
evere
ly o ver
-
p
l ex a.g.c . t e
chn ique s
.
l
oaded w hen the tr
ansm i
tte
r i sradia
ting. Mo st receive
rs
S
uch r eceive rs c an h ave a p erformanc e e very b it a s g ood
t
herefo
re incorpora
te aSTANDBY o r SEND/RECEIVE Switch to
a
s o r b ette r t han t he best valve d esign s; b ut h igh p er form -
mute the rece
iver dur
ing t r
ansm i
ssion p e
riods
. I n s ome
ance c an b e a ch ieved o nly w i
th c a reful a nd k now ledgeab le
design, a nd i ns ome r e
spec t
s c alls f or con side rably g reate r
comp lex ity . F or e xamp le o ne c ompac t g ene ral-pu rpo se
comme rcia l r eceive r (the Plessey PR 155 ) u ses n o l ess t han
1
60 s em iconduc to rd ev
ice s
.
I
n gene ral, w hi
le t r
an s
istor c ommun ication s r eceive rs o f
med ium p erfo rmance c an b e achieved r athe r mo re e asi
ly
and w i
th f ewe r c onstructiona l p rob lem s t han f or ac om -
pa rable v alve r eceiver, really h i
gh g rade t r
an s
i sto r s ets
tend t o p re sen t g reat dificul
tie s
, a nd mu s t b e conside red a n
WRONG CORRECT
a
dvanced p rojec t. I n practice t he ma jo rity o f d ome stic
F
ig. 4
.53
. Incorrect heater wir
ing can l
eave a l
oop under t
he va
lve amateu r r eceive r s continue t o use v alves, t hough t h e re a re
ho
lder which c ould increase hum level
. Th• c orrect method o
f
heater wir
ing is •
hown o n t
he r
ight
. many o cca sion s w hen a "h ybrid " a pproach — tha t i st he
4
.
27
 R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
mixing o fs ome v alvesw ith t r
an s
isto rsr epresen ts ac urren t
ly Front-end d ynam ic range with c onven tional transi
sto rs is
a
ttract ive s olution ( f
or e xamp le, ab uilt-
in c rystal cal
ib rator aformidab le problem, though b yu se o fa t
tenua torsb etween
o
r s ideband s e
lection c rystal o s
cillato rs can b e mo re c on- t
he aer
ia l and t he fi
rst stag
e, o r b y a ddi
tiona l lo
cal a .g
.c .
v
en ien tly de s
igned a round t ransis
to r s
). When ma inss upp l
ies l
oops (some time s used i n conjunc tion w ith a v o
ltag e
-con -
a
re n o t a vailable a s in mob i
le o pe ration, th e attract
ion s of t
ro
lled t ransistor s t
age) a nd t he u se o f forward a .g.c.
s
em iconduc to rs are o verwhe lm ing . Whe re a u nit ist o be r
ece
ivers c an b e de s
igned t o h andle e ven w ider d ynam ic
f
ormed b a
sica l
ly a round s em iconduc to rs b ut v alves a re r
anges than ar e norma l with valves.
r
equ ired f ors ay thef r ont-end ,a na ttrac t
ive s o
lu t
ion i stou se Developmen t in th e semi-conduc tor f i
eld isv ery r apid
t
he s mall Nuv istorv alve s. a
nd t h
e n ext few yea rs are li
kely t o p roduce d evices w hich
The ma in p rob lem w ith r eadily a vai
lab le c onven tional w
il revolutioni s
e receiverd es
ign . P rice so fn ewly develop ed
t
r
an s
isto r
s i st hat o fa chiev ing a r eally w ide d ynam ic r ange c
omponen ts areu sual
ly p rohibitively h igh b u
t fal
l rapidly a s
o
f t he f ront-end a nd i .
f
. s tages needed t o hand le b o
th v ery p
roduction t echnique s improve.
w
eak a nd v ery s trong s ignals w i
thou t i nt
roduc ing v arious
f
orms o f cro ss-modu lation a nd b lock ing. T his i si n p ar
t T
he F
ie
ld Efec
tTrans
istor
b
ecau se t here i sn o nea r e quivalent b ipola r transistor tot h
e As a lready m en t
ioned , t he u nipo lar f i
e
ld e fect t ransistor
v
ariab le -mu p entode v alve. T his make s itdifi cult too btain and a ssoc ia ted d evice s h ave e me rged a s a mo st i mportan t
r
ealy e f
ective a utoma tic g ain c ontrol a nd g ood m ixer device f or h .f. a nd v .h
.f. r eceive rs a nd c onver te rs
. T hey
c
ha racte rist
ic s u nle s
s u n
ipo lar d evic es such a s the v arious o fer s ub stan t
ia l a dvan tage s o ve r t he mo re u sua l bipo lar
f
orm s o ff i
e
ld e fect t ransistors (FET s) m en t
ioned b elow a re t
ran s
i sto rs i na l
low ing r .
f. s tage s a nd m ixe rs to h and le a n
u
sed . app rec iab ly w ide r r ange o f s igna ls w i
thou t i ntroduc ing
O
ther problems i nc
lude : c
ro s s-modu la t
ion . A l so e l
im inated a re t hose p rob lem s o f
(
a) I
n c
rea sed circuit l oading d ue to l ower inpu t i mped- t
r an s
i sto r d esign wh ich a ris e from t h e lowe r impedance s of
ances. b
ipo la r t r
an sistor s
, a nd t h eir b eing v oltage r athe r t han
(
b) Feedback c apacitance s t
hat may r equiren eu tral
izing, c
ur ren t o pe rated d evice s.
(
c) The v ariat
ion o f s emiconduc tor c haracteristics with Au nipo la rd evice i ss imp ly o ne i n wh ich o n
ly o ne kind o f
t
empe rature
. ma jor ity c arrie r i s i nvo lved ( i
n c on trad ic t
ion t o bipo lar
(
d) The f act that, u n
les s protect
ion c i
rcuits a re f i
t
ted, device si nw h
ich t heb a s
ic a c
tion d epend su pon b o th ma jority
t
ran si
sto r
s c an e a
sily b e damag ed o r destroyed b y and m ino rity c arriers i na ny g i
ven d evice )
.
l
arge i nput v oltage s d ue t o st
atic b ui
ld-up o n the F
ig. 4 .55 i s ad iag ramma tic r ep re sen tation o f t he FET ,
a
erial, o r impu lse i n
terfe
rence f rom an earby t r
an s
- f
r om w hich i twill b en oted t hatt hec arr
ie rsf l
ow i n an arrow
mit
te r
. channe l b etween s our ce ( s
) a nd d ra in ( d) w ith t he f low
(
e) The g reater c ha racteris
tics spread b etween d evices d
e te rm ined b y t he field ( that i st h e v o
ltage ) a pp lied t o the
b
ea ring t he same t ype n umbe r t han i su sual w ith g
a te ( g). T he a ction i st hu s v ol
tage c ontro lled a nd i sc losely
v
alve s
. analogou s t o the v alve , b ut s ince t h e c arrier c an b e ei
the r
(
f) And t he need t o p ay greater at
ten tion t o a ccurate hole s o r e lectron s t he c on trol v oltage may b e p ositively o r
impedance ma tch ing t hrough a ll s tages o f t he n
ega tive ly b iased a cco rd ing t o w he the r t h
e d evic e i s a
r
eceive r
. p
-channe l o r n-channe l d evice ( rathe r l ike t he d if erence
Wh ile this may s eem af o
rm idab le l i
s
t, i nf act mo st o ft he b
etween ap -n-p o rn -p -n t ran sis
to r). F ort hose who t h
ink i n
p
rob lem s a re b eing o ve rcome o ra voided w ith c urren t types t
erms o f v alve o peration , t he g ate r ough ly c orre spond s t o
t
h eg rid ,t h es our ce tot hec athode a nd t hed rain t ot hea node .
o
fs em iconduc tors. S i
l
icon d evice sc an wi thstand g rea terv ol
t-
a
ge sa nd a rel esss uscep tible t ot empe rature t han g erman ium In t he a pplica t
ion o f b ias p oten tials t o t he g ate, t he
d
ev ice s (though t hey t end t ob e al i
t
tle n ois
ie rf ore quiva lent pola r
i ty o f t he b i
a s
ing v oltag e w i
ll c learly d epend u pon
s
truc tu res)
. D evice si ntended f orf orwa rd r athe rt han r everse whe the r ap -channe lo rn -channe ld ev ice i sb eing u sed ; int he
a
.g.c. a l
low i mp roved a .
g.c. c haracte r
i st
ics w ithou t i n
tro- c
ase o f t he I GFET t here i s af u r
the r d if erence b etween
d
uc ing c ros s-modu lation . Ano the r d evelopmen t wh ich i s d
ep letion -mod e a nd e nhanc emen t-mod e d evic es
. An I GFET
a
lready a fecting t he d esign o ft hef ron t-end o fh .
f. r eceivers d
ev ice h aving a pprec iab le c hanne l c onduc tan ce w ith z e ro
a
nd c onver te rs i s t he l ow-no ise junc tion -ga te f i
e
ld e f
ect g
ate b ia s, a nd wh ich i st h en r ever se b i
a sed t o r educe d ra in
t
ran sistor. V a r
iou s s pecial f orms k nown a s I GFET s
(
insula ted g ate f i
eld e fect tran si s
to r
s), MOST s ( meta l o xide
D
RAIN
s
em iconduc to r t ransisto rs
), a nd t he more r e cen t d ual -gate
IGFET s ( comb ining t he e qu iva lent o f t wo v alve s a nd t hus
G
ATE
s
uitab le f or u se i nc ascode c ircu its) are a l
so l i
kely t oh ave a C
HANNEL
p
rofound e fect o n d esign .
S
OURCE
The se u nipo la r d evic es h ave h igh i npu t i mpedance s a nd SUPPLY
c
ha rac terist
ic s wh ich make t hem l ess s uscep tib le t o c ross-
modu lation ; i n this r espec t t hey a re n early e qu iva len t to
B
IAS
v
ariab le -mu p entode v alves. B ecau se t heir c harac teri st
ics
BULK)
a
re n ea r
ly s qua re-law , t hey c an a ct a s e xtreme ly e f
ficient \GATE/
l
ow n oise m ixer s
. A t t het ime t hise d
i t
ion i sb eing p repa red,
t
he p rice s oft he v ariou s forms o ffie
ld e fect t ran sistor s are
a
pp re ciably h ighe r than mo re c onven tiona l b ipo lar t ran- (
a
) _ (
b
)
s
i
sto r sb ute ven t hese p rice sh ave d ropped t o al evel whe re the F
ig.
T4.55. (
a) D
iagra m mat
ic r epresentat
ion o f the h
.f. Junct
ion F ET
i
n ac o m mon source amplif
ier. (
b) So me o f the varied s y mbols
u
se o f FET ss hou ld b es er
ious ly c on s
ide red f ort hef ron t-end s u
sed f or the FET With n-channe l devices t he bias a nd s upp
ly
o
fr eceive rs
. po
larit
ies are the s
a me as for va
lves.

4
.28
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
b
ia s, g radua lly d ec reas
ing a s t he d evice g oes t owa rds i t
s
c
ut -off p o int ( in t his c ase c alled t he p inch -of f v oltage )
r
athe r l i
ke t he v ariable-mu p en tode. T his c harac teristic
mean s tha t t he d evice w ill h ave r elatively l i
tt
le d iference i n
noise p erfo rmance w hen u sed a s am ixe r a s i th as a s a n
amp lif
i er, a part f r om i ts v alue i n prov iding g ood a .
g.c.
The se d ev ices h ave l owe r s uscep tibi
lity t o t empe rature
v
a riation t han b ipo lar t r
an s
isto rs, af eatu re mak ing t hem
a
ttrac tive a so scilla tors.
The r e
la tively h igh i npu t i mpedanc e i mpl
ie s t ha t g ood
p
r e-selecto r s e
lect ivity c an b e o bta ined, s ince t h e c omp ro-
mise b etwe en p owe r tr
an sfe r a nd Q n ece ssary w ith b ipo lar
V
ALUE T
O S
UIT F
ET U
SED t
ran sistor s d oe s n ot a r
ise. I ts hou ld b e n oted t ha t although
an F ET amp lifie r i s a n a pprec iably h ighe r i mpedance
F
ig
. 4
.56
. A s
ing
le-FET r
ece
iver
. a
r rangemen t t han o ne with b ipola rt ransisto rs
, t his d oe s not
m ean t hat t he s ou rce i mpedance mu st alway s b e v ery h igh.
c
ur ren t a nd h ence amp lifica tion i st e
rmed ad ep letion -mode Fo re xamp le at1 00 Mc /st h eo p
timum i npu ti mp edanc ef ora
d
evice . Howeve r I GFET d ev ice s a r e mo re c ommon ly common s ource 2N3823 j unc tion -ga te F ET i sa bou t 1 000
d
esigned t o u ti
liz e a n e nhanc emen t mode , i n w hich u nde r ohm s, a nd i n t he c ommon -mode c onfigura tion a bou t 3 00
z
ero b ias t he re i sl i
tt
le c hanne l c onduc tance b ut w hich c an ohm s.
Repre sen tative o f junc t
ion -ga te F ET s s uitab le f or h .f
.
b
e f o rwa rd b i ased t oi ncr eas e t he c ontro l c urren t
.
Junc t
ion -ga te F ET' s a r e a lway s r eve rse-bia s ed a s i n t he r
e ceive r a ppl
ica tion s are th e 2 N3823 a nd l owe r-co st d evices
s
uch a s t he 2N38 19 , 2N4223 , 2N4224 a nd T IS34 . S u
i table
d
ep le tion -mode I GFET .
Becau se o f t h e e xtr eme ly h igh i n put i mpedance o f h
. f
. amp lifier arrangemen ts a re th e neutrode ( s
ing le n eu tra-
IGFET 'S, c on s
ide rab le c a re mu st b e t aken w hen h and ling l
ized d evice i nc ommon s our ce c onf
igu ration ), t he c ascode
(two d ev ic es or s ingle d ual -gate u n
it)
, a nd f o r u .h.f. t he
t
he d evice s t o p reven t t he b uild -up o f s ta
tic c ha rge s w hich
c
an p unc tu re t h e i nsu la ted l a ye r
. S horting w ire o r f o
il unneu tral ized c ommon -ga te c onfigura t
ion .
s
hou ld b e k ep t w rapped a round l ead s o f d evice s w heneve r
p
o ssib le w hen o ut o f c ircu it, a nd a lway s d uring s to rage . F
ET App
lica
tions
When t h e s ho rting w ire i st o b e r emoved , h old t he l eads Although i tw ould b e p oss
ib le t o u se FET s f or many
b
etween t he f inge r a nd t humb o f o ne h and t o p rov ide a r
eceiver s tage s, th e a ddit
iona l c o
s t mean s that i n p ractic e
l
eakage p ath . N eve ra l
low ag ate l ead t of l
oa t s ince t h ere i s t
hese d evic es a r e usua lly f i
tted o nly i n the r .f
. s tage (s),
t
hen n o b leed p ath f ors ta tic e lec tricity . J unc tion -gate FET s m
ixe r, a nd , less frequen tly , aso scillato ro r inI f
. stage s
.
a
re l ess s u sc ep tible t o t his f orm o f d amag e, b ut e ven s o Fig. 4.56 s how s t he simp lest p ossib le a rrangemen t u s
ing a
r
ea sonab le p re cau tion s s hou ld b e t aken . s
ingle j unc tion -gate FET a s ar e gene ra t
ive 0 -V -0 t ype o f
T he i n pu t i mpedance b etween g ate a nd s ource i sv ery h i gh r
eceiver ; t his c an g ive r esult
s c ompa rab le to a n e quiva len t
(
extreme ly h i gh i nt he c ase o ft h e I GFET ), a nd t he d evic es v
alve r ece iver wh ich i tso c l
os e
ly r esemb les, though s uch a
c
an b e u sed i nc ircuit s w hich a r e a lmo st e xac t l ow -vo ltage r
eceive rw ould b e o fl imited u se f or ama teur w orking u nde r
e
qu iva len t s o f v alve c i
rcu it s
. A s a n amp lif
i er t h e FET c an moder nc ond ition s.
b
e u s ed i nt h e c ommon - source c onfigu ration ( s
im ilar t o t he An e xp er
imen tal f ron t-end u sing t wo j unc tion -ga te
g
rounded -ca thode v alve c ircu it) o r a sc ommon -ga te ( s
im ilar FET sa nd ab ipo lar t r
an s
i stor oscillato ri sshown i nFig.4 .57.
t
ot heg rounded -g rid), a nd t he re a r e s ome a dvan tage s i nt he This circu it i sb ased o n ad esign b y G3U MF i ntended t o
u
se o fc ommon -ga te amp lifier s o n v .h.f. a nd u .h.f. c
ove r a bou t 1 0 to 30 Mc / s and t op rovide a n i.
f. o utpu t o n
The I GFET /MOST i s
, f or p rac tical p urpo se s
, s im ilar t o 1
.6 Mc /s.
t
h e h .f. j unc tion -ga te d evice s b ut h ave a n a dd itiona l i nsu- The s qua re-law r e
lation ship b etween t ransconduc tance
l
ated l a
ye r i nte rpo sed b etween g ate a nd c hanne l, r esulting a
nd d rain c ur rent make s FET s a nd I GFET s attrac t
ive f or
in e xtreme ly h igh i n put i mpedance s, b ut mak ing i tr athe r s
uch a pplica tion s a s p roduc t d ete cto rs a nd a s b alanced
easy t o d amage a u ni
t b y s tatic v oltag es u p t o t he s tage mixe r
s.
w he re i ti ss af e
ly w ired i nto c ircu ith av ing b leed r e s
istor s. A fu r
th er p roblem w ith s em iconduc tor f ront-ends i st he
A p rob lem w ith c urr en tly a va ilable FET d ev ices i st h
e n
eed t o p rov ide p ro tection f r om e xtreme ly s t
rong s igna ls
wide p roduc tion s pread o fc harac te ristics, a nd t h
i sw ill o ften f
rom t hes tat
ion t ran smitte ro rs tatic c ha rges built u p ont he
make i tn ece ssa ry t o s elec t t he b iasing r es
isto r t o s uit a n a
e r
ial o r o the r form s o f i mpluse i nferenc e. C ry s
tal d iode s
,
i
ndiv idua l s pecimen ; t his h oweve r n e ed p res en t n o g reat c
onnec ted b ack -to-back a crosst hef i
rs tt uned c i
rcuit,c an g ive
difficu ltie s t o t he c ons truc to r o f s i
ng le u nits. F o r many u
se ful p rotec tion ; and s il
icon t ran si
sto rs a re le
ss s uscep tible
s
tage s, at echn ique i s t o i nclude i n
itially a 1 0K o hm s t
han g erman ium t ypes t od amage f rom t h
isc ause.
p
o ten tiome te r s e
t a t max imum r esistance i nt he s ou rce l ead
i
nt hep lace o ft heb iasr esi sto r,a nd t h en t oa pp ly p owe ra nd
T
rans
istor R
.F. S
tage
r
educe t he s ou rce r es
i stance g radua lly u n t
il t he r equ ired
d
ra in c urren t i s o bta ined . T he p oten tiome te r i s t hen The d
esign o f an h .
f. receiver isa lways a c ompromi se
r
emoved , i t
s v alue m ea sured , a nd r eplaced b y a f ixed b
etween minimum n oise fi
gure,m inimum s pur
iousr e
spon ses
r
esis tor o ft h e c lose st c or re spond ing v alue . a
nd m in
imum c ross
-modu lat
ion o r blocking. L ow n o
is e
T he s lope o f t he F ET c ha rac te r
istic d epends u pon t he means high g ain b efore t he m ixer; m inimum s pur
iou s
opera ting p oin t
, a s i n av ariab le -mu v alve. S qua re-law r
e
spon se
sr equire an umbe ro ft uned c
ircui
t sbefore t
he(f
irst)
c
ha rac te r
i stic s m ean t h at t h
i s s lope v aries l inea rly w ith t he m
ixe r (
or a
lte
rna tive
ly c arefu
lly d e
signed w ideband fi
l
ters);
4
.29

• .
.. .•• •
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
o

I 1
.
6 M dt
1
00pF

2
N36
19
G

4
7pF 2
2926
470K
4,- -
,

APPLY AGC HERE I

F REQU
IRED R
ESISTORS MARKED I D
EPEND ON 2N38
19

F
ig
. 4
.57
. C
ircu
it o
f t
he 03 U MF FET f
ront e
nd.

l
ow c ro ss-modu la tion , o n t he o the r h and , r equ ire s t he l eas
t T
rans
istor M
ixer
s
possib le g a in b efo re t h em ixe r
. Any n on -linea r d ev ice c an b e u sed a s am ixer, a nd a
Since e xterna l n o
ise l imits u sab le h .f
. s en sitivity , e x- t
ran sistor c an b e o pera ted a s am ixe r b y a pply ing a n oscil
-
t
reme ly l ow n ois e i s much l ess i mpo rtan t t han o n v .h.f., a nd l
ato r v o
ltage t o the em itte r c i
rcui t a nd t he incom ing s ignal
an oise f igu re o fs ay 6 -10db i sq uite a dequa te. T his c an b e t
ot heb ase c ircu it; alte rna tively b oth s igna l
s may b ea pplied
a
ch ieved r ead i
ly w i th mode rn t ran s
is to rs. I n t he a bsence o f t
o t he ba se c ircuit. M ix ing r e
su lts f r om t he n on-l
inea ri
ty
av ariab le -mu d ev ice, as tepped a t
tenua to r b etween a erial b
e twe en c olle ctor c urren t a nd b ase -em itter v ol
tage . I t
and t he f i
rst t r
an sisto r i si mpor tan t
, u n
le ss t his s tag e i s s
hou ld ben oted t hatt heo pt
imum o scilla torv oltage i s much
p
ro te cted b y al o ca l a. g
.c. l oop i nw h
ich t h ec on tro l c ha rac - l
ess t han t hat r equi red f or av alve , abou t 0.1 v olt p eak. I n
t
eristic i sd erived f rom t he s igna ls p re sen t i n t his s tage, efe ct the o scillato r s i gna l modu la tes t he n on -
linea r i m
-
r
athe r th an , a s i nc onven tiona l a .g
.c . t ho se p re sen t a fte r t he p
edance o ft hee m
itte r-ba se diode . S ince t her .f
.s i
gna li sa l
so
s
ele ct
iv ity r esponse h as b een s hap ed. G erman ium d ev ice s p
re sen t th e u sua l s um a nd d iferenc e f requenc ie s are p ro-
have b e
t te r n oise p er formance t han s il
icon d evice s, b u
t duced , and amp lified b y t ran s
istora ct
ion .
s
uf i c
ien tly l ow n o
is ec an b e a chieved w ith b oth t yp es. I
n t he ma jo ri
ty o f s ma l
l b roadca s
t t ransisto r r ec
eive rs a
Feedback c apac i tance b etwe en i npu t a nd o u tpu t s igna l
s s
ing le trans i sto r f unc t
ion s a s ac omb ined m ixe r/os c
il
la tor
may r equ i re n eu tra liza tion, a lthough t his may n otb en eeded u
sing w ha t i st ermed t h e a ddi
t ive s elf-o sci
lla t
ing a rrange -
i
ft he d ev ice i so pe rated w ell b e
low i t
s u ppe r f requency men t. T he t ran sis
to ra ct sb oth as ac orrunmon -em itterm ixer
l
i m
its. A n a lterna t
ive a pproach , w hich e fective ly e l
im ina tes and a l
so a s ac ommon -ba se o scillato r
. T o o btain r e ady
t
h e n eed f or h .f. n eu traliza tion , i st he t rans isto r c as code o
scillation w hen t he r ece ive r isf i
rs t s w
i tched o n, t he bia s is
c
ircu it
. c
ho sen s o t hat t h e o scilla tor c ircui t i si ni
tially b iased f or
As a lready s tated t he p rov ision o f r eally g ood a .g.c. i s c
lass Ao pe ration ;s ub sequen tly re ct
ifica tion o ft heo sci
lla tor
mo re d if icu lt w i
th t r
an s
isto rs t han w ith v alve s; i np rac tice v
oltage a t t he em i t
te r p rovide s a dditiona l b ias c urren t
,
b
o th r eve rse a nd f orwa rd-ac ting a .g.c. t e
chn ique s may b e d
riving t h e t r
an s
isto r i nto c la s
s Bo pera tion. T his h e
lp s to
f
ound . s
tab i
lise th e amp l
itude o fo sc
illation ,p rov iding amo re e qual
Reve rse a .g.c. i s at erm a pplied t o at r
an sis tor amp lifier p
er fo rmance o ve rt he t un ing r ange ;i nsome s ets ag erman ium
which i sg ain -con t rolled b y h o
ld ing t he c ollec to r v oltage d
iode i sconnec ted a cro sst hec o
llec to rf e
edback c oil tol i m
it
r
e
la tive ly c onstan t a nd c hang ing t he b ias c ur ren t a nd o
scillatoro utpu t a nd s o p reven t b locking o scilla t
ion .
h
ence c ollec to r c ur ren t t hrough t he d evice. I ti st hus c lose Wh i
le t hi s t ype o f c ircu it can b e u sed i n ama teur-band
t
ot het e
chn ique u sed w ith v alve s,e xcep tt hatg a in i sc urren t r
eceive rs ( pa rticular ly f or t he l owe r f requenc ies), t here a re
r
athe r t han v oltage c on trolled . A d isadvan tage i st ha t t he an umb er o f a dvan tage s, i ncluding r educ tion o f o sci
lla tor
l
i
nea r
ity o ft he amp lif
i er isr educ ed
, i ncrea sing s uscep tib ility p
ulling , inu sing as epa ra te t ransisto r a sa n osc i
lla tor.
t
o c ro ss-modu la tion ; f or t his r eason u se o f t he s y
stem i s Conve rsion g ain o f at ransistorm ixe r i sdefined a s
:
d
ep reca ted f or h igh -pe rformance r e ceive rs. I
.F. p owe ra va ilab le att he m ixe ro utpu t
Forwa rd a .g.c. i sa n i ncrea sing ly p opu lar s ystem i nw h
ich R.F. powe r avai
lab l
e atthe mixe r i
nput
t
he c ollec to r-ba se ( or c ol
lec to r-em i tte r) v oltage i s made t o Convers
ion g ains of2 0-25db aret yp
ical.
v
ary i n a cco rdance w ith c ollec to r c u rren t, t h e g ain b eing T
ransis
to r
s u sed as m ixers shou
ld h ave eff
ic
ient e mit
ter-
d
irec t
ly d ep enden tu pon v oltag ea cro ss,a nd c urren tt hrough , b
ase diode cha racter
istics; low e m
itter input capacitance;
t
he t ran s
is to r
, T he u sua l techn ique i st oi nclude ar es
i sto r in a
nd g ood p owe r g ain a t the inte
rmed iate f r
equency .
t
he c ollec to r c i
rcu it s o t hat t he c o
llec to r v oltage f al
l s w ith A
lthough at ransis
to rcan b eu sed a
s am ixerwith as eparate
i
ncrea sing e mitterc urr ent. o
sci
lla
tor u p t o a bout t wice it
s alpha c ut
-off frequency
4
.30

-
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
(
fa),i tm ay b e a dvisable , ino rder t o k eep t he n oise f igure i
n s i
gnificant
ly i mproved i n
te rmodu lat
ion a nd blocking
l
ow, t ou se transistorsw ith a na l
pha c ut-of f requency s ome c
haracte r
ist
ics, a nd r educt
ion o f spurious s i
gnal
s. T his
s
i
xo rs even t imest he max imum f requency o fo scillation .T h
is t
e
chn ique c an be a ppl
ied t o r
eceivers throughout the m.f.
,
i
mplie s t he use o f at ran sis
tor w ith a n f a int he r egion o f h
.f
.a nd v .h
.f.rang e
;f oro pt
imum n oisep er
formance o n
2
00 Mc /s f or a n h .
f. r eceiver with a max imum o pe rating i
trequire s p
re-mixe r r.
f. ampl
ificat
ion o ft he o
rder of2 0db
f
r
equ ency o f3 0 Mc /s. o
nt hew eakest si
gnals. ( S
ee Fig. 4.
16.)
Noi se f i
gure s of I 7db a t3 0 Mc /s ar e re pre sen ta t
iv e o fa The o p
timum a pproa ch isa
lmo stc er
tainly theuse off i
e
ld
g
ood l ow n o
ise m ixer. S ince th
i si swella bove t heo pt
imum e
fect d evice
s w hich h ave near ideal square-
law c haracter-
n
oise f i
gu re ( 6-
10db ) i ts how s the n eed f or p re-m ixe r r.f
. i
s
t
icsm aking th
em i n
he ren
tly mo resuitable fo
rt h
isa ppl
ica -
amplification. B ut i n v iew o f t he p oss
ib le p oo r c ro s
s- t
i
on t han ei
ther t r
ansis
to rsord iodes.
modu lation a nd b locking c haracteristics o f m ixe rs i t
T
ran
sistor Osc
illa
tor
s
i
salway sa dvisable t oa im a tt hel owestp oss
ib le m ixe rn oise
i
no rde r t or educe a sf a
ra s p o
s s
ible t he n eed f or p re -m ixer In t e
rm s o f f
requency a nd a mplitude stabil
ity, t r
ansistor
s
i
gna la mp lif
ica t
ion . Am easure ofn egative f eedback a pplied o
sci
lla tors v ary f r
om v ery b ad t o very g ood. T ransistor
t
ot he m ixer ( fo
r e xamp le t h
e i n
clu s
ion o f al ow-va lue , u n
- c
hara cte r
istic s a
r e both t empe rature and f requen cy d epen-
b
ypa ss ed e mitter r esis
to r) c an i mprove c ro ss-modu la tion d
ent, i mpedanc es tend t o be much l ower a nd also c ontain
c
harac teri s
tics b ut ats ome d egrada tion o ft hen oise c harac- r
eactive c ompon ents. T o obtain real
ly good s t
ability th e
se
t
e
rist
ic s. p
oint s mu s
t b et aken i nto accoun t
.
For h igh p erformance i ti sthu s i mpor tan t t o l imit t h
e With a t unable o s
cillator, the re
sonan t circui
t s hould b e
s
i
gna la pp l
ied t ot h
em ixe r,e i
therb ya na eriala t
tenua to ro r o
fh igh Q a nd arranged s o t
hat as li
tt
le loading a sp os s
ible
ef
ic
ien ta .g
.c.o nt h
er .
f
.a mpl
ifier
. Af orm o fs emicondu ctor i
si mpo sed b ythet ransistor. Th
i sm eanst ha
tt hetuned c ircui
t
m
ixe r w hich a ppea rs too ferc onsiderab le a dvan tage w here i
si so
la ted a s far as p os s
ible from t hee fects ofc hang e
s i n
t
hel os so fc onve rsion g ain i snoti mpo rtanti sth ed iode r i
ng t
ransisto r c haracterist
ic s cau sed b y c hange s o f s upply
b
alanced modu lato ru sing f ourc rystald iode s ;t h
is c an r esul
t v
oltage a nd/o rt empe rature. T he d.c. ope
rating p ointo fthe

+9 V

OUTPUT

I
NPUT

R FC
OSC
ILLATOR

(
c
) (
d
)
F
ig. 438
. (a
) Si mp l
ified circuit of input r.
f amp lif
ier circuits s
how ing the type o
f precautions wh ich may b e a dvisable including a s tepped
a
ttenuator, back -to-back b iased crysta l d
iodes to provide p rotect
ion a ga
inst l
ocal t
rans mitters and (Cs
, RN)u n
ilateralized " l
ization
."
(
b) Cascode r.f
. amp lif
ier f or operat ion u p t
o 3 0 Mc,s. Typical trans
istors AF114, 2G414, Neutra lization is unnecessary . (c
, d) N-channe l
f
i
eld efect transistors s uch as the 2N3823 ofer a ppreciable advantages for low c
ross modu lation, l
ow n o
ise r.
f. amplif
ier a nd mixers. With
v
ery high input impedances , t
he c ircuits c
lose
ly r ese mble those found in va
lve pract
ice. A typical r
.f
. amp l
ifier is sho wn at (c) and an FET
mixer in (
d). The v arious f or ms of F ETs
. M OSTs a nd I GFETs may p rove valuable f
or t he f
ront-ends ofc o m munication receivers.

4
.
31
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
t
ransis
to r s hou ld b e s tab
ilized, s ince a ny v ar
iation may I
ntegrated C ircu its
afect the o utput frequency a nd w aveform. The i ncr easing a vailability o f l ow -co s
t mono lithic s emi-
T
o o vercome t he problem o f l ow i mpedance s
, t he tuned c
onduc tor i n
teg rated c ircuits ( S IC s) i s likely t o h ave a
c
i
rcu its hould b ee i
the ro fextreme ly high C, ort het ransistor g
row ing i nfluence o n h .
f. receive rd es
ign , n o
t o nly i nt he use
c
onne cted t o at apping (o r st
ep-down w inding), o r v ia a o
f d evices i ntended s pecifically f or l i
near c ircu its ( r
.f
., i .
f
.
c
apac i
tive p oten t
iome ter
. I nput i mpedance o ft het ransistor a
nd a .
f. amp lifiers) b ut also i nt h e a daption o fS IC s origin-
a
l
ly i n
tended p rima ri
ly f o r d igita l ( two-state ) c i
rcuits b ut
c
an b er aised b y theu se oft hesupe r-alpha p a
ir( Da r
lington
c
ompound ) c onne c
tion w ith t wo t ransistors
. C apacitive which c an o f
ten b e u sed a s l inea r amp lifiers a t low s i
gnal
l
evels, u t
ilizing t hed iferen tial a mp lif
ie rso f
ten i ncorpo rated.
po
ten t
iome te ra nd sup er
-alpha techn ique sh ave both p roved
With t hea ido fi nteg rated c i
rcu its,i tw il
l bep os s
ib le tot ackle
v
ery s uccessful i nt r
an smit
te r v
.f
.o .s. Ad egree ofs t
ab i
liza-
c
omp lex e quipmen t mor e c heap ly , mo re q uick ly a nd w ith
t
i
on o f t he e mitter cu r
rent can b e o btained b y feeding t he
mo re c er
ta inty o fa ch ieving s ati sf acto ry result s.
o
scil
lato rs tage from ar e
latively high supply v o
ltaget hrough The i nteg rated c i
rcu i
t c an b e c onside red a s ag roup o f
ahigh v alue resistor. a
ctive d evice s ( t
ran sistors, d iode s, f i
eld e f
ec t d evices) a nd
Some a uthorit
ie ss uggest that at r
an sisto rwith theh ighest p
as sive c omponen ts ( r
esistor s a nd c apac ito rs), a nd a l
l
p
o s
sible fa c
harac te
ris t
icss hould alway sb eu sed in avariable n
ec es sary i n
te rconnec t
ion st of orm c omp lete c ircu itn etwork s
o
sci
llator; b u
t, prov ided t hat th
ef i sh igh enough n ot to p
ackaged i nto o ne u nit
. I n p rac tice, t hese b uilding b locks
c
aus ereduced o utputa ttheh ighesto perating frequency , t
his w
illn o rma l
ly b eu sed w i
th e xte rna lc onven tiona lc omponen ts
p
recau t
ion a ppea rs t o have l e
ss e fec t t han is some time s f
or s uch a pplication s a sc ommun ica t
ion s r e
c eive rs.
s
uggested. I
n p ractice, t wo r a
the r d if eren t f orm s o f i n
teg rated
Many o ft hes t
eps r equired toi mprove o sci
llator st
ab i
lity c
i
r cui t have b een d eve loped , p lu s s ome "h yb rid " f orm s in
t
end tor educe outpu ta nd ab uf
fers tage may b en eeded;t his which t hese t e
chn ique s a re c omb ined t ogethe r. T he ma in
c
an c onveniently be ac ommon -collec tor c i
rcuit wi
th a l ow g
roup s are t h
in - and t h
ick -fi
lm I Cs a nd s em iconduc tor I Cs
i
mpedance o utput t aken f rom t he e mi
tte r, wi
th t he signal (
SIC s). I n t hin-film f orm , t h e c onnec tion s, r esi
sto rs a nd
i
n
jected i n
to thee m
i ttercircuit oft he m ixe rstage. c
apac itors a re d epo sited o n i nsu lated s ubstra tes s uch a s
Transis
to r osc
illato rs a
re c ons
ide red i n greater detail in c
eram ic o r g lass; t he a c
tive d ev ice s a re a t p res ent u sually
Chapter 6—H .F. Tran smit
te rs
. a
t
tach ed s epa rately. D evice s s u ch a s transisto rs w hich a re

—9V
OUTPUT

C
l
1
5 00pF

(
b
)

F
ig. 439
. Typica
l trans
istor mixer c
ircuits
. (a) S
elf-osci
llating a
dditive mixer. ( b
) On the higher f
requency bands t
here a
re advantages i
n
u
sing separate mixer and o
scil
lator transistors
. ( c) A Vackar osc
illator
, with va
lues t
o provide a t
uning r
ange of2
.0 t
o 2
.5 Mc
/s, Cl a
nd C2
s
hou ld be po
lystyrene and C2 s
ilvered mica
.

4
.
32
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS

manuf ac tu red s e pa ra tely a nd t hen a t

tach ed t o t h e s ub - p
roblem sasr egeneration ini .
f
. s
tages s
hould bea ppreciably
s
t
ra te a r e o ften i n as pec ial f orm k nown a sf lip c hip s. I nt he r
educed.
c
ase o ft hick -fi
lm u nits, t heb asic u nito ft h e t h
ickne ss o ft he For t
he ama teur con s
tructor, i
twill of
ten be a matter of
f
i
lm i so ft h e o rde r o f0 .00 1 i n
. i nstead o ft h e f ew h undr ed u
s
ing a f ew integrated circui
ts for par
ticular s
ect
ion s of a
A
ng strom u nits o ft h
in f i
lm s
. r
ece
iver, mo s
t o f which w i
ll con
tinue to b e b
ased on i n
di-
The S IC s f a
ll i nto t wo ma in c atego r
ie s. I n m ult ich ip o r v
idual (d
iscre
te) componen ts and semiconductors, but with
c
hip f o rm , t he i ndividua l c omponen t s a re p roduced o n I
Csg radual
ly t a
king o ve
r mo re a
nd mo re ofthetota
lc ircu
i t
.
s
epa rate p i ece s o f s em iconduc to r ma te rial, a nd t hen
CONSTRUCT I ON
a
ssemb led i nto a s i
ng le p ackage . On t he o the r h and , t he
The p erformance a nd r e
liab ility o fa nh .f.c ommunca tion s
mono lith icS IC ( the t ype i n wh ich p rice r e duc tion sh ave b een
r
eceive ra re g ove rned a s much b y th ec hoice o fc omponen t s
mo sts ign ifican t) i se ntirely f a
sh ioned o ut o f as ing le p iece o f
a
nd b y t h ec are t aken i nc on s
truc tion a sb yt he b asic d esign .
s
em iconduc to r ma te r
ia l, w i th a l
l c omponen t s
, d ev ic es a nd
Me chan ica l a s w e
ll a s e lectrica l c on side ration s mus t a lso
i
nte rconnec tion s a nd i solation s f o
rmed w ith in o ne t iny s l
ic e
r
eceive a tten tion .
o
f t h e s em iconduc to r. T his i s u sua lly d one b y v ariou s
The c ha s
si s l ayou t i so fp articu lar i mpo rtance i nk eep ing
d
ifu sion p l ana rp roce sse s
; s i
nc ep l ana rt echn ique sa ree a s
ie r
r
.
f. a nd i .f
. w iring s ho rt t om in im ize l osses a nd s tray c oup l-
w
ith s i
licon t han w i th o th e r sem iconduc tor ma te ria l s
, t h
is i s
i
ng s. I n amu lti-va lve r ece ive r,t hel ayou ts hou ld b ea rranged
u
sua lly t h e ma te ria l i nvo lved . T he o n
ly a dd ition s a re t h e
s
o t ha t t h e ma in s igna l p ath f o
l low sl og ically t hrough s tage s
l
eads b rough t o ut t oc onnec t t he S IC i nto c ircu it.
p
laced a djacen t t o o ne a no the r. F or mo st b and -sw itched
T he d ev ice i so ften r efer red t o b y t h e t ype o fp ackage i n
r
ece ive rs,t hep l acing o ft h ec oilp ack ,w avechange s wi tch ing ,
which i ti se nclos ed : t h
is i so f
ten t he TO5 m etal c an o rigin -
a
lly d eve loped f o r t ran sisto rs t h e c or re spond ing e poxy g
anged t uning c apac ito rs a nd a ssoc ia ted v alve s i sd ecided
f
i
rst, u sua l
ly o c cupy ing t h e ma in c en tra l p art o ft he c ha ssis ;
e
ncap su la tion , ar ectangu la r f l
at-pack , o r t he d ua l i n
- line
o
nce t hisi sfixed t he l ayou to ft h er ema inde ro ft h es tage sc an
f
orm i nw hich t h e l ead s a re b en t t o f a cilita te a ssemb ly o n
b
ed eterm ined . C omponen ts a nd v a
lve sl ikely t or un a th i gh
printed b oa rd s.
t
empe ratu res —pa r
ticu la r
ly h .t. r ectifier s a nd t he a .f
. o utpu t
T he S IC i sn o ts imp ly amodu le c on tain ing al a
rge n umbe r
o
f c ompon en ts b ut ac omp lete c i
r cuit n e two rk h aving a v
alve — shou ld b ep laced a sf ara sp ossib le f r
om t h eo sc il
la to r
f
inite n umbe ro fl e ads b rough t o ut, s o t hat t h ere i s al i mited t
uned c ircuit s a nd o the r h ea t-sen sitive c omponen ts, o r
l
oca ted i n as epa ra te u nit. Adequa te v entilation s hou ld b e
numbe r o f u ses t o w hich a ny p articu la r d ev ice c an b e p ut.
S
inc e t here a re l imita tion s to t he c omponen t v alue s w hich p
rov ided t o k e ep o p era ting t empe ratu re s a s l ow a s p ossib le
t
o r e duce t he t ime a nd e xten t o f w arm ing -up d rift. T he
c
an b e r ead ily a ch ieved , t he u s e o fi n
teg ra ted c ir cu its t ends
t
ol ead t o ar athe r d if er en t a pp roach t oc ircu its i ng ene ra l. c
ha s sis ma teria l s hou ld b e t h e h eav ie st g auge a vailab le i n
o
rde r t o o btain max imum r igidity. I f ac omp le tely r igid
For i nstan ce, ah igh v a
lue r es
i sto r o r l arge c apac itance
t
a ke su p much mo re o ft h e b asic s i
licon s l
ice a r ea t han d oe s c
ha s sis i sn o t o btainab le , i t may p rove a dv isab le e i
the r t o
at ran si sto r,s ot ha t i tmay o f
ten b ep re ferab le t ou se aw ho le r
e
in fo rce t hec ha ssis o rt o moun tt hee ntire t uning s ection o n
s
erie s o f t ran s
i sto rs j us t t o a void t h e n eed f or as ing le af loa ting s ub -cha ssis moun ted o n r ubbe r g romme ts
.
re
si sto r. T yp ica lly i t may b ew orth d esign ing ac ircu i t u sing S
creen ing i sa lso i mpor tan t. I n s ome i nstance s f or t he
fi
ve t ran s
i sto r
s j ust t o e l
im inate t h e n eed f o r as i ngle 4 7K s
econd a nd t hird o scil
la to rs i n mu lti-conve rsion r e ceive rs
ohm r esisto r
, a nd c apac ito rs i mpo se e ven h eav ie r p ena ltie s a
nd t h e b .f
.o ., c omp lete s creen ing o f t he s tage w ith a n
i
ns l
ic e a rea . a
lum in ium c an may b e a dvis ab le. F o r mo st o the r c i
rcu i ts,
Mo s to ft h el ow -co s ti nteg rated c ircu its t hu sc on ta in q uite s
u ff
i cien t scre en ing c an b e p rov ided b y a n 1 8 s .w.g. ( 0.048
l
arge n umb ers o f t ran sisto rs a nd d iode s, b ut t h e r esis to r i
n.)b ra sso ra lum in ium p l ate i nterpo sed b etween t hec i
rcu i ts.
and c apac i to rv alue sa rek ep ta sl ow a sp o ssib le . T he re i sn o Such s creen s mu st b e r igid ly f ixed a nd make g ood e le c
tr ica l
easy w ay o f i ncorpora ting i nduc to rs w ith in a n S IC , a nd c
on tac t w ith t he c ha ssis. T he c ha ssis i t
self c an f orm a n
t
hes ea ren orma lly a dded i nt h ee xte rna lc ircu it,o re lim ina ted e
ffec tive s creen b y moun ting t he r e
levan tc omponen ts a bove
a
l
toge the r b y
, f o re xamp le, t he u se o fd .c.-coup led s tage s i n and b elow i t
.
i
.
f
. amp lifi ers, f ollow ing as ingle h ighly s e
lec tive f i
lte r. I
n h igh g ain amp lifying s tage s i ti si mpo rtan t t h at i npu t
Many l ow -co st u nits c an b e r ead ily u sed i n mu lt iv ib ra to r and o utpu t c i
rcu it ss hou ld b ee l
ec tr
ica lly i s
ola ted f rom e ach
ci
r cu its, a nd t h
is p rov ide s as a
tis fac to ry f orm o f c ry sta l o
the r t o t he max imum e xten t p ossib le t o a vo id u nwan ted
calibra to r a rrangemen t
. Ano the r u se ful a pp lica tion i sa s a f
eedback w hich c ould c au se i n
s tab il
ity o rd egrade t h es igna l-
p
roduc t d etec to r o r a sa n i .
f. amp lifier. t
o-no i se r atio. S ome v alve s
, i nclud ing r .f
. p en tode s, r .f
.
The i nco rpo ra tion o f m ic roe lectron ic d ev ice s i n ama teur doub le t r
iode s f o r c ascade o pe ration a nd c erta in mode rn
r
eceive r si su n
like ly t ol ead d i rectly t os ub stan tia lr educ tion s f
requency c hange rs h ave i nterna l screen ing ; o the rs —ma in ly
i
ns ize o rw eigh t s ince many o ft h e mo re b ulky c omponen ts t
h eo lde ro ctal -ba sed t ype s —a re o fm eta lc on s truc tion . F or
c
anno t r e ad ily b e i nteg ra ted ; t here a re a lso l imit s t oe qu ip - many o ft hem in ia tu re v alve se xterna ls creen ing c ans may b e
men t s i
ze i mpo sed b y t he n eed f or c on tro l k nob s, d ials a nd needed . C lo se -fi
tting a lum inium s creen s r aise t he t empe ra -
s
w i
tche s. T hey d o h oweve r o fer c on side rab le s cope f or ture o f av alve a pp re ciab ly a nd s hou ld p re f erab ly h ave a
u
sing mo r e c omp lex c i
r cuitry w ithou t i nc rea sing s ize, c on - ma tt-b la ck f inish t o a ssis t h eat r adia tion . S pe c
ia l h ea t-
s
truc tiona l c omp lex i
ty , p owe r d ra in a nd c ost. T he ir u lti- dissipa ting c on tac t- type c an s a r e also a va i
lab le. Whe re t he
mate a ppea l w i l
l b e o n g round s o f p rice , c onven ience i n valve -ho lde rh as ac ent re s pigo t( common o nm in ia tu re t ype s
)
c
on struc tion , a nd r e
liab ility i no pe ration . its hou ld b e e arthed t od ec rea se s t
ray c oup ling b etween g rid
An i mpor tan t c on side ra tion i st ha t mo re p red ic tab le a nd and a node c ircu its. S ome time s s uch c oup ling c an b e
r
eproducab le r esu lts b ecome p ossib le. F or e xamp le, o ne o f r
educed b y f i
tting as mall p l ate a cro s s t he u nde r s
ide o ft h
e
t
h e i nhe ren t a dvan tage s o f h ou sing a c omp lete c ircu it n e t
- v
alve s ocke t,t hough t h
i sw illu sua l
ly b en ece ssa ry o nly a tt h
e
wo rk i n am e
ta l TO5 c an i sb ette r s tab ility . S uch c ommon h
i ghe r f r
equenc ie s
. Above 1 4 Mc is o r s o t here i ss ome

4
.
33

• • •
 RSGB —RADI O CO M MUNICATI ON HAN DB O OK

amateu r bands, or al
ternatively covering o n
ly t
he amateur-
b
ands ( s
ome time s mak ing p rovi
sion f or t h
e re
cept
ion o f
s
tanda rd f r
equency t ransmissions o n 2 .
5, 5, 1
0, 15 or 20
Mc/s). W ith ar e
ceiverc over
ing ama teu r bands o
nly th
ere i
s
much l e
ss d ifi
culty i n o b
taining g ood t r
ack
ing o f the
o
scil
lator a nd s ignal frequency c i
rcu it
s, w i
th consequent
i
mp rovemen t inthe ef
f
i c
iency a nd ease ofa l
ignment; ita
lso
f
aci
litates t he provis
ion o f the s l
ow t uning ra
te highly
d
esirable forc .w
. a nd s.
s.b. r
eception.

Men
C
oils a
nd Wavechang
ing
AGC The m e
thod a dop ted t o alter t he t uning c oi
l s w hen
c
hanging b ands h as c onside rable i nf
luence o n t he g ene ral
c
onstruction o f ar eceive r
. T he ma in m ethods i n u se a re:
(
a) Plug-in c o
ils
,e i
the rs eparate orc omb ined i n
to as ingle
F
ag. 4
.60
. To a vo
id r eg i
ve o r degenerat
ive f
eedback i
n r .
f.
s
tages a
t the h
igher frequenc
ies, it i
s adv
isable t
o bring a
l
l earth. p
lug-in assemb ly f ore ach b and .
r
eturn l
eads t
o asing
le p o
int asclose a
s poss
ible t
o t
he va
lveho
lder . (
b) All coils moun ted o n t he chas s
is, with a Y axley t y pe
w
af e
r s w
itch t o s e
le c
t t he c oils r equired f or each
b
and.
a
dvan tage i nusing single p oint ear
th r e
turn w iring ( s
ee Fig. (
c) The c o
ils moun ted i n ar otating t urre
t a ssemb ly
, s o
4
. 60), al e a
rthy c onnection s a s
sociated w i
th o ne p a
rticular t
hat a l
though a l
l c oils ar e contained i n the r ece
ive r
s
tage b eing c onnec ted toc ha ss
i sat asingle pointc lose tot he o
nly t hose r equ ired f or one b and a re c onnec ted i n
v
alveho lde r
. T he o b
je c
t o f t h
is i s to a void c irculat
ing c
i
rcuit ato ne t ime .
c
ur rents i n t h
e c hass
is, w hich m ay lead t o regene rat
ive o r (
d) Individual f r ont- ends f o
r e ach b and , u sually c on -
d
egene rative f e
edback o uts
ide t he control oft he use r
. s
t
ructed i nth e f orm o fi n
terchang eable sub -un its
.
At an e arly stage int he d es
ign o f the receive r ad ecis
ion P
lug-
in c oils have t he g reat m erit of simp l
icity a nd h igh
mus t be m ade between p rov iding continuou sc overage o fal
l ef
ic
iency; t hey can b e r ecommended f or expe rimen ta l wo rk
f
requenc ies b e
tween s ay 1 .8 a nd 30 Mc /s, possibly w i
th t h
e a
nd for redu c
ing t he c on structiona l comp lexity o fr eceive rs.
a
id o f as eparate b andsp read t uning control f or use o n th
e T
he coi
ls a re usually w ound o n low -
lo ss mou lded f orme r s,

TABLE 4
.
1
Gu
ide t
o Co
il Wind
ings
F
igures a re g iven as ag u
ide o n
ly a nd a re b ased on atuning capac itor w ith a max i mu m c apacitance of 160 pF
. The max i mu m frequency
l
im it wi
ll d epend largely o n the v a
lue o f s
tray capac
itances, wh ilst such factors as closeness o f t
urns
, lengths of l
ead, pos
ition of dustcore
(where u sed) w i
ll materially afect t he f requency coverage. The r eaction w inding for t.
r.f. r
eceivers should be c
lose to t
he lo wer end of the
main w inding . The a erial coup ling c oi
l , ifof l
o w impedance , s hould b e wound o ver t he earthy end of the main winding. If o
f med iu m
impedance o r for intervalve u se, the coup ling co
il s
hould be s paced a l i
ttle way fro m t he l
o wer end of the ma in winding. W here a n h.t.
potential exists between w indings , care s hould be taken to s ee t hat insu lat
ion i s adequate . Sma ll d epartures f
ro m t he quoted w ire
gauge w i
ll n ot make a ny substant ial di ference. Generally, reaction a nd c oupling windings c an be o
f moderate ly f
ine wire
.
The n u mber o f t f
or inter med iate r anges can be j
udged f ro m t he f
igures given.

Nu mber o
ft Approx
i mate f
requency
r
ange (Mc/s)
R
e marks .
D
ia meter Main Low Mediu m S
. W
.G.
o
f t
uned impedance impedance React
ion (main Min
i mu m Max
i mu m
f
or mer w
inding aer
ial aer
ial w
inding)

3 I 2 2 2
0 1
3
-S 3I T
urns s
paced t
wo w
ire
d
iame
ters

5 1 2o
r 3 2o
r 3 2
0 1
•5 2
3 T
urns s
paced o
ne w
ire
l
i i
n. d
iame
ter
r
ibbed
a
i
r-core 9 2 4 3 2
2 6
-5 1
4 S
l
ight s
pac
ing

1
7 3 5 4 2
4 3
.4 6
-8 C
lose wound

4
2 6 1
0 1
0 3
0 1
.
6 3
-3 C
lose wound

8 2 3 3 2
4 1
6 3
0 C
lose wound
ii
n
.
r
ibbed 1
8 3 5 5 2
4/26 7 1
6 C
lose wound
a
i
r-core
4
0 6 1
0 1
0 3
0 3
-5 8 C
lose wound

8 2 3 3 2
6 1
3
-5 3
1 C
lose wound
Iin
. 1
4 3 5 4 2
8 7
.0 1
5 C
lose wound
d
ust
-iron
c
ore 2
6 5 8 6 3
0 3
.2 7 C
lose wound

4
0 6 1
0 9 3
2 1
.
6 3
-6 S
l
ight
ly p
i
le wound

4
.34
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
t
h e b ase s o f w hich c ar ry p in s d esigned t o make g ood e lec- This w ould g ene ral
ly b e con s
ide red ag ood t uning r ate
, b u
t
t
r
ica l c on tac t w ith s o cke ts moun ted o n t he r eceive r c ha ssi s
. where t h e rece
ive r i sintended p rima ri
ly f o
r c .w. o r s.s
.b.
The c oil s t hu so ccupy o nly as ma ll s pace o n t hec has s
i s a nd r
eception i t may b e advan tageous t o reduce t he tuning r a
te
t
his p e rm its s ho rt r .
f. w iring . T he ma in d isadvan tage sa re a s
t
illfurthe r
, toa round 5k c/so re ven 2.5 kc /
sp err evo lution.
d
eg ree o f o pe ra t
ing i nconven ience , a nd t h e d if iculty o f With ve ry low t uning ratesi twi
ll bef ound a dvi
sab le t o fi
t a
v
ary ing t hei nduc tance f ora l
ignmen t p urpo se s
, s ince p lug -in smal
lh and le tot het uning k nob t of ac
il
itate t un
ing f r
om o ne
f
orme rs w ith v ariab le c o res a re n ot a lway sa vailab le . e
nd o f ab and t o the othe r
. W ith r e
ceive rs having a f air
ly
I
nt ho se c ase sw here t hec o
ilsa re moun ted o nt h ec ha s sis, h
igh t un ing r ate ( on many w e
ll-known mode l s t h
is may
i
ti su sua l t ow ind t hem o ns mallf orme rsw ith v ariab le b ras s e
xceed 1 00 kc/sp e
rr evolution a nd c onside rably mo re o nt he
o
r f erri te c o re s
. T he w avechange s witch s hou ld h ave s u ff
i- 2
8 Mc /sb and )i ti ssome t
ime sp ossible tof it afurthe rredu c
-
c
ient c on tac ts t oa l
low c oi
ls n o
t i nu se t ob es hor t-ci rcuited , t
ion drive o n tot hee xis
ting t uning s p
ind le.
o
therw i se u nwan ted r esonance s a nd a bsorp tion e fec ts may The k nob w i
th w hich t uning i snorma lly d one ( the b and-
o
ccu r
. T he c oils a reo ften moun ted b elow t h ec ha ssis, e i
the r s
pread k nob o n ag ene ral coverage r eceive r) s
hou ld h ave a
d
irec tly u nde rnea th o r t o o ne s ide o f t he g anged t uning f
a
i r
ly large d i
ame ter( a
tl east 2in.),tof ac
ilitate carefuls etting
c
apac ito r. T he s w
itch s hou ld b e moun ted c lose t ot hea pp ro - a
nd shou ld be moun ted int he mo st conven ient p os
i t
ion f o
r
p
riate v alve s ocke ts t o k eep w ir ing s hor t; s im ila rly, t he t
he ope rato r
. Av ery s u
itable d r
ive m echan ism f or incorpo -
h
ighe stf requency c oilss hou ld b ep l aced n ea re stt ot h es w
itch . r
a
tion i n ah ome -built rec
eive r isthe E ddy stone t ype 8 98.
For l ow l osse s o n t he h ighe st f requenc ie s, t h e w avechang e
sw
itch i nsula tion s hou ld b e c eram ic ( pa rticu la rly i mpor tan t
whe re as ing le w af erc a rriess e
tso fc ontac tsa tb oth e arth a nd P
ermeab
ility T
uning
h
.t
.p o sitive ) ; o therw ise,s ince w a fe rl o sse sf orm o nly as ma ll While i tist he u sual prac t
ice t o tune h .f
. c i
rcu i
ts w ith a
p
ropo rtion o f t h e w hole , P axo lin t yp e i nsu la t
ion w il
l n or- v
ariable c apac i
to r
, i tisequa l
ly p ossible tod ot h
is b yv arying
mally p rove r e asonab ly s a
tisf ac tory . T he s witch a ction t
he i nduc tance b y mean s o f sliding c ores. T his s ystem ,
s
hou ld b e p ositive a nd t he c ontac t s p re fe rab ly k ep t c oa ted k
nown a sp ermeab ility t
un ing,o fer sc ons
ide rab le a dvan tage s
w
ith s i
licone l ubrican t t o p reven t o xid iza tion . E lec tro lube i
nt he ma intenance o fc orrect L /C r atios a nd p erm its c loser
No. 1 ( Gre en ) i s a u sefu l p rop rie ta ry l ub rican t f or a
erial i npu t c oup l
ing. S inc e t he s crew p rincip le c an b e
s
witche s. a
dop ted t o al
ter t he position o ft he cores i t make s p ossible
Tur re t c oil a ssemb lie s a re e lec trica lly v ery e f
icien t b ut a
lmo s
t u nl
im ited m echan ica l b andsp read w ithou t t he
mechan ica l
ly d ificult t o a rrange . S t ray c apac itance a nd p
rob lem s of gea r reduction d rives. A l
though p ermeab ility
i
nduc tive c oup ling c an b e k ept l ow , a nd t he ma in r eceive r t
uning h as b een mo st succe ssful
ly u sed f or many y ears b y
w
iring s imp lifi ed. T he v ariou sc oil sa reu sua lly moun ted o n o
ne ma jo r Ame rican c ompany ,t he m echan icala nd e lectrical
af ramewo rk w hich i sr otated b y t h e a ction o f t h e w ave - c
omp l
ica tion s i nvolved i n b and- switched r eceive rs h ave
c
hange k nob . S ets o fc on tacts f i
tted a l ong s trip sh olding t he r
esulted i nl i
t
tle prog re
ssi nthis fi
eld b y ama teu rc onstruc to r
s.
c
oils p re ss a gain st s pring c ontac ts c onnec ted t o t h e ma in There i s con s
ide rable s cope f o r fu r
the r d eve lopmen t o f
c
ircui t. T e
lev ision t ur ret t une rs h ave b een s ucce ss ful ly p
ermeab ility t un
ing s ys
tem s, p art
icu larly f or c ove r
ing
a
dap ted f ort h
i s p urpo se s
ingle w ave r ange s
, as f or e xamp le i n receiver s w ith f ixed
The i n
te rchang eab le f ront-end o r c onve rte r u nit f or e ach t
uned f r ont-ends a nd tunab le f i
rst i .
f
. range s.
b
and i sp art icu la rly w e
ll s uited f o ru se w ith ar eceive rh aving P
ermeab ili
ty t uned o scillato rs c an b e s ignif
i can t
ly mo re
atunab le f i
rst i .f
. T he u nitg ene ra lly c ompr is e s ab road -band s
table t han t hose using c apaci ty tuned c ircuits.
r
.f
. s tage , f irst m ixe r a nd c rysta l-con t ro lled h .f
. o sci
lla to r
.
This s ystem a voids t h e d iff
icu l
tie s o f s w
itch ing h .f. c i
rcu its
F
ixed C
apac
itor
s
a
nd a llow s e ach u n
i t to b e d es
igned f or o ptimum p erform -
a
nce o n t h e p ar t
icu la r b and c once rned . I t i sh oweve r
, a S
eve ral dif eren t type s o f f ixed c apacitor a re f ound i n
r
e
la tive ly e xpen sive f orm o f c on s truc t ion , a moun ting t o a r
eceiver s
, a nd i ti simpor tan t t hat t he con s
truc tors hou ld be
s
ingle - range r ece ive r w ith as er
ie s o ff ixed -tuned c onve rte r s
. aware o f the u ses a nd l imita t
ion s of t he variou s types. A t
Some t yp ica l d e s
ign s f o r t he h . f
. b ands a r e d esc ribed i n o
ne t ime c apac itors f e
ll c onven ien t
ly i n
to t hree ma in
Chap te r 1 6
. c
atego ries: p aper c apac i
tor s f or a .f
. a pplication s, m ica
Tab le 4 .1p rov ide s ag uide t ot yp ica lc o
ilw ind ing s. F o ru se c
apac ito r
s f or r .f
. c ircuits a nd e lectro lyt
ic c apac itors for
w
ith g anged c ircu i
t s
, c are s hou ld b e t aken t o w ind c o
il s a s smoo thing.
s
im i
lar a s p os s
ib le ; c oils w ith a djus tab le c o re s p erm i
t While p ap er c apacito rs a re s t
ill u sed f or almo st a l
l a.f
.
a
ccura te ma tch ing o fi nduc tance s. S ing le-laye r c oils f o r t he c
i
rcu its, several d iferen t f orm s o fc ontainer a re n ow a vai
l-
h
.f. b and s c an e asily b e w ound b y h and , r e ady -made c oils a
ble. T he conven tiona l w axed c ardboard p ape rt ubular sare
a
rea lso a va ilab le . s
t
ill w idely u sed , b ut s hou ld b e a voided f o
r a ny p os
ition
where av ery h igh insu lat
ion r esistance i snecessary. A f
te ra
f
ew y ea rs
' use —and l e
s s int het ropic s— the d .c
. resistance of
T
uning Mechan
is ms t
hec ardboa rd c ontaine r may amoun tt on o mo re than a bout
The tuning dr
ive arrangemen ts can make or mar t he per
- 5Megohms . I fu sed f ori nter-va lve c oup l
ing t hi
s may r esu
lt
f
ormance o f arece
iver,p art
icular
ly ons .
s.b
.a nd c
.w.s i
gnals
. i
n ap osit
ive b iasb e
ing a pplied t ot he grid oft he suc ceeding
Po
intst oc ons
ide rares mooth cont
inuou sa c
tion and absence v
alve. Al ow i nsulation r e
sistance s hou ld also be a voided in
o
fb ack
la sh inth e r
eduction gear
ing. S ome operatorsf ind a a
.g.c
. c ircuits
. T o reduce i nsulation l eakage many d iferent
moderate
ly h eavy fl
ywhee l ac
tion ofassis
tance. t
ypes o f containe rs h ave b een i n
troduced , including b e
tter
Assuming at otal b
andw idth oftheo rderof5 00 kc
/ sa nd a f
orms o f w axed -cardboa rd t ub ing a nd m etal t ube s with
1
80° tuning s pan, ar educ t
ion r a
tio of 100: 1 w ould be i
nsulation s eals att he e nds .
n
eeded tog i
ve at un
ing r a
te ofabou t 10kc/sperr e
vo lut
ion. Va
riou s f o
rm s o fpl as
tic-film o r p o
lye ster capacito rs have
4
.
35
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
been d eve loped a nd a re b eing i ncrea sing ly u sed . T hey h ave m
ic rowave p arame tric amp lif
iers a nd h armon ic g ene rators
v
e ry l ow d iele c
t r
ic l oss
, amuch h ighe r i nsula tion r esi s
tance b
u t th
ey a l
so f i
nd u ses inh .
f. receive r s
.
t
han p ape r c apac itor s a nd h ave a lso p roved much mo re A represen tative v aractor d iode ( Hugh es HC7005 ) may
r
eliab le i nu se. h
ave ac hange o fc apacitance o ff rom 2 4p F to8 1 p Fa st he
Quite h igh a . c
. v o
ltage p eak s may o ccur i na .
f. stage sa nd r
everse b ias i sr educed f rom 2 1 t o 1v o
l ts
. A l though t he
c
apac ito r s s ub jec ted t o t he se v oltag es s hou ld b e r ated t o c
apac i
tance c ontinue s to increase b elow t hi
s figure, t he Q
with stand t h e p eak s p lu s a ny d irec t v oltage w h
ich may b e f
actor t ends t o fal
l a nd t empe ratu re c oef f
ic
ient d eg rades.
a
c ros s t h em . C apac i
to r s s ub je cted t oc on t
inuou s a.c. s tress The Q o f s uch d evices i sc onside rab ly b e
low t hat o f con-
mus t a lways b e r a
ted s pec ifica lly f or a .c. w o rking s ince a n v
en t
iona l c apacito rs b u
t i ss uff
i c
ien tly h igh t o al
low t h
eir
a
.c. w o rking v oltage o f 3 00 v olts i sr ough ly e qu ivalen t t o a d
irectu sei nv ar
iou stuning a pplications i nh .f
. rece
ive rs; the
1000 v olt d .c. r ating . F ors uch a pplica tion s
, p etroleum j e
lly r
e
la t
ively l ow Q a llow s ganged t un ing w i
thou t c al
ling f or
o
r l i
qu id i mp reg rian ts a re b ette r t han w ax . e
xtreme ly c lose t o
lerance s inc apaci tance c haracter
istic s
. I n
When af i
xed c apac ito r i su sed a sp a rt o f at uned c i
rcu it
, p
ractice, h oweve r, t h
e t rue v aracto r d iode i s ar elatively
f
o re xamp le t op ad t h eo scilla to rc ircuit, i tise ssential t ou se e
xpen s
ive d evice a nd u s
e i n ama teu re qu
ipmen t tends t o be
at ype o fc apac ito rw hich i ntroduce sv e ry l i
ttle l oss. Mou lded c
onfined t os i
ngle t uned circuits or b andsp read t uning o fa n
mica c apac i to rs c an b e u sed b ut t he s ma ller s i
ze o fs i
lve red o
scil
lato r w he re the faci
lity o f ap ane l moun ted p otentio-
mica t ype s h ave made t he se t he n orma l c hoice . T he s i
lve r meter isr equired .
c
oa ting i sa ttached f i
rm ly t oe ach s i
de o ft hem ica p la tesa nd
t
h e c apac itance r ema in s s tab le o ve r v ery l ong p e r
iods ; i ti s
D
iode Sw
itch
ing
a
lso p o ssib le t oo bta in t h
i s t ype t oc lose t o
le rance .
C eram ic c apac ito rs h ave t aken o ver many o ft he task s f or An i nc
rea s
ingly i mpor tan t a ppl
ication o f semicondu c
tor
which m ica c apac i tors w er e f orme r
ly u sed , e xcep t w he re a d
iode s is to a ct as s witche s i n receiver a nd t ransm it
ter
v
e ry h i gh o rde r o fs tab il
i ty i sn ece ssary . T he v ariou s h i gh- a
pplications. T he s w
itch ing p rope rt
ie s of d
iodes h ave long
p
e rm ittiv ity t ype s a re s uitab le a nd e conom ica l f or r.f
. o r i .
f
. b
een u sed i n specif
ic c i
rcu it c onf
igu rat
ion s such a s diode
d
ecoup ling a nd s im ila rp u rpo se s
. Mode rn d isc t ype c eram ic r
ing and b r
idge modu lato rs/mixe rs
.
c
apac ito rs a re e xce l
len t f o r r .
f. b ypa ss a pp lica tion s, c om - Diode s witches o f e
r a n umbe r o f a dvantag es o ver
b
in ing h i gh c apac itance i n s mall s pace . B ecau se t h ey c an mechanical o nes, par
ticu larly f or swi
tch ing at r.
f
. T here is
o
ften b e moun ted c lose t o t he v alveho lde rs o r o the r ma in n
o c ontact tarnishing o r o ther f orm s of dirt
, s w
itch ing i s
c
omponen ts ,l ead i nduc tanc ec an b ek ep te xtreme ly l ow . a
lmo st ins
tan taneou s
, s witch c apacitance may b e a s l ow as
W ith l ow -pe rm ittivity c eram ic c apac i to rs,u se c an b e made 1pF, thed iode can b e moun ted a nywhe re and n ot c onfined
o
f t heir s ens itivity t o t empe ra tu re v aria tion s i n orde r t o t
o as haft
, a nd the contac ts do n ot arc.
p
rov ide c ompen sa tion f o r c hang es i n o the r c omponen t Disadvan tagesa reth a
t ad iode s w
itch i nthe" o pen "s ta
te
v
alue sa st h er eceive rw arms u p. B yu sing ac apac i
to rw ith a s
t
illi mposes af i
nite r
esistance a nd thu sc annotb eu sed inc ir
-

I
N
n
ega tive t emp era ture c oef f
icien t s uch a s N750 ( mean ing 7 50
p
ar ts/m i
llion /deg ree C en tig rade )t of orm as mall p art o ft he
o
sc i
lla to r t uned c ircu it c apac itance , f r
equency d r
ift c an b e

7
much r educed . I tw illu sua lly b en ece ssa ry t of i
nd t hec orrec t

VS
-
2
5W
I
T
C
HI
N
GV
O
L
T
A
G
E
R
ION
)
p
ropo rtion o ft he t uned c ircu i t c apac itance w hich s hou ld b e
o
ft h e N750 t ype b ye xper imen t. Au se fu l t hough s omewha t

H
T
+
e
xpen s
ive c omponen t f or t empe ratu re c ompen sa t
ion i st h
e

I
U
S
B1
0
K
"T empa -trimme r" made b y O xley w hich h as av ariab le (
a) HT+
c
oef f
icien t b ut f i
xed c apac itance . 0
7K

L
S
BA
M
E
lec t roly tic c apac ito rs a re v aluab le w here h igh c apac i
- I
M
t
ance s ( above a bou t 1i hF) a re r equ ired . T hey a re r e
la tive ly
i
nef f
i c
ien t f o r r .f
. a pplica tion s, a nd h ave al imited s helf-lif e
. 2
2K
Care mu st b e t aken n ot t oe xceed t he v oltage r atings. T heir
main u se i sf orr ipp le r edu ction i np owe rs upp lie sa nd f ora .f
.
d
ecoup ling .
Whe re a c apac itor f orms p a rt o f at uned c ircuit, c lose
t
ole rance t ype s— to a bou t 1p er c ent —may b e n eeded . F o
r
mo st d ecoup ling a nd i nte rstage c oup l
ing a pplica tion s, 1 0 o r
2
0 p er c en t t o
le rance t ype s may b e fi
tted .

D
iode C
apac
itor
s
A r eve
r se
-biased j unct
ion d iode ( and t o al e
sser extent
po
int-contact diode s) ha
s ac apaci
tance w hich varies wi
th a
c
hange i n t he re
ve rse vol
tage . T hi
s c ha racteri
stic can b e 1
0K
FI
NE l
OOK HT+
u
sed t o p
rov ide w hat ine fect is avariable capacitor tuned T
UNING
b
y a djust
ing t he d .c
. b ia
s p o
tentia
l a pplied a cross it
, if I
VI
n
ecessary f rom a p hys
ica l
ly r emo te p osit
ion. S i
licon F
ig. 4
.61 (
a). B
asic d
iode sw
itch
ing c
ircu
it.
j
unct
ion d iode sdeveloped f oru se a
sc apacito rsare general
ly
t
ermed v aractors
, o r by var
ious t r
ade n ame s such as 'V ari
- F
ig. 4
.61 (
b). A 2
-3 Mc
/s v.f
.o. for a mu
ltiple i
on rece
iver
i
l i
ng both t
he use o
f diode sw
itching (CR2) and t
he u
se ofa
c
aps.
' An i mportant a ppl
ica t
ion o f s uch d ev
ices i s fo
r g
er man
iu m c
rystaldiode (
CR1) f
or f
ine t
uning
.

4
.
36
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
c
u
lts d emand ing e x
treme ly low l o
ss , ap owe r s ource isre- a
nd 8 470 k c/ s w hen t uned t o 8 000 k c/ s. F urthe rmo re t he
q
uired t o bias the diode a nd the switching c urren ts mu s
tb e o
scil
la to r mu stt rack t hroughou tt h et un ing s pan ;s ot ha t,f or
s
uficient t o ensu re a low e nough d iferential r es
istance in e
xamp le, t he o scilla tor i so n 6 470 k c/s a nd 7 470 k c/s w hen
t
he closed state
. t
he s et i st uned t o 6 000 k c/ s a nd 7 000 k c/s r espe ctive ly.
Diode s w
itching c ircuits are designed s o t hat either a Unfo rtuna te ly, b ecause t h e r esonan t f requency o f at uned
f
orward b ias ("o n") o r reverse b ias ("o f" ) isa pp
lied c
i
rcu it d epend s o n t he s qua re r oot o f t h e p rodu c
t o f t he
a
cross t h
e d iode. T h
is b ias potential isu sual ly c onnected i
nduc tanc e a nd c apac i tanc e
, i ti s n o
t p os s
ib le s imp ly t o
t
h
rough c hoke so rr e
sistorstoi so
late t h
ed .c.c ircu i
tf rom the r
educe o ne o f t he se f acto rs i n orde r t o s hift t he o scillato r
c
i
rcu i
t b e
ing s w
itched : see Fig
. 4 .
61 . T he d iode c harac
ter- t
uning s pan t o 5 470-8470 k c /
s. B oth t he La nd C c om -
i
s
t
ic s required are : low capac i
tance, h igh re ver se res
istance p
onen ts mu st b e r e duced i n t he c orrec t p ropo rtion s. T he
a
nd l ow forwa rd r e
sistance. I n some a pplica t
ion s the p
.i
.v. i
nduc tance c an b e r educed b y u sing f ewe r t urns o n t he
r
a
ting o f t he d iode mu st b e con sidered. P o
int-contact o
scil
la to rc oil. T he c apac i
tance i su sua lly r educ ed b yi nclud -
g
erman ium d iode ssuch ast he 0A8 1 are often u sed. i
ng i n s erie s w ith t h e v ariab le t uning c apac i
to r af ixed o r
v
ariable c apac itor k nown a s t he p adding c apac ito r. I ft he re
R
esistors i
sn o m ean s o f a d ju sting t he c oil i ti su sua l t o make t he
Con s
ide ration mu st a lway s b e g iven t o t he p owe r w hich p
add ing c apac ito rv ariab le b u t w ith ac oil h aving a n a d
ju st-
w
ill be d iss
ipa ted i n ar e
si stor, ino rde r tha t ac omponen t o f a
ble c ore i ti s mo re c ommon t o u se af i
xed c apac ito r o f
ample w at
tage r a
ting i sf i
tted. When l i
ttle o r n o c u rren t f
a
i r
ly c lose t o
le rance . T ypica l v alue s f or p add ing c apac ito rs
f
lows t hrough ar es
is to r i ti sperm is sible t of i
tt he m inia tu re i
n g ene ral c ove rage r ec eive rs a re g iven i nT able 4 .2
. W ith
i
-wa tt t ypes, though s ome c onstruc to rs p re fe
r t o keep t o a amateu r-bands o nly r ece ive rs, i ti sg ene rally u nnece ssary t o
minimum r a
ting o f watt. Whe re a pp reciab le d .c. f l
ow s u
se p adde r s
. T he p add ing o r c oi
l v aria tion h as mo st i n
-
t
hrough a r es
i s
tor ( cathode b ias, s creen f eeds, a node l oad , f
luenc e o n t he l owe r f r
equency e nd o ft he t uning s pan .
e
tc.)
, t he p owe r d issipa ted s hould b e c alcu lated ( P xR , To p erm it r e ady a dju stmen t o ft he c ircu its o n t he h ighe r
where 1i sin ampe resa nd R i no hm s)b utn oa t
temp t s hou ld f
requency e nd o ft h et uning r ange , i tisu sua lt oc onnec ts mall
b
e made t ofi
t ar es
is tor l ikely tor un n eari t
sw attage r a
ting — p
re-se t v ar iab le c apac ito rs a cro ss t h e c oils, k nown a s
a
lway s fi
t ag ene rou sly r ated c omponen t f or reliable o pera - t
rimme rs
. T ypica l a rrangemen ts a re s hown i n F ig. 1 .66 i n
t
ion. Chap te r 1 .
Ar esistor o pe rating n ea r i t
s w a
t tage l im it w i
ll r un w arm Unfo rtuna tely , e ven w ith f ull p add ing a nd t r
i mm ing
a
nd s ucce ss
ive h eat c ycle s w i
ll te nd t o cau se i t
s resistance a
dju stmen ts, i ti sn ot p ossible t oo btain e xac tt rack ing o ft he
g
radua l
ly t o i n
c rea se. Whe re thew attage d i
s s
ipa ted e xceeds o
scillato r w ith t he s igna l f r
equency c ircu its o ve r the e nt
i re
abou t 1w att itw ill b e a dv isable tof i
tw i
re -wound r es
isto rs; sweep o f ag anged t un ing c ont rol. T he b est c omp rom is e
o
therw ise thec arbon c ompo sit
ion t ype i sg enerally s u
itab le. p
rov ide s t hre e f requenc ie s —one t owa rd s e ach e nd o f t he
t
hough f or af ew a pp lica tion s w he re l ong -term s tability i s t
uning s pan a nd o ne f a
i rly c en tralp osit
ion —whe re t hes i
gna l
r
e quired c r
acked c arbon t ypes —ava ilable t o tolerance s o f f
requency c i
rcu its w ill b e p reci sely t he i .
f. a way f rom t he
1p e
rc ent —may b ep re ferab le. R ece ive rr esistor sc an usua l
ly o
scillator f requency , w ith s ome s l
igh t e rror h aving t o b e
b
e o f2 0p erc en t tole rance , though f ors creen f eeds a nd b ias t
olerated a t a ll o the r p o s
ition s
. F o r i n
s tance , i nt he a bove
r
esistor s itisa dv isab le t of i
t 10 p erc ent t ype s
. e
xamp le t hec ircu it s w ou ld b ea ccu rately t r
immed a ta round
750 k c/s a nd p added a t a bou t 5 250 k c/s, i tw ould t h en
b
ef ound t hatt he t h
ird p ointo fa ccu ra te a lignmen tw ou ld b e
SUPERHET TRACK
I NG AND AL
IGN MENT i
nt h e re gion o f6 250 k c/s.
T
he s upe rhet p rinc iple , as n oted e arl
ier, d epends o n t he Thes e u navo idab le a lignm en t e rro rs a r e s ma ll b ut r equire
p
rovis ion o f al o cally g enerated s i
gna l dif ering f rom t he s
ome c on side ra tion f or r eally h igh p erfo rmance r eceive rs.
i
ncom ing s ignal f requency b y a n amoun t equa l tot h e inte r
- The er ror sc an b em in im ized b yk e eping t het otalt uning s pan
media te f requency . T hi s local s i
gna l may b e p laced e ithe r o
fe ach w aveband a sn arrow a sp os s
ib le; t h es i
tua tion w il
lb e
h
ighe ro rl oweri nf requency t ot hei ncom ing s ignal,t hough i n
p
ractic et h eoscillato ru sua lly o perateso nt h
eh ighe rf r
equency
s
ide o f t he si gna l f requency t o a void d if icult
ie s f rom
h
a rmon ics. TABLE 4
.
2
I
n s imp le sup erhe t receivers, t he tuning o ft he signal a nd Gu
ide t
o Va
lues o
f P
add
ing C
apac
itors
l
ocal o sc
illato r c ircu i
ts c an b e carried o u
t i ndependen tly f
or G IC R
ece
ivers
u
sing s epa rate v ar iable c apacito rs. C lear
ly , t his i si ncon -
v
enien ta st heo pe ra tor mu stc ontinuou sly adju stt wo o r mo re Approx i mate
S
igna
l max i mu m I
nter mediate Value of
k
nob s w hen t uning a c
ro s s aw aveband . I ti su sual t herefo re f
req y c
apacity o f frequency o
scil
lator
t
o fit ag anged v ariab le c apac itor w ith f r
om t wo t o f our a
aaaa tuning padder
c
apac itor
s
ect
ion s t o tune b oth t he os ci
llator a nd s igna l f requ ency
c
i
rcu its. F rom t his a rise s the p roblem o fs o a rrang ing t he 1
3 t
o 3
0 MO 2
00 pF 4
50'465 k
c
/s 3
000 p
F
6t
o 1
3 MO t
o 2
000 p
F
t
uned c ircuits t h at t he o sc
illator a nd s ignal f requency 3t
o 6M O 2
20 pF 1
425 p
F
c
i
rcu its t rack tog ethe r( keep accu rately i nstep)s ot hatf ora l
l I
S t
o 3Mc
/s 6
50 p
F

s
e
t t
ing so ft hec on tro lk nob t he f r
equency d if erence b etween 10t
o 3
0 M
c/s 3
625 p
F
t
hem s tay s nearly t hes ame . F ore xamp le
, s uppo se t he b and 3
.
5 t
o 1
0 MO 3
60 p
F 4
50465 k
cfs 2
825 p
F
1
.
4 t
o 4M O 1
050 p
F
5
000-8000 k c/s i st o be c overed o n o ne w aveband w ith a n
i
.
f. of4 70 k c/s
, t he o scillato rt racking o n the h igh f requency 115 t
o 32 Mc
is 2
100 p
F
4
.
5 to 12
-5 Mc/s 3
60 p
F 1
600
/1620 k
c
/s 9
60 p
F
s
ide o ft hes ignal. T hen i tw i
llb en ecessary f ort heo sc
illa tor 1.
7 t
o 4.5 M
c/s 3
80 p
F
t
o o pe rate o n 5 470 k c/s w hen t he set i stuned t o 5000 k c /
s
4
.
37
5—TRCH
RSGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
i
mp roved i fthe ama teu r b ands c oincide w ith t he a ccu rate ly l
eads , a erial, e t c. I n s ome c ases, w he re p a rticu la r
ly s trong
t
uned p ortion s. B ecau se o ft his,d espite t hea dded c omp lica - l
o cal s igna lsa re i nvo lved , i tmay b e n ece ssa ry t oc hange t he
t
ions i n t he c oi
l a ssemb ly , i ti sp referab le t hat ag ene ral i
.
f. s l
igh tly . B reak th rough o f s igna ls c an s ome time s b e
c
ove rage r eceive r s hou ld h ave a s many w avebands a s d
i ff
icu l t t o e rad ica te w here a c onve rte r i su sed a head o f a
p
o ss
ib le. I nr eceive rsw h
ich t une t he ama teu r b ands o nly t he ma in r eceive rw hich p ick su ps igna ls i nt her .
f.s tage so ri nt he
a
l
ignmen t e rro rs c an b e k ep t t o av ery l ow f i
gu re . F urthe r- in
te rconnec tion l eads . ( Add i t
iona l a dvice o n p reven t
ing
more, i ti sp ossib le i n s uch s e
ts t o o vercome t he w ho le b
reak through w hen u sing ac onve r te ri sg i
ven i nC hap te r 5—
p
rob lem o ft r
ack ing b y mak ing t hes i
gna l f requency c ircu its V
.H .F . R ece ive rs. ) I ts hou ld b e n oted t hat s igna ls b reak ing
s
uf i
cien tly b road -band t op rov ide a dequa te r espon se atl east t
h rough n eed n ot a lway s b ea tt he i .
f
. ; v ery s t
rong s i
gna ls at
o
ve rt heh ighe rf r
equency b ands w ithou tr etun ing ,t hisa llow s half t h e i .f
. c an o c cas iona lly p rove t r oub le some , t he n on-
t
hee ntire tun ing t ob ec arried o ut o n as ing le s mal l v ariab le l
inea rity o ft he m ixe rc ausing s pu riou s s i
gna l s t oa ppea r.
c
apac ito r int he o scilla to r c ircu it or b y pe rmeab i
l ity t un ing T he mo st c ommon f o rm o ft ype ( b) i n
te rf erence i ss econd
t
his circuit o nly. c
hanne lo ri mage i n
te rf erence . T he s uscep tibility o f ar ece iver
F
o r g ene ral c ove rage r eceive rs
, t he c a
lcu la tion o f t he t
ot h
is f orm o fi n
te rfe rence i s af unc tion o ft he i nte rmed iate
c
orrec t c oil w ind ing s t o p e rmit a ccu ra te t rack ing i s f
requency u sed a nd t he d eg ree o f p re -m ixe r s electiv ity.
d
i
fficu lt
. T his i sm a
in ly b ecau se t he a verage c on struc to r i s Whe re l es s t han t wo r .
f. s t
age s a r e u sed , a n i mpo rtan t c on-
s
e
ldom a ble t o mea sure e xac tly t he i n duc tance o f h and - s
ide ra tion i st o ma in tain t he Qo ft he i npu t c ircuit s. I mage
wound c oils o r t he v ar iou s s tray w iring c apac itance s w hich r
espon se i s
,h oweve r
,o nly o ne o ft he many c au se so ft h
i st ype
p
lay a n i mpo rtan t r ole i n d ete rmin ing t h e t un ing r ange . o
f i nte rfe rence . T he h armon ic s o f t h e h . f
. o scilla tor may
A
lthough s urprising ly g ood r e sul
ts c an b e a ch ieved b y i n
- b
ea t a ga in st s t
rong i ncom ing s i
gna ls w hich may t h emse lve s
t
e
lligen t g ues swo rk , t h ere i sl i
ttle d oub t t ha t t he d ificu lt
ie s a
cta st heh .f. o scillato ra nd b eata gain sto ther s t
rong s igna ls
.
e
ncoun tered i nt his s ec tion o fs uperhe t r eceive r d e sign h ave When c on side ring e xtreme ly s trong s igna l ss uch a st hose f rom
b
een t he ma in r ea son w hy s o many a ma teur s u se f a
c tory - a n ea rby t ransm i
tte r, t here a r e many p ossib le s pu rious
bu
ilt s e
t s
. One s o
lu tion i st he u se o f th e c omp le te t un ing r
espon sesa ri s
ing f rom c omb ina tion so ft h
ef undamen ta la nd
un
its o r c oil p ack s
, a vailab le f rom a n umbe r o f manu - harmon ic s o f b o th t he l oca l s t
ation a nd t he r e
ce ive r's h .f
.
f
acture rs;a nothe ri st of o
llow p ublished d esign si nw hich f u
ll o
sc i
lla to r
, many w ith a ssocia ted i mage r espon se s. I np rac tice
c
oilw ind ing d ata i sg iven . Y eta nothe ra pp roach h a sa lready howeve r, e xc ept f or t he s t
at ion t ran sm itte r, s pu rious r e
-
b
een s ugge sted ,t hisi st hec onstruc tion o f ama teur b ands o n
ly s
pons e s o f t h e
se t ype s c an b e r educed t o i nsign ificance b y
mode ls w i
th b road ly t uned s igna l f r
equency c i
rcu i ts o r w ith good p re-m ixe r s e
lec tiv ity a nd a h i gh i .
f.
, p rov ided t ha t in
s
ignal-frequency a nd o scilla to r c i
rcu i
t s tuned i ndependen tly s
o d oing c ro ss-modu la tion e f ects a re n o
t i ntroduced .
(
this i s much l ess i nconven ien t t han o n ag ene ra l c ove rage Inte rf erence o f type ( c)
, g ene ra lly t e
rmed b irdi es
, i so f
mode l, ast h ea dju stmen t o ft he s i
gna l f r
equency c on trol c an g
r eat i mpo r
tance i nd oub le s up erhe ts w here, u n
les se xt reme
g
ene rally b el imited t o af ina lt ouch ing u po n as igna l )
. F rom c
a re i st a ken , h armon ic s o ft he s econd o sci
lla to r —o r i mage
a
lmo s ta l
l v i
ewpo in t
s, t he ama teur -band s-on ly a pp roach c an r
espon ses t o t he se —a re l ikely t o a ppea r i n o ne o r mo re
b
e re commended . wave - range s o ft he r eceive r. F or g ene ra l c ove rage r e
ce ive r
s,
A mo s
t u sefu l i ns
trumen t f or t he p relim inary a d ju s
tmen t t
h eo nly s o
lu t
ion i s mo stc are fu l d esign a nd s cre en ing o ft he
o
ft het uned c ircuit so f ar eceive ri stheg r
id d ip o sc illa tor( see s
econd o scilla tor t o r e
duce h armon ic g ene ra tion . W ith
Chap ter 1 9—M ea suremen ts) w h
ich p e rm its r ough c heck s t o ama teur b ands o nly r eceive r s, p ar t
icu larly t ho se u sing a
b
e made o n t he t uned c ircu its o f ar eceive r d uring a ctua l t
unab le f irst i .
f., c are fu l a naly si s o fp ossible h armon ic i nter-
c
on s
truc t
ion . f
erence c an b eu seful i nd ete rm in ing as ui
tab le f i
r st i .
f
.
H armon ic s o f t h e b .f
.o./c .i.o . c an c ause s im i
la r s pur iou s
r
espon se s, b ut b ecau se o f t h e l owe r f requenc ie s i n
vo lved .
S
pur
ious R
esponses t
h ese c an u sua lly b e r e
duced t o a n i nsign ifican t l evel b y
One o f the mo st i mpo rtan t c ri
ter ia of as upe rhe t receiver s
creen ing .
i
s t he p resence , or a bsence , o f s purious s igna ls. T hese Becau se o f t he d ifficulty o f e lim ina ting a l
l s pu riou s
s
pu riou s respon ses take t hree ma in f orms : r
espon se s i n d oub le a nd t r
ip le-conve rsion r eceive r s
, s ome
(
a) E xternal signals w hich c anno t b e tuned o ut. designe rs b elieve t ha t t he i dea l ama teu r r ece ive r w ou ld b ea
(
b) E xterna lsignals h eard o nf requenc ie so the rt han t hose s
ing le -conve rsion s up erhe t w ith a h igh i nte rmed ia te f r
e-
on w hich they a re o perating. quency —bu t t h
is w ou ld d epend u pon t he d eve lopmen t o f
(
c) C ontinuou s carrie rs h eard i nt he tuning r ange o f the high i .
f.f i
lte rsw ith ad egre eo fs ele ctiv ity a tp re sen ta va ilab le
re
ceive r but w hich a re c aused b y interna l o sci
llator s
. only i n r ece ive rs h av ing a l ow i .
f
. C rysta l f i
lters m eeting
Type ( a
) i s almo st i nvariab ly d ue t o b reak through o f s
uch s pec ifi cation s ar e b ecom ing a vailab le.
s
i
gna ls in
to t hei .
f
.s tages,t hough i n ad oub le s upe rheth aving
at unab le f i
rst i.
f
. s uch b reak through w ill p rov ide t unab le
s
i
gna ls oft ype (b). I .F
. b r eak through i sg ene rally c aused b y
i
nsuf fi
cient p re-mixe r select iv
ity , a nd i nt h
is f orm i su sually Smooth R
egenera
tion
t
roub lesome o n
ly o n rec e
ive r
sh aving n or .f
. stage . I tc an be To o btain max imum b enef
it fr
om r egene rative detec
to r
s
r
educed b y s e
ries- or p ara lle
l -tuned c i
rcu its a t th e i.
f
. c on- b
oth fors upe rhe
tsand f or "st
raight "r e
ceive r s
,i tise
ssentia
l
n
ec ted a sw ave -
trap st or eje ctt hei nte r
fering s ignals . A mo re t
o o b
tain s mooth con
t rol as the stage g oes i n and o u
t o f
s
eriou s form o fi.f
. break through i sd i
re c
t p i
ck -up o fs ignals o
sci
llation. I n s
ome c ases it may b e found t hat the va
lve
i
nt he i .
f
. s t
age s
, a nd t his t ends t o be mo re l ikely w ith r e
- t
ends t o p lop in and o ut of osc
illation, a nd the c ontro
l
c
e
ive rs h aving i .
f. o f 1 600 k c/s o r a bove . Mo re e ff
icient c
anno t be a dvanced r
ight u p t
ot he thresho ld o fosci
llat
ion.
s
cre ening o ft he if
.s t
age s may b en eeded, w i
th c are t aken to The follow ing are among t he main c ause s o f "p loppy"
m
in im ize s tray c oup l
ing t o e xterna l w ires s uch a s p ower r
egenera t
ion : too many t urns on t he f eedback c o
il (thi
s

4
.
38
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
s
hou ld h ave t hem in imum p ossible n umbe ro ft urn sc oupled g
ain ( often as i
ngle c on trol— some time sw ith d if e ring t ap ers
t
i
gh tly t ot he earthy e nd o ft h
e g r
id c oil); the v alue o fg r
id —is u sed f or i .
f. and r .f
. g ain), t he r e
la tive s e
tting s o ft he se
l
e
ak r esistor may b e i ncorre ct (try t he e fec
t o f dif e
rent c
on trols i nf
luence t he a ppa ren t s igna l-to -no ise r atio o f t he
v
alue s
,u sua l
ly i n ah igherv alue d i
rec t
ion ); thea node a nd/or weake r s igna ls. C lea rly, i f the r .f
. g ain c on tro l i s n ea r
s
creen v oltage s may b et oo h igh,o rd er
ived f rom t oo high an minimum s e
tting w hile t heo therc on tro lsa rew ella dvanced ,
i
mpedance s ou rce (s
ince t hev a
lve c u r
ren t cond ition sc hange mo st of t he g ain o f t h e r eceive r w ill b e a f
te r t he f i
r
s t f re-
d
u r
ing o sci
lla t
ion, s creen v o
ltage s s hould b e d erived f rom a quency c hange rand t here w illb ea lmo st max imum amp lifica -
p
oten tiome ter n e
two rk a nd h i
gh s er
ie s f eed r es
isto r
s t
ion o ft heu navo idab le n oise p roduced i nt hiss tage . On t he
a
voided ); w ith straigh t r eceive rs having t he de tector s t
age o
the r h and , i ft her .
f. g ain i sa lway s k ept a t amax imum , t he
c
oup led d i
rectly tot he ae r
ial, i tmay b e n ecessary t o reduce s
igna l-
to -no ise r a
tio w ill b e o p
timum , b ut t h ere i s ag r eate r
a
erial c oupling b y mean s of as er
ies t r
imme r toa void h eavy r
isk o f c ro ss-modu la tion e fe
ct s o n t he s tronge r s igna ls.
l
oad ing a ta erial re
sonance s. Gene rally t he refore t he a .f. g a
in c ont rol s hou ld b e s et a t
Anothe r e fect
, k nown a s s quegg ing, c an c au se p oor a
bou t h a
lf -trave l, the r .
f
. g a
in f airly w ell a dvanc ed , a nd t he
c
on trol o fr egeneration , t h
is i sd ue t ot oo-violen t osci
llation l
evel o f s i gnal o r i nte r-station n oise w hen s e ar ching k ep t
a
nd a tten t
ion t o t he a bove p oints w ill u sually c u
re t hi
s unde r c on stan t c ontro l b y m ean s o f t he i .
f
. g ain . I n t he
c
ond it
ion a lso. P oo r d ecoup ling o fr .
f
. circuits c an produce n
eighbou rhood o f s trong s igna ls t he r .f
. g ain s hou ld b e
wha ti sk nown a sthre shold h ow ld eno ted b ya n a .f
. h owlj us
t r
e duced . On c .w. a nd s .s
.b . s igna ls i t may b e d esirab le t o
a
s t he v alve g oes i n
to o scillation, t he r emedy h ere i sto k
eep r .f
. /
i.f.g ain fairly l ow t oi ncrea se t hee fec tivene s so ft he
i
mp rove t hed ecoupl ing. T h
ise fect isu nlikely t oo ccurw ith b
.f.o. ( unle s
s t he rece ive r i sd esigned f or s .
s.b .) b ut w hen
r
esistance -coup led s tage s
. l
i
sten ing t o t e
lephony s tation s w ith t h e a .g
.c . s witched o n,
I
na l
l r egene rat
ive c ircuit sd epend ing o n positive f e
edback t
h e r.
f. a nd i .
f. gain s s hou ld b e w e l
l a dvanced , a nd t he a .f
.
b
y i nduc tion, t heco rrec t "s en se "o fconne ct
ion o ft he gr
id c
on trol s uitab ly a dju sted .
a
nd f eedback w inding s mu st b e o bserved. T he s ense o fthe The r eceive rn o
ise s hou ld a lway sb ep eaked w ith t hea er
ia l
w
ind ing s s hould b e t he s ame f or "g rid t o earth" a s "h .t
. t
r
imme r w hen f i
rs
t s witch ing t o ab and . I ts hou ld n o t b e
t
oa node ." n
ece ssary t o r eadjust t his t rimme r o n i ndividua l s tation s
e
xcep t p erhap s on t he 1 .8-2 Mc / s b and .
O PER AT
I N G T HE RE CEI VER Conside ration s hou ld a lways b eg iven t oe n su ring ar ea son -
T o o b
tain t he o ptimum p e
rfo rmance f rom ac ommun ica- a
bly g ood ma tch b etween t he a eria l i npu t c ircu it a nd t he
t
i
on s r ece
ive r w hethe r s imp le ofc omp lex, requi res prac tice a
erial o r t ran sm iss
ion l i
ne . Mo st f acto ry-bu ilt r eceive r s a re
a
nd a r egard t o f undamen tal techn ical principle s
. No t wo d
e s
igned f oru se with a ni n puti mpedanc eo fa bou t4 00 o hm s
r
eceive rs are exactly t hes ame , b u
t s ome o perating h ints a re o
ra l
terna t
ive ly l ow -
impedance 7 5 o hm c oaxia l c ab le . I ft he
g
ene rally applicab le. T yp ica lc on t
ro lsare shown i nF ig.4 .62. a
ctua l a erial i mpedance d ife rs a pp reciab ly f rom t he d es ign
Unless t he receive r h as a n extreme ly slow t un ing r ate i t f
igure, aw orth-wh ile i mp rovemen t i n s igna l-to -no ise r a
tio
w
ill b e nece ssary t o d eve lop a d elicate touch w hen t uning c
an b e o bta ined b y t he u se o f a n a er
ia l ma tch ing u n
it ( see
w
eak s ignals o n t h e highe r frequency b and s
. T his w i
ll b e F
ig.4 .63 ),u s
ing t hep r
inc ip lesd e scribed i nt h es ection o nh . f
.
g
reatly a i
ded b y as moo th -ac t
ing s l
ow mo tion d rive h aving a a
erials. I ts hou ld al ways b e re me mbered t hat a ny a dditiona l
l
a
rge r eduction r a
tio . P ar ticula r
ly o nc .w.
, i tisi mpo rtan t to g
ain w hich c an b ea ch ieved i nt he a er
ia l i npu tc ircu it i sf r
ee
t
une s ignals c are fully, w hen f i
rst h eard, f or max imum o
fv a
lve n oise .
s
t
reng th and m inimum i nte rference, t o f
orestall t he sudden On many r eceive rs,t he a. g
.c.( a
.v.c .)s witch mu stb et urned
a
pp earance o fa ni nterfe r
ing s i
gna l
. Max imum u se shou ld b e of f or c .w . a nd s .
s.b . r ecep tion t o p reven t t h e s en s
i tivity
made o fa ny cr ys
ta l fi
lte r, a s described later, and t h e se
lec - b
eing r e duced b y the a ct
ion o ft he b .f
.o .
t
i
vity s hould b e t he o ptimum f or t he par
ticular mode s ince
C
. W
. Recept
ion w
ith a S
ing
le Crysta
l F
ilter
t
h
is w ill imp rove t h e signa l -to-no ise rat
io.
I
ft he receiver h a s separa te c ontrols for a.f.
, i .
f. a nd r .f
. A
lthough ama
teurs p
layed a
n impo rtan t role i nt he devel-
opmen t a nd a pplica t
ion o r
c
r ys
tal f i
lters t hei
r u se i sn ot
a
lways p opu lar , e spec ia lly
among o perator s w ho h ave
SELECT
IVITY not gra sp ed fully t h et echnical
S - METER CONTROL
pr
incip le s invo lved. S
uch
CRYSTAL operato rsc omp lain t ha t when
AERIAL
TR
I M MER
PHAS
ING in
terference o c cu rs
,t h ey swi
tch
i
nthec ry s
ta lf i
ltero nly tol ose
BFO CONTROL ther equi red st ation b ecause o f
RF GA
IN -
a c onside rable r e duc t
ion o i
oo s
treng th. Ac orrec tly a d
justed
IF GA
IN -
---
AF GA
IN f
il
ter s hou ld n ot r educe t he
B
AND-SPREAD s
treng th o f th e s ignal b y a ny
MAIN
TUNING
TU NI N G la
rge amoun t bu
t r a
th er
A BAND should r esult i n c onsiderab le
S
END/ CHANGE HEADPHONE
R
ECEIVE SWITCH JACK improvemen t o ft he s ignal-to-
AGC ANL
SW
ITC H SWITCH SWITCH noi
se r atio. T he r eason w hy
F
ig. 4
.62
. Typ
ica
l g
enuine o
f c
ontro
ls f
or a
n am aaaaa c
o m mun
icat
ions r
oce
ivar
. s
ome u se rsc omp lain o fs e
riou s

4
.
39
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
t
he c ontrol isn ot touched a gain, a l
l s
ignals be
ing c arefully
t
uned b y mean s oft he t
uning c on trol f
or maximum o utpu t
.
An i n
terfering h ete
rodyne n ote a ppearing in the pa ssband
300
p
F c
an b e el
im ina ted by ad
ju stmen t oft he phas
ing c ontrol, the
efec
t o f w hich i sto move s l
igh t
ly t he v
ery sharp r e
je ct
ion
no
tch p roduced b y the para
llel resonance o fthe crystal.
A sharply p eaked crystal fi
lter may c ause al
l s t
able c .w.
TO
RECEIVER s
ignals t o "r ing " sl
ight
ly a nd p roduce a h o
llow b e
ll-like
n
ote w h
ich, ift oo p
ronounced ,c an make as i
gnal diff
icult to
300 OH M
r
ead. I f av ariable se
lect
ivity c ontrol isfi
t
ted, the efec t can
(
a
) (
b) FEEDER TO u
sually b e overcome b y reducing t he s
e
lectiv
ity sl
ightly.
RECEIVER

F
ig. 4
.63
. R eceiver aerial match ing circuits based on the pi-network .
R
ECEPT
I ON OF S
.S
.B.
(
a
) Unba lanced; (b) balanced . Since the impedance t ransfor mation
i
sn ot u
sua l
ly as great as in trans mitter output n et works, capac
itor The r ec eption o fs .
s.b. i sn otd ificu ltb uti td oesn ece ssi
ta te
v
alues can g enera
lly b e 1
50-300pF . Suggested w inding d etai
ls for the
c
oils: 2
5 turns 28 s.w.g. ena melled c opper w ire wound o n a1in dia- t
he ma s
te ry o f at echn ique w hich may b eu nf am ilia rt o many .
meter for mer tooccupy a s pace ofa pprox i mately 1in. and tapped at A
s i ns o many o the r f i
eld s, a n o unce o fp rac tic e i sw orth a
2
,5 ,8, 1
2 a nd 19 t
urns.
t
on o f t heo ry . T he mo st l i
ke ly p lace t o f ind a s ideband
s
tation i sb etwe en 3 -75 a nd 3 -8 Mc /so ra round 1 4.3 Mc /s
. A s
t
he r e ceive r i st uned t hrough t he s igna l t he s ound i s
suing
l
oss o f s treng th i sa lmo st a lway s b ecau se t h e b .f
.o. c on tro l f
rom t hes peake rw ill r e
ach ap eak a nd w i
ll t h en s t art t of a
ll
h
a s n ot b een c or rec tly s e
t i na dvance ; t h
is h as m ean t t ha t of, b ut i tw ill a tn o t ime b e come i ntelligible . Un til ad atum
t
he s tat
ion i sn ot a ccu ra tely t uned i n w hen t h e c ry stal i s f
requency i s i ntroduced i n p l ace o f t he m is s
ing c arrie r
,
s
wi tched i nto c ircu it; t h e l oss o f s treng th i n s uch c ircum - i
n
te lligib ility i s i mpo ssib le. F or af i
rst e ssay i nto s .
s.b.
s
tanc es i sr eally a n i ndica tion t ha t t h e c rystal i sd oing i t
s r
ecep tion , emp loy ing ar e ceive rw ithou t ap roduc t o rh e
te ro-
i
n
tended j ob o f n arrow ing t he p as s b and o ft he r eceive r. d
yne d etec to r t he b .f
.o . may b e u sed .
I
ti se ssen tia l w i
th a f i
lte r using a s ing le c ry stal t hat t he With t h e n oi se p eaked a t max imum a nd t h ea .g.c. o f, the
b
.f.o . p itch c on t rol s hou ld n ot b e u sed a s af orm o f f ine b
.f.o. s hou ld b e s witched o n a nd t he p i
tch c on tro l r otated
t
un ing c on tro l, b ut s hou ld b e set i na dvance t o af requency s
low ly u ntil t he s pe ech b eg in s t os ound r ecogn izab le . Mo re
s
ome 5 00 o r 1 000 c /s h ighe r o r l owe r t han t he c rys tal l
i
ke ly t han n ot,t heo utpu tw ills ound h eavily o ve rmodu lated ,
f
requency . I ts hou ld t hen b e v a ried o nly w hen ac hange i n i
nw hich c ase a n i mp rovemen t may b e made b y b ack ing o f
t
heo utpu t n ote i sr equ ired . t
he r .
f. a nd I f
. g ain c on tro ls. A f i
na l touch t o t he p i
tch
T he i mpo rtance o ft h
i ss t
em sf rom t h ef ollow ing : s uppo se c
on tro l, a nd t he s igna l s hou ld b ecome p er fectly r eadab le.
t
heb .f
.o . h as b een s et, s ay, 5 000 c /sf r om t hec rys talo ri n
te r- I
fi ts ound s u nna tu ra l and o ve rmodu la ted o r l ike ag ramo -
med ia te f requency b ut as i
gna l i st hen t uned i nt op rov ide a p
hone r e co rd o n at urntab le w hich i sn otr unn ing e ven ly, the
c
onven ien t l i
sten ing b eat n ote o f 1 000 c /s. T his m ean s t ha t t
roub le i sa lmo st c ertain t o s tem f rom d ef
i cienc ie s i n the
t
h e i ncom ing c ar r
ie r i se i
the r 4 000 o r 6 000 c /
s o f t he f r e- r
eceive r.
quency t ow h
ich t hes eti sa ctually t uned . T h
i s may n o tb eo f As h as a lready b een s aid , t h e i n
s ertion o f as igna l t ot ake
g
r ea t c ons equence w ith t he r eceive r o pe rating i n ap osition t
h e p lace o ft hec arrie r ise ssen tial t ot hed emodu la t
ion o fa
o
f m inimum s e
lec tiv ity, b ut i mmed ia te ly t he p assband i s s
ideband s igna l. W i th at r.f.r eceive r,t heo n
ly w ay o fd o
ing
n
a r rowed b ys w
i tch ing i nt hec rysta l,t hes igna lw illb eg rea tly t
his w ould b e t o c oup le i nto t he f ront -end t h e o utpu t of a
a
ttenua ted ; i n o rde r t o t une i ti n c or rec tly i tw ou ld b e l
oca l o scillato ra dju sted a sc lose ly a sp ossible t ot hen om inal
n
ece ssary t or e
ad ju st b o th t he t un ing a nd t he p itch c ont ro l, f
requency o ft h et ran sm itt ing s tation . As imila rs y stem may
i
np ractice t hes igna l i so ften l ost a ltoge the r. o
f c ou rse b e e mp loyed w ith a s upe rhe t r eceive r. T he o ut
-
Compa re t his w i
th w ha t h appen sw hen t he b .f.o.h as b een s
tand ing a dvan tage o f si gna l-frequency c arrie r i nsertion i s
c
o r rectly s et i na dvance 1 000 c /s o ft h e n om ina l i .
f. When t
ha tt hei n
tel ligib ility a nd q ua lity o ft h ea udio o utpu td epend s
t
h e s et i st uned , e ven i n ap osition o f b road s e
lec tiv ity, t o s
ole ly u pon t h es tab ility o ft hec arrie ro scil
la to r. A si n
jection
p
rov ide a b ea t n o
te o f 1 000 c /s, t h e s igna l w il
l e i
the r b e i
sd one a tt h ea e r
ia l t ermina ls, n othing mo re t han as mall r .
f
.
p
rec isely t uned t ot he c en tre o ft hep assband ,o rt o ap osition s
igna l i sr equ ired , s o t he o scilla to r may b e d esigned f or
2
000 c /sa way. Sw itch ing i nt hec rysta l w i
ll t hus h ave much quality o fo utpu t r a
the r t han f or q uan tity
. A BC22 1 or o ne
l
esse fec to ni tss treng th ,e i
the ri tr ema in se xactly t uned ,o ra t o
ft he LM s erie sf r
equency m ete rsw il
l b ef ound i d eal. D rift
w or sti tw illb eo nt he w rong s i
de o ft heb eatn o
te a nd c an b e i
nt he h eterodyne o sc i
llato r o f as up erhe t will h ave n o mo re
r
etuned b y a dju sting o nly t het uning c on tro l. efec t o n s .s.b . s igna ls r eceived b y fron t-end c a rrie r i n
je ction
Tos ett heb .f
.o .c on tro l
,t hep ha sing c on tro ls hou ld f i
rstb e than i tw il
l o n c onven t
iona l a .m . I t may b e i rrita ting, b ut
po sitioned a t a bou t m id -trave l, a nd w ith t he b .f
.o . t urned noth ing mo re. W ith a p oo r a nd u nstab le r eceive r, t h
i s is
o f
, as teady c ar rie r c are fully t uned i n t o g ive max imum theo n
ly w orthwh ile m ethod t ou se. T he d rawback i sthatt he
S-me ter r eading ( o r max imum n oise o utpu t i ft here i sn o receive r t un ing mu s t b e a dju sted i n s ynch ron ism w ith t he
m ete r). T he b .
f.o . i st h
en t urned o na nd s etf i
rstt oz ero b ea t carrie r o scilla to r w hen c hang ing f requency . Am ino r p o
in t
with t he c ar rier t oe nsu re t ha t t his c oinc ide s a pp rox ima tely to w a tch i st hat t h e c arr
ie r o scillato r mu st n ot o ve rload t he
with m id -trave l o f t he p itch c on tro l ( i
f t h
i s i sn ot p o ssible , fron t-end o ft her ec eiver. I fi t
s amp l
itude i sg rea te nough t o
the b .f
.o . t r
imme r may n eed a dju s
tmen t ), a nd t hen f urthe r drive t h e r .
f. s t
age i nto n on -linear ity , t he r eceive r w ould
adju s
ted t o p rov ide t he b eat n o te mo st a ccep tab le t o t he become s us cep tib le t oc ro s s modu la tion b ya ny s trong s i
gna l.
par ticula r o pe ra tor —usua l
ly b etween 5 00 a nd 1 000 c /s When u sing as upe rhe t, i ti s mo re c onven ien t t o r e
intro -
though a f ew o pera to rs p re fer a much l owe r p i
tched n o te. duce t h e c ar rie r a ta n a pp rop ria te f requency a fte r t h e side-
T hiss e
t ting o ft h eb .f
.o.s hou ld b ec are fully n oted ; n orma l ly band h a s b een c onve rted t o t he i ntermed ia te f requency . A
40
 H.
F.RECE
IVERS

b
lock d iag ram o ft his s ys
tem i s
AUDIO
s
hown i nF ig .4 .64. T he b .f.o. 4
65 - 4 68 Ads 0- 5000c ls OUTPUT
i
s o f
ten e mp loyed a s t he
RF IF AUDIO
c
ar riero scilla to ra nd p roduce s AMPLIFIER
M
IXER
AMPL IFIER
DETECTOR
A MPLIFIER
r
eg re t
tab le r esu lts b ecau se i t
i
sa sked t of i
l
l ar ole f orw hich
i
tw as n otd esigned . T he a ver-
A
a
ge b . f
.o . i s aw ell-bu i
lt u nit
Lf
which h as a s low t uning r ate OSCILLATOR 4 2
18 k c/s
OSCILLATOR
4
55 k c/s

a
nd i sq uite s tab le e nough t o
t
ake t h ep l ac eo ft h ec a
r r
ier. I n F
ig. 4 .64. Block d iagra m s ho w ing t he method o f c arr
ier r e-
insert ion a t t he i nter med iate
f
requency o f a r eceiver .
t
h e ma jo rity o fr eceive r
si t
so ut -
put i sv ia as ma ll c apac ito r t o
t
h ea node o f ad iode d etecto r,a nd i t
s amp l
i tude i sr e
st r
icted t o Fig.4 .65 mu stt h
e re fore b e i n
cluded t oe nab le t her e ceive rt o
t
h e l owe st l eve la tw hich a na ccep tab le b eat n ote i so btained hand le a ll f orm s o f s igna l. C onven t
iona l a .m . may b e
f
o rt her ecep tion o fc .w.t e
leg raphy . When a na ttemp ti smade demodu la ted b y t h e s o-ca l
led e xa l ted c ar r
ie r m ethod .
t
om ix as ideband s igna lw ith t hatf rom t heb .f.o.,c on s
ide rab le T his i st h e t echn ique i nw h
ich t he o r
ig ina l c a rrie r i sf i
l
te red
d
isto rtion w illo ccu ri ft he amp l
i tude o ft hes imula ted c arrie r ou t,a se xp lained e arlie ri nt h
isc hap te r,a nd t hen r ep lac ed b y
i
se xceeded b y t hat o ft h es ideband . T o r educe d isto rt
ion t o al ocally g ene ra ted , b u t a pp reciab ly s tronge r, c ar r
ie r
.
neglig ib le p ropo r
tion s, t h
e max imum amp litude o ft he s.
s.b . Fo r s ucce ssfu l i .
f. re
in se r tion , i ti se ssen tial t hat
s
igna l mu st b e h e
ld w ell below t hat o ft he b .f.o. s ignal. T his b
o th t hel ocal o scilla tor a nd t he b .f
.o . s hou ld b ea sf r
ee f rom
c
an b ed one b yr edu cing t her .f
.a nd i .
f
.g ain b utt h
i ss o
lu t
ion d
rift a s i ti sp os s
ib le t o make t hem . Ac onsi sten t s low d rift
c
an n eve r b e mo re t han a c omp rom ise. When t h e gain i s i sn ot much o f ah and icap b ut erra t ic, s ho rt-te rm f requency
advanced t o r ead a w eak s igna l, spla tte r b e come s u navo id -
able f rom a ny s t
ronge r s igna l w h ich may h appen t o b e HT+
adjacen t. I nc rea sing t heo utpu t o ft he b .f.o. i sr arely p rofit- 200/
250V
able, b ecau se s tabi l
ity i slikely t os uf er. I ns ome r eceiversa C3
1
00pF
con side rab le i mp rovemen t m ay b ee f ected b y d isconne cting 1 0.1

thel ead f rom t he b .f

.o . tot hed iode d etecto ra nd c onne cting X
I I- °RF
C
l O UTPUT
i
tt ot h e g rid o ft he f i
rst o rs econd i f. amp lif
ie r v alves via a
V
I
capac i to ro f Io r 2p F
. T his mod ifica tion w il
l n ot, h oweve r
, F
ig. 4.66. Crysta l-contro l
led
w ork w e
ll i ft he i .
f. i
sf ollowed b y ah ighly s e
lective c
arrier i nsert ion o scillator .

dev ice s uch a s ac r ystal o r m echan ica l f i

lter.
One a nswe rt ot hep rob lem i stor ep lace t hed iode d etecto r
b
y am ixe r-type d emodu la to r. Ar ep res entat ive circu ito ft his
t
ype i ss hown i nF ig . 4.65. W ith t his c i
rcu it, w hich i sc om -
mon ly c alled t hep rod uct d etec tor, t he a pp lied b . f
.o . voltage
i
sl essc r
i t
ica lt han w ith ad iode d e
tec to r
,y ett hea udio o utpu t
i
s much c leane r. I ti sp os s
ib le t oa dd t he d oub le t r
iode a nd j
ump s a re p articu lar ly d isconce rting . I n r ece ive rs w hich a re
t
he f ew a sso ciated c omponen ts i n
to mo st r e
ceive rs, but t h e prone t ot h
i sf au
lt, i tisu sua l
ly mo re s atis fac to ry t oi nstall a
d
ete cto rw ill w ork e qua lly w elli fcon struc ted a sa no utboa rd c
r ystal o scilla to r ata n a pp rop ria te f requency w ith in t he i.f
.
a
cce sso ry. T he p roduc t d etecto r i s a lso u sefu l f or c .w. passband t han t o a ttemp t t o c ure t he o fend ing b .f
.o . A
r
ec ept ion b ut i tw ill n ot d emodu la te a .m . o r n .b.f.m . tele - t
yp ica lc ircu it i sg iven i nF ig.4 .66,f orw hich s uitab le c rystals
phony . As witch ing a rrangemen t s uch a s t hat i ndicated i n a
r e r eadily a vailab le. I ft he i.
f. p as sband i sw ide e nough t o
a
ccep t t wo s idebands , i tw i
ll
s
uf ice t oo bta in o ne c ry stal of
HT+ 2 5 0V FR O M DI ODE
TO D I ODE which t hef requency s hou ld b e
AM DETECT OR
R5 A
\ M
DE TECTOR c
en tred i n t h e m idd le o f t he
1
5K
p
a ssband . I f h oweve r, t he
p
a ssband a pp roache st he mo re
I
TO AUD IO
S
la I • 1 0 01 4
74 \ AMPL IFIER
d
e sirab le s elec tiv i
ty c ha rac-
t
eristic o f 3k c/s, t wo c rystals
w
ill h ave t o b e i nstal led i n a
switchab le c ircu it s o t hat t he
c
ar rie r may b e i nserted t oo ne
s
ide o r t h e o th er o f t he p a ss
-
band ,t h er eby p erm itting e i
th er
uppe r o r l owe r s ideband
r
ecep tion a t w ill. F ig. 4 .67
w
ill g ive t he i dea much mo re
quick ly t han w ords .
The re a re a f ew p ossible
FR O M CARR IER
OSC ILLAT OR mod ifica tion s wh ich d esp i
te
F
ig . 4.65. Typ ical tw in -triode p roduct d etector c ircu it
. RFC -1 .5m H t o 2•5 m H. VR I 5 00K t o 1P legoh m . t
h eir s imp licity may m ake a
4
.4
1
RSGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
on s
ide rable i mprovemen t to many l o
cal o sci
llators
. A s t
ion. T heo re tically, t his s ystem h as se vera l a dvan tage s o ve r
d
rift i s frequen tly c aus ed b y c hang es i n t he poten tia
ls s
.
s.b. b ut i n ama teu r p rac t
ice t hese c anno t u sua lly b e
a
pplied t ot h e var
iou s electrode s oft he osci
lla tor and m ixer a
chieved . I t h a s t he ma jo r d isadvan tage , c ompa red w ith
v
alves
, s tabilization o ft he h.t
. supp ly by ar egu latorv o
l tage s
.
s.b., o fo ccupy ing t wice t he b andw idth .
t
ube s uch a s the 0C3 o r VR 105 /30 isi nvariab ly beneficia
l. The l east c omp lica ted w ay t o r eceive d .s.b. i st o t urn i t
I
ft he m ixe r valve i si n
cluded i n ei
th er the manua l o r the i
nto s .s
.b . b ym ean so fa ne xtreme ly s e
le ctive i .
f.f il
te rs uch a s
a
utoma t
ic g ain c ontrol l o ops
, i ts hould b e d isconnec ted t
h a
t i n F ig. 4 .68. W ith a f i
l
te r o f t his k ind , t he s igna l i s
t
herefrom a nd t he cathode a nd g r
id returns s o
lidly ear
thed . v
irtua lly i ndis t
ingu ishab le f rom g enu ine s .
s.b .
, e xcep t t ha t
An al
te ration t o the send /receive s w
itching i sh ighly recom - t
uning i smo re c r
i t
ica l
,a nd s l
igh tm isadjus tmen tw illl ead t oa
mended i n many r eceive rs
. A c ommon f unction o f t h
is "grow l "s upe rimpo sed o n t he a udio. T his may b e e l
im in -
s
witch i st o d i
sconnec t t he h .
t. from a ll valve s comp letely a
ted b y r educ ing t he l ow f requency r e spon se o ft h e r eceive r
when i ti s t hrown t o SEN D. A m inor r ear rangemen t of a
ud io s tages i n t he m anne r r ecommended f or t ran sm it
te r
t
he wiring c an b e made t o perm it the local o sci
llator a nd s
peech amp lifiers.
t
he b.f
.o . to c ontinue r unn ing a nd s o wi
ll m in imize erra t
ic To make t he mo st o f d .s
.b ., b oth s idebands h ave t o b e
a
ccep ted o n ar eceive rw ith ap assband o f 6k c/s,a nd t hel o
ca l
c
arrie r mu s
t b e l ocked i np hase w ith t h e n om ina l c arrie r b y
mean s o f i nfo rma t
ion d erived f rom t he s i
deband s t h em -
s
elve s. T he b lock d i
ag ram o f F ig. 4 .69 s how s o ne p ossib le
s
ystem . A f
te rc onve rsion t ot he i ntermed ia te f requency , t he
F
ig. 4
.67. Alternative carrier s
igna li sa pplied t ot wo p rodu ctd ete c
to rs Aa nd B . T he l o
ca l
f
requenc
band r
ies f
ecept
or s
e
ion w
lectable s
ith a h
ide
igh
-
ly
o
scilla to rv o
l tage i sp assed t hrough a9 0° r.f
. p ha se s hiftn et-
s
electable r
eceiver. work b e fore r each ing t hed etecto r s
. I ft he i njection v oltage
a
t Ai si nt hec orre ct p ha se relation ship, max imum a ud io w ill
a
ppea r i nt h e o utpu t, b u t n o signa l ata l
l w ill eme rge f r
om
d
etec to r Bb ecau se t hec a rr
ie ri si ntrodu ced 9 0'o uto fp ha se.
When t heo scillato rd rif
t ss l
igh tly,t he Ac hanne lw ill b el i
ttle
afected , b ut s ome o utpu t will star t toa ppea r f rom B . T his
w
ill b ei np hase w ith t he Ac hanne l foro ne d irec tion o fd r
i ft
,
d
rift cau sed by al
te rna te heating a nd c ooling. T he resu l
ting
and 1 80 ° o ut o f p ha se f or d rift i n t he o ppo site s en se. B y
improvemen t i
ns tability will vary w idely f rom o ne r ece
iver amp lif ying t h ea udio f rom b oth d emodu lato rsa nd c omb in ing
t
o a nothe r, bu
t w i
ll a lmo st a lways b e o u
t o fp ropo r
t ion to
i
ti n ap hase d isc r
im ina to r
, ad .c. v o
ltage i so btained w hich
t
hes imp licity ofthe mod ification. may b e a pplied t o ar eac tance v alve t o p rov ide a utoma t ic
F
inally, i fthe r eceiver i sn ot p articularly s e
le ct
ive , the
p
ha se c on tro l fo r th e osc i
llato r. T he o bviou s c omp lex ity o f
a
dvisab il
i ty o
fr educing i t
sb andw idth t o 3k c
/ s may b ew orth t
his a rrangemen t s how s f a
irly c l
ea rly w hy i ti ss imp le r t o
c
on s
ide ring. T he advan tage t ob egained f rom t his mod if
ica-
g
ene ra te a s .
s.b . s igna l i n t he f i
r st p lace t han t o a ttemp t
t
ion isn otc onf
ined s olely tos .
s.b.w ork,b ut as i
ng le sideband
r
ecep tion o fb oth s idebands o f ad .sbs igna l.
t
ransm ission 3 k c/s w ide t uned o n ar eceiver with a 3 k c
/s
p
a s
sband r epresents t heh ighe s
te f
iciency a nd b ests igna l
-to-
i
n
ter fe
rence r a
tio a t p resen t attainab le i n te
lephony c om-
munication . T he fi
ne st w ay toi ncrea se se
lectivi
ty a tr eason- R
ECEPT
I ON OF N
.B.F
.M. S
IG NALS
a
ble cost i stoi n
stall t wo section s o
fh alf
-lattice cr ys
ta l fi
l
ter
i
nt he i.
f. amp l
ifier o r toa dd ac ompac t m echanica l fil
ter. Conventional fr
equency modu lat
ion o f t
he t
ype u sed for
v
.h
.f. r
adio a nd te
lev
ision (i
n the UK o n
ly on the 6 25
-line
s
ys
tem ) st
ations isnot d
irec
tly su
itable fo
r h.
f. commun ica-
R
ecept
ion o
f D
.S.B
.
t
i
ons b ecau se of the broad b andw id
th required. T hese
T
his s
ect
ion wou
ld no
t be comple
te w
ithou
t am en
tion of s
ys
tems h ave frequency dev
iations o f t
he o
rder o f ±3 0-75
d
ouble
-sideband
, s
uppres
sed-car
rier s
ys
tem of c
ommun ica
- k
c/
s with sidebands ex
tending well beyond t
hese limi
ts. F or

l
Ot 0'
2'
y
1
0M

V
I V
2
AUD
IO
OUTPUT
i
FTI X
l I
FT2 1
3 I
FT3
—

F
ROM c
i I8
a
1
s
t : ._
•
•
Ia
°
D r T

L —
I 1
0
,,pF c
7
E
I
FO I
NPUT

F
ig. 4
.61
3. High
ly s e
lective if
. ampl
ifier a
nd product detector. VI and vi may be a
ny of the u
sua
l type o
f r
.
f. pentode, c
o mponent va
lues
be
ing chosen to s
uit
. XI and X3 shou
ld be i
dentical i
n frequency a
nd s
hould d
iffer f
ro m X2 a
nd X4 by approxi mately 2 k
c s
.

4
.
42
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS

A
UDIO
signa l i nto o ne o f c onven tiona l
D
ETECTOR
a.m . f orm w ith amp litude d e-
r
A
MPL IF
IER — 1. O
UTPUT '
A
'
penden t u pon t h e f r
equency
dev ia t
ion o f t he i ncom ing f .m.
signa l a nd c an b e d emodu la ted
F
DO° RF
LOCAL R
EACTANCE
H AUDIO b
y m ean s o f an orma l e nve lope
P
HASE PHASE SHIFT P
HASE
I
NPUT -/
P--*
D
IFFERENCE N
ETWORK
OSCILLATOR VALVE
D
ISCRIM INATOR dete cto r. T he se t wo p roce s
se s
(and s ome time s t h e amp litude
limit ing ) a re c a rried o ut i n a
AUD IO sing le s tage b y m ean so fa nf .m.
D
ETECTOR
AMPL IFIER OUTPUT 'B' disc rim ina to r.
T o u nder stand why f .m. c an
F
ig . 4
.69. S i mp lified b lock d iagra m o f t he s ynchronous d etect ion s yste m for d.s.b . r eception . Aud io b
e r eceived b y d etun ing a
output may b e taken f ro m e ither amp lifier A o r amp lifier B b ut n
ot fro m b oth i n parallel. r
ece ive r, r ef erence s hou ld b e
made t o F ig . 4 .70 w hich s how s
c
ommun ica tions a pp lica tions much n a rrowe r d evia tion s t
he s elec tivi ty c urve o f at ypica l i .f
. amp lifie r. F o r a .m .
may b e e mp loyed , t hough t his m eans t h at t he s i
gna l/no ise s
igna ls , t he r eceive r i sn orma lly t uned s o t ha t t he w an ted
i
mp rovemen t o fw ideband f .m. w ith p re -empha s
is i sl ost._ s
igna l i si nt h e m idd le o f t h e p a s
sband o r a t t he p eak , i .e
.
N
ar row b and f requency modu la tion ( n.b.f.m .)i sp erm itted p
oin t A . I ft he r ece
ive r isd etuned t oo ne s ide o r t he o the r
,
ona ll ama teu rb ands w i
th amax imum d evia tion o f ±25 k c/s s
ay p oin t B , i twill r espond t o as i
gna l o fv a rying f requency
a
nd am ax imum modu lating f requency o f4 000 c /s. A lthough a
s t hough i t
s amp l
itude w as c hang ing , s i
nc e i tw ill r eceive
t
his d ev ia tion may a ppea rl ow i nc ompa rison w ith b roadca st t
he s i gna l w ith v ary ing e fectivene s s a cco rd ing t o t h e p oint
s
y s
tem s, t h e p ercen tage d ev iation w hen r ece ived o n as et o
nt hes lope r ep resen ted b yt h ep a rt
icu la ri ncom ing f requency .
h
av ing a f inal i .
f. o f 8 5 o r 4 65 k c/s m ay i n f a c
t b e much I
ft he f requency v aria t
ion o f t h e s igna l i sa t a n a ud io f re
-
h
i ghe r t h an t h at o f a n f .m. b roadca sting s tation r eceived q
uency ( as i tw il
l b e for n .b.f.m . )
, t h en t he s e
t p rov ide s a n
w
i th t h es tandard i f. o f 1 0-7 Mc / s
. a
ud io o u
tpu t p ropor tiona l t o t he magn itude o f t h e c hange
The c ommun ica tion se f
iciency o fn .b.f .m .c an t herefo re b e i
n f requency . Any a ttemp t t o r ece ive t h e s igna l w ith t he
good , a nd w ith t he r e
la ted p ha se -modu lat ion t echn ique a
.g.c. c i
r cuits i n o pera t
ion w i
ll d eg rade t he r espon se.
o fers t h e a dvan tage s o f s imp le l ow -leve l modu la tion , Howeve r, t he f requency /amp litude c onve r sion i sg ene rally
w
i thou tr equ ir ing t hes ub sequen t u se o fl inea ra mplifi cat ion ; f
ar f r om i deal s ince t he i .
f
. r espons e c urve i su n
like ly t o be
an n .b.f.m . o r p h.m . t ran sm i tte r may t hus b e s i
gn ifican tly l
i
nea r.
c
heape r t o b u
il t t han e ithe r a n a .m. o r s .
s.b . t ransm itte r of Many s pec ial d i
s crim ina to r c ircu its h ave b een e vo lved
e
qu iva len t p owe r. M ilita ry t ests h ave s hown t hat i ns ome s
ome o fw hich r e quire t h e signa l t ob e p re-lim ited , a lthough
c
ircums tanc es p ha se modu la tion o fer s a pp re ciable a dvan - i
no the rs t h e li m
iting i sc ar r
ied o ut w ith in t he d isc r
im ina tor
t
a ges o ve r a .m . f or p ortab le h .f. o pe ra tion . s
tage . S ome d iscrim ina to r s r equ ire t h e u se o fs pe cial mu l ti
-
With p has e modu la tion t he d evia tion , u nlike t hat o f t rue g
rid v a lve s s uch a s t he n onode ( EQ80 ) o r g ated -beam
f
.m ., v a rie s w ith t he modu la tion f requency b ut c an b e (
6BN6 ) v alve s; o the rs n eed t wo d iode s w h
ich may b ee i
the r
conve rted t o f .m. f orm b y i ntroduc ing a 6 db /oc tave b ass t
he rm ion ic d iode s o r c rysta l ( sem iconduc to r) d iode s. T he
boo sting n etwo rk e ithe r i nt h e t ran sm it te r o r r eceive r a ud io mo st c ommon f orm s o fd isc r
im ina to rs u s
ing d iode s a re t h
e
c
ir cuits. T
rav is ( doub le t uned c ircu it), t he F oste r-Se eley a nd t h
e
Am a
jo r a dvan tag e o ft h e n .b.f.m . s ystem i st hat i ti sl e
ss s
e
lf -
lim iting r atio-d etecto r.
l
ikely t oc au se TV I t han a .m ., i ti sa lso a ttrac tive f orp ortab le A d is crim ina to r f or n .b.f.m . s hou ld b e d esigned s o t h a
t
w ork w he re t he t ota l p owe r a va ilab le i sl imited . I ts hou ld
be r ecogn ized t ha t n .b.f.m . i s r athe r mo re c omp lex i n
s
etting u p t han a .m ., a nd t he n eed e xists t oa dju std evia tion
w hen c hang ing b ands . F urthe rmo re t he s ystem c an c au se
app re ciab le s i deband s p
la tte r u nle ss t he h i ghe r a ud io
f
requenc ie sa r ea ttenua ted ( int heo ry a nf .m .s igna l m ay h ave
an i nf
in i te s erie s o fs idebands ).
I
n p rac tice , d espite i t
s p oten tia l v alue , t he n .b.f.m . s y stem
i
su sed b y ama teu r s f ar l e
ss t han e i
the r a .m. o rs .
s.b. e xcep t
int h e f o rm o f f r
equ ency s hif t k eying f or r ad io t e
lep rin te rs
.
For t his r eason f ew h .f
. c ommun ica tions r ece ive rs a re f i
tted
with a s uitab le d isc r
im ina to r f or t h e d emodu lat ion o f
n
.b.f.m . o r p h.m . s igna ls , a nd o pe ra to r s o ften r ely o n t h
e
techn ique o fd e tun ing t h er ece ive rt oo ne s ide o ft hen om inal
car r
ie r f requency , w ith t h e a .g.c. t urned o f
. Wh ile t h
is
system c an b e r e
asonab ly e fec t
ive w hen t heo ve ral
l r esponse
curve o f t he r e ceive r i ss u
itab le, i ti sr ecommended t hat f o
r
seriou s f .m. o peration a d i scrim ina to r s hou ld b e u sed . FRE QUE NC Y

To d emodu la te a n f .m. s igna l at wo -step o pera tion i s F ig . 4

.70 . Recept ion o f an n.b.f.m . signa l on t he skirt o f the i.f
. selec-
r
equ ired : a n f .m. s igna l f rom w hich a l
l amp litude v aria tion s t
ivity c urve o fan a.m , co m mun icat ions r ece iver . A s igna l ofv ary ing
f
requency when t uned t o a point s uch a s B on t he s kirt w ill c ause a
h
ave f i
rs t b een e l
im ina ted b ym eans o f al im ite ri sa pp lied t o pond ing v ariation i n t he c urrent t hrough t he f o
llo w ing
af requency /amp litude c onve rsion c ircu it, t his c hang es t he detector .

4
.
43
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
it
sl i
near r e spons ej u stc ove rst h eb as
ic d ev iation o f ±25 k c/s
plus t he mo re s ign ifi can t s idebands , o r s ay r ough ly 7 -5 k c/s
0
. 0 005- 0
.00
1
bandw idth. I ts hou ld b e n oted t hat t he u se o f aw ideband 4
65
d
isc rim inato r u sing a b roadca st i .
f
. o f 1 0-7 Mc / s i sn ot k
c/s

s
uitab le f or n .b.f.m ., a nd t h
is m ean s t h at t he s pe c
ia l r a
tio - AF
D
E -E
MFI
IAS
IS)
detec tor d i
sc rim ina to ri .
f.t ran sfo rmer sw ith at ertiary w ind ing NET WORK
c
anno t b e u sed . Howeve r
, 4 65 k c/s i .
f. t ran sfo rme r s with
c
en tre -tapped s econdary w ind ing s a r e marke ted ( i
n tended
p
rimar ily f or u se w ith c rystal f i
lter c ircu i ts) a nd t his m ean s 0
. 0005- 0
. 00
1
t
h at aF oste r-Se eley d isc r
im ina to rc an b ec on struc ted . S ince I
F A
NY 4 MATCHED SMALL
t
his t ype o f d isc rim ina to r i n
it
ia lly r equ i res t h e r emova l o f S
IGNAL D
IODES -
CG6OH, CGEI ON, ETC
amp litude v a r
ia tion s o f t h
e i ncom ing s igna l, i ti sn e cessary
t
o p re cede t h e d isc rim ina to r w ith o ne, o r p re fe rab ly t wo ,
s
tag e s o f l imit ing . T his i su sua lly a chieved b y t h e u se o f
p
en tode amp lif ier s o pera ted w ith a s uitab le t ime -con stan t F
ig. 4
.72
. A f
our-d
iode p hase discr
im inator for n
arro w
-band
f
requency modulation r
eception
.
n
etwork i nt he g rid c ircu it a nd /or i n as atura ted c ond ition
by t he u se o fv ery l ow s c
reen v oltag es.
F
ig. 4 .71 s how s a4 65 k c
/s n .b.f.m . a dap to r u sing t wo
l
i miting s tage s f ollowed b y aF oste r-See ley d isc rim inator
s
ugge s ted b y G2HCG ; a lthough o rigina lly i ntended f or u se
MA
I N TE N A N CE A N D FA ULT
-FI ND
I NG
on 1 44 Mc /s i tw ou ld b e e qually s uitab le f o r h .f
. o peration .
The 9 001 t ype v alve w as c ho sen b ecau se o f i t
s s ma ll size, A d if icult p roblem f or a n ama teu r o perator i sk now ing
l
ow p owe r r equ iremen ts, s ho r
t g rid b as e a nd r e
la t
ive ly l ow whethe r h i
s r eceive r i sp roviding t he o ptimum p erformance
g
ain ; a l
though o the r t ype s (su ch a s o ctals 6 17, 6 SJ7 , 6 SS7 ) o
fw hich i tisc apab le. V alve o rc omponen t de
te riora t
ion o r
c
ou ld b eu sed , mode rn h igh-ga in t ype ss hou ld b ea vo ided . t
he g radua l drifting o ut o f alignmen t o f the tuned c ircuits
Trav is o r g a ted -beam d i
sc r
im ina to r s c an b e d esigned a nd may d eg rade p e rformance t o ama rked e xtentb efo re theu ser
a
dju sted t og ive t he r equ ired r esults, a nd t op rov ide ah igh - b
ecome s a wa re o f i t
, p oor r esul
t s b eing a ttr
ibu ted t o t he
v
ol ts-p er
-kc /s -dev ia tion o utpu t ; b ut f ew e ntire ly s u
itab le v
aga rities o f h .f
. p ropaga tion c ond ition s
. I t s hou ld b e
d
e signs b ased o n t he se c ircui tsh ave b een p ub lished i nr ecen t a
pp re c
ia ted t ha t
, n o ma tter h ow w ell c onstructed , rece ivers
y
ea r s
. c
onta ining u p t o2 0 valve s are c er
ta in t o require o cca siona l
A f our-diode p has e d iscrim ina tor i ntended f o r u se w ith s
ervicing a t
ten tion . T he u se o f sem icondu ctors i nstead o f
4
65 k c /s U. s tage s i ss hown i nF ig.4 .72 , o fer ing t h
ea dvan t- v
alve s c an b ring a bou t ac onside rab le i mprovemen t i n
a
g e o f n o
t r equ iring a c entre -tapp ed i .f
. t ran sforme r. Th is r
el
iab ility —p rov ided t hat c are ist aken i nd es
ign a nd u se to
u
se s ac apac itive d i vide r to o b tain t he c en tre p o int i nc on - a
void s ubjecting t he d evicest oo ve r voltage s
.
j
unc tion w ith t wo d oub le d iode i n
teg rato r d etec tor s. S uch I
n amu l
ti-va lve r ece
ive r
,t hef ai
lu re o fo ne ort wo s tage st o
a
n a r rangemen t, a s w ith t he F o s
te r-Se eley d isc rim ina tor , c
ontr ibu te t heir f ull q uota o f gain may r ema in u nno ticed
s
hou ld b e p receded b y s ome f o rm o f amp litude l im itation . b
ecau se o ft h
ec onside rab le reserve o fg ain usually a vailab le
The re w ou ld a ppea r t o b e e xcellen t s cope f or f urthe r i
ns uch s e
ts y et, e specially w here t he f ault li
es i n a n e arly
d
eve lopmen t o f n .b .f.m . f or ama teu r h .f
. a nd v .h.f. a pplica - s
tage, t his may r esult i ns er
iou s d egrad ing o f the s igna l-
to -
t
ions ; b ut t h e r e
la tive ly f ew ama teu rs e qu ipped f or r eal
ly no
ise r atio. T here i sn os imple a nswe rt ot h
isp rob lem . F ew
efective r ecep tion o ft his mode t ends t od iscou rage i t
s w ide r amateu rs h ave a va i
lab le t he l abora to ry-
type i n
strumen ts
u
se . An n .b .f.m . s igna l r eceived o n a n a .m . r eceive r b y o f- n
ece ssary t om easu re h.f. receiverp erformance t ot hed egree
t
un ing t ends t o s ound u nde r
-modu la ted a nd d oe s n ot g ive o
fa ccu racy r equ ired t os how u po nly sligh tdeterio rat
ion . I n
r
eally g ood c ommun ica tions e fectivene s s. p
ractice , iti sb y n o m ean s unu sua l for al ong s pel
l o f dis-

0 HT-
I- 2
5 0V

AF

I •
LAST IF STAGE
7 IN RECE
IVER

F
ig. 4
.71
. A 4
4S k
c/s n
.b.f
.m. a
daptor
.

4
.
44
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS

a
ppo inting a c
tivity o n t he h
ighe r f
requency b ands to b e t
or
ized re
ceiver
s cal
ls for spec
ial c
are a
nd add
itiona
l know-
t
raced final
ly toa nu nsuspected rece
iverora e
rialfaul
t. T here l
edge
. T h
is quest
ion i sdiscussed i
nthe RSGB p ubl
icat
ion
a
re a lmo st c
ertainly many r e
ceivers i
nu se w h
ich c ou
ld b e Amateur Rad
io Techniques and in t
he many r
adio se
rvic
ing
g
reatly i mproved b yc a
refu l r
e
-alignment, by rep
lacemen t of b
ooks.
l
eaky d ecoupling c apacitors or b y t
he subs
titut
ion o f new
v
alves e i
ther the s ame t ype or one of t
h e n
ewe r low-noi
se R
e-a
lign ment
t
ypes, though t he la
tters hould o n
ly be under
taken b y tho
se The p e rformance o f ar e ceive ri sg ove rned t o ag r
ea te xten t
w
ith t h
e r equi
site know ledge. b
y t he a ccuracy w ith w hich t he v ariou s t uned c i
rcu its i nt he
An o perato r should a lway s endeavou r t o m emo rize the i
.
f
. a nd r .
f. s tage s a re a ligned . I n a l
l e quipmen t t he re i st he
t
rue" f e
el "o f are
ceiverw hen iti sw orking w el
l,s ot hata ny t
endency f or s uch c ircui ts t o d r
ift g radua lly o f-tune s o t hat
l
a
terd eteriora t
ion can be mo re readi
ly n oticed. T he Sm eter i
nt ime r e
-a lignmen t b ecome s n ece ssa ry. T he f irsti nd ica tion
r
eadings o f t h
e crystal calibrator o r a n external o sci
llator o
fp oo ri .
f
.a l
ignm en to f ac ommun ica tion sr e ceive ri su sua lly
s
uch as aBC22 1 are useful f o
r check ing p erformance . Iti s a ma rked r educ tion i n t he e fectivene s s o f ac r ysta l f i
lte r
.
u
seful also t o keep u nde r o bservation t he r e
sults b e
ing F
or tuna tely , mode rn f i
r st-g rade c omponen t s —par ticu la rly
a
chieved b y other ama teu rs (not
ing t he R ST repo rts they i
.
f
. t ran sforme r s a nd a ir- spaced t imme rs —a re e x treme ly
g
ive isn ot a lways ag ood b as
is f o
r t his —b e
tter to o bserve s
table ,a nd i nn orma lc ircum s tance so n
ly m ino rr e-alignmen t
h
ow much d ificul
ty t hey h ave i n c opying w eak s ignals)
. i
sl i
ke ly t ob en eeded . T hisi su sua lly o nly t ot ake a ccoun t o f
The se
lect
iv ity character
istics of ar eceiverc an b e kept fa
i r
ly v
aria tion s i n v alve i n
te r-e lec trode c apac itance s wh en r e-
a
ccurately u nderr ev
iew b yn o
ting it
ss ingle-signalc apab i
li
ties p
lacing v alve s. T he p erfo rmanc eo fo lder r ece ive rsh owever ,
on c.w
. s ignals or the deg ree of ringing o n as i
ngle c rys
tal c
an o f
ten b es ub stan tially i mp roved b yr egu la rr e-alignmen t,
f
i
l
ter. p
articu la r
ly w he re t he r eceive r i ss ubje cted t o v ibra tion o r
Va
lve d eter ioration c an o ften b e r ead i
ly c hecked b y direct e
xce ssive h um id ity .
The re a re t wo a pp roache s t ot he p rob lem o fr e
-a l
ignmen t
s
ub st
itu tion o f known g ood v alves , t hough t h
is c an s ome -
t
ime s b e a n u ncertain g uide b e
cau se o f the n eed i n some (
or t hree i fo ne i nclude s t aking t h e s et t o ag ood s erv ice
s
tage sf o
rs l
igh t r etrimm ing t oc ompen sate f o
r d if erence s in e
nginee r w ith e xpe rience o fc ommun ication s r ece ive rs ).
i
n
te r-ele ctrode c apac itance s w hen c hang ing v alve s. Mo s t manu fac tu re rs i s
sue d etai led i nstruc tion s o n t he
An o cca s
iona l r outine c heck o ft hev o
ltage sa pp lied t ot h
e p
roc edu re r e commended f o r t he mode l c onc e rned , l i
s t
ing
v
alve s ocke t so fe ach s tage i s mo stu se ful, n oto nly f o rl ocat
- s
uch i mpor tan t ma tte rs a s t h e c orr ec t i .
f
. a nd r .
f. a l
ignmen t
i
nga c tualf aultsb uta lso fo rb ring ing t ol i
gh tgradua lc hange s f
requenc ie s
, o rde r o f a dju stmen t a nd t h e l ayou t o f t h e
i
nv a
lve c urren t sa nd c omponen tv alue s. F or max imum u se
- v
ariou s t r
imme rs a nd c o re s. T o c ar ry o ut t hese p roc edu re s
f
u
lne sss uch c he ck ss hou ld a lway sb ec arried o uto nt hes ame g
ene ra lly r e quire s a cc es s t o a t l east ar easonab ly g ood
t
estme te r ( pre ferab ly o f at l east 1 000 o hm s per v olt s ensi
- s
igna l g ene ra to r
, o utpu t m ete r a nd as upp ly o fn on -me tallic
t
i
vity o r b ette r s t
ill 1 0,000 o r 2 0,000 o hm s p er v olt) t o t
ool s f or a djus tmen t o ft rimme rs a nd c ores.
e
l
im ina te t h e e fec t on t he r e ad ings o ft he c urren t d rawn b y The o thera pp roach n eeds o n
ly ak een e ar, af ew t ri mm ing
t
hem eter. I ti sg ood p rac tice t on ote t he r eading se ach t ime t
ool s, a nd —v ita lly i mpo rtan t —a c lear k now ledge o f w ha t
i
nto a n e qu ipmen t r eco rd b ook . Mo st r eceive r manu - s
hou ld a nd s hou ld n ot b e a t
temp ted . R ema rkab ly g ood
f
actu rer s i ssue s erv
ice i nfo rma tion l is
ting t yp ical v alve r
esults c an b e a chieved b y f ollow ing t his e mp irica l m ethod .
v
oltage s t o b e e xpe cted w ith me te r s o f d ef
ined s en sit
iv ity
, But i n
jud iciou s, h aphaza rd o r e xce ssive a dju stmen t s c an
b
u ti ti sbette rt op repa re at ab le o fm ea su red v ol
tage sf ort h
e q
uick ly a nd c omp le tely d esen si
tize a r eceive r s o t ha t i tc an
i
ndividua lr e ceiver ,a nd t oc heck t he se f rom t ime t ot ime. A s o
nly b e made t o w ork a gain b y af ul
l r e
-a lignmen t c ar r
ied
t
he v alve s a g e, th ere w i
ll i n evitab ly b e s ome s l
igh t c hange s o
u t w ith p rop er s ervicing e qu ipmen t. T he ama teur w ho i s
(
oft h eo rde ro f1 0p erc ent)w h
ich c an b es afe
ly d i
srega rded. c
apab le o f b enef iting f r om t his t e chn ique s hou ld n eed n o
Wa tch s hou ld b e k ep t f or t he f airly p ronounced c hange s g
uidanc e, tho se w ho d o s hou ld n eve r a ttemp t t ou se i t
.
which w ould i nd
ica te t hat av a
lve i sb ecom ing "s of
t," i ts Au s eful a c ce sso ry w hen c heck ing t h e accu racy o f t he r .
f.
emission f ailing , o r iti so the rwise r e aching t he e nd o f it
s a
l
ignmen t o f r e ceive rs h av ing a cce ssib le a ir-co red c oils,
u
se ful l i
fe
. Mea su remen to fv alve v oltage sw il
la lso h elp p in- w
ithou t r equ iring t he a lte ra tion o f t r
i mme rs, c on sist s o f a n
p
oin ts uch c ommon f aults a st heg r adua l increas e i nv alue o f i
nsu lated n on -me tallic r od a bou t 6i n
. l ong w ith as ma llp iece
f
eed r e
sistor sc arrying d .c
., l eakage o fd ecoup ling c apac ito rs o
fd us t-iron o rf er rite c ore ma te r
ia lf as
tened a to ne e nd o ft he
a
nd h igh -resistance j oints. r
od a nd as im ila rs mall p iece o fb ra s sa tt heo the r. When t he
To trace the mo re o bscure f aul
ts —o r those o f an in
te r- b
ra sse nd i si nse rted i n
to a nh .f
.c oil i tw illl owe rt hee fective
m
ittent nature —may r equire c on siderable patience and some i
n duc tance ; w he rea s i nse rt ing t h ed u st-iron e nd w i
ll i nc rea se
k
now ledge ofr ad
io s e
rvicing t echn iques —many o fw hich a re t
h e i nduc tance . T hi s dev ice ( often c al
led at u n
ing w and )c an
b
as
ica l
ly a pp
lied common s ense a nd ak nowledge o fO hm 's b
eu sed t oc he ck a l
ignmen t a tv ariou s p oin ts o n aw aveband
L
aw . B ecause an ama teu r i sseldom s o conce rned with t he by n oting t he e fec t o n as igna l w hen t he r od i sg radua l
ly
t
ime f a
ctor as ap rofes s
iona l s ervice enginee r
, i tisusual ly i
nse rted . I ft he r .
f. c ircu it i sc orre c
tly a dju sted , i nse rting
p
ossible for him to trace e ven tually even t he mo st difi
cu lt e
ithe r e nd o f t he r od w ill r educe t h e s igna l. On t h e o the r
f
au
l t
s, with the a
id ofo n
ly at estme tera nd as mal
ls upply o f hand i ft he c ircu i t i ss l
igh tly o f-tune , t he s igna l c an b e
s
ubsti
tute c omponen ts: t h e ama teur w i
th e xper
ience o f p
eaked w hen i nse rting o ne o ro the re nd o ft her od ,d epend ing
c
on s
tructional w ork s oon d evelop s the n ecessary fl
air f or on w he the r t h ec ircu it i st uned t ot he h igh o r l ow f requency
f
au
l t
-tracing. s
ide o ft hes i
gna l. T his d ev ic e, u n fo rtuna tely ,c anno ta lway s
B
ecause i t is ea
sy t o a cciden tal
ly d amag e o r destroy be u sed o n mode rn r ece ive rs, a s t he se o ften h ave c o ils w ith
s
emiconduc to r
s d ur
ing s e
rvic ing , trac
ing f aults in transis- variab le c ore s w hich p reven t t he r od f rom b eing i nse rted .
4
.
45
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
P
RACT
ICAL DES
IG NS s
ive receive r t oo much f org ran ted . A l
l r ece
ive r
s t u
rned o u
t
on an a ssemb ly l i
ne a re e ssen tia l
ly ama tte r ofcomp rom ise,
Fo r an umbe r o f y ea rs ama teu r s h ave t e nded t o u se
wherea s t h e i ndividua l ama teu r tends t o s pec
ialize i n his
f
ac to ry -bui lt h .f
. c ommun ica tion s r e ceive r
s, e i
the r t ho se
i
nterests. T he c .w
. o pera to rw i
l l have very d iferent idea so n
d
e signed s pe c
ifi cally f o r ama teu r o r c omme rcia l w o
rk , o r
what c onst itute s a n i dea l r eceiver t o t he o perato r w ho
mod ified e x-Gove rnmen t r e ceive rs, s ome manu fac tu red a s
g
ene rally u se st e
lephony . T hose w ho w ork ma inly on 1.8a nd
l
o ng a go a s Wo rld Wa r2 . R ecen tly,h oweve r
,t h ere h a
sb een
3
.5 Mc / s( whe re si
te n oise l evels a rel i
kely t obeh igh)w illn ot
am arked r e viva lo fi n
te re sti nh ome -con s truc tion ,p ar ticu la rly worry s o much a bou t e xt reme s ens
itivity a s t he 2 1 o r
o
fr e ceive rso fa dvanced , mode rn d esign . One r e ason f ort h
is 2
8 Mc / s en thu siast.
i
se conom ic: t h e f acto ry p roduc t
ion o f h igh-p er fo rmance Th
is i sn ot t os ugge st tha t o ne s hould r ush into tampe r
ing
r
ece ive r s t o t he mo s
t s tringen t mode rn r equ iremen ts ( and h
aphaza rd ly w ith ac omp lex r e ceiver of mode rn design ; but
w
ith t h e w ide f l
ex ibility n eeded t o c ate r f o r t he d if ering t
here i so f
ten n o r
e ason w hy n ew i d
eass hou ld n o
t b et r
ied —
i
nte re stso f al arge n umbe r o fu se rs) i si n evitab ly c o stly, a nd p
a r
ticula rly w here t h ey t ake t h e form o f a n e x
terna l u n
it
.
t
he p rice o fs uch mode ls i so ften s ome h undreds o fp ound s
. Useful d ev ice s a r
e r e gula rly d escribed i n Ama teu r R adio
On t he o the r h and , t he e xperienc ed c onstruc to r w ho i s magazine s
. I ti si mpo rtan t t ha t the ama teu r should n o
t b e
p
repa red t o s pend c on side rab le t ime a nd e for t c an o f
ten c
onten t t o r e
gard a ny r e ceive r a s a "b lack b ox" l abel
led
b
uild e xtreme ly g ood r ece ive rsf or amuch mo re mode sts um . " NOT TO BE OPE NED
."
T he n ew come r t o re ceive r c on struc tion i sa dvi sed t o g ain For t
hose w
ho w an
t to bu
ild a r
e
ceiver
, but d
o no
t wish
e
xpe rience b efo re t ack ling a n a dvanced , f ul
l -spec ifica tion t
o spend too mu ch time o n s
hopping for components
,
r
ece ive r, u nle ss s killed a ssis tance i sr e ad ily a vailab le. T he re c
omp le
te ki
ts wi
th step-by
-step c
onstruc
tion manuals a
re
i
sn o b ette r w ay o f g a
in ing a s ound k now ledge o f r eceive r a
vai
lable.
t
heo ry a nd p rac t
ic e t han b y t ackling s e vera l d es
ign s o f a
r
e
la tive ly s imp le n atu re. As t
raigh t ( t
.r.f .)v alve o rt ran sisto r A S
I MPLE T
.R.F
. RE CE
I VER
r
ece iver w i l
l t e ach t he b u
ilde r much a bou t c omponen ts, The s traigh t 1 -V
-1 ( a t radit
ional w ay o f ind
ica t
ing a
w
i r
ing a nd l ayou t, c a re ful a d
ju stmen t o f r egene ra tion a nd r
eceiverh aving o ne st
age o f r.
f. amplificat
ion , d
etector, a nd
o
the r i mpor tan t p oints. As imp le s upe rhe t i si n valuab le f or o
ne s tage o f a .
f. amp l
ification) can s t
ill form a n e fec
tive
mak ing c l
ea r t hep rob lems o fi .
f. a nd r .f
. a l
ignmen t a nd t he r
eceiverf o rthel i
stenera nd ama teurp rovided that it
sf unda -
r
educ tion o f s pur ious i mage s
. Onc e b asic e xp erience h ad mentall im i
tation sarer ecogn ized. The sei n
clude ani nheren t
b
een g ained , much mo re amb itious r ece ive r s can b e t a ckled l
ack o fs elect
ivity w hich b ecome s prog ress
ively w orse with
w
ith e ve ry c onfidence , e ven b y ama teur s h aving a vailab le i
ncrea s
ing f requency a nd t he inab
ility t o r e
solve w eak
o
nly am inimum o ft est e qu ipmen t; t his i se sp ecia lly t rue i f modu lated s ignals. Apa rt f r
om t hese l imitat
ion s
, i tc an
t
he r .f
. c oil u ni t i s o bta ined a s ac omp lete a ssemb ly o r c
omp ete w i
th a l
l b u
t the be s
t s upe
rhets i nth e r
ealm o fc .w.
a
l
te r natively i fp lug -in c oil s a re u sed .
Even i faf actory -bu il t r eceive r i su sed , t here i su sua lly
no r eason w hy i ts hou ld n ot b e i mp roved , o r m ade mo re
s
uitab le f or t he p articu la r i nte rests o ft h eu ser: f ore xamp le,
e
x-Gove rnmen t r eceive r s s uch a s t he R 1155 , R 107 , R 1475 ,
CR 100 , BC342 , BC348 a nd t heC ommand s er
ie s( BC453 /4 /5)
o
r t he mo re -este emed HRO , S upe r P ro, SX28 a nd AR88
mode l s
. T he p erformance o f t he s imp le r mode ls c an b e
g
rea t ly i mproved b y f i
tting a n e xterna l p re-amp l ifier, Q
mul tip l
ie ro rc r ystal f i
lte r, Sm ete ra nd c alibra t
ion o scillato r
,
%
011ie e ven t he b es
t r e ceive r c an b e i mp roved b y a n e f
i c
ien t
a
eria l m atch ing u nit.
It i sp ossib le t o e xtend t he t uning r ange a nd i mp rove
p
er formance o n t he h i ghe r f r
equency b ands b y m eans o fa
mode rn c onve rte r
. H igh -pe rfo rmance c onve rte rs c an b e
bui
l t i n af ew e ven ing s a nd y et c an s how t h e c on struc to r
a
lmo st a s much a bou t t he p rincip le sa nd p rob lems o fs upe r
-
h
et d es
ign a s ac omp lete r eceive r.
Many o ft heo lde rr e ceive rsu ser .f
.a nd m ixe rv alve sw hich
a
re r elatively n oisy b y mode rn s tanda rds . T he s en sit ivity o f
s
u ch r eceive r s can b e g rea tly i mp roved b y t h e u se o f al ow -
n
oi se c onver te r o r b y mod ify ing t he f ron t -end c ircu i ts.
As e
t w hich i sd eficien t i ns e
le ctiv ity may b e i mp roved b y
a
dd ing a n e xte rna l u nit, c omp rising a s econd f requency
c
hange rf o
llow ed b ya n8 5- 100 k c/si .
f. s ection ( ad evice o ften
r
efe rred t oa s aQ 5'e r)u sing ,i fd esired ,t h e BC453 C ommand
r
ec e
ive r f o r t h e p urpo se o f a l
ter native ly a n o utboard i .
f
.
amp lif ier w ith a h alf-
la ttice c ry stal f il
te r, o r a me chan ica l
f
i
lte r. A Q mu ltip lie rc an a lso b eu sed t oi mp rove s e
lec tiv ity.
Fo rc .w. r ecep tion i tmay b ep ossib le t oi mp rove r esu lts b y
f
i
tting a na ud io f i
lte ro rs e
lec toje ct t ype o fa rrangemen t.
A r
ear v
ie w o
f t
he t
.r
.f. receiver
. The c
o mponents may b
e i
dent
ified
The k een ama teur n eve rt ake st h ed esign o fe ven a ne xpen - by reference t
o F
ig. 4
.74 (
b).

4
.46
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
0HT+
250V
R5
R
1 j R4 50 K
fl S
ec4 j

27 Kf
l I
SPEAKER
L
2
S
ec 2

C8
0
-000 3
)
.JF 0
. 00
1),
IF C
II
C7 0
.05)
JF
LI

a 3
4
J2
m
a R
3
C
> 2E
2 E
n 2Mf
l PHONES

C3
9 3
50
pF 0 C2
.0
1
0
.1 RB
pF T C4 8
2on
0
.05pF T
0 HT
—
2
5011 C
IO
2
5)JF I
2V
V
I P
I L OT
9D6 I
2 VA2U7 LA MP LT 6
.3V

F
ig
. 4
.
73. C
ircu
it d
iagra m o
f s
imp
le t
.
r.f
. r
ece
iver u
s
ing m
iniature v
alves
.

r
e
ception so long asext
reme selec
tivi
ty isnot afi
rst r
equi
re- amp lifie r
, a nd t wo t r
iode s c on ta ined i n t he s ame v alve
men
t, p a
rticu
la r
ly on the lower frequency bands such as e
nve lope ,o p era ting a sr e
g ene rative d ete ctor a nd a .f
. amp lifier
.
1
.8 and 3.
5 Mc /s
. The s i
gna l p icked u p b y t hea e ria l i st rans fo rme r-coup led
T
he c i
rcuit of as imple re
ceiver of th
is type, bu
ilt by t
ot he f i
rstt uned c i
rcuitc onsisting o ft h es econda ry o fL I and
G3NGS t o ad es
ign by the l
a
te G8TL , i
sshown i nFig
.4 .73
. t
h et uning c apac ito rC l a nd a pp l
ied t ot hec ont ro lg rid o fV I
,
T
he c i
rcu
it has t h
ree st
ages: avariable
-mu p entode as r.
f
. t
h e r .f
. amp lifie r v a
lve. A fter amp lifica tion t he s igna l i sf e
d
v
i a t he u ntuned p r
ima ry o f L 2 a nd i t
s a sso ciated t uned
TABLE 4
.
3 s
e condary t ot h ec oup l
ing c apac ito rC 7a nd s ot ot heg rid o f
the d e
tec tor V 2a. I tw i
ll b e o bse rved t hat at hird w ind ing
CO MP O NE NTS TABLE FOR F
IG. 4
.73 (
c onnec tion s 3a nd 4 ) i si nc
luded i n t he L 2 a ssemb ly a nd
C
l, 5 3
50 p F a i
r-spa ced v ariable c apacitor ( Jack son Bros
. wired f rom t h ea node o fV 2a v iat hev a riable c apac itor C 6t o
(
London ) Ltd., U -type m iniature ) e
a rth. T his thi rd w ind ing i sc lo sely c oup led t ot he g rid c oi
l
C
2 0
.01 u.
F 350 v olt work ing c apacitor ( Dubil
ier )
C
3 0
.1 ja
F 200 v o
lt work ing c apa c
i tor (Dub i
lier) (
c onne ction s 5a nd 2 ) to p rov ide r egene ration o r r eaction.
C
4, 9
, I 0 -05 µF 350 v olt work ing c apacitor ( Dubil
ier ) Regene ration i nc reases t he s ensi tivi ty o f V 2a a s ad etecto r
C
6 1
60 p F air-spaced v ariable c apacitor ( Jack son Bros
.
(
London ) Ltd.) and i fi ncrea sed f ar enough c ause s t he v alve t o o scil
la te
.
C
l 0
.0003 tf
t
.
F silver m ica c apacitor ( Dubilier) The amoun t o fr egeneration o r r e ac t
ion i sc on tro lled b y t h
e
C
8 0
.001 u.
F 350 v olt work ing c apa c
itor ( Dubil
ier )
C
IO 2
5 u.
F 1 2v o
lt el ectro ly t
ic c apacitor ( Dubil
ier ) v
a riab le c apac ito r C 6
. F o r p hone w ork i ti sb es t to s et t h
e
C
l2 8ti
F 350 volte lectro ly t
ic capa citor (Dub il
ier) c
on tro lj u
s t below t hep oin t w he re o sc illation b egin s b ut f o
r
L
I Maxi-Q m iniature c oil ( b
lue ) for r ange de s
ired ( Denco (
Clac
-
t
on) L td
.). Screen ing c an s upplied w ith c oi
ls. t
h e r ecep t
ion o fc .w. (te
leg raphy ) s igna ls C 6 s hou ld b e a d
-
L
2 Maxi
-Q m iniature c o
il ( g reen) f or r ange d esired (Denco v
anced t ot he p oint w here V 2a j u st b egin s t oo scillate . T hi
s
(C
la c
ton ) Ltd.
). S creen ing c an s upplied w ith coi
l s
.
R
I 27 Ko hms Iw att ( Dub il
ier ) point w ill b e ma rked b y af a
in t "r u shing" s ound i n t he
R
2 2
50 o hm s watt ( Dub ilier ) h
eadphone s o r l oudspeake r. No a dvan tage w ill b e g a
ined
R
3 2M egohms 1 .w a t
t ( Dub i
lier )
R
4 1K o hm #w a t
t ( Dub il
ier ) by i ncrea s
ing t he amoun t o fr egene ration b eyond t h
is p o
in t
.
R
S 5
0 Ko hms 2 w att ( Dub il
ier ) R6 a cts a s a n r .
f
. l oad i n t he a node c ircu it o f V 2a f or
R
6 10 Ko hms 2 w att ( Dub il
ier )
R
7 1M egohm p otentiome ter w i th s w
i tch (Dub il
ier ) r
e gene ra t
ion .
R
8 8
20 o hms 1w att ( Dub ilier ) The a udio s igna l from t he d ete c tor i sb u
ilt u p a cro ss the
R
9 100 K o hms watt ( Dub ilier )
l
o ad r es
istor R 5 a nd f e d v ia C 9 t o t he v olume ( o r g ain)
Misc. !, c
on tro l R 7
. T he s l
ide ro ft his c on tro l( the c entre t erm ina l)i s
T
1 output trans former f or s peaker
2 Noval valve b ases for c o
ils ( McMurdo XM9 /UCI c
onnec ted t o t he g rid o f V 2b w hich f unc tion s a s a n a udio
I d
ial lamp ( Bulgin D I70 o r sim i
lar) amp lifie rt or aise t he l
evel o ft h es igna ls uf f
icien tly t od rivea
2 phone jacks ( Bulgin type 1 2)
1 9D6 valve ( Brima r) sma l
l l oud speake r or h eadphone s. B ia s f or t his v alve i s
1 I
2AU7 v alve ( Brimar ) developed b y t he f l
ow o f c urren t t hrough R 8 i n as imila r
2 t
erm inals (aerial and e arth) (Bulg
in)
2 knobs with s k
irts (Bulgin K 40 1 and K405
) manne rt ot h e b ia sf o
rV I. T he amp lified a ud io s igna l i sf e
d
2 knobs (Bulgin K 400 and K 410) t
o t he l oudspeake r b y t ran sforme r T 1 w h
ich p rovide s t he
1 s
ix-way c onnec tor ( Bulgin P I49)
6 s
older tag s (Bulgin TI7 ) nece ssa ry ma tch f or al ow i mpedance ( 3o hm s ) s pee ch c oil
.
I Naval v alve b ase f or V 2 w ith screen
ing can (McMurdo The u se o fh eadphone si smade p o ssib le b yf eed ing t hea udio
XM9 /UC I )
I 87G valve b ase f
or VI w ith screening c
an (McMurdo XM7/UCI
) s
igna l t h
rough C I It ot he j ack s ocke t J 2.
2 s
low mo tion e p
icyclic 6 : 1d r
ives for CS a
nd C 6 (
Jack
son The c omp le te r e
ceiver, w i
th t he e xcep tion o f t he p owe r
Cat. No. 4511)
supp ly , c an b e b uilt o n a n a lum in ium c ha ssis m ea suring
4
.47
R
SG B-RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

J
I MOUNTED 61
/2 "
BELOW J
2

a
"

T
o V2
P
i o
t
L
amp
xx L2

F
rom S
ec .
1
S
ec 2

(
e
)

2"

POWER SUPPLY
I
NPUT SOCKET
EARTH A
ERIAL Y

P
ILOT
F
ig. 4
.74. Wiring and layout d
iagra ms of t
he si mple t.
r.f
. receiver. (
a) U n
der-
LA MP
c
hassis layout of the c
o mponents sho w
ing point -to
-po int wiring. (b) Above-
c
hassis I
fyout o
fc o mponents
. (
c) Arrange ment o
ft he controls on t
he f
ront p
anel.

C6 21/
8"
REACT
ION

6
* i n. x 5i n
. x 2i n
. f i
tted w ith af ront p anel 6i n
. h igh, JI
t
hough t he d imens ion s a re b y n o mean sc rit
ica l
. f
-

I
"
S
upp lie s t o t he v alve h eate rs s hou ld b e c onnec ted w ith O R7
J
2
t
wisted h eavy g auge w ire t o re duce h um a nd v oltage d rop . RF W VOLU ME
One s ide oft heh eaterl ine may b ee arthed a tt hep owe r i npu t
s
ocke t o r, i fh um i sp reva len t
, a "h umd inge r "s hou ld b e (
c)
f
i
tted . A h umd inge r i s al ow -va lue p oten t
iome ter ( abou t
5
0 o hm s) w ith t h e o ute r t wo c on tacts c onne cted a cro ss t he
h
eate rl ine a nd t hec en tre c ontac t ( s
lider)e arthed . T he s l
ide r
s
hou ld b e moved a round t he c en tre o f i t
s t r
ave l u n t
il a
m
in imum o fh um i sfound . T he p otentiom eter shou ld t h en t
o check for any shor
t across t
he h.
t. t e
rm inals as th
is can
b
e l ef
t a tt his setting . c
ause se
riousd amage tot h
ep owerp ack . If
,o ns wi
tching on,
C omponen t l ayou t i sn ot c r
itica l s o l ong a s inte rstage RS and R6 h ea
t up, c
heck that t
hev ane sofC 6a r
e n o
t bent
w
iring i ss ho rt a nd d irec t
. T he r adio f requency amp lifier o
r s hor
ted b y m e
tal fi
l
ings. Ift h
e s e
t d oes not function
(
VI a nd i t
s a ssoc iated c omponen ts) s hould b e well screened a
f
te r ample time fo
r w a
rm ing up
, check t hat the coi
ls have
f
rom t he f ollow ing s tage s t o l es
sen t he chanc e of f eedback . t
he same n umbe r a
nd are in
ser
ted cor rec
tly.
Fort hes ame r eason C l s hou ld b e moun ted s ub-cha ssis a nd Al i
st o
fc omponen ts isshown int he accompany ing table
CSa bove c ha ss
i sl e ve
l. T he o nly o the rc omponen tsa bove t he t
ogetherw i
th t h
e name s o
f manufactu rers ofs u
itable it
em s
.
c
has sis a re t h
e s peake r t ran sforme r T i a nd t h e r eaction There is
, h owever
, n o reason why e l
ectr
ically e qu
ivalent
c
ont rolC 6. M in iatu re s low -mo tion d rivess hou ld b ef i
tted t o p
arts ofother m akes s
hould not beu sed.
CSa nd C 6t oea se t het un ing i no fw eak s i
gna ls.
F
ig . 4 .74(a ) s how s t he u nde rcha ssis layou t and p rov ide s S
i mp
le S
uperhet R
ece
iver
s
ap oin t-
to -po int w iring d iag ram . T he p lacemen t o f p arts Two and t hree valve "s t
raigh t" r eceiverscan s t
i
llp rovide
a
bove c hassis i ss hown i n Fig. 4 . 74(6) a nd t he f r
on t p ane l a
cceptable results for c .w. reception o n the lowe r frequency
l
ayou t inF ig . 4.74 (c)
. b
and s
, but requ ire mo st care fu
l a d
ju stmen t and o pera tion if
T he p owe rr equ iremen tso ft her eceive r arev ery s mall a nd t
o
lerable s e
le ct
ivity i s to b e o b
tained o n t h
e h ighe r fr
e-
ap owe r p ack g iving 6 v olts a t Iamp a nd 2 50 v olts a t 3 0 q
uency b ands. T h
is i s especial
ly t rue ift he r eceive r is
mi
lliamp s will b e f ound t ob e q u
i te a dequa te. T he l i
ve s ide r
equired fort wo-way w orking aso ppo sed t ogene ra
ll i
stening
o
f t he ma in s may b e b rough t i nto t he s et via t he s ix-p in whe
re itn orma l
ly ma t tersl essi fst
ation sa reatt imesb locked
p
lug , t a
ken t hrough t h e s witch o n t h e vo
lume c ontro l ( R7 )
, o
ut by adjacen t channe l interference. F o
rs e
riou s o pe ra
tion
and t aken o uta ga in tot hep rimary o ft he ma in strans fo rme r
. t
hroughou t the h .
f. spectrum ( orf oru se inconjunc tion w ith
B
e fore s witch ing o nf o rt hef i
rst t ime, iti s agood p rac t
ice av.
h.f. converte r
), iti spractically essential t
ou se as uperhet
4
.
48
 H.
F.RECE
IVERS
p
arts o f t h
e c omp lete w ork, almo st as mu ch e fort a nd as
much s k
ill m ay b e required i nt he a d
justmen t o ft h
e t uned
c
i
r cuitsa nd thec alibration o ft her ece
ive r
.
With a s uperhe t o ne m ay c omp lete t he s et a bsolutely
c
orre ct
ly a nd yetb eu nable tor ece
ive a ny signalsa ta l
lu n
ti
la
c
ertain s tagei nt hea l
ignmen ti sreached. T hisp r esentsc on-
s
iderab le dif i
culties t o the con st
ruc tor w ho d oe s no t have
a
cce ss to a n a dju s
tab le c a
librated o sci
llato r o f t he s i
gnal
g
ene rato ro rg r
id d ip t ype and w ho h as the refore t or ely on
"blind "a dju s
tmen to ft hec ircui
ts. I t mustb es tressed t ha
t
t
he c omp lete a l
ignm en t of ac omp lex single o r d oub le con-
v
ersion s uperhet r e
ceiv er withou t a n a d
ju stab le o scil
lator
c
an b e ad ificul
t o pera t
ion c al
ling f orc onside rab le p a
tience
a
nd n ot al i
t
tle luck. Wh e
r ea ny form o fcalibra ted o scil
lator
c
ove ring t hei .
f
.a nd/o rh .
f.r angesi sa va
ilab le t hed ificultie
s
a
reg reatly reduc ed.

RSGB TR A NS
IST OR FO U R

As imple, low -cost t rans

i s
torized supe rhe t receiver, u s
ing
c
omme rc
ially a vailab le p l
ug -
in c o
ils c an b e b u
ilt c heap ly
a
nd c an g i
ve m any h ours l i
s
tening f or e ach s ma l
l 9 -volt
(
PP 3) b at
te ry, as w ell as g i
ving t he c onstru c
to r au seful
i
ns
igh t into s ma
ll c ommun ication r e
ceive rs
. Ar eceive r of
t
h
i st ype can b eb u
iltf o
ra ppreciably le
ssc ostt han am ains-
The F
tS GE
S Trans
istor F
our des
igned b
y G3 H B W a
s a l
o w-cost
o
p erated v alve r eceiv er
, a nd t he comp lete a bsenc e o f the
s
uperhet
. main s powe r p ack i sa n at
tractive safety f eature w hen t he
s
et represent sa n i n
itial constructional proje ct. T her eceiver
d
es n w
ign i hich b
oth h
i
gh g
ain a
nd g
ood s
e
lec
tiv
ity a
r
e d
esc r
ib ed b elow i sb a
sed o n ad es
ign p repa red b y A . L.
o
bta
ined a t are
latively low r a
dio frequency. Myn ett, G3HB W , fo r the R SGB E ducationa l C omm i t
te e
.
F
o rthehome c onstructor, af i
r
sth.f.superhetr epresent
sa n I
ti si n
tended p r
ima r
ily f or the headphone r eception o f
i
mpo r
tant m i
lestone. T h
is isn ot so much b ecause of any amateu r station s in t h
e 1 .8 a nd 3.5 Mc /s b and s u sing a
i
nherent
ly greater comp lexity in it
s construction; indeed a s
ingle p a
ir o fc oi
l s ( 1
.8-5 Mc /s) but isc apab le ofr eceiving
s
imple superhet m ay c onta
in a ppreciably less componen t
s amateu ra nd b roadca sts i
gnalst hroughou tt her ange 5 15 k c
/s
a
nd r e
quire le
ss careful screening than w ould a g ood t.
r.f
. (
580 m et
r es
) t o3 1.5 Mc /s( 9
.5 m etres) with t he a pprop r
iate
r
ece
iver. R a
the riti sbecaus eint heconstruction of asup er
- p
lug -
in c oi
ls. T hec ircuit isshown i nFig.4 .75.
h
et
, the bas
ic assemb l
ing a nd wiring rep
re s
ent so n
ly thef i
rs
t The rece
iv eru se s a n 0C 170 ( or AFI15 ) h.f
. t r
an sistor as

S
I —

S
6K
CT I
FT I
R
I
5
6K [ - a
1
1

CIS
o 250pF

I
C
9
=12pF
1
C
I
00 p
F
4
7
0
1
p7 C
l2
T O
.1 A
F G
A
IN1

VR
I Re
I
R
FCAIN'
t
T
w
p0.
1 1
000 1
0K VR2

C
IS 3
.3K 3
K
1
0K 0 Oos I
0OpF 1
000 8
.2K 0
.005
p
F
'
TUN
ING]

/ Y
E B G C B C G B
0
C
170 0
71.0077
. A
C
107 G
ET 6
8
0

F
ig. 4
.75
. C
ircu
it d
iagra m o he RSGB Trans
f t istor F
our

4
.49
RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

c
ol
lector ci
rcuit of TR4 , and al
though t h
is may a ppear b ad
p
ract
ice (i
n genera l t
he direct c
urrent componen t should n o
t
f
l
ow t h
rough ag ood p a
ir ofh eadphones s ince this can cause
c
hanges in magne tizat
ion )
, in th
is case the collector current
i
stoo s ma
ll to c hange a pprec
iably t he d.
c. magne tic fie
ld.
A
lthough o n
ly t wo tuned circu
its are used i nthe i.
f. sec
tion,
s
e
lectiv
ity isai ded b y the use of ar egenerative s tage
, a nd
s
hoN
As c onsiderable i mprovemen t o ver t ha
t o f a s imple
s
t
raight re
ceiver.
Sensi
tivity islimited by the a bsence o fa n r.
f. s
tage though
7
1—.
1 /
34" t
his will be l e
ss i mportant o n t he lower f requency b ands
where externa l n o
ise i s h
igh; w ith o nly o ne tuned s ignal
HOLES '
A. — /4"
3 D
I 2"
f
requency c ircui
t —damped b y t he aerial— there w i
ll inevi
t-
— 7/
Ig D
IA
a
bly b e image r e
spons es, p
articu larly o n higher frequenc ies
.
— /Ic D
IA
Nevertheless, as urpris
ingly large n umbe r of amateur p hone
3

'
D — /
I4. D
IA

T — D
IA 4E D
' t #
.
a
nd c .w. signals can b e re
ceived s atisfactori
ly, p art
icularly
— 9
b;D
IA
when used w ith ar easonably h igh a er
ia l s
ome 3 0 f t
. t
o 60 ft
.

TABLE 4
.4
P
arts L
ist f
or t
he RSGB T
rans
istor F
our —F
ig. 4
.75
L 44
;
Capacitors
Two 2jA
F sub-m iniature e lectrolytics (I5V rat
ing )
I
.½ One 8;I
F sub-m iniature e lectrolytic (15 V ra
ting )
Two 5
0; I
F sub -miniature e lectrolytics (I5V rating)
F
ig. 4
.76
. Dr
ill
ing d
iagra m f
or t
he f
ront p
ane
l. One 2
50 I F s
ub -miniature e lectrolytic (I5V rating)
Two 0
-005 TA
F p aper (150V r a
ting)
One 1
00 p F t
ubu lar ceram ic
One 1
5 p F t
ubu lar ceram ic
One 1
00 p F Suf
lex p olystyrene ( 350V , 5p er cent rat
ing)
as e
lf-o sc
illating m ixer ( TR1) p roviding a n i f
. o u tput o n One 1
000 p F Suf
lex p o
lystyrene ( 500V , 2p er cent rat
ing)
a
bou t4 65 kc/s. As econd OC I70( TR2)i su sed as ar egene
ra -
R
esistors
t
ive i.
f. amp lifier, with the gain/regene ration c ontro l
led b y A
ll R
ad ospares t
ype R5, 4
-wa
tt, 1
0 per c
ent r
at
ing
.
VR 1 w hich a djusts the amoun t of nega t
ive f eedback i n the One 4
70 ohms ; two IK
; one 3.
3K; one 3
.9K; o
ne 5.6K
; o
ne 8
.2K
;
two 1
0K; one I2K; o
ne I8K; one 4
7K; two 5
6K; o
ne WOK.
s
tage t o b alance t he p o
sitive feedback r e
su l
ting f rom t he
efects o fC I3 a nd the in
te rnal capacitive f eedback o f TR2 . Misce
llaneous
T
he f
o
llowing par
ts c
an b
e o
bta
ined f
rom Home R
adio o
f M
itcham
T
he amp lified i.f
. s i
gnal i s demodu lated b y t he d iode
e
nvelope d e
tec tor ( CR1), f o
llowed b y t wo s tages o f a
. f
. One 12 yard r
eel Z 8A c onnect ing w ire , any c o
lour.
One 6yard r
eel Z 8B c onnect ing w ire , any c o
lour ( miniature).
amplificat
ion ( TR3, TR4 ) w h
ich c an c onven iently b e 007 1 One VC 1 2 3
10 p F p lus 3 10 p F, t wo g ang c ondenser.
o
r a lmos t a ny s imilar a.f
. transistor. Con trol o f t he a
. f
. One DL5 1
3A e picyc lic d rive , w ith f lange .
One — Maxi- Q Co il, t rans istor t uning, r ange 3 T
, r ed.
g
ain i sg ove rned b y a d
jus tmen t of VR2 w h
ich v aries the (Denco ( C
lac ton ) L td.).
amoun t ofn ega tive feedback i nt he fi
nal s t
age . One — Maxi- Q Co il, t rans istor t uning, r ange 3 T, blue.
(Denco ( C
lacton ) L td.).
L
ow -impedance h eadphone s are c onnec ted d irect
ly i n the One VR25 1
00 o hm w irewound p o tentiome ter. Iw att
.
One VR82 3K o hm l og p otent iome ter, with d.p. switch.
One 1H6 l
granic P 72 c ic j ack s ocke t
.
One P K4 C
lix S ocke t, r ed.
R
ED B
LUE One P K4 C
lix S ocke t, b l ack .
O
SCILLATOR S
IGNAL Two VC62 Mullard t r
i mmer s, 3— 3 0 pF.
CO
IL CO
IL Two VH3 B9A v alveho lder s. n ylon ( used a s c
oil holder s
).
T
O RED AER
IAL
One TRC72 Weyrad I .F. t rans former . P50/3CC .
T
ERMINAL ON
F
RONT PANEL
One TRC73 V Veyrad I .F. t rans former , P 50/2CC .
Two — fin. d ia
. b l ack f luted k nob s.
One — I
f i n
. d ia. b lack f l
uted k nobs.
T
O BLACK EARTH
T
ERMINAL ON
One — PP3 b attery .
F
RONT PANEL One L K141 Chassis p la te No . 4 , Lektrok it.
One L K2311 Bracke t No . I .L ektrok it.
R
ED 5
0 LK3011 Pins s older ing . L ek trok it.
Three Z40 Gromme ts t o fit f i n. h oles.
One — B
a t
tery c onnector f or P P3.
T
O RF G
AIN
C
ONTROL SRI F
RONT P
ANEL
Nuts a nd b
olts
Three i
n
. long 4 BA c
h. hd cad steel s
crews.
Three i
n
. 4 BA c
h. hd c ad s
teel s
crews.
Two Iin
. 6 BA c
h. hd c ad s
teel s
crew s
.
Twelve i
n
. 6 BA c
h. hd c ad s
teel s
crew s
.
Two 1
1,in
. 8 BA c
sk. cad steel s
crews.
Three 2 BA c
ad steel hal
f-nuts
.
P
P] S
ix 4 BA c
ad steel nuts.
B
ATTERY Twenty-four 6 BA c
ad steel nuts.
S
ix 6 BA s
oldering tags.
One 4 BA s
tar tag.
S
ix 6 BA c
ad, steel washers
.
(LUE k B
LACK

0:I
YHTCH T
O S
WITC ON AF I
AIN T
ransistors
F
I AF T
O :ACE CORI A
SL 0(2
O
F
ITI.,L VC? OCKTT
Two 0C170 (
TR Ia
nd TR2
)
Two 0071 or 0072 or AC
107 o
r GET880 (
TR3 a
nd TR4
).
F
ig.4
.77
. Ma
in c
o mponents o
nthe v
ert
ica
lchass
is.

4
.50
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
r
ubbe r g
romme ts a r
e u sed as "feet
." Mos t oft he d etailed
w
iring iscarried o uto nh alf of aLe
trok i
t( LK 141) p erfo rated
w
iring boa rd.
Si
nce tran s
i storsc an b ed amaged o rd estroyed b ye xce s s
ive
h
eat or by i n correc t polari
ty of the supp lies
, iti sn ece ssary
t
ob e mostc arefuln ott ol e
ave ah o
ts olde ring iron inc on tac t
w
ith the t ran s
istor l e
ads l onger t
han a bsolutely n ece ssa ry,
a
nd t ocheck a ll wiring i nc
luding the b a
t tery cl
ip c onnec to r
M
A
T
:-T
H
I
CK CA
R
D OR a
nd s wi
tch . Do n o
t c l
ip t he ba
ttery c onne cto r on t o t he
AS
"T
H
IC
KI V
O
R
Il
if b
attery until a l
l w iring h as been c omp leted a nd c are fully
S
H
EE
T] c
hecked a ga in st the d iagram s
. C are s hou ld also b e t aken
(
a) n
ot t o a
llow t he h ot s o
lde r
ing iron to c ome i n
to c on tac t
3
-0
1
A w
ith the casing o ft he p o
lystryene capacito rs
.
F
ig. 4
.78
. Tun
ing s
cale a
nd approxi mate c
al
ibrat
ion f
or t
he 1
•
8 t
o
5 Mcis r
ange .
T
OS
L
U
ECO
I
LSO
C
K
ET
l
ong; a n earth isprefe rable
, p a
rticularly for r eception o n
l
owe r fr
equencies, but itisn ot e
ssen t
ial
.
The incorporation o f ar egenerative i.
f
. st
age m eans that
when t h
is isse
t just above t he threshold of oscil
la tion c.w.
s
tat
ion s and (wi
th v e
ry c areful t
un ing) s.
s
.b. station s can be
r
eceived.
T he re
ceiver i
sc onstructed i nt he form of af ron t pane
l,
c
onsisting of ab ent s heet of 18 s .w
.g. alumin ium , w ith a
s
imilar pieceofa luminium t oform av ert
ica
l c ha ss
is. T hree

H
O
L
ES /
54"
WA
4 - 54 D
I
A
Ve D
I
A
b iD
I
A
'
P — 9/ 4
.
c A1
/
4
v
s- 4
5
°
1 F
ig. 4
.80
. Ma
in c
o mponents on f
ront p
ane
l.

A
djustment a
nd A
lign ment
When t he r e
ce ive r h as b een c omp leted, a nd a l
l w ir
ing
mo s
tc arefully c he cked , plug -
in t he Max i-Q c oi
ls ( 3T r eda nd
'
40 - 5 3Tb lue), theb lue c oilb e
ing i n
se r
ted i nt hes ocke t n ea rer the
. i
1
6
._ f
ron tp anel. T urn b oth c o
ilc ore-ad justing s crew su ntila bou t
I
"
C
.1 1i n
. protrude s, a nd s et both t he Mu lla rd t r
imme rs t oh a
lf-
+8 1 mesh. P lug i n ap ai r of l ow r esistance h eadphone s (for
—
f .
1* f e
xamp le type DLR ), c onnec t t he b attery c l
ip , t urn t he a.f
.
g
ain c ontrolf ully c l ockw ise, t her .f
. g a
in f ully a nti-clockw ise
1
4
—iV
s
" -
j
r
. I
I IA"
a
nd s wi
tch o n.

1
4
1
1
;i Af a
in t hisss hou ld b e heard i nt he 'phone s. Advance t he
2
- M
s
" 4 "
/
1
3 c .
c r
.f
. g ain a nd t he i .
f. s tage s hou ld g o i nto o sci
lla t
ion w i
th a
l
oude r his
s. I ft his d oes n ot h appen , a dvance t h e r .
f. gain
be
lL
A f
ully c lockw ise a nd a d
jus t t he c ore i n o ne ( ei
the r
) i .
f
.
t
ran sforme r, fi
rst i no ne d irection a nd t hen t h e other u s
ing
3V; an ylon t r
imm ing t ool o r c h
isel-po inted ma tch st
ick f o
r t h
is
s
' operation ; d o n ot u se a m etal s crewdr ive r s ince t his may
c
rack t hec ore. When t hei .
f. stage d oe so scil
la te, alte rnately
adjust the i.
f. tran sforme rc ore a nd r educe t h e r.
f. g ain u nti
l
1
8see A
L
U
MI
NI
UM f
inally th e i.
f
. s tage o sci
llate s at t he l owest p oss
ib le s ett
ing
o
ft he r.
f. gain c on tro l.
Should as igna l g ene rato r b e a vai
lab le, t he r e
ceive r i nput
c
ircu i
ts may b e a l
igned a nd t he d ial c al
ib rated , u sing t he
f
ollow ing p rocedu re :
„
d
oe,
Turn t he tuning k nob c l o
ckw ise u ntil the g ang c apac itor
vane s are c omp letely me shed ; s et th e signa l g ene rato r to
WMA >y
e provide a bou t 5 0 m ic rovolt s o utpu t (i
.e. f a
irly w eak s i
gna l
)
at af r
equency o f1 .62 Mc /s, feeding t his in
to t he a erial a nd
F
ig. 4
.79
. Dr
ill
ing d
iagra m' o
r t
he v
c
lip
.
ert
ica
l c
hass
is. (
Left
) t
he battery earth term inals o ft he receive r. T urn t he receive r's r .f
. gain
4
.
51
 R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK

core o ft neb lue c o

ilf orl oude s
t
s
igna ls a t t his e nd o f t he
wave - range ; t hen t urn t he
t
un ing k nob u ntilth ec apacitor
v
ane s a r e a lmos t c omp letely
out o f m esh, a nd a djust t he
Mu llard t r
imme r a ssocia ted
w
ith t he b lue c oil unit signals
a
r e l o ude st ; r epeat t hese a d-
j
ustmen ts u ntil o ptimum r e
-
s
ults o ver t h e b and a re
obtained .
Frequency c a
libra t
ion may
b
e a ccu rately c hecked b y
l
i
sten ing f or t he f r
equency
s
tanda rd s tat
ion MSF o n 2.5
Mc /s a nd 5 .0 Mc /s ( th
is
u
sua lly t ransm its a c arrier
modu la ted w i
th d i
stinctive o ne
s
econd "t i
cks " )a nothe r use-
f
ul i den tifi cat
ion s igna l ist he
s
trong "L oran " n avigationa l
s
igna ls wh ich c an b e heard a t
n
igh t t ran smit t
ing a c ha rac-
t
eristic "b uzz ing" s ignal o c-
c
upy ing a b road c hanne l o n
a
bou t 1 .95 Mc /s
. Ama teur
s
tat
ion s s hou ld , o fc ourse, b e
h
eard b e tween 1 .
8 a nd 2 -0
Mc/ s a nd a lso b etween 3 .5
a
nd 3 .8 Mc /s, a sw ella s many
smalls hip st r
an sm itting p hone
i
nt he r ange 2 .0 t o a bout 3 .0
Ma
in a
sse mb
ly o
f Trans
istor Four
. Mc/s.

unt
il t he i .
f
.j ust o sc
illates a nd t hen a d
ju st th e red c oil core P0
/2CC M i ne
C
UT E
DGE O
F B
OARD
unt
il t hes ignal isr e
ceived .
Then t urn thet uning c on trola nti -clockw is eu n
tilt heg anged
c
apac ito r vane s ar e comp letely o ut o fm esh, t une t he signal
g
ene rato r to 5 .25 Mc /s a nd a dju st t he Mu lla rd t r
imme r o n
t
h e red ( osci
llato r) c o
il s ide u nti
l t he s i
gna l i sa gain h eard.
I
fy ou n ow r etune t he set a nd g ene rator t o 1 -
62 Mc /s the
s
ett
ing may n o l onge r b e q uite c orre c
t. R epea t t he t wo
a
dju stmen ts at 1.62 Mc / s and 5 . 25 Mc / s until b oth e nds are
r
ighta tt hes ame t ime. T hen t une i nt he 1.62 Mc /ss i
gna land
a
dju st t he blue c oil c ore f or o ptimum s ignal s treng th; and
a
dju st t h
e Mu llard t r
imme ra s
soc ia ted w ith t h e blue c o
il for
maximum s ignal s t
reng th a t 5 .25 Mc /s. A t t h
is s tage t he
r
eceive r will b e al
igned a nd a ccu rate c al
ib ration m ark s c
an
b
em ade o nt hed ialb yt uning t hes ignalg ene rator t o5.0,4.5,
4
.0 Mc /s, etc
. I nd ian i nk o r ab a
ll -po int p en may b eu sed to
mark t h e dia
l.
Whe re ( as will o f
ten b e t he c a se) n o s igna l gene rator is
a
vailab le, thes etc an s t
illb ealigned q uite easily w ithou to ne.
I
ft he c o
il co res a nd t r
imm ing c apac ito r
s h ave b een s et as
s
ugg ested e arlier i n this s ection , t h e receive r will p robab ly
n
ot b e f ar out o fa l
ignmen t. T he s ca
le o f F ig. 4 .78 can b e
c
opied o n tot hed i a
l a nd s hou ld p rove r easonab ly a ccurate.
Then w ith a n a e r
ia l p lugged i n
, t urn t h e t uning c ontrol C
ut E
DGE O
F D
OARD
c
lockw i se u nt
il t h e vane s a re me shed a nd t hen a d
jus t the F
ig. 4
.81. L
ayout o
f p
erforated w
iring b
oard (
a) t
op; (
b) b
elo w
.

4
.52
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
LO W
-C OST HI G H STAB
ILI TY C O NVERTER 7 Mc /s b and , t his c an b e m in im ised o r e l
im ina ted i ft he
Many o lde r c ommun ica tion s r ece ive rs p rov ide a dequa te c
rys tal i s s l
igh tly l owe r i n f requency t h an 3 500 k c/s a s
p
er formanc eo n the l owe rf requency b ands b u t lack s tability d
es cribed l ate r.
a
nd /o r s ensitivity a nd g ood b andsp read t uning o n t he The c onve rter c omp rises t he t r
iode s e c
tion o f a6 U8
h
ighe r f requency b and s. One s atis fac to ry a n swe r t o t his (
ECF82 ) t r
iode -p entode w orking a s ag rounded -g rid amp li-
p
rob lem , o f
ten p rovid ing a n a dditiona l u sefu l l e
ase o fl i
fet o f
i
er. T he p en tode s ect
ion o ft hef unc t
ion sa sm ixe rw ith al ow
b
eg i ven t or eceive r
sa cqu ired s econd -hand o ra sg overnmen t n
oi se c ontribu tion . One h alf o f a1 2AT7 ( ECC8 1) f unction s
s
urp lu s,i st ou set heb asic re ce
ive ra s at unab le i f.s ys
tem o n, a
s c rys tal o scillator a nd t h e o the r s ection a s ac athode
s
ay, 3 -5 Mc / s i n con junc tion w ith a s ensitive c r y
sta l-con - f
o
llow e r o utpu t s tage f ol
low ing t he m ixe r. T here a r e n o
t
rolled f ront-end c onve r
te rf orb ands a bove 3 -5 Mc /s
. t
uned c i
rcui ts a t t he b roadband I f
. o f a bou t 3 -5-4 Mc /s,
Many s uitab le d esign s c an b e e vo lved f rom T he c i
rcu its c
on sequen tly n o g ang ed t uning c ircuits a re u sed .
p
re sen ted e a
rlie r int h
i s chap ter: b asica lly s uch a+ conve rter Fo r 3 -5 Mc / s r ecep tion t he o scil
la to r iss witched o fa nd
w
ill u sua lly c omp r
ise a n r .
f. amp lifi er ( po s s
ib ly om itted i f t
he r ema ining s tage s a ct a s ap re -amp l
ifie r
. On o th er b ands
al ow -no ise m ixer i su sed ) m ixer, c rysta l-con tro l
led o scilla- t
hec ry stalo scilla to rf requency i sa lway s3 -5 Mc /sl owe rt han
t
or a nd p ossibly a c athode -fo llowe r t o f a ci
litate l ow - t
he b and b e
ing r eceived , s o tha t t hes i
gna l f r
equency r i
ses a s
i
mpedance c oup ling t o th e m ain r ece ive r. Mo st p ub l
i shed t
he ma in r ece ive r i st uned h i ghe r a cro ss t he 3 -5 Mc / s band .
d
esign s h ave u sed v alve s, b ut th ere i sc lea rly s cope f or t he For 7Mc /st hec ry s
talo s c
illate so ni t
sf undamen ta lf requency
d
eve lopmen to ft ran s
i storu ni
t sf ort his a pp lica tion ,p rov ided o
f 3 500 k c
/ s
, f or 1 4 Mc /s o n i t
s t hird " ove rtone" o f a bou t
c
are i st aken t om in im ize c ross-modu la tion p rob lem s. 1
0-5 Mc /s a nd f or 2 1 Mc /s o n i t
s f i
fth " ove rtone" o f 1 7
-5
Mo st c ircuit s requi re as eparate c r ysta l f or e ach b and , o r Mc /s. No te t hat f or o vertone o peration t he o utpu t i sn ot
a
l
te rna t
ive ly r everse t he receiver t uning d irec t
ion o n o ne o r p
re cis ely a t t he e xact h armon ic o f t he c rystal f undamen tal,
mo re b ands ( for e xamp le b y u sing a 1 0
-5 Mc /s c rystal t o a
l
though c los et oi t
,s ot hat as mallc orrection w illb en eeded
p
rov ide 3 -5 Mc /s o utpu t o n 7 Mc / s a nd o n 1 4 Mc / s, o r a t
o t h e o r
igina l r e
ce ive r c a
lib ration . O therw ise t h e 3-5 Mc /s
1
7-5 Mc /sc ry s
ta lf r
equency f or 14a nd 2 1 Mc /s). Howeve ra n c
al
ib ra tion a ppl ies i n t erms o f t ens a nd h undreds o n a l
l
e
conom ica l a nd s imp le c onve rte r c apab le o f g ood p e rfor- b
ands , a nd t he t uning r a
te w ill b e t he s ame o n a l
l b ands .
mance u sing o n
ly a s ingle 3 500 k c/ s c rystal h as b een d es- Thu s 7 -
1, 1 4
-1 o r 2 1-1 Mc /s s igna l s shou ld b e r e
ceived o n
c
r
ibed b y F .J ohn son , ZL2AMJ — see F ig. 4 .82. a
bou t 3 -
6 Mc /s a nd 7 -2, 1 4-2 o r2 1-2 Mc /s o n 3 -7 Mc /s, etc.
Th is t wo-va lve u nit f unction s a s a c ry s
ta l-con tro l
led I
no rde rt o ma in tain t h
isa pp rox ima te 3 -5 Mc /sc a
lib ration
c
onve rte r o n t he 7,1 4a nd 2 1 Mc / s ama teu r b ands a nd a sa o
na l
l t heo th er b ands , t hec ry stal n eeds t ob ef airly a ccura te
s
traigh t p re-amp lifiero n 3-5 Mc /s. T he c onve rte rp rov ide sa o
n 3 500 k c/s . Howeve r i fthis i sn ot r ega rded a s v i
ta l
, i ti s
b
road -band o utpu t o n t he 3-5 Mc / s b and , a nd a l
l t uning i s o
ften p ossible t ou s e ac rystals ome k c
/ s l owe r i nf requency .
c
ar ried o ut o n t he ma in r eceive r
. I ts hou ld p rove p ar t
icu - Fore xamp le a3 490 k c/s c rysta l w ould t une 7 000-7300 k c/s
l
arly e fe c
tive i nc on junc tion w ith a n o lde r r eceive r h aving a
s 3 510-38 10 k c/s, 1 4,000- 14,350 k c
/ s a s 3 530-3880 k c/s
g
ood b and spread t uning a nd stab ility o n th e 3-5 Mc /s b and . a
nd 2 1,000-2 1,450 k c/s a s a pp rox ima tely 3 550-4000 k c/s.
The s e
le ctivity w ill d epend e n
tirely u pon t ha t o f th e ma in This t olerance w ould a llow t h eu se of ac heap s urp lu sc rystal
r
ec eive r w hen o pe rating o n 3-5 Mc /s. One d isadvan tage p
rov ided t ha t i ti ss uf icien t
ly a c t
ive t o o sci
lla te r ead i
ly o n
i
st ha t t h eu n
it p roduce s as t
rong s pu rious ma rke rs igna l o n i
t
sf ifth o ve rtone .
7
000 k c/s w hich c an b lock t he f i
rs t f ew k i
locyc les o f t he No te t hat o nly t wo a dju s
tab le c oils a re u sed t o t une t he

HT+

V
I - 6U8, ECF82 31
010pF I
KI1

I0• 01pF V
2- 12AT7, ECC8I
RFC @
2
.5mH
C,
ER2.FC
5mH
30KC
I
p
F

V
lb

0
. 00
I,uF 5 0
-00
1 F

V
ia
S
la
A
ERIAL OUTPUT
5
.5 2
1 7
o
- • 0
.01)
JF
1
4
0
. 00
1
I
/18
/
P I—
1
‘00
0
!
KR
I
K
.C1 1 L2
IT I
"T
i

1
50pF 1
00pF

F
ig. 4
.82 C
ircu
it d
iagra m o
fthe h
igh s
tab
ility c
onverter

4
.
53
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
f
ourb ands w i
th L I lef
ti np aral
le l with L2o n 1
4a nd 21 Mc /s ma
in rece
iveri sef
ic
iento n3.
5 Mc/sth
iscombina
tion s
hould
b
ands. p
rovide exce
llent s
ens
itiv
ity and s
t
abi
lity o
n al
l th
e bands
Con struction a nd l ayout a re n o
t p a r
ticular
ly c r
itical c
oncerned.
p
rovided t hat r.f
. leads are k ept s hort
, a nd o utput c
ircuits
p
laced w el
l a way from i nput circuits.
THE 0 M ULT
IPL
IER
Al
lc oilsarew ound o nI -i
n.d iame ters l
ug -
tuned u nsh
ielded
f
orme rs u s
ing 3 0 s.w.g. ename lled w ire: LI 4 2 tu
rns; L2 2 6 Au se ful m ethod o fi mp rov ing t he s elec tiv i
ty o fr eceive rs
t
urns
, t apped a t 17 t u
rn s f r
om t he " earthy" e nd; L 3 3 5 i
sb y u sing a Q m ultipli er. A s a lr eady e xp lained t his i sa
t
urns; L 4 13 turns; L5 8t urns, s paced o ver 4i n
. F orme rs c
ircu it u sua l
ly c on s
truc ted a sa n o utboa rd u ni
t b yw hich t he
c
ould b e0 .3 in. di
ame ter w i
th as l
igh t reduction inn umbe rs s
elec tivi ty c ha racteristic s o f ac onven tiona l i .f
. s ection may
o
f turn s— this c an eas
ily b e dete rmined i f acalibra
ted g r
id b
e a pp reciab ly i mp roved w ithou t mod if
ica tion o f t he
d
ip o scillator i savailable. T he f orme rs can b e moun ted r
ece ive r i t
sel f
. When u sed f o r p eak ing , t he d ev ic e i s mo s
t
a
round t he Y axley-
type b andsw itch. u
sefu l d uring t he recep tion o f c .w. s igna ls w hen i tc an b e
t
uned t os e
lec ta ny o ne o fs e ve rals igna ls o ns l
igh tly d if erent
f
requenc ie s w ith in t he n orma l p a ssband . When u sed f or
A
lign ment r
ejec tion t he t unab le n otch c an r emove a t r oub le some
Afte r c omp le ting a nd c heck ing a ll wi r
ing , t he o scilla tor c
ar rie r w ithou t a ny n oticeab le e fect o n t he d esir ed s igna l
.
c
ircu its mu st b ea djusted s o t hat t hec rystal o sc illa tes o n t he Fig. 4 .83 s how s ap rac t ica l c i
r cuit d eve loped b y G2BVN .
c
or re ct o vertone f r
equenc ies. T his c an b e d one mo st When S I i st u rned t ot he "PEAK " p osition t het uned c ircuit
r
e adily w ith ag r
id -dip o sc il
la to ru s ed a sa na b so rp tion w ave - (
L2 , C 2,C 3a nd C 4)i si np ara llelw ith t her eceive ri .f
.c oil to
mete r
, t hough i ts hou ld b e p ossible t o ach ieve s atisfac tory which t he u n
i t isc onnec ted a nd t he Qo ft hec omb ina tion i s
r
esu l
ts b y c heck ing t he o utpu t o n t he ma in r e ceive r i ft his t
h en r aised b y t he p ositive f eedback a round V Ib . T h e 5 K
w
ill t une t o 1 0
.5 a nd 1 7.5 Mc /s a nd c are i st aken n ot t o b e v
a riab le r es isto r i nt he c athode o fV I bc on tro ls t he amoun t
m
i sled b y h a rmon ic o utpu t. W ith t he a b sorp tion d evic e o
fr e gene rat ion a nd th ere for et h es elec tivi ty . I nt he" REJECT "
c
heck a nd a dju st t he c ore s o f L 3, L 4 a nd L 5 u n
til t he position o f S i t he tuned c ircu it i sc onnec ted f rom t he g rid
o
s ci
lla tor i so pera ting o n th e requ ired f requenc ie s. o
f V ia t o e arth a nd a t r esonance , b ecau se o f t h e h i gh
Then s et t he c onve rte r t o 7 Mc / s a nd c onnec t i tt o t he impedanc e o f t he t uned c ir cui t, av oltage a t t he a node o f
main r eceive rw hich i ss ett o3 .5 Mc / s
. W ithou ts witch ing o n Vl a i sf e
d a lso t ot h e grid . T his c aus es t h e a ppa ren t a node
a
dju st L I f o
rc ove rage o f7 -7 -5 Mc / si nc onjunc tion w i th t he impedance o fV ia t ob e v ery l ow a nd s eve r ely d amp s t he i .
f
.
3
5 p Ft uning c apac ito rb yu s
ing t he g rid d ip o sc i
lla to ri nt he c
oil a cro ss w hich i t i s c onnec ted . A t f requenc ie s o f
u
sua l w ay ( t
his c an b e d one w ith i ncom ing s igna ls w ithou t r
esonance t h e t uned c ircu i t i mp edanc e i sc ompa ra tive ly l ow
ag .d.o .b u t thep ro cessi smo re d iff
i cult). S witch t o3 .5 Mc /s s
o t hat v ery l i
tt
le o f t he v ol tage a tV I aa node i sf ed t o the
and c heck t hat t her .
f. tun ing r ange n ow c ove rs3 . 5-4.0 Mc /s g
rid . I n t he a bsenc e o f t hi s n ega tive f e
edback t he a node
(
o rj us t the E uropean s ection o ft he b and - 3.5-3 -8 Mc / s— if impedanc e o f V Ia i sq u ite h igh a nd v e ry l i
ttle d amp ing
t
his i sa l
l t hat i sr equired ). I fth et un ing r ange i si nco rrec t, it o
ccu r
s. T he w idth o f t h e r e
jec tion n otch i sc on tro lled b y
may b e n eces sary t o r eplace o r p a ral
lel t h e 1 50pF t un ing t
h e e f ective Q o ft he t uned c i
rcu it
. T his i sg overned b y the
c
apac ito rw i
th o the rv alue s. Once t h e3 .5 Mc /s t un ing r ange d
eg ree o fr egene rat
ion a nd i sa djus tab le u sing t h e o the r 5 K
h
a s b een e stab lished ,s witch t o1 4 Mc /sa nd a dju st L 2s ot hat v
a riab le r esi sto r i nV I bc athode c ircu it.
t
he t uning r ang e c ove rs 1 4- 14 .5 Mc /
s. I ts hou ld t hen b e An a dvan tage o ft h
i s f orm o f Qm ultip li eri st ha t t hep eak
p
os sib le t o t une t he 2 1 Mc /s b and w ithou t a ny f urthe r o
r n o
tch c an b e tuned a c ro ss t he p as sband o f t h e r ec e
ive r
a
dju stmen t (the f ull tun ing r ange w ill probab ly e xceed t he a
l
low ing s igna ls t o b e s e
lec ted w ithou t c ritical a d
ju stmen t
ama teu r b and b ut t h
is i so fn o c on sequence )
. I n p rac tice i t o
ft he m ain r eceive r tun ing . T he u nit i ss imp le t oc on struc t
w
ill p robab ly p rove n ece ssa ry t oc hange t hec onve rtert uning and a l
ign a nd c an b e i ns talled w ithou t a lte ring t h e r eceive r
only wh en t uning r igh t a c ross t he b and ; w hen s earch ing w
ir ing .
a
round o nly a s mall section o ft h e b and t he c on trol c an b e T he h ear to ft heu nit i st hec oi
l L 2w hich u se s af e
r rite p ot
l
e
ft u nalte red. c
o re c on struc tion a nd h a s a n i nduc tanc e b e twe en 1 20 a nd
Once t he t uning r ange s h ave b een a d
ju s
ted , t he u nit 1
50 m ic rohen ries f or i nte rmed ia te f requenc ies i n t h e r ange
s
hou ld b e r eady f or u se . S igna ls c an b e p eaked w ith t he 4
50 t o 4 70 k c/ s
. S uitab le p ot t ype c oils a r e a va ilab le f rom
c
onver te r t uning c ontro l w hen n ecessa ry, o therw ise a ll E
le ctron ique s ( Standa rd T elephone s a nd C ab le s L td.,
t
uning i sd one o n t he ma in r eceive r. I ft he g ain o ft h e h .
f. p
rop r
ie tor s), H a r
low , E s sex . T o r eta in t he h i gh Q o f this
c
onve rte rs hou ld b ee xce ssive o ns ome s ignals ag ain c on tro l c
oil i ts hou ld b e moun ted a tl ea st 1 4 i nche s a way f rom a ny
c
an b ef it
ted o n t hec athode f ollowe rs tage. f
errou s m eta l. T he c apac itor s C 3 a nd C 4 s hou ld b e c lose
t
ole rance ,g ood q ual
ity ,s i
lve rm ica t yp es. C oila nd c apac ito r
v
alue s f or o the r i n
te rmed ia te f requenc ie s a re s hown i n
Table 4 .5.
I
.
F. B
reakthrough
The c oilL I i su sed t ot une o ut t hec apac itive r eac tance o f
One p ossib
le dificu
lty ist hat the
re m ay be i.
f
. b reak-
t
hrough f rom strong loca
l 3.5 Mc /
s signa
ls when rece
iv ing TABLE 4
3
o
n th e o
the r b
ands. Screening ofthe conver
ter and the use
IF
. L
I L
2 C3 C4
o
fc oaxial cab
le with s
creened connectors b
etween conve r
ter
a
nd r ece
iver may b e s
uf i
cient to o
vercome any dificult
ies. 8
5 k
c/s 1
5 -60 mH 0
.5-2.5 mH 2
500 p
F 7
500 p
F
4
75 k
c/s I
.5-3-0 mH 1
20-I SO p
.H 1
000 p
F 3
000 p
F
S
hou ld th
is notbet h
ec ase
, itmay ins ome c
asesbeneces sary 7
35 k
c/s 7
50-I000 EH 7
0-100 p.H 7
50 p
F 2
250 p
F
t
of i
t af ur
ther tuned ci
rcuit i
nt he f
orm ofa n ae
ria
l tun ing 9
15 k
c/s 250-500 p
.H 60
-90µH 5
00 p
F 1
500 p
F
1
600 k
c/s 5
0-120 i
sH 4
0-60 11H 2
50 p
F 7
50 p
F
u
nit betwe en the ae
rial and c onver
ter. Prov
ided t ha
t t he
4
.
54
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS

1 e
isC3
2
20K 1 0.00
1
I
O
FF 1 L
2
0 , C4
S
la
0
.00
1
1
80K N l
b 0. 003
2
0o
F
ig . 4.83. Circu it diagra m o f the 0
Q mu ltipl
ier . The f ixed c apaci
- P
EAK B
FO I 3
0
.003
tors, with t he exception o f C3 and O
FF
C4, c an b e of t he disc c era mic V
ia
t
ype . C3 a nd C4 s hould b e close
/
212 AX7
I
tol i
lvered mica . Resistors
, 8
unless o therw ise i ndicated , can 2 6
.8K
be of watt r ating. The v a
lues o f

T0
.
0
,
C3 a nd C4 a re for an i
nter med iate "h
oe 0
f
requency o f 4
50-470 k c/s
. Va lues I
.
5K 4
.7K HT+ 1
50 —
8
/
iF 2
50V
f
or o ther f requenc ies are given i n /
1 2W
Tab le 4.5
. The f unction sw itch is a
three p o
le f our way Tax ley t ype.
V
I

t
he c oax ial c able , c onnec ting t he Q mu lt
ip lier u nit t o t he
r
eceive r i f. t ran sfo rme r, t o a vo id t he n eed t o retrim t h
is
c
i
rcu it. T he i ndu ctance o f L I a nd t he c apac itance o f t he
c
ab le s hou ld t une t oth er eceive ri .
f. A ssum ing t h
eu se o fn ot
mo re t h an 3 0 i n
. o fg ood q uality s em i-airspaced o r c ellu lar r
equi ring a ny a ddit
iona l h igh-Q c o
i ls h as been d esc r
ibed b y
c
oax ial c able , L I w ill n eed t oh ave a n i ndu ctance o f 1 .5 t o3 W3FYG . T h
i s arrangemen t c an b e inco rpo ra
ted i n mo st
m
illihen ry s. L I, C l m ay b e om itted i ft here i sn o o bjec tion r
ece
ive rs w here i ti sdesired t o i n
c rease s e
lectiv
i ty, p articu -
t
o r etr
irnm ing t h
e r e
ce ive r i .
f
. t ran sfo rme r
. A l
though t he l
ar
ly f o
rc .w. r eception: s e
e F ig. 4. 84.
c
oax ial c ab le may b e c onnec ted t o a ny o f t he i .
f. t ran s- The c i
rcu it u ses as ingle a dditiona l d ouble t riode ( e.g
.
f
orme rs i n t h e r eceive r, iti sa dvan tageou s t oc onne ct i tto 1
2AT7 o r 1 2AX7 ) a s a mu lti-vib ra tor t ype o sc
illa tor u sing
t
he f i
rst i .
f
. t ran sfo rme r a s this w i
ll r edu ce t he c hance s o f t
he e xisting i .
f
. t r
an sfo rme r i n th e r eceiver a s t he t uned
b
lock ing o r c ro ss modu la tion. c
i
rcu it. T he d evice i s mo st e fective w ith s ingle c onve rsion
W ith t he r e ceive ro n a nd t he Q mu ltiplie rc onne cted , t urn r
eceive rso fo n
ly mode ra te sele ct
ivity ,s uch a st ho se depend -
S
I t o O FF a nd t une i n as teady s igna l
, mak ing s ure i ti s i
ng e ntirely u pon i .
f. transforme r s o n 4 65 k c/s or 1 600 k c/
s
c
o rre ct
ly c en tred i nt h e i.
f. b andpa ss. Ad ju st t hec o re o fL I o
ra bove t os hape t heir respon se.
f
or t he h ighe st Sm ete r reading o r max imum a .
f. ou tpu t. I f C oa r
se ( R2) a nd f ine ( RI) c on trols a re f i
tted f or t h
e
t
h ec oi
l d oes n ot p eak t hen t hec onnec ting c able w i
ll h ave t o c
ont rol o fc athode c oup ling a nd t hu s g overn r egene ra tion.
b
es hortened o r l engthened . I ft h e h ighe st signa l streng th i s I
nit
ia lly R I i ss e
t t o m inimum r esistance a nd R 2 a dju sted
obta ined w ith t h e coil f ul
ly o u
t t his w ould s ugge st t hec ab le u
ntil t he v alve j us
t g oes i n
to o sci
lla tion ; then R I i sb acked
i
st oo l ong . O nce c o rrectly s et t h
is a djustmen t will n ot h ave of a nd u sed a s the p ane l con trol. R emembe r w hen f i
tting
t
ob ec hanged . t
he d evice t hat t he a dditiona l c apac i tance a c
ro s s th e i .
f
.
T o a dju st L 2 t urn S I t o P EAK , t he s e
le ctivity c on tro l t o t
rans forme r w ill r equire s l
igh t a dju stm ent o f t he c ore o r
max imum r esistance a nd C 2 to m id -trave l. A d
ju st L 2 s lug t
r
imme ro ft his tuned c ircuita fteri nstal
la tion.
until t h e s teady s i
gna l i s p eaked , t hen s low ly r ota te t he Ap o
s s
ib le d ificulty ist hatt here may b e at endency f ort he
s
e
lec tivity c on tro l
, r e-peak ing t he s lug w hen n ecessa ry . A s s
ubsequen t i .
f
.s t
age t og oi nto o scillation . T h
is can b eo ve r-
t
h e c on tro l i sa dvanced t h e signa l l evel s hou ld r is
e a nd t he c
ome , a s shown i nF ig. 4 .
84, b y t he remova l o f t he b ypa ss
p
eak w ill b ecome s harp er u nt
il ap oin t i sr eached w he re t he
c
ircu it w ill b reak i n
to o scil
la t
ion . T he p oint o f max imum IK

s
elec tivity w illb ej ustb elow t h
i sp oint. W ith t he Q mu ltip lier
p
eaked , t he t un ing may b ev aried t ob oo s
ta ny s igna l w ith in
t
h e i .
f. b andpa ss a nd a t
tenua te o the r f r
equenc ies
. A t max i-
mum s e
lec tivi ty t elephony s ta
tions s hould b e u n
in telligib le
a
nd i tw ill b e n ece ssa ry t o b ack o f t he c ontrol s l
igh tly.
Shou ld t hec i
r cui tn otg oi n
to o scilla tion ,t h ec athode r esis tor
(
6.8K o hm s) s hou ld b e r educed , b u t n ot mo re th an a bso-
l
utely n ec essary . T oo l ow av a
lue may i ndica te thatt he Qo f
L2i slow . T he c athode c onne c tion o ft her e
sisto rs hou ld b e
m ade d irec t
ly t op in 3o n the v alve b ase
.
To o btain b est r esu lts f rom t h
e R EJECT p o
sit
ion , s ome
p
rac tice i sn ece ssary a s t he a d
ju stmen t isc ritical. As teady
c
a rrie r s hou ld b e t uned i na nd t h e b.f.o. a dju sted t o gi ve a
beat n ote o fa bou t 1 00 c /s
. C 2a nd t he r e
jec t p o
ten tiome ter S
ELECTIVITY
P
ANEL
s
hou ld t h en b e a l
terna tely a d ju sted u nt
il t he b est n ull i s CONTROL
obta ined , a tw hich p oin t the t un ing s hou ld b e found t o be
e
x treme ly s harp . O
N/OFF
SW
ITCH

S
I MPLE Q M ULT
IPL
IER

As
imple
rc i
rcu
it f
o
r a Q mul
tip
lie
r fors
elec
tiv
ity p
eak
ing F
ig. 4
.84
. 0
- Mu
ltip
lier w
ithout a
dditiona
l c
oils
. The d
oub
le t
r
lode
o
nly (
t
hat is
, wi
th no r
e
jection notch f
a
cili
tie
s) and no
t v
alve i
s a 12AT7.

4
.55
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
apac
itor f
rom ac
ross t
h
is va
lve
's c
athode
-bias r
e
sis
tor
; t
he r
evived b yL .A . Moxon , G6XN ,w ho h asf urthers hown t h
at
s
l
ight l
oss o
f ga
in is more t
han compensa
ted f
or by t
he i
th as th e benefit ofr educing se
le c
tive f ading ofa .m . s
ignals
b
enef
ic
ial e
fec
t ofth
e Q mult
ipl
ica
tion
. b
y r educing modu lation p ercentage s a t higher a udio f re
-
q
uenc ie s(prov id ing af orm o fexalted c a rr
ier reception ) and
b
y p a
rtial supp ress
ion o fo ne si
deband .
STE N O DE RECEPT
ION F
ILTER The simple t one-correct
ion f i
l
tero fFig.4 .
85 can bei n
serted
The single-c
ry stal fi
l
te r
, w hen f unct
ion ing i n maximum b
etween t he n orma le nvelope detecto ra nd firs
t a.f
. amp lifier
s
e
lectiv
ity c ondition s
, isg ene ra
lly r egarded a s providing a (
or e ven d irectly i n the h eadphone l e
ad) o f an e x
isting
d
egree of s elec
tiv i
ty w hich i s too s harp f or sat
i s
factory r
eceive r
, a nd p rovides t he necessa ry t reble-r
ise n eeded t o
a
.m. or s.s
.b. p hone r eception, since t he speech appear s to match r e
asonab ly c l
osely t he t
reble -
lo ss o f ac rystal fi
l
te r
.
b
ecome w oolly a nd o f
ten a lmo s
t c omp letely uninte
lligib
le This t e
chn ique c an p rov
ide a mo st e conom ical system o f
d
ue tothel o
sso ft heh i
gh -frequency s peech c omponen ts. o
bta ining g ood a d
jacen tchanne l selectivity for phone r ecep -
Th
is concep t isi ncontrad ict
ion t ot he original u
se o fthi
s t
ion.
f
orm o f fi
lter for t he "stenode r adiostat" r ece
iver o f th
e A M ATE U R
-B A N DS
- O NLY D O UBLE SUPER HET
e
ar
ly 'th
irties w here ac rystal fi
lter oft he same b as
ic d es
ign
The re are many a dvan tage st ob e gained b yr e
stric ting t he
c
overage o f ah ome -bu il tr e
ceive rt othe ama teurb ands o n
ly.
20 0PF
T
he r eceiverd e
sc r
ibed i nt hefollow ing p agesw ase vo lved a nd
b
uil
t b y A. J .S hephe rd , G3RKK i no rder t o p
rov ide g ood
p
erformance a t mode ra te c ost a nd t o m eet the n eed f or a
RECE
IVER HEADPH ONES
2
1
+, H I-Z r
ece
ive r w hich c an b e b uilt easily with v e
ry few t ools a nd
c
apab le o fa lignmen t w ith am inimum o ft es
t equ ipmen t.
F
ig. 4
.85 S
tenode t
one-correction f
i
lter f
or p
hone recept
ion t
hrough I
t i sb a s
ica lly a h igh -sen s
itivity d ouble -
sup erhe t o f the
acrystal o
r 0- multip
lier f
i
lter
. c
onven t
iona l t ype ( i
.e. f i
xed f i
rst and s econd i nte rmed iate
f
r
equenc ies) c apable o f g ood r ecept
ion o f a.m. a nd s .
s.b.
a
s t ha
t s hown e arl
ie r in th
is c hapte r w as c omb ined w ith p
hone s igna ls a nd c .w . t elegraphy . I tis mo st s u
itab le f or
t
one co r
rection t op ermit the re
cep t
ion o fs peech a nd mu s
ic. c
onstruc tion b y e n
thu sia sts w ith r easonab le expe rience o f
The stenode p rinc iple i stoprov ide s u
itab le treble-r
ise tone h
ome -cons truc tion, b utw ho do n otf ee
le nt
irely conf iden to f
c
orrection int hea .f
. circui
ts toc ompensa te fort hetreb
le-cut t
ackling t he mor e comp lex t ype o ft unab le fi
rs
t i .
f. r eceiver
i
n
t roduced b y t he s harp selectivi
ty c harac teris
tics o f a s
uch a s that d escr
ibed l a
te r in t h
is c hapter. A l is
t o f the
c
rystal fi
l
ter. T he b andw idth ofs ignals pas s
ing t h
rough t h
is c
omponen ts i sgiven i nT able 4 .6
.
t
yp e offi
lte
r —of ten o nly about 2 00 c/s fo
r6 db d own u n
less I
ts hould b en o
ted t ha t details o f ala
ter, mod if
i ed v e rs
ion
t
he f i
lter i s damped b y ah igh i mpedance o u
tpu t —wil
l o
ft his r e
ceive r have b een p ublished i nt he RSGB BU LLET IN
n
orma l
ly rende rs peech dificu
ltt of ol
low ;b uts ince theslope r
ef
lec t
ing t he d es
igne r's c ont
inu ing s earch f or i mp roved
o
f t h
e f i
l
ter i sb y n o means v er
tical, ah igh d egree of tone r
esults i n s e veral d irec tion s, i ncluding r e
duced o sci
l lator
c
orrection ( abou t 6 db/octave) will re
sto re t he speech. T h
is d
rif
t o n t he h igher f r equency b ands a nd a c on s
ide rable
f
eature o f t
h e original Rob inson s tenode p r
inc iple has been n
umbe r ofc ircu it chang e s
. T hese v ar
iou s mod if
i cation sc an

-1
47.

IC .
. ... C•.
i5.••OR

t
.
e2. V
4c/o

OUTPUT
I

2
a?
•SC

•
r
oot

3.
4
,
5!
.CA
P
ACT
O 7
-!p
i •'
• •
GC
9

1
,
2
'
SO O

F
ig. 4
.86. The f
ront
-end of t
ie r ece
iver (E
lectroniques type QP166). The b ands w
itch iss ho wn i
n t
he 1
.8 Mc sp os
ition
. Only the c
oils a
nd
t
ri m mers f
or 2
8 Mc s a
re sho wn: the o
thers occupy corresponding p os
itions on the o ther bands w
itch contacts
. The oscil
lator switch
sect
ion SIC isf
itted with short
ing c ontacts.

4
.
56
 NJ
'
. RECE
IVERS

0
0

1
.
I
C
3 7
1
R
6
3
9K R9 R
IO R
I2
A7K
R
I4
2
.2K 3
9K
2
.2K 3
9K
2W

C47
C
6
47K I
-
I I
50pF i r i

0
I
FT I I
FT 2

V2 V3
V
I 68A6
ECH42 C
S 68A6

3L K
DOOpF
X
I
5 N
W

0 7
4

I
CT
RS
C4 4
47K
.
)
2
5pF C50
h R
I6 hh 0.I
h

C2 R
I3 0
.01 R
I7
1 0.01 1
00 l
oon
C
I4
R
hI C
l2 m
iC16
0.
I " 0 I
1
00K 0.
1 C
I3
s
i
v C7 CI VR2 0
1 C5I
3
300 0
.0 1 2SK
1 0
.1
'
1a
2F. 0.
1

0 0
0 ALL RES
ISTORS ARE /2
1 WATT CARBON 1
0,4 TOLERANCE UNLESS OTHERW
ISE S
TATED
0
F
ig. 4
.87
. The s
econd f
requency c
hanger a
nd 8
5 k
c si
.
f. s
trip
.

r
e
su lt i ni mp rovemen ts but i nvo
lve r athe r g rea ter c omp lica - p
arallel-tuned i .
f
. t rap i n t he a e
rial i npu t c i
rcu it t o r educe
t
i
on i n c on s
truc tion ; iti st here fore p ropo sed t o b ase t h
is b
reak th rough o fs trong s igna ls on o rn ear t hef i
rst i f.
s
e
c t
ion o n t he o rigina l d es
ign w hich h as b een s uc cessfully The s econd i .
f. of 8 5 k c/s make s i tp o
ssible t o o btain a
d
up l
ica ted b y many a mateur s
. h
igh d eg ree o fs electivity (abou t 3k c/sb andw id th f o r — 20db
T
he k ey t o t he s imp l
icity o f t he c on struc tion a nd a lign - r
educ tion o n p eak ) w i
thou t u sing c rysta ls o r am echan ical
m
en t l i
es i n t h e use o f ac omme rcia l f ron t-end s upp lied f
i
l
te r. R esponse o f the a l. c i
rcuits i sr estr
icted t o a bou t
p
re-aligned . As u
itab le u nit isa vailable f rom E lec t
ron ique s 4
00 -3000 c /s, t he l ow f requency c ut
ting h elping t o o fset
(
S
tanda rd T elephone s and C able s L td .
, p rop rieto rs), H ar- t
hee fect o n a.m .s i
gna ls oft he highly s ele c
tive i .
f. r esponse .
l
ow, E s sex. T h
i s prov ides a bout 1 70° o fb andsp read c ove r- A b e
tte r s hape f a
cto r cou ld b e a chieved w i
th a h alf-lattice
a
ge o n six ama teu r b ands : B and 1( 160 m e
t res) 1 .8
-2 Mc /s; c
rystal f i
lter b ut t h
is w ou ld t end t o make t he r eceive r mo re
B
and 2( 80m etres)3 4
-4 Mc /s;B and 3 (40 m etre s) 77 .5 Mc /s; d
ificu lt for n ewcome rs n ot h aving t est equ ipmen t. F or c.w.
B
and 4 ( 2 0 m etres) 1 4-144 Mc /s; B and 5 ( 15 m e
tre s) 2 1- r
ecept ion , a n e xterna l 1 620 k c/s Q -mu lt
ip l
ie r i s au seful
2
1.5 Mc /s;B and 6( 10 m e
tre s)2 8-30 Mc /s. a
dd it
ion ( and i sb ui
lt-in f or t he Ma rk 2v e r
sion ); as ui
tab le
I
tw i
l l ben oted t h att hew idth o ft he3 .5 Mc /sb and c ove rs s
ocke t i sp rov ided f or c onnec ting a Q -mu ltiplie r a cro ss the
t
hef u
ll a l
loca tion a vailable t o Ame rican ama teu rs, ofw hich f
i
r s
t i f
. t rans forme rt op rovide ac ontro l
lab le d eg ree o fe xtra
o
nly 3 .5
-3.8 Mc /s a re a vai
lab le t o E u rop ean ama teu rs. s
electivity o r as harp r e
jec tion n otch .
The a vailability o f a2Mc /s wide b and ( Band 6 )m ean s t hat Ap roduc t dete ctor i sfi
tted f oru se o nc .w. a nd s .
s.b. w ith
t
he r eceive r c an b e u sed w ith a 1 44 Mc /s c rystal-con trolled ad iode i nteg rato r e nvelope d etecto r f or a .m. s igna ls. T he
c
onver te rt og ive fullc ove rage oft heE uropean 1 44-146 Mc /s r
eceive r h as ap eak n oise l imiter t o remove a ud io p eak s, a
(
2m etre s) b and . f
ast a nd s low a cting a .g
.c . system , a n S -me ter a nd ab u
ilt-in
E
a se o f t un ing i sa chieved b y t h
e u se o f ah i
gh g rade 1
00 k c/s c rysta l c alibrato r f or p rovid ing c he ck p oints
t
uning d ial h aving a r educ t
ion r atio o f 10 :1. T he t uning t
hroughou t i t
s t uning r ange .
r
ate i sb e
tte r t han 1 0 kc/ s per k nob r e vo lution , e xcept o n F
requency s tab i
lity d epend st o ac onside rable e xten tu pon
Band 6w he re i ti sabou t4 0k c
/ sp erk nob r evo lution . t
h em echan icalc onstru ct
ion . W i
th r igid b racing a nd s uitable
The f ront-end u ni t comp r
ising t he s igna l f requency a nd v
en t
ila t
ion , d rift c an b e k ept l ow. Once t he s e
t h as f u
lly
l
ocal o scillato r t uning c i
rcu its
, r .f
. amp lifi er, f i
rs
t f requency warmed u p, f requ ency d rift may b e l ess t han 5 00 c i
s p e
r
c
onve rter a nd a sso ciated c i
rcu i
t s i ss upp lied p re-aligned t o hour, e ven o n 3 0 Mc /s
, a nd c onside rab ly l e
ss o n t he l ower
p
rov ide a n o utpu t s ignal o n the f i
rst i .
f
. o f 1 620 k c/s with a f
requency b ands . T he u se o f si
licon d iode r ectifiers w ith
h
i gh d egre e o f i mage i n
terference r e
jec t
ion a nd w ith a t
h e
ir l ow o pe rating t empe rature s h elp s k eep c abinet
4
.57
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
t
empe ratures d own . A v o
ltage r egulator tube p rov ides a d
iode i nteg rato r dete ctor; CR4 , 5( 0A8 1) i san a djustable
s
tabi
lized 1 50 vol
t l ine for supplying s t
ages w h
ich c ould b e p
eak n o
is e c l
ippe r
.
afec
ted b y supply v ariations. V
alues s hown f or R 25 a nd T 2 a r
e s uitable for u se with
Basically t h
e r eceive r has a n EF 183 ( 6EH7 ) high-slope 6AM5 o utpu t valve w h
ich p rovide s a bou t 0.5 w att. F or
t
uned r .f
. amp lif
ier s tage and ECH8 1 (6AJ8) f i
rst f
requency h
ighe r o utpu t p owe r a6 B W6 o r E L84 i ss uggested w ith
c
onve rter i n the f a ctory-built front-end. T he 1 620 k c/s modification o ft hese c omponen ts.
s
ignal f rom t h
is s ub-un it goes to V I ( ECH42 , 6CU7 ), the T
he cr ystal ( XI) u sed i nconjunc tion w ith VI i s15 37 kc
/ s
,
s
econd f r
equency c hange r wi
th crystal-controlled oscillator. t
hough s ince t he 85 k c/s i.f
. tr
an sform e
rsc an be tuned o ver
V2 (6BA6 ) and V 3 ( 61
3A6 ) are both 8 5 kc/s i.f
. amp lif
iers. t
he r ange 8 0-90 k c/s, t he crysta
l c an b e anywhe re i n t
he
r
ange 1 530- 1540 k c/s w ithou tc hanging t hef i
rst i.
f
. f rom the
V4 (6AT6 ) i s ad iode a .g
.c. rec
tifier with d elay, a nd a .f
.
f
actory f i
gu re o f 1 620 k c
/s. S u
itable c r y
stals are u sua
lly
amplifier
. V 5 (
6A M5 ) i sthea ud
io o utputs tage. V 6( 6BA6 )
a
vailable i nt he "su rplu s" ma rket. T he tuned c i
rcuit i nthe
i
st h
e 1 00 k c/s ca
lib rato r and V 7 (6AM6 ) the high-stab i
lity a
node c ircu it oft his s tage isresona ted t ot he crys
ta l funda-
b
eat f r
equency o sci
lla tor c over
ing a bout 8 4-86 k c/s. V 8 mental f requency t o r educe h armon ic c onten t
. A s t
andby
(
I2AU7 ) i st he produc t detector
. T he crys
ta l diode CR I s
ensit
ivity c on t
ro l VR5 , a l
low s the r eceiver t o be u sed to
(
0A8 1) isu sed to p ro tect the S-me ter (M 1) f rom f low o f monito rs trong s igna ls f r
om t he transm itter.
r
everse c urrent. CR2 , 3( 0A79 ) form t he voltage-doub l
ing I
f ac rystal c al
ib rato r i salready a vailable, V 6 a nd it
s

(
SIT 7
1110
1
;®
R2
I

2205

c
li
0-I mA

CR
I
0A
11
11 m
. C25
1000pF

I
•SK

M
IS
'
o wn
2
.25 CR4 CRS
0A
131 OABI CS2
0
.5
C2Acn
2
5 RA
?F

VR6 S
46 T
est

0
- — 25K

0 I
ROISE L
IMITER
]

R33
'
NA M .
A
P
I CM •7 K 2
7K
5
54
1
C29
0
.01 C28
32pF

C36
SpF

NS OOS 6
I5A6 5 11 -9.
TO RF
I/
00 0, STAGE
- 0
. —° 71 1
4

6 3
S
TA.OSS
' h S
ENSIT
IVITY

.
( 1-1
\
00pF
1
.30 C39 0
47K SO 2
50
.
0 529
C3
I .
.47 05 PF P
F

[
Ai U RI

C31
5 ALL RES
IST ORS AAA 1
/
2 WATT CARR ON 10 %
50pF TOLERANCE UNLESS OT HER W
ISE STATED

TRANS M
ITTER
RELAY

F
ig. 4
.88
. The S m eter
. c
rysta
l ca
li brator
, a
.g.c
., detectors and a
.f. s
ect
i ons
. C3S i
s the b
.f.o
. p
itch contro
l.

4
.
58
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
a
ssoc
iated componen ts cou
ld be omitted, bu
t otherw
ise th
is
w
il
l prove a mo st useful a
ccessory
. F o
r h i
ghest a
ccuracy
t
he se
cond h armonic o f t
he 100 kc/s crys
tal may be zero
b
eat by adjusting C 38 again
st t h
e 2 00 kc/s B BC Light
P
rogramme h igh st
abili
ty tr
ansm i
tter whi
le using as
eparate
b
roadcast r
eceive
r.

Construct
ion

The layout iss hown i nF ig. 4.89, this dife rs sl

igh t
ly f rom
t
he p hotograph s wh ich w ere t aken a t a n e arl
ie r stage o f
d
evelopmen t. I ti sr e
commended t hat 16 s .w.g. a l
um inium
i
sused f or t
hec ha s
sis w ork, w hich s hould b e w ell braced.
Care should b e taken t hroughou t c onstru ction t o ensu re
t
hat componen ts and w iring a re as rigid as p ossible, especi-
a
l
ly a ny afec
ting t hef requency s tability. V en t
ilation s hould
The r
e
ceive
r i
n i
ts c
abinet s
ho w
ing t
he g
emen
t o
f t
he c
ontro
ls
b
e arranged t ok eep the o perating t empe rature l ow, withou t
e
rrat
ic a ir currents p assing t hrough t h
e o scil
la tors
. T he t
i
nned c oppe r wire fo
r stabi
lity
, and this al
so should pre-
f
ront-end u n
it shou ld b e w el
l b raced i nt he 6 -tir i
n. squa re f
e
rably be screened.
c
ut-out. I t may b e f ound w orth f i
tting a s c
reen o ver t he S
creen
ing c an s fi
t
ted toal
l v a
lves s
hou ld be p
ainted matt
o
sci
llator section o f t he front-end . T he cr ystal-contro l
led b
lack toass
is t heat r
adia
tion. L ow l
oss ski
rted v
alveholders
o
sci
llatoro fV I shou ld bew el
ls creened t om in im ize spu r
iou s o
fe i
ther th
e c eramic or ny
lon l o
aded types shou
ld b e u
sed.
r
espon ses
. T he b .f
.o. shou ld b e con s
tructed u sing 1 6 s.w.g. A B7G v a
lveho lder isfi
tted to the r
ear of the chas
sis and

4
,
1

\ —
6.
.
17
, 7 1

-
•1

F
ig. 4
.89
. The l
ayout o
f t
he r
ece
iver s
ho w
ing t
he p
osit
ions o
f t
he ma
jor c
o mponents
.

4
.59
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUNICAT
ION HANDBOOK
s
upp l
ie s powe r for a Q mu l
tipl
ier or o ther externa
l u ni
ts.
D
isc ce ramic 0.0
1i L
Fc apacitorsareu sed e x
tensively because
o
f t heir s mall size
, l ow i nductance a nd r e
lat
ively h igh
working v oltages. W i
th p aper capacito rs the plas
tic case
t
ypei st obep referred tot hose wi
th w axed p aperc onta
ine rs
.
• Any lo ng w
iresc arrying i
.
f. ora l
.s i
gna ls should bescreened.
A
ll a .
g.c. and h .
t. l i
ne conne c
tions ar e made v ia the long
t
agstr
ip moun ted a l
ong the r e
ar ofth e i.
f
. stages.

A
lign ment
A
lignmen t i sre
la tively s imple, o w
ing t o t he u se of the
p
re-aligned front-end . S everalm ethod sa rep ossible, b
ut the
o
riginal mode l was r eadily al
igned b y the fo
llow ing m e
thod.
F
o r al
ignmen t at est signal within 5 k c/s o f 1620 k c
/s is
r
equired . Ifn o accu rate signal g enerato r i sa va
ilable, the
t
est si
gna l i
sb est o b
ta ined b y replacing t he 1 00 k c
/s c
rystal
o
fV 6b yo ne o
f1 620 k c/ sor asub -harmon ic oft h efrequency.
A readily obtainab le " surplus" c rystal isth e FT24 1A 5 4
th
i h
armon ic type ma rked "2 91 Mc /s (Channe l 1 9
)." T his
h
as a f undamen tal o f4 05
.5 k c
/ s a nd wil
l u sua l
ly p rov
ide a
f
ourth h armon ic o na bou t 1622 k c/s.
T
he o u
tput f rom V 6 i stempo rari
ly r emoved f rom t he
The c
hass
is r
e moved fro m t
he c
abinet
. The ter m
inals on t
he rear a
erials ocket
,a nd t aken t oth e"I.F. OUT" l e
ad- through o nt he
d
rop of t
he c
hassis a
re for t
he l
oudspeaker a
nd trans m
itter r
elay.
f
ront-end , v
ia a1 000 p F capacitor. C a
lcula te w ha t w
ill be

TABLE 4
.
6

CO MP O NE NTS L
IST

B
.F .O . Un it, H 5 085 ( Elec tron ique s (Har low ) Ltd.)
. R
I3, 100 o h ms
.
CI, 2 , 3, 8 , 9 , 13, 1 5, 2 2, 2 4, 29. 3 7, 41, 4 2, 44. 47. 49, 0
-01 p.F
, 500 vo
lt R
h, 1 00 o hms.
wkg., d isc c eram ic. R
I8, 1
- 8 Ko hms .
C4, 2 5pF s i
lver m ica . R
20, 28, 27 K o hms .
C5, 1 000pF s ilver m ica . R
2I, 4
1, 2 20 K o hms.
C6, 1 50pF c eram ic . R
23, 3
.3 Ko hms .
Cl, 1 0
, 1 2
, 1 9, 5 0, 0 - 1 0 p aper . R
24, 36
, 1Megohm .
CI I ,14, 1 6, 1 7. 1 8. 0 .1µF 4 00 v o
lt wkg ., paper R
25, 7
50 o hms ( s
ee text).
C20 , 39, 4 6. 5 0pF s ilver m ica . R
27, 1
50 K o hms.
C2I. 8 p.F, 400 v olt wkg ., elec trolytic. R
32, 8
20 o hms.
C23 , 30, 3 1
, 5 00pF c eram ic. R
34, 10 Ko hms .
C25 , 1000pF c eram ic . R
38, 22 Ko hms .
C26 , 27, 2 5µF 2 5 v olt wkg .. e lectrolytic . R
45, 3
-9 Ko hms 4 wa tt
s.
C28 , 32µF 4 00 v olt wkg .
, e lectrolytic. R
46, 1
00 K o hms 2 wa tts.
C32 . 33, 2 000pF c eram ic. R
49, 6
-8 Megohms .
C34 , 100 p F silver m ica .
C35 , 50pF v ariab le ( LB. t ype C 804 )
. A
l
l r
e
sis
tor
s a
re 4 w
att c
arbon u
nles
s o
the
rwi
se s
t
ated
.
C36 , 5pF s i
lver m ica .
C38 , 30pF t ri mmer . RFC. 2 -5mH 5 0mA .
C40 , 2.
50pF c eram ic. S
I, bandsw itch i ncorpora ted i n c oi
l p ack.
C43 , 24 + 1 6p.F 4 50 v olt wkg , electro lytic. S
i, s.p.s.t. t ogg le ( calibra tor o n/of )
.
C48 , 4-I3pF ( Eddys tone t ype 5 88), aerial trim mer i frequired. S
3, d.p.d .t. t ogg le ( transm it/rece ive )
.
C52 , 0
.5 0 . S
4. s.p.s.t. t ogg le ( a.g.c. o n/of ).
CR I, 4,5 , 0A8 1. 5
5, d.p.d .t. h eavy d uty t ogg le ( mains o n/off
).
CR2 , 3, 0A79 . 5
6. 3w ay 3 p ole Y ax ley, o nly 2 p ositions used ( a
.m ./s
.s.b.
ic.w .).
Cab inet. 1 6 i n. x. 1 04 i n. x8 i n. (Philoon s Me talworks )
. 5
7, s.p.s.t. t ogg le ( a.g.c. t ime c onstant - slow /fast)
.
Cha ss
is, 1 5 i n
. x1 0 i n. x2 4 i n
.. 1 6 s.w.g. al uminium . T
1, 2 50-0 -1 50 v o
lt s, 1 50mA ; 6 -3 v o
lts, 3-5 amps .
D
ia l and D rive . E ddys tone t ype 8 98. T2
, o utput t rans former t o s uit v alve ( For E L9I, 6000 o hms '3o hms , 2w at
t
F
ront E nd, QP I66 Ama teur B ands B andspread Qo ilpax ( E
lectroniques type )
.
(Harlow ) Ltd .). V
I, E CH42 .
F
1 , F2, Ia mp f uses . V2
. 3,6 ,6 BA6 ( EF93 )
.
F
3, 2 50mA f u se. V4
, 6AT6 , E BC90 .
I
FTI, 2,8 5 k c/s t ype D IF I Ser ies I( Elec tron ique s (Har
low ) Ltd
.). V5
, 6AMS , E L9I ( see t ex t).
I
FT3 , 85 k cis t ype D IF I
/D S erie s I( E
lectron ique s (Harlow ) L
td.)
. V7
, 6AM6 . E F9I.
L
I, 5 0-75p .H t ype DLM14 ( E lectron iques ( Harlow ) Ltd.)
. V
13
, 1 2
.AU7 , E CC82 .
L2
, 3 , 1 0H 1 50 mA . V9
, VR I50 /30 ( 0D3 ).
MI, 0-I mA mov ing c oi
l me ter . VRI, 1 0 Ko hms ( r
. f
. g ain ).
MR I, 2, 1 000 p .
i.v. , 5 00 mA s i
licon d iode s
. VR2. 2 5 Ko hms ( i
.f. g a
ln) .
R
I, 1 80 o hms . VR3. 3K o hms ( Rad iospare s p re -set for S me ter set zero).
R2. 25 Ko hms 2 wa tt s
. VR4, 1Megohm ( a
.f. g ain).
R
3 , I , 1 6. 26, 3 3. 4 2, 4 3, 4 4, 1 00 K o h ms. VR5, 2 5 Ko hms ( Rad iospare s p re-set for adjusting s t
andby s ensitiv
ity).
R4, 29, 3 1, 37, 4 70 K o hms . VR6, 2 5 Ko hms ( no ise l im iter ).
R
5, 8 ,2 2
, 3 0, 3 5
, 3 9, 4 7 K o hms . XI (see t ex t).
R6, 10, 1 5, 40, 3 9 Ko hms . X2, 100 k c
j s c rysta l.
R7, 330 o hms . Other c omponents r equ ired a re f useholder s, k nobs, p i
lot l amp, p lug
,
R9, 14, 1 9, 2.2 K o hms . s
ocket s, tag b oard , t ag- strip s. v a
lveho lders, screening c ans
, f l
exible c oupler
,
R
12 , 4 7 Ko hms 2 w atts. a
nd g rommet s
.

4
.60
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS

t
he s econd i .
f. ( i
. e. 1 622 k c/s T
I
m
inu s t he c onve r s
ion c rysta l
2
40V
f
requency )
.
Now s wi
tch t h e r e
ce ive r o n,
a
nd a llow i t t o w arm u p
t
ho rough ly. Swi tch o n t he
c
ry s
ta l c alib rato r
. T ur n t he i .
f
. L2 L3
RFC =
g
ain to maximum ; a
.g.c.
s
witched o n a nd t he S -me te r
2
.5 mH 10H 10H F3
z
ero -con trol t urned t o g ive 1
50 mA 1
5 0 mA I
SO mA 250 mA
q
ua rte r s cale d eflection o n S - C4 1
0.0 1 5
V
mete r
. S hou ld a s ma l
l a .f
. 2
A
o
scilla to r b e a vailab le i tc an b e
u
sed t o modu late V 6 c rysta l
o
u tpu t s o that a n a udib le c heck
i
s a vailab le, b ut t h
is i s n ot
e
ssen tia l. Remove t he t wo
f
ron t-end v alve s
. 0
.0 1
6
.3V
The i .
f
.t ran sforme rsa rep re set C42 5
.5A
t
o8 5k c/so nt heo u terr e
sonanc e
.
I
ft he c alcula ted s econd i .f
. i s VRI50/30 This w inding i s not requ ired with
s
i
licon r ectifiers
l
ess t han 8 5 k c/ s t une c ore s
s
l
igh tly i nwa rds ; i fg rea ter t h an F
ig . 4.90. The p o wer s upp ly.
8
5 k c/s t une t he c ore s s l
igh tly
ou
twa rds . A d
ju st e ach c o re
on
ly b y h alf a t urn a t at ime , s tar t
ing w i th I FT 1 a nd The a erial c onnec tion w ill d epend u pon t he t ype o ff eede r
work t owa rds t h e d etecto r
. R epea t t he e ntire s equence t
ob e u sed :
w
ith af urthe r h alf-turn a dju stmen t a nd s o o n u ntil S -me ter 75 o hm s b alanced i npu t: t e
rm inal s Aa nd A l;
r
ead ing b egin s to r i
se. T hen p eak e ach c ore f or max imum 75 o hm s u nba lanced ( e.g. c oax ial f e
ede r): t e
rm ina ls A
r
ead ing , r ead justing t h e i.f
. g a in c on tro la nd s e
t z ero c on trol and E w ith A l s trapped t o E .
a
s t h e a l
ignmen t p roceeds s o t hat t h e S -me te r read ing i s S
i ng le-ended : t erm ina l Aw ith A l s trapped t o E .
k
ep t r e asonab ly l ow . T o p rov ide a na ccu rate i mpedance ma tch, i ti sp ossib le t o
Re connec t t he c rysta l c alib ra to r t o i t
s n orma l p osi
tion u
s e a n a erial t un ing u nit o ft he t ype s hown i nF ig. 4. 63.
a
nd r e
- inse r
t 1 00 k c/s c rysta l. S et t o B and 1 ,r eplace t he
f
ron t-end v alve s a nd a llow t hem t o w arm u p t horough ly,
w
ith a e rial s t
ill d isconnec ted . W ith g ain c on t-ols a t m axi- Stab ility
mum , ak ick i nt h e S -me te r r ead ing s hou ld b e o bserved a s
t
he r ec eive r i stuned o ve rt hec en tre o ft he b and ; t h
is s hou ld Probab ly t he g rea test p rob lem f acing t he c on struc to r w ill
b
e 1 900 k c/sa nd s hould b ec arefu lly t uned f or p eak S -me ter be t hat o fa ch ieving max imum f requency s tability . I ft h
e re
r
ead ing . A t t h
is s tage a l t he i .
f. c ircu its s hou ld b e f i
nally a
re a ny s udden c hange s i nf r
equency , t he receive ro scilla to rs
p
eaked u p, t he b.f.o . s witched o na nd, w ith t h ep itch c ontrol shou ld b e c arefu lly i nsp ected . I ft he s ame amoun t o f s hift
s
et a tm id -sca le, a dju sted f orz e ro b ea t. occur s o n a l
l b and s t h e t roub le i sp robab ly i n t he c ry stal
The a e r
ial may t hen b e c onnec ted a nd t he t r
imme rs o n conve rsion o scilla to r o r t he b .f
.o . I ft he s h
i f
t i sg reater o n
t
he r .f
. c oils ( f
ron t c ompa rtmen t o f t he f ron t-end ) ca refully the h ighe r f requency b ands s uspe ct t he f r
on t-end .
p
eaked a t the c en tre o f t h e b and , w ith t h e a erial t r
imme r Note t hat t h ef ront-end i sf i
t
ted w ith n ega tive t empe ra ture
s
et t om id -sca le. T h
i sc an b e d one u sing e xte rna l signa ls, or coef f
icien t c apac i to rs i n t he o sc il
la to r circu it t o p rov ide
f
or e xamp le a s igna l f rom a t ran sm itte r v .f
.o . Wo rk c are- t
herma l c omp ensa tion . F o r o ptimum s tability t h
i s th erma l
f
ul
ly , a nd a vo id m aking l arge h aphaza rd c hange s
. c
ompensa tion mu st b e i na cco rd w ith t he n orma l o pe ra ting
t
empe ratu re , a nd t his w ill b e a fec ted b y the v entilation . I t
may t h ere fore b e n ece ssa ry t o a dju s
t t he v en tilation , a fter
TO RECE IVER c
are fully c he cking s tability o n as table s igna l i n t he 2 1 t o
1
2 1
9 25 turns 2
8 Mc /s b and ( a
llow r ece ive r t o w arm u p f or a t l ea st 3 0
m
inu te s). Ad ju stt heb .f
.o . forz ero b ea t
.
I
ft h e t uning c on tro l c apac itance h as t o b e c onsisten tly
i
ncrea sed ( p
la tes f urthe r i n m esh ) t he o scil
la to r i sd rifting
h
ighe r i n f requency , s ugge sting t hat t here m ay b e e xce s s
ive
v
en ti
la tion ,a nd v ice ve rsa. I nt hep roto type mode l o ptimum
s
tability w as a chieved w ith t h e l i
d o f t he cab ine t o p en a nd
afew s uitab ly p l aced v en ti
la t
ion h oles d ri
lled i nt he c ha ssis.
When o pe rating , t h e s e
tting o ft h eg ain c ont rol k nob sw ill
afect p erformance F or b est s igna l-to-no ise r atio, t h e r .f
.
F
ig. 4.91. An a erial t uning u nit. CA s hould b e 500pF , CB w i
ll d epend
upon t he type o f aer ial in use , b ut 300pF i s ag ood b as
is for e xperi- g
ain s hou ld b e max imum ; a .
f. g a
in a bou t h alf-trave l a nd
ment . The c oil c onsists o f 2 5 t urns o n a 1i n. dia meter f or mer, o
ve rall g ain k ep t u nde rc on tro l b y a l
te r
ing i .
f
. g ain c on trol.
t
apped a t 2, 5, 8, 12 a nd 1 9 turns a nd o ccupy ing a s pace o f 1i n
. 28
s
.w .g. wire i s s u
itab le. I
f v e ry s t
rong l ocal s ta
tions c aus e c ross-modu lation o r
4
.61
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
b
locking, t h
e r .
f. ga
in s hould b e r e
duc ed, and i .f
. and a l
.
g
a
in i ncreased.
Fo
r r eception o fs.s
.b., the b.f.o. pi
tch c ontrol should b e
s
e
t to ap oint near the ex
trem ity o fit
s t r
avel
, c orrespond ing
t
ou ppe r or lowe r s
ideband r e
cep t
ion . T he ma in c on
t rol is
t
hen rotated u n
til the speech b ecome s i n
tel
ligible, pos s
ibly
w
ith as l
igh t fi
nal adjustmen t oft he b.f
.o . Its hould n ot be
n
ecessary t os w
itch o ft hea.g.c. except o nvery w eak signals
b
ut a.g.c. should b e s w
itched t o t h
e l onger time c onstant.
Ample b .f
.o. i n
ject
ion v o
ltage s hould b e available, b ut on
v
ery st
rong s .
s.b. si
gna l
s i t may b e necessary to r educe the
i
.
f
, gain s l
ightly toa void dis
tor t
ion .

A DV A N CE D RECEI VER WI T H T U N ABLE F

IRST I.
F.

The i nc rea sing p opu lari ty o f s .

s
.b . t ran sm is s
ion s h as
f
ocu sed a tten tion o n t he s ho rtcom ing s o f c ommun ica tion s
r
eceive rs w hich p revious ly w ould h ave b een c onside red
h
igh ly s at
is factory . T he r e cep tion t e
chn ique s d eveloped f or
s
.s
.b . c an a lso b ea pplied w ith a dvan tage t on orma l a .m . a nd
c
.w. s igna ls. F or e xamp le , w here t he r eceive r i s made
s
uf icien tly s e
lec tive i tc an b e t uned t o o ne s i
deband o f a
c
onven tiona l d ouble s ideband a .m.s i
gna la nd r e
jec t b oth t he
c
arrie r a nd t he s econd s et o fs idebands ; t hes i
gna ls c an t hen
b
e t r
ea ted a s t hough t h ey w ere s .
s.b. t ran sm ission s. T h
is
s
ystem c an b ea rranged t op rov ide i mmed ia te s e
lec tion o ft he
uppe ro rl owe rs eto fs idebands ,p erm its as ignifican ti nc reas e
The a
dvanced amateur bands rece
iver. The co mponents may b
e
i
ns elec tivity t ob eu sed w ithou ta fecting a l
.r e
spon se a sw e
ll i
dent
ified by r
eference t
o F
ig. 4
.94
.
a
sr educ ing p hase d is
to rtion a nd s e
lec tive f a d
ing . Ar e ceive r
h
av ing g ood s .s
.b. p erfo rmance i sa lso l ikely t o p rov ide
e
xcellen t r esults o n c.w .
, g i ving t r
ue s ingle s igna l r ecep tion areceiver o ft h
is t ype c anno t b e unde rtaken l i
ghtly; f o
r the
c
omb ined w ith h igh s tability a nd al ow t uning r a
te. a
verage c on struc to r thew ork i nvolved i sl i
kely t ot ake up to
The r equ iremen ts o f o ptimum s tability a nd a l ow, l i
nea r s
i
x mon th s or mo re o fl e
isure t ime.
t
uning r a
te o na llb ands c a
llf ort heu seo f ac r ystal-con tro lled The receive rh as2 0v alve s( including r e
ctifiersa nd v o
ltage
h
.f. o scillato r i nc onjunc tion w ith at unab le f i
rst i .
f
. s ection . r
egulato r tube ) a nd c ove rss even b ands , each 5 00 k c/s wide:
For ar ece ive r o f th
is t ype t o b e free o fs puriou s r e
spon ses 1
, 1-5-2.0 Mc /s; 2 ,3 .5-4.0 Mc /s; 3, 74 -
'7-5 Mc /s; 4 , 1
44/-
c
are ful s elec tion mu st b e g iven t ot he f r
equency c ove rage o f 1
4-5 Mc /s;5 ,2 1 B-2 1.5 Mc /s;6 ,2 8B-28 .5 Mc /s; 7 ,28.5-29-0
t
he t unab le s e ct
ion , tos creen ing a nd t oc ons truc tion g ene r- Mc/s. P rov ision i s made f o r t wo extra 5 00 k c/s bands t o
a
l
ly. c
ove rc omp le tely t he 2 8B-29 .7 Mc /s b and.
The b lock d iagram o fa na dvanced ama teur r eceive rm eet- A
l togethe r 1 6 q ua r
tz c rystals a re i nco rpora ted: s even
i
ng t he a bove n eeds, d eve loped b y G . R . B . T horn ley, f
ort heh .f
. o scillator, t op rovide s w
itched b ands ;s ix inthree
G2DAF , i ss hown i n F ig. 4 .92 . T he d esign c onside ra tions h
alf
-la t
tice b andpa s sc rystalf i
ltersc entred o n4 60.8 kc/sw ith
w
ill n o
t b e d ealt w ith h ere, b ut t he c i
rcu it a nd p erformance p
airs o fc r
y stals s paced 2 .2 kc /s apart, to p rovide t h e main
s
pe cifica t
ion sa reg iven t os how i np rac t
ice t he ma in f ea ture s s
e
lec t
iv i
ty; t wo f or t he c arr
ie r i n
sert
ion o scillato r
, 1 .
5 k c
/s
o
f ah igh -p er fo rmance r eceive ro f mode rn d esign . a
bove a nd b elow t he cen tre i .
f
., to p rovide s e
lectable s i
de-
The u se o f ac rystal-con tro l
led h .f
. o scillato re lim ina te st he b
and r e
cep t
ion ; a nd a 1 00 kc/s c a
libration o sci
llato r
.
p
rob lems o f t racking f r on t-end o scilla to r c i
rcu its a nd Fo ra l
l bands , th et unab le i.f
. covers 5.0-5 .5 Mc /sa nd the
s
imp lif
i es c on struc t
ion a nd f ina l al
ignmen t. Neve rthe le ss, it v
.f
.o., w hich i sthes econd c onve rs
ion o sci
lla to r
, o perates on
s
hou ld b ea pp rec iated t hatt h ec onstruc tion a nd a l
ignmen to f as ingle, n on -sw itched b and o f 5460-5960 k c/s; a t th
is

M
ETER - 4 CARR
O
DDYN
ETE OSC
V4
3

2 —0 A7
9

RF 44t 2nd 4
4t I F 2nd IF 3
rd I F E
NVE - NO
ISE A
UDIO AUDIO H p
.
AMP M
IX ER M
IX ER AMP AM P AMP LOP E L
IMITER 4
PH AMP i
l
ow O
UTPUT
V4 V2 V4 V7 VS V9 DET V14 V1
5 V1
6
0A7
9

1
00 Cis C
ON V CATH AG C AG C NEG BIAS HT 10. HT
C
AL OSC O
SC FOLL MULT AMP RECT R
ECT IFIER R
ECT S
TAB
V1
7 V3 Vs V4
0 V
II V
IZ V46 V1
9 V20

F
ig. 4
.92
. B
lock d
iagra m o
f a
n a
dvanced amateur c
o m mun
icat
ions r
ece
iver w
ith t
unab
le f
i
rst i
.
f
.

4
.
62
 I
ANDSV
1TCN S
AOw,

W
I MP"
F as
•

1
004 4
7K O
K0 I
C
4T,
.1

0
07
0
-0 C
ON
OSC
ILLATOR
2
20 4

S
S .
0
.
X
II 9• i
.
s L
OY
0-
0
1 A
N
K
0-
0
1 \ MP -
0
1 2
1 00
1 < 1
10 I 3
0p S
O
N
T GER

2
.20 SG
ANG T
UNING C
AP C
iTOR 10p ”A:
11-jSEC
TION
ITEROOT
D
E TE
CTOR

S
ot
T
4 I
S t
it 0
.01 T
ilt
2
20. AUD
IO
2
20 O
UTPUT

AUDIO
GAIN
'SOS

d EPICt 0
3C

4
7K .0
, 101
1

1
0
1:
114c
/o CA
L S
IC
2
20C v,

F S
0
pE MOW

S
OON

Mk
F L-
N 117
4
76
I OA

•
1
66C 6
111
1 U
I
r
'°
I 0
O
K

§ 5
601
1

C
APAC T
OR C
ALV ES AM I
N N OFARADS U
I CR NLESS OT
NERV
ISE ST
ATED RE
SIST
OR V
ALUES 4
1 ON S
. 14 NWT R
AU 6

F
ig. 4
.93
. C
ircu
it d
iagra m o
f t
he a
dvanced doub
le on amateur b
i ands r
ece
iver w
ith t
unab
le f
i
rst i
.
f.

S
I, 2, 3 , 5
, 6, Yax ley type c era m ic b andswitch, 6 bank S
16, S
17 , Yax ley type paxolin
, 1b ank 2 p
ole 4 way
. X12 , 6
500 W s .
1p ole 6 way ( shown f ul
ly a nti-c
lockw ise in the I-5-2 S
18, S
19 , Yaxley t ype paxolin
, Ib ank 1pole 4 way
. X13 , 6
625 k c
/s.

I
I3D M
M O p os
ition). (
S16, S
17 , S
18 a nd 5
19 are the operat
ional switch)
. X14 , 8
375 k c
/s.
S
i. 8, Yax ley c era mic bandsw itch ( 10 m band s e
lector), XI, X3, XS, 4 61 9 W s (
series r
esonant f
requency). XIS , 8
500 k c
/s.
2b ank 1p ole 4 way. X2, X4, X6,4 59 7kcis (
series r
es f
requency )
. RFC , a
ll 2.5 m H
S
9, 1 0
, I , Yax ley t ype paxo l
in ( de modulator s e
lector), X7,459.3 kc/s (paralle
l f
requency in s
itu)
. T1, audio output t ransfor mer (36 :1
).
1b ank 3 pole 2 way. T3, 300
-0-300V 1 50 m A, SV 2A, 63V SA.

H3A
X8,4613 W s ( paralle
l resonant f
requency in s
itu)
.
S
12, 1 3
, Yax ley type c era mic sw itch (sideband s e
lector),
X9, 7
000 k c
/s . T2 m 13 v o
lt h eater t ransfor mer with 200
-250V pri mary
,
2b ank 1p ole 2 way.
F
• 5
14, 515, Yax ley type paxolin (a.g.c. switch)
, 1b ank 2 po
le X10, 9
000 k c/s. I
3V w ind ing c onnected a cross 6
-3V

S
3 way. X II
,62.50 kc/s. All 001 1F b ypass c apacitors are 4
00V d.c
. working
.
RSGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
f
r
equency h igh s t
ab ility c an b e a ch ieved , p ar t
icu la rly a s t he V
18 ( EB9 1, 6AL5 ). I n t h e STAN D BY p o s
ition o ft he o pe ra-
v
.
f.o . i si sola ted f rom t h es econd m ixe rb y ac athode f ol
lowe r t
i
ona l s wi
tch S I6, 1 7
, 1 8, 1 9 t he b ias i sa utoma t
ica l
ly i n
-
s
t
age . S ince t h e o ve ra ll s t ab ility o f t h e r eceive r w ill b e c
rea sed a nd t he outpu t v alve s tand ing c urren t r e duced t o
d
ete rm ined l arge ly b y t hi so s cilla to r,s tab ility r ema in sc lose ly a
pp rox ima tely 2 0 mA t o l owe r th e l o
ad ing o n t he ma ins
s
imila r o n a ll b and s
. A Q mu ltip lie r c ircu it i su sed t o p ro - t
r
ans forme r T 3
.
v
ide at unab le r e
je ction n o tch . The i .
f. i nput t o t he g rid o ft he t h
ird i .
f
. amp lifier ( V9)
The f ull c ircu it d iag ram i sg iven i nF ig. 4 .93. a
l
so f eeds t hea .g
.c. amp lifier V II ( EF93 , 6 BA6 ), t heo u tpu t
The a e ria l i npu t c oil o n e ach b and p rov ide s a ma tch t o o
f w hich i sf ed to t h e s hun t r ect
ifier a nd g ate d iode V 12
7
5 o hm f eede r. A s h igh Q r .
f. c ircu its a re r equ ired t om in i
- (
EB9 1 , 6 AL5 ). R esu ltan t c ur rent p ulses a ta ud io f r
equenc y
m
ize i mage r espon se, t her .
f. s tage i sn eu tra lized . Ac ascode c
ha rge t he0 .15 I.
LFr eservo irc apac ito r. T he c ha rge t ime c on-
r
.
f. amp l ifie r ( VI, ECC84 , 6 C W7 ) i sp re f erred t o ac onven - s
tan t i sfa
st —o fth e o rde ro f0 .01 s econd , b ut d ischa rge c an
t
i
ona l p en tode c ircui t b ecau se o f i t
s s upe rio r c ros s-modu la- o
nly t ake p lace v ia t he AVC s w
itch S 14, 1 5
, a nd e i
the r t he
t
i
on c harac te ristic s. S i gna l f r
equ ency p re se lec tion i sb y t he 5
00K o r 5Megohm r e s
isto rs. T he discha rge t ime c onstan t i s
i
npu t c oil i n t he g rid c ircu it a nd t he s erie s f e d c o
il i n t he t
here fo re s low —o f t he o rde r o f 0 -
1 a nd 1 -0 s econd
a
node c ircu it o f V I. T he se a r e s e
le cted ( toge the r w ith t he r
espe ctively.
a
eria l i npu t)b yt hree b ank so ft h e ma in b andchange s e
le cto r The 1 0K o hm p o ten t
iome te r VR3 i st he RF GAIN c on trol
s
witch a nd p re- tuned f or e ach b and w ith t h e t wo g ang ed a
nd a pp l
ie s bias from t he n ega tive s upply s imu ltaneou sly t o
5
0 p F t un ing c apac ito rs. T he 1 60, 8 0 a nd 4 0m a node c oils t
hea . g.c. li
ne a nd t ot hea node o ft heg ate diode . T h
is h olds
a
ret apped t op rov ide ar ea sonab ly c on stan ts tage g ain o na l
l u
p t he d ecay o ft he a vailab le a .
g.c. v o
ltage t o al evel pre -set
b
ands , w ith t he f ou rth s ection o ft h eb andsw itch f eeding t he b
y t h e g a
in c ontrol. B ecau se o f M il
le r e fect, t h e va rying
s
igna l i nto t heg r
id o ft he f i
rs tm ixe rV 2( EK90 , 6 BE6 )
. T he a
.g.c. v o
ltage w ou ld a fect t he g rid i npu t c apac ity o f t he
n
ece ssa ry h e te rodyn ing f requency i so btained f rom ac r ystal c
on tro lled v alve sa nd t h
is w ou ld p articula rly a fectt heb and -
c
on t rolled h a rmon ic o scilla to r V 3 ( EF80 , 6 BX6 ). T he r e
- p
a ss f i
l
ter r espon se c ha rac te ris
tics, d eg rade t h e s e
lectiv ity
q
uired c rysta l a nd a node c oi l a re s elec ted b y t he r ema in ing a
nd a fec
t t he a udio f requ ency r espon se. T his e fec t i s
t
wo b anks o f t he s ix b ank b andchange s witch . A s suitab le o
ve rcome i nt he two a s
soc ia ted i .
f
. amp l
ifier v alve s V 7 a nd
t
ype s o f s witch w afe r s a r e n orma l
ly s ix-way , t he a dd i
tiona l V8, b y p roviding n ega t
ive r .
f
. f eedback w ith u nbypas sed
5
00 k c/ss ection so ft h e1 0m b and a re c ove red b ya na uxilia ry 1
50 o hm c a
thode r esisto rs. T he p rimar ies o f t h e two i .
f
.
t
wo b ank t wo p o
le f our -way Y axley t ype s witch b rough t o u
t t
ran s fo rme rs int hea node c ircu itso fV 4a nd V 3 a r ed amped
t
o as epa ra te p ane lc on t ro l. T h
is e nab le sf ullc ove rage o ft he w
ith 4 7K o hm r es
is to rs t o p reven t fi
lte r ringing — suf f
i c
ien t
1
0m b and t ob eo btained i fr equ ired . d
amp ing o fV 7a node c ircu it i sp rovided b y t he Q mu l
tip lier
The t unab le i .
f. se ction c ove ring t h e5 .0t o5 .5 Mc / sr ange i
npu t l oading .
c
omp ris e s t wo t uned c ircu its i nt h
e g rid o ft hes econd m ixe r The ma in h .t
. s upp ly i sf rom t he ma in s trans fo rme r T 3
V4 ( EF93 , 6 BA6 ) a nd i n t he g rid o f t he v .f.o. V 6 ( EF93 , a
nd t h e rect
ifier v alve V 19 ( GZ30 , 5 Z4 )
, w ith c hoke i nput
6BA6 )a r ranged a s aC olp i tts o csilla to ra nd t uned b y at hree p
rov id ing 2 20 v o
lt s t o t he a node o fV 16 . T he s econd s tage
g
ang v a riab le c apac ito r o f 1 40 p F e ach s ection . T he v .f.o. smoo th ing p rovide s a n o utpu t o f 200 v o
lts t ot he ma in h .t
.
)
u
tpu ti sv ia ac athode f o
llowe rV 5( EF93 ,6 BA6 )s t
rapped a s p
o sitive r ai
l. A VR 150 /30 , 1 50C3 v o
ltage r e gulato r ( V20 )
at r
iode , w ith d ire ct i n
jec tion i nto t h ec athode o ft hes econd
m
ixe r, V 4
. Au toma tic v .f.o . f r
equency c or rection w hen
s
wi tch ing s idebands i s o bta ined b y a3 -30 p F t r
imm er
c
apac ito r ( p re- set t o t h e r equ i red v alue ) a nd a s e
lec to r
THIS VALVENOLDER WAS
sw
itch i nt hev .f
.o . c athode c ircu i t
. F
ITTED F
WORK W
OR E
XPER
ITH P
IMENTAL
RODUCT
The s e cond i .
f
. o utpu t a t4 60 k c/ s i sf e d i nto a t wo h alf- S
CREEN
I
T.
U
N000HIATH D
U
ETECTORS A
NUSED
ND IS NOW

l
a
ttice c ry sta l b andpa s sf i
lte ra nd t ot hef i
r st i .
f. amp lif
ie rV 7
(
EF93 , 6 BA6 ) a nd t hen i nto at hird h a
lf -latt ic e fi
lte rs ection f
a
nd f u r
the r amp lified b y t he s econd a nd t hird i .
f
. s tage s V 8
,
S
IX- SO
s
.
"
i T
S

a
nd V 9 ( bo th EF93 , 6 BA6 ). A Q mu l t
ip lie r n otch f i
lter V
I
SCREEN
V1 0 ( ECC83 , 1 2AX7 ) i sf ed f rom t he a node o f V 7. T he UNDERNEATH

outpu t o f t he t hird i .
f
. amp lifie r i ss witched t o t he 0A79
b
alanced d iode b ridge c .w . a nd s .
s.b . d emodu la tor o r t o a
s
ing le 0A79 d iode e nve lope d ete cto r f or a .m . r ecep tion .
The c a rrie ri nse rtion o sc illa to rV 13 ( also t ype E F93 ,6 BA6 )i s 29
.0 2
W
AND C
RYSTALS
c
ry stal c on tro lled , t he r equ i red c ry stal b e
ing s elec ted b y S 12
t
hes i
ng le p ole t wo -way S I DEBAN D s witch g anged t ot hev .f
.o . S
CREEN

c
o rrec tion s witch S 13 .
U
NDERNEATH — .

T he r equ ired a udio o utpu t i ss elec ted b y S IO a nd f ed i nto I

FTI

t
he n ega tive a nd p o sitive p eak c l
ipp ing n oise l imiter V 14 R
FC MULT
1
FT2
(
EB9 1, 6 AL5 ) a nd t he l evel s et b y t he p oten tiome te r VR 1 0TH F
TS
D
RIVE I
(NO ISE L I MITER) c on tro l. Ou tpu t i sf ed v ia VR2 t he AUDIO S
EAN :
10X
GA IN c on tro l, t o t he a ud io amp lifi er V 15 ( ECC8 1, 1 2AT7 ) _
t
a
nd t h en t ot heo utpu t v alve V 16 ( 6B W6 ). N ega tive v o
l tag e O
NAL F AGC I RF S
IDE ANC
, '
I
X WALT
f
eedback i sp rov ided o ve ra lla ud io s tage sf rom t hes econda ry SW
ITCH P
RESELECTOR SW
T
UNING
ITCH G
AIN S
ELECTOR TUN
ING

o
ft h eo utpu t t ran sforme r. T he n e ce ssa ry b iasf ort heo utpu t
F
ig. 4
.94
. Above chass
is l
ayout in t
he high perfor mance double con-
v
alve i sf ed v ia ap oten tia l d ivide r f rom t he n ega tive b ias v
ersion amateur bands c
o m munication receiver. The dotted li
nes
s
upp ly c omp rising t h et ran s forme rT 2 a nd t he r ectif
i erv alve i
ndicate t
he screening belo w the chass
is.

4
.
64
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
p
rovide s 1 50 v o
lts stabil
ized to feed the v.f
.o. and c athode TABLE 4
.8
f
ol
lower a nd the carrier in
sertion oscil
lator ( V13
).
Har mon
ic Convers
ion Osc
illator F
requenc
ies
The c a
libration oscillator V17 (EF9I, 6A M6 o r equivalent) Band
S
econd Third F
ourth
p
rov ides h armon ic o utput fr
om a 1 00 k c
/s crysta
l and g ives
Hc
is R
e- Crysta
l har
, o
f h
ar. o
f b
ar, o
f CV
:tout
a
ccu rate c al
ib rat
ion p ips every 1 00 k c/s throughou t t he q
uired used c
rysta
l c
rysta
l c
rysta
l
r
eceiver r ange. Ope ration isc on
trolled b y S17, par
t o f the
1
-
5-2
-0 7
000 7
000 1
4
,000 2
1
,000 2
8,000 F
undamenta
l
main c ontrol s w
itch.
3
.5
-4-0 9
000 9
000 1
8
,000 2
7,000 3
6
,000 F
undamenta
l

Construct
ion 7
.04
.5 1
2
,500 6
250 1
2
,500 1
8
,750 2
5,000 S
econd
H
armon
ic
The receiver is b ui
lt o n a 16 s.w.g. a lum inium c hass
is
measur
ing 1 7 i n
. b y 16 in. by 3i i
n. d eep . T he 19 in. by 1
4
.0-I
4-5 1
9
,500 6
500 1
3
,000 1
9
,500 2
6,000 T
hird
Harmon
ic
1
0i in. panel i sstandard r ack and p anel s ize. T he a c
tual
measuremen ts are d etermined b y the p hysical size of the 2
1
.0-2
1.5 2
6
,500 6
625 1
3
,250 1
9
,875 2
6,500 F
ourth
H
armon
ic
c
omponen ts used, particular
ly the if
. t ransforme r
s a nd the
t
hree gang t uning c apacitor
. It iss t
rong ly r ecommended , 2
8
-0-28
.5 3
3
,500 8
375 I
6,750 2
5,125 3
3
,500 F
ourth
H
armon
ic
however
, t ha
t thec has s
is isnot made s malle r than suggested 2
8-5
-29
-0 3
4
,000 8
500 1
7
,000 2
5.000 3
4
,000 F
ourth
un
less t
his isp oss
ible w ithout r
educing t h e signal fr
equency H
armon
ic

c
oil compar tmen ts
. T he Q of the c o
ils a nd t hose in the

t
unab le i f. circu its c an b e reduced c ons ide rab ly b y too c lose
TABLE 4
.
7
p
rox im ity t ot he c rosss creens a nd c hass is side s. C lo se s pac-
CO
IL WI N D
I N G DETA
ILS
i
ng o fc oils c an a l
so l e
ad t ou nde sirab le mu tualc oup ling a nd
F
req. a
bsorp tion e fec ts. T he a bove -chas sis l ayou t i s s hown i n
F
unct
ion or Wind
ing Re marks
F
ig. 4 .94 .
b
and
Ast her .
f
. amp l
ifieri sneutra lized b yo uto fp hase f e edback
1
60m 1
00T s ec. 7T prim 4 0 s.w.g
. f
rom t he g rid i npu t ci
rcu it
, t he f r
ame o f the g rid s ection o f
e
nam .
8
0m 5
5 Ts ec
. 3 1 pr
im. 3 2 s.w.g
. t
he t wo g ang p re se
lec t
ion c apac itor i sa bove e arth . A ccord -
e
nam . P
asolil former
3
01 s ec. 2T prim. 2 4 s.w.g
. f
or 160, 80and
i
ngly t his c omponen t is made u p w ith t wo s epara te 5 0 p F
4
0m
e
nam . 4
0 me tres. c
apac itor s moun ted o n a n i nsula ted p ane l a nd g anged t o-
S
igna
l 2
0m 1
4T s ec. IT prim. 2 2 s.w.g
. Po
lystyrene
f
or 20, 15 and
g
ether w ith a n E ddystone t ype 5 29 f l
ex ible s haft c oup le r
.
F
requency e
nam .
V
I G r
id 1
5m 9
T sec. 1 .
5T p r
im. 2 2 s.w.g
. 1
0 me tres. The t hree i f. t ransforme rs i n t he b andpass f i
l
te r r equ ire
e
nam . iin
. diam . 2i
n.
l
ong, j)in
.
c
apac itive c entre t aps. T he se a re p rov ided b y r emov ing t he
1
0m 7
T s ec. I T pr
im . 20 s .w.g
.
e
nam . (Spaced 121 per inch)
. d
iam. w ith o
rig ina l c apac itor a cros s the w ind ing a nd r eplac ing i tw ith
A
ll primaries ti
ghtly coupled d
ust c ore
. t
wo o f d oub le t he v a
lue i ns er
ie s. T he j unction o f th e t wo
a
t c
old e nd of s
econdary. (
Denco Max i-
Q
) c
apac itor s i st aken o ut t o as epa rate l ead-ou t w ire a s t he
c
en tre t ap o f t he w ind ing. T he s econdary o f I FT7 , f eeding
1
60m 1
00T t ap a t SOT d own, 4
0
s
.w.g. enam. t
he b r
idge d iode c .w. a nd s .s
.b . d emodu la to r mus t b e
8
0m S
ST t ap a t 20T d own
, 3
2
mod ified t o l ow i mpedance s erie s o utpu t b y r eplac ing t he
S
igna
l s
.w.g. enam.
F
requency 4
0m 3
01 t ap a t 101 d own
, 2
4 F
ormers a
s o
rigina l c apac ito r w i
th a 1 000 p F u nit a nd w ha tever v alue is
V
I A node s
.w.g. enam. a
bove
.
r
equ ired t o r esona te the c o
il i ns eries,a ss hown i nt he c ircuit
2
0m 1
41 2 2 s
.w.g. e
nam .
1
5m 9
1 22 s.w.g. e
nam. d
iag ram . L ow i mpedance o utpu t i sr equ ired t of eed t he c .
i.o.
1
0m 7
1 20 s.w.g. e
narn
. outpu t t o t he 0A79 b ridge d iode d emodu la tor v ia 1 FT8 .
(
Spaced 12T per inch.
)
This i sp rov ided b y r emov ing o ne "p ie "f rom a s tandard
T
unab
le IF
. 5
.0
-5.5 1
41 2 2 s .w
.g. d .
s.c
. close C
ement w ind.
i
lgs with
i
.
f, t ransforme r a nd r eplacing i tw ith a 5 0 t u rn s c ramb le
V
2 Anode Mc/
s wound pasol
in former a
s si
g.
&V4 Gr
id f
requency co
ils
. Denf
ix p oly
- w
ind ing o f 3 6 s .w.g. e name lled w ire t ightly c oup led t o the
s
tyrene
5
.46-5
.96 1
31 2 2 s .w.g
. d .
s.c
. clo
se c
ement .
e
xisting c oi
l.
V
.F.O
. M O wound paxol
in former a
s s
ig. All v ariab le p otentiome ters a re s tandard t ype s ( wire
V6 G
rid f
requency co
ils
. wound b elow 1 00K o hms a nd c arbon a bove 1 00K o hms )
7
.0 M
c/s 2
51 3 2 s.w.g
. e nam
. S hunt e
xcep tf o r VR4 i nt he b a
lanced d iode b r
idge c i
rcu it;t his i sfor
Cap — SOpF f
. b alanc ing a nd mus t b e n on -induc t
ive a nd t h erefore
9
.0 M
c/s 1
61 2 8 s.w.g
. e nam
. S hunt
Cap = 75pF c
arbon.
1
2
.5 M O 1
4T 2 4 s.w.g
. c lam
. S hunt F
ormer :
I
fs urplu s FT24 1 crystals are u sed t hey a re moved t o the
Conver s
ion Cap = 50pF A
ladd in 4 in
.
Osc
illator 1
9
.5 M
c/s 6
1 2 2 s
.w.g
. s paced to 4i n
. d
iam . 1 i
n
. f
requency r equired b y grinding o ne e dge . T he c rystals for
V3 A node l
ong. S
hunt C ap = 43pF l
ong, w ith
6
1 2 2 s
.w.g
. s paced to 4i n
. .
6 i n. d iam
.
t
he c.
i.o. a re p ositioned a t the 2 0db p oints. I ts hou ld b e
2
6.5 M
c/s
l
ong. Shunt C ap = 25pF dust core. r
emembe red that t he actual osc i
llating f requency i ns i
tu w i
ll
3
3
-5 M
c/s S
T 2 2 s
.w.g
. s paced to 4i n
. b
e between 1 00 a nd 2 00 c/s l ower t han t he s e
ries r esonan t
l
ong. Shunt C ap — ISoF
3
4
:0 M
c/s S
T 2 2 s
.w.g
. s paced to 4i n
. mode. A sma ll amoun t o fneu tralizing c apacity -2 p F
.—was
l
ong. Shunt C ap = 10pF u
sed a cro ss t wo o f the f i
l
ter s ec
tions b u
t t h
is w ould n ot
5
.
3 M
c/s 1
51 24 s
.w.g
. enam
. S
hunt F
ormer: n
ecessarily g i
ve t he same r esponse c haracterist
ics w ith s ome
I
F. T
rap C
ap = 3
50pF A
ladd
in asf
or
coin
. osC
.
o
ther t ype o f i .
f
. t ransforme r s
. F urther a dvice o n l a
ttice
f
i
lter
s o ft he type u sed i nth
is r eceive r isg i
ven i nC hap ter 10
6
01 approx imately 9
/42 Litz wire o n Max
i-Q
(
Single Sid eband )
.
Q 4
60 k
c/s p
ot c ore I i n
. diam. with a djustable s
lug.
Mu
ltip
lier (
Adjust nu mber o
fturns a
sn ecessary toobta
in The c onver s
ion o scil
lator v alve ( V3) i s at ype EF80 .
c
orrect t
uning.) 6BX6 a nd i sp articularly suitab le f or this requ iremen t
. I t

4
.65
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
mu st n ot b e replaced w ith a EF9 I
, 6 A M6 , EF93 , 6BA6 o r a
cro ss theg rid c i
rcu i
t o fV 17, s o that thec a
librat
ion p ip o n
s
im i
lar , b ecau se t h
e se valves w i
ll n ot give th e required r .f
. 5
.0 Mc / s isze ro bea t with MSF .
o
u tpu t v o
ltage . The 5 6 K o hm r esistor f eeding h .t
. to the noise l imiter
Any s u
itab le mov ing c o
il me ter o f be tween 5 00µA a nd c
on trol VR 1 i s an om inal value o n
ly. I tshould be a djusted
1
-5 mA f ull scale deflection i ssuitable for the Sm e
ter. T he t
oo btain c orrect li m
itera c
tion .
o
rigina lscale can b ec ove red with glazed d rawing p aper,hand The s ignal f requency d iscrim ina t
ion a gainst i.
f. b reak -
c
alib rated a nd f i
nally r emoved a nd ma rked i n wi
th I ndian t
hrough i sat i t
s w orst p o
int w hen t he re
ceiver isinu se o n
i
nk. t
ho se frequenc ie sn earest tot h e tunable i.
f
. range. T his isa t
The re isn othing w orse than a t
temp t
ing t ot une as elec
tive t
he h .f
. e nd o f the 8 0m b and. A c
co rding
ly, a5 .3 Mc /s i .
f
.
r
eceive r with a"l umpy "d r
ive me chanism o rw ith one t hat t
rap i sconne cted i nseriesw ith t hei nputt otheprimary o ft he
h
a s b ackla sh i n t h
e g earing. A r ea
lly f i
rst class reduct
ion 8
0m c oil a nd t his gives a n a dditional 20-40db a t
tenua tion
d
rive —p ref e
rab ly w ith a r eduction o f at l e
a st 100 :1— is o
ve r the r ange 3 .
6 t o 3 .
8 Mc /s. T o tune the 5.
3 Mc / s i .
f
.
e
ssen tial. Ar eadily available type i sthe E ddy stone type 8 98 t
rap, set t h
e ma in tuning c ontro l to3 .7 Mc/s (bandsw itch i n
d
rive a nd d i
al a ssemb ly. t
he3 .
5-4 .0 Mc /sp osi
tion )a nd f eed a1 00 mil
livol
ts igna li nto
A
ll t he c oils, i .
f. t ransforme rs a nd s witche s for t his t
he a er
ia l term inal from as ignal g enerator se
t to 5-3 Mc / s
.
r
eceive r are a va i
lable f r om E lectronique s (Standard T ele- Adju s
t t he tr
ap d ust c o
re f o
rm in imum Sme ter reading .
p
hone sa nd C ab lesL td.,p rop r
ieto rs
, H arlow , E s
sex)
.
Mut
ing
A
lign ment Mode rn p rac tice i st oc ontrol at r
an sm it
te ra nd r e
ceiverb y
An amb itious p rojec ts uch a st hec on struc tion o f ad oub le mean s of ar e
lay w ith e i
ther v oice ( vox) o r p ress
-to-ta lk
s
upe rhe t c ommun ica tion r eceive rw ill o nly b eu nde rtaken b y o
pe ra t
ion . B reak ing h .t
. o r cathode c onne ction s usua l
ly
a
ne xpe r
ienced ama teur w i
th p astc on struc tiona l k now ledge . c
aus e s cl
icks a nd t hump s a nd the mo st s at
is factory c on trol
Deta iled a l
ignmen t i nstruc tion s are n ot t here fore g i ven b ut method i s as ou rce o f n egative v oltag e app l
ied t o t
he g rids
t
hep rocedu re,a si na ny r eceive r
,i stos tartf r om t heb ack a nd o
f t he c )ntrolled v alve s. I n many c a
se s t h
e re i sa l
ready a
f
i
nish a tt hef ront. I n t his c ase , that me ans a l
ignmen t o ft he s
ou rce o fn ega tive v oltage p rovided f or th e p. a
. b ias supp ly
c
ar rie r i nsertion o sc illato r
, f ollowed b y t he t unab le i .
f. a nd a
nd t he a vailab le p oten tial isu sua lly s uitab le f or mu ting
v
.f
.o . s ection , a nd f inally t he s igna l f requency c i
rcu its . T he r
equ iremen ts .
1
00 k c/s p ip s f rom t he c alib ra t
ion o sc il
la to r i nc onjunc tion The c ontrolling v oltage c an b e a ny v alue f rom a bou t 3 0
w
ith t h e Sm eterw illb ef ound v ery u se fuld uring t hisp roce ss. t
o 1 00 v ol
ts a nd i sc onne cted t o t he r eceive r "mu ting"
T he l evel o ft he c onve rs
ion o scillato r a nd v .
f.o. i npu ts t o t
e
rm ina l
. Du ring t r
ansm iss
ion p eriods t he a pplied v oltag e
t
he t wo m ixe rs V 2 a nd V 4 i si mpo rtan t. T here s hou ld b e d
isab les t he se cond m ixe r a nd t he s econd a udio amp lifier
s
uf f
i cien t i npu t v oltage t o o bta in c or rec t m ix ing a ction b ut a
nd s o "k il
l s "t he r eceive r
. T he t ime c on stan t i sfas
t a nd
n
o t s o much t hat s pu r
iou s p roduc t g ene ra t
ion i si nc rea sed . t
hec ontroli sfree f rom c l
ick sa nd t hump s. A st hec ontrolled
A s imp le w ay o f d ete rm ining t he a pp rox ima te p eak d rive r
.
f. v alve ( V4) i sn ot c onne cted t o t he a.g.c. l i
ne t he action
v
oltage t o t he f i
rst m ixe r w i thou t n eed ing a d iode p robe a
nd t he time c on stan t o f the receive r a .
g.c. s ystem r ema ins
v
alve v o
ltme te r i st o b reak t he 20K o hm g rid r es
is to rc on - u
naf fected. Obv iou sly t here mu st a lway s b e ar e
turn p ath
n
e ction a tt he ea r
th e nd a nd u se a5 00µA me te r to mea su re f
or t hec ont rolled g rid c i
rcuits and i fmu ting i sn ot requi red
t
he g rid c urren t. T his w i
ll v ary o ve r t he s ix b ands b ecau se t
he" mu ting" t erm ina l mu st bes trapped t oe arth.
o
f t h e dif eren t mode o f o pe rating t h e c onve rsion c rysta ls The alterna t
ive m ethod i st oc ontro l the re ceive r fr
om t he
b
ut s hou ld b eb etween 1 00 a nd 3 00µA . T he c athode d r
ive t o t
r
ansm it
te r s end -rece ive s witch. I f t h
is i s r equired t he
t
he s econd m ixe r w ill h ave t o b e m easu red w ith a d iode r
eceive rc an b el inked b ack t ot h
et ransm itter c ontrol switch
p
robe v alve v oltme te r a nd s hou ld b e a pp rox ima tely 2v olts c
i
rcu its b ym ean so ft he STAND B Y( sa)p os
ition o ft hereceive r
r
.m .s. o
pe ra t
iona l s w
i tch S I6 , 1 7, 18
, 19 a nd t hes t
and -by t e
rm ina l
T he o utpu t o f t h e c ar r
ie r i n
se rtion o sci
l lator V I3 , a l
so p
rov ided .
mea sured w ith av alve v o
ltme ter, shou ld b e b etween 1 0a nd
P
erformance
2
0 v olt s r .m.s. a tt he a node w hi
le t he r .f
. t o t he t wo 0A79
d
iode s( e
i the re nd o ft h eb alanc ing p oten t
iome te r)s hou ld b e A
utomatic Ga
in Con
tro
l
a
bou t 2 .0 v olts r.m .s. Aud
io ri
se is6db f
or 8
0db c
hange i
nsi
gnal i
nput a
bove
Aud io n ega tive f eedback i sp rov ided b oth a s a n a i d t o 1
µV, and 3
db for 6
0db c
hange i
nsigna
l i
npu
t above 1
0µV.
r
educe d i sto rt
ion a nd a lso t o g ive c on tro lo ft he t otal a udio
amp lifi cation . T he 30 K o hm f eedback r esisto r i sa d ju sted TABLE 4
.
9
i
n v alue s o t hat a t f u
l l a ud io g ain s etting w i
th t h e a .g.c. S
I G NAL
-T O
-N O
ISE RAT
IO
o
pe ra t
ing , t h e drive t ot he o utpu t v alve V 16 i sj ust les s t han
Aer ia
l i nput i
n Aer ia
l i nput i
n
t
he p o
in t o fp ositive g rid e xcu rsion . B
and microvo lts for 1
0db microvo lts for 2
0db
W ith t hes ugge sted t unab le i f
. r ange ( 5
.0 t o5 .5 Mc / s) t he Mcis s
ignal-to-no ise r
atio s
ignal-to-no ise r
atio
A
la R eception A3a R eception
r
ece ive r c an b e t uned t o MSF o n 5 .0 Mc / s b y s ett
ing t he
b
andsw itch t o th e "3 .5-4 .0 Mc /s" p o s
i t
ion a nd t he p re- 1
.
5-2
.0 0
3 •
2

s
e
lec tion t un ing c apac ito rt ot hem inimum c apac ity p o sition . 3•
5
-4•0 02
8
This w ill p eak t he s igna l f requ ency c ircu its t o 5 .0 Mc /s a nd
7
.0
-7.5 03
8 .
4
t
hef i
rst m ixe rw i
ll b ehave a sa n amp lifie ra nd f eed t h e MSF
s
igna l i nto t he t unab le i .
f. s tage s. T his w ill p rov ide a 1
+0-
14.5 0
32 2

s
tanda rd f r
equency ( cor rect t of i
ve p arts i n 10°) f or r eceive r 2
1
-0-2
1.5 03
2
d
rift m ea suremen t s a nd a lso f or a dju stmen t o ft he 1 00 k c/s
2
8
-0-29
.0 03
2
c
alib ration o sc
illato r b y m eans o f t he p re-set c apac itor
4
.
66
 H
.F. RECE
IVERS
I
.F
. B
reak
through R
ejec
tion
. perfor mance i
n an r
.f. s
tage t
han t
he cascode c
ircu
it. D oub
le
Th
is i
s not l
ess t
han 60db
. t
riode mixers such as the E C C85 have l
o wer no
ise and m uch
better c
ross m odu
lat
ion and overload character
istics t
han
S
econd C
hanne
lRe
jec
tion
t
he 6B E6
. A l
ogical improve ment therefore i
s t
o substitute
The image r
eject
ion t
o both mix
ing processes i
s not l
ess
t
hese i
n t
he G 2 D A F r
ece
iver
. I
t i
s a
lso assu med t
hat
, a
t t
he
t
han 60db on a
ll bands
.
present very co mpetitive pr
ices
, m ost constructors wi
ll be
S
elec
tiv
ity
prepared t
o purchase ne w current production c
rystals
The s
electiv
ity i
s 2.5 kc/s wide 6db do wn and 3.7 kc/s
correctly ground f
or opti mu m operat
ion on t
he r
equired
wide 60db do wn
. The shape f
actor of t
he f
i
lter i
s 1.48
.
f
requency
. According
ly a s
econd E C C85 valve i
s used a
s a
S
pur
iou
s R
espon
ses f
unda menta
l or overtone osc
illator
. This ensures t
hat t
here
On a
ll bands s
elf
-generated spur
ious r
esponses are be
lo w a i
s l
ess r
isk of har monics f
ro m t
he s
econd converter v
.f.o
.
l
eve
l (
throughout t
he 500 kc/s tun
ing r
ange) equ
iva
lent t
o a beating with t
he f
irst convers
ion osc
illator output t
o produce
1
3.25µ V aer
ial i
nput s
igna
l. b
irdies
. A c
ircuit d
iagra m of t
he improved f
ront-end i
s

S
tab
il
ity sho wn i
n F
ig. 4
.95(a)
. I
t m ay be used as a conver
ter with a

The i
nitial dr
ift f
ro m sw
itch
ing on i
s approx
i mate
ly 500 r
ece
iver t
uning over t
he r
ange 5.0 t
o 5.5 M c/s us
ing t
he

c
/s; t
he v
.f.o
. i
s s
tab
le with
in 10 t
o 15 minutes (
depending on 75 oh m output c
ircu
it sho wn
. T he s
econd mixer m ay be

a mb
ient t
e mperature) f
ro m co
ld. Thereaf
ter dr
ift i
s l
ess t
han changed t
o a doub
le t
riode E C C85 with advantage and t
he

100 c
/s over any one hour per
iod
. The m easure ments were eas
ily obta
inab
le m echanica
l f
i
lters o fer improved s
electivity
.

m ade r
ece
iving M S F on 5.0 M c/s with t
he open chass
is on a F
ig. 4
.95b sho ws t
he necessary changes f
or t
he doub
le

bench under nor ma

l roo m t
e mperature cond
itions
. Se
lf- t
riode s
econd mixer V4 and the K okusai m echan
ica
l f
i
lter
.

generated heat f
ro m t
he chass
is i
n a poor
ly vent
ilated cab
inet Both t
he t
unab
le i
.f
. coi
ls Li and L2 m ay be w ound on N eos
id

w ould adverse
ly af
fect t
hese f
igures and r
equ
ire addit
iona
l or Aladdin 0.3 d
ia m
. f
or mers with 2i i
n. x # i
n. x # i
n.

negat
ive t
e mperature coe f
icient co mpensat
ion
. The neces- s
creen
ing cans
. Each wi
ll r
equire a winding of 32 t
urns of

s
ary va
lue wou
ld have t
o be f
ound exper
i menta
lly
. 32 s
.w.g
. ena mel
led wire
. T he shunt capac
itance across t
he
coi
l i
s m ade up with a f
ixed mica capac
itor and a Ph
ilips
C
ircu
it Improvements 3
-30 pF t
ri m mer
, and t
his va
lue shunt contro
ls t
he f
requency
M ore m odern va
lves such as t
he 6B Z6 and 6C D6 w h
ich variation of the c
ircu
it caused by the rotation of t
he variab
le
have m ore l
inear character
istics are capab
le of better t
uning capac
itor
. By ad
just ment t
o the dust core and t
he

7
5 OH M AER
IAL
I
NDUT
2
10.0
1 + -
250V
(
1
7
:0 1 1
0K 0
.01)
5
6K 1
2W
V
I
6
BZ6 f
i e
1
0 1
0
0 0
15 1
50 0
V
2
ECC85 2
-BpF
S
I 02
0 2
0 0 5
2 1
000pF
, I
FT
'
"3"
..
..11 4
I
!75 OH M
iOUTPUT
a
m C> I
0 °t
o I VC
I
f
60 50 3 g
pF VC2 I
50pF

10K
0
.
0
,
T
07r
N
F G
AIN P
RESELECTOR T
UNING
T
EST
POINT 5
0pF

HT+
1
0K c
i K
V3
200-250V 50 p
F 0
E
CC85
5
6 0
2 3
0
0
0 5
5
CRYSTALS
FOR EACH
BAND - SEE
TABLE I

HEATER C
IRCU
IT AND RF B
Y-PASS
ING. 5
7
0
0

F
ig. 4
.95a
. C
ircu
it d
iagra m o
fthe improved f
ront
-end for t
he G2 D AF r
eceiver. F
or c
larity o
nly t
he 4
0m b and c
oils a
re s
ho wn a
nd t
he c
o m mon
connect
ing points f
or t
he other ranges are i
ndicated by h
eavy l
ines
.

4
.
67
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK

F
ROM K
OKUSA
I FILTER „V2 ,4
7K
V
B
P
IN 6 O
F V
2 T
YPE MF4
55-10K E
F93
6BA6
3p 6BA6 5
I
OK F I
. V
I 4
70pF 5
2
W a 11 ECCBS
6AQ1
3 2

3
-30pF L
2 3
-30pF
8
2me
p
Fin
n

0
.01 4
7K

-m
_
d
oncn
tl
Io
N M
B
UT
ING
IAS

.
.
.HT+150V •
S
TAB
ILIZED 4
7pF
2
.2K i2
.2K
O
UTPUT TO
T
O V
I
I v
g D
EMO N, A
TOR
E
F93
6BA6
1
5pF N750K
C
ERAMIC NTC 7
5pF
I
FT3

1
000
p
P

0
.01

V
C3,VC4 & V
C5 G
ANGED T
UNING 2
20A A
G L
INE

'
7
A T
O '
5 M
ETER

F
ig. 4
.95b
. C
ircu
it d
iagra m o
f t
he mod
ified t
unab
le I
.
F. s
ect
ion f
or t
he G2DAF r
ece
iver
.

P
hilips t r
imme r, e ach c oil can b e made t ot r
ack c orrec tly s o t
o t h
e o sci
lla tor a node i s t r
an sfer red t o t he c athode .
t
hat itc over s t he r ange 5 .0 to 5 .5 Mc /s, w i
th t he d ust co re I
nr egard t ov .
f.o. stabil
i ty i ts hould b ec learly u nde rstood
a
tt he I .
f
. e nd, a nd t he t r
imme r a th .f
. e nd. L i a nd L 2 may t
hat, th e
re i sn o such t h
ing a s a"d riftless "L /C o scilla tor.
b
e t h
e o rigina l coi ls s uppl ied b y E lect ron ique s a nd a s the se A q uartz c ry stal h as ah igh d egree o f fr
equency s tability
a
re u nscreened t hey mu s
t b e moun ted i n t he p osit
ion b
ecau se q uartz i s a ma te r
ial w ith a l ow t empe ra ture c o-
i
ndicated ,b utu nde rt h ec hassis
. I fthisp roc edur e isa dop ted ef
icient. R eplacing t he c rysta l b y b uilding a n e quiva len t
i
ti s mo st i mpo rtan t t ha t one c oil c anno t "s ee "t h e othe r s
er
ie st uned c i
rcuit u s
ing L a nd C—a sf ori n
stance i nt h es o-
c
oil and as ma ll cro ss s creen mu st be f it
ted b etween L i a nd c
al
led "C lapp "v .f
.o. —doe sn ot give t hes ame s tability a sa
L2 so t hat t h
e o nly c oup l
ing f or r .
f. i svia t he 3p F t op c
rystal,f ori ti snotp os
sible t o manuf ac tu re coi
lsa nd v ariab le
c
apaci tor. c
apac itorsw ith thet empe ratu re c o-efficien to fn a
tura lq ua rtz.
Majorc hange sn ece ssa ry int heI f
. s t
rip a re remova lo ft he The v.f
.o. c o
il forme r s hou ld b ec eram ic, with ad ust c ore
o
rigina l fi
l
te rc rys tal s a nd a ssocia ted c oup ling t rans forme rs: moun ted o n as crewed b ra ssr od f i
t
ting i n
to ap ressu re l oaded
t
his e nable s c ons ide rab le s implification a nd a w orthwh ile c
lutch s o t hat t here isn eith er e nd o r s ide f l
oat o ft h e c ore
s
aving i nc ha ss
is s pace . I tal
so a low st h et hree v a
lve sV 7,V 8 w
ithin t he w ind ing. H igh ly r ecommended i st h
e Ii n
. d iam .
a
nd V 9,a nd t hei .
f.t r
an sforme r
st ob ep ositioned i n as traigh t Camb ion f orme r T ype 1 538 -2 -2 w ith a 2 0063 -K s lug. T he
l
ine along t he righ t-hand s i
de o ft he c en tral c hassis section . w
ind ing o f 1 4.5 turns o f2 2 s .w.g. e nameled w ire s hou ld b e
A
st he load p re sen ted b yt hem ixerv alv e
, V 4
, tot he v.f
.o . c
lose w ound u nde r tension , a nd f ina l
ly t ho rough ly d oped
i
sa th igh i mpedance a nd t he grid i npu t capac itance i sv e ry w
ith p o
lysty rene c emen t
.
small d ue t o t he n ega tive f eedback a c ross t he 1 .
5 K o hm The Koku sai T yp e MF 4 55 -10K m echan ical f i
l
te r h a s a
c
athode r es
isto r,t h eo rigina lv .
f
.o .c a
thode f ol
lowe rv a
lve V 5 nom inal b andw idth o f 2k c/
s a tt he 6 dB p oints. I n p rac tice
c
an b e om i t
ted . Am ixe r in
jection o fb etween 1a nd 2v olts t
hep assbands a reu sually w ide rt han t h
is a nd KW E lect ron ics
r
.m.s.i samp le f o
rt he ECC85 v a
lve ,a nd t h
i sl ow levelo utpu t L
td. w ill be a ble tos upply a n MF 4 55 -10K f i
l
terw ith a6 dB
f
rom t he v .f
.o. a lso r educe s t he amp litude o f bird ies t hat b
andw idth o f2 .5 kc/s ifs o reque sted .
might b e p roduc ed b y h igher o rde r h armon ic s of t he v.f
.o .
b
ea t
ing w ith t he c onve rsion c rysta l inu se. I tm ay b e found Afur
thera d
vanced r
ece
ive
r d
es
ign i
sde
scr
ibed i
n C
hap
ter
t
h a
t t he m ixer o pe rate s mo re q uietly i ft he 47 p F c apacitor 1
0
, pages 1
0.104 t
o 1
0.108
.

48
C H A P TE R S

V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. R
ECE
IVERS

IN a v .
h.f. receiver i ti sp ossible to realize a p erformance l
ow a s p ossible : f or d ef
inition o f these t erms s ee C hap te r 2
s
upe rior i nt e
rm s o fs ensitivi
ty a nd s i
gna l
-to-no ise rat
io (Valves )
. S ince ap en tode h as a n equiva lent n o
ise r esistance
t
o t hat n orma lly o btained o n t he lower f requenc ies w here
, which m ay b es evera lt ime sh ighert han t hato f atr
iode o wing
o
wing t o various fo rm s of i n
te rf
erence b oth man -made a nd t
o t he a dded e f
ect o fp arti
tion n oise
, t r
iode sa reu sed e xclu-
n
atu ra l
, al im
it i si mpo sed b eyond w hich a ny a t
temp t t o s
ively f or l ow n o
ise i nput s tages
. T he s econd r equ iremen t
r
ecove r signals i sf ru
itle s
s. I n v.h.f
. recep tion t here isn o i
mp lies t hat t h e st
ag e mu st bec apab le o fd eveloping g ain a t
a
tmo sphe ric n oise excep t t hat o r
iginating i n li
ghtning d is
- t
hed esired f requency w i
th t hel oad p resen ted b yt hei npu t o f
c
ha rg es int h e immed ia te vi c
in i
ty o f the receiver, w hi
le t h
e t
he f ollow ing s t
age . T his d emands a v a
lve w i
th a s h igh a
b
and s are s uff
iciently w ide c ompa red with t h
eir o ccupation s
lope a s po ssib le c onsisten t with l ow c apac itance s a nd h igh
t
hat i n
terference b etween s tations i s
, as yet, n o
t g eneral
ly a i
n put i mpedance .
s
e
riou s prob lem . I
n amu lti-stage r eceiver w ith, say, eight amp lifying s tag e
s
The l imit
ing f ac
to r i se xtra-terrestr
ial n o
ise a nd a t fre
- t
h e nois e origina t
ing i nt he grid circuit o ft hef irs
t v alve w il
l
q
uenc ies u p to at least 2 50 Mc /s
, r e
ceive rs can b e designed b
e amp lified b ye igh tv alves, that int hes e
cond b ys even ,a nd
which w i
ll respond t o s i
gnals o n
ly s l
ightly a bove t hi
s l e
vel
. s
o o n. I ft he e fe
ctive n oise v o
ltage s are d eno ted b y VI,V2,
I
n
te r ference f rom t hei gnition s ys
tem so fc ars i s more notice
- Vs .Vsa nd t hes t
ag eg a
in s by GI,G 2, G 3 ..G2,t het o
tal
a
ble o n t he highe r frequenc ie s and i n fact b ecome s o bjec
- n
oi se p resen t a t the o u
tpu t o f the r eceiver w ill b e V , ( G„
t
i
onab le f r
om a bout 2 0 Mc / s u pward s
. S uch f orms o f G„ Gs ...Gs)+ Vs ( G2
, G 3 .. G2) V3 ( G s .. G2)a nd
i
mpu ls ive i n
terference c an b e g r
eatly reduced , h oweve r
, by s
oo n. I tf o
llow s
,t herefore,t hati fG1i sh igh,s ay 2 0o r mo re
,
t
he u se of an oise limiter. o
nly t h en oised ue tot hef i
rsts t
age i sofi mpor tance ,a nd p ro-
v
ided t hat th e r ema in ing s t
age s are re asonab ly e f
icien t t hey
No
ise F
actor w
ill c ontribu te l i
t
tle t ot he o veral
l n oise. I nc ases w here t h
e
Fo
r t
hese r
easons th
e per
formance of v
.
h.f
. r
e
ceive
rs is g
ain o ft hef i
rs t stage i sl ow b ecause o fa n u nsuitable t yp eo f
u
sual
ly (
and mo
re usefu
lly
) spe
cif
ied i
nte
rms o
fno
ise f
acto
r v
alve f or the f requency c once rned o r ifac on s
ide rab le b and -
wh
ich may b
e d
efined a
s: w
id th i sr equi red ,o rw hen b o
th o ft hese c ond it
ion se xist, t h
e
n
o ise c ontribu ted b y t he s e
cond o re ven t he t hi
rd s tage may
a
er
ialn
oi
se + r
ecei
vern
oi
se
b
e come i mpo rtan t.
a
er
ialn
o
i se I
fa l
l t he n oise i sn otd ue tot hef i
rsts t
age , the noi se f actor
a
nd m easured a st hen o
is e powe rpre sen ta tt heo utputo ft he i
si nc
rea sed b y t he n o
ise f actor o f t he s econd s tage. T he
r
eceiver. W i
th t he theo ret
ically per fect r ece
ive r
, p roduc ing f
ormu la f or t he o vera l
l n oise f a
cto r F1,2 o f two s tage s o f
no n o
ise i n itself, this equation b ecome s 1 /1
, i .
e
. an o
i se i
ndependen t n oise f actors F , and F2 is:
f
actor of 1o r O db. T he n o
ise facto r o f ap ractical receive r F2 — I
t
hat d oes it
self g enerate u nwan ted n oise i s am ea sure oft he Fi,2 = G
t

amoun t by w h
ich i tf a
lls short ofp e rfection .
I
tisc us
tomary t o r egard each v alve s t
ag e int he receive r whe
re G, i
stheavai
lab le p
owerg ain o
fth
ef i
r
st stage. Asa n
a
s an o
iseless amp lifier and t o c on side r the n o
ise that i t e
xample
, am ixer ha
s an o
ise f
actor of2
5 (14db)
. At r
iode
does in fact g ene ra
te a s o r
igina t
ing i n af ic
tit
iou s r e
sisto r amp
lif
ier p
reced
ing s uch a mixer wi
th a no
ise f a
ctor of 5
i
ni t
s g r
id circu it. T he v a
lue o fthis r es
isto r iss uch that t he (
7db)and apowerg a
in o f10(10db )w
illc
ause th
er e
ceiverto
n
oise v o
ltage w hich w ould bed eveloped a cro ssiti smultiplied h
ave a
n overa
ll no
ise f a
cto
r of
:
b
yt h
eg ain oft hev a
lve ,t heresultb e
ing t her ealn o
ise presen t 2
5 — 1
i
nt he valve o u tput c i
rcuit. T he sub je c
t o f receiver n o
ise i s F
„ 2= 5 — 7
.
4 (
8
.7db
).
1
0
d
iscussed mo re f u
lly inC hapte r 1
5( Noise)a nd t he mea su re-
ment o f n o
ise i n Chap ter 1 9 (M ea su r
emen ts) to w h
ich t he F
rom t h
ise xample itiscl
eart hatt hemixe rn o
ise mu s
tb el ow
r
eade r isreferred f or amo re extensive e xplanation . o
r the ga
in ofthe r.f
. s
tage mus t be high u nless av a
lve with
e
x
treme ly low no
is eisused ino rdertoa chieve ag ood o vera
ll
F
ront-end S tages r
e
sult.
The r
equiremen ts oftheear
ly st
ag es in av
.h.f
. re
ceiverare The th
ird requiremen t isthat the input r es
istance w hich
(
a
) low noise content, (
b) h
igh powe r ga
in, and (c
) a b
il
ity t
o a
ppears i n t
he grid ci
rcuit d ue to the t ransit time of the
d
evelop as i
gnal v o
ltage be
tween grid and cathode. e
l
ectrons mu s
t be h i
gh. A l
though t he noise associated with
The f
i
rsto fthese re
quirementsi mpliesthatn o
ise due t
othe t
h
is res
istance (i
.e.
, the induced g r
id n oise) ish i
gh b ecause
f
i
ct
itious re
sis
to r inthe gr
id c
ircu
it, k nown ast he e
quival
ent i
t
st emperature c
an b e ta
ken asf i
ve t
imest her oom t empera-
n
oi
se re
sistance
,a nd tha
td ue t
oi n
d uced gr
id noi
se mu s
t beas t
ur
e, the si
gnal vo
ltage applied tot he gr
id w il
l be low u n
less
5
.1

6-1 RCH
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
astep -up i nv oltage b etwe en t h eaeria l ( o
ri t
sf e
ede r
) a nd t he g
r
id t r
iodes. T he genera
l shape o ft h
ec urves isthes ame but
g
r
id c an b e o b tained . t
hem inimum n oise f
acto
rso ccura tsl
ightly diferen
tg rid b
ias
When t he i npu t c i
rcu i
t i s ma tched t ot he input i mp edance v
alues
. T he o p
timum b ia s wil
l v ary wi
th t he typ
e o f v
alve
o
f t he v alve, a n o pt
imum p owe r gain i sa chieved a nd t he a
nd dife r
en tspecimen soft h esame t ype wi
llalso show some
v
alve i ss aid t ob ep owe r-ma tched . T his c ondition d oe s n o
t, v
aria
tion. I t i soften w orth e xperimenting t o obtain the
h
oweve r, result i nt he lowe s t n o
ise. Whe re the step -up r a
tio o
ptimum b ias but care shou ld always be taken to keep the
i
sa dju sted f oro pt
imum n o
is ef acto r inc on trast t oo ptimum a
node c urrent constant a
tt h e r
ecommended v a
lue by m eans
p
owe rg a
in t he v alve i ss aid t ob e noise-ma tched. o
fa n adjustable se
ries h
.t
. d ropp ing res
istor
.
F
ig. 5 .
1 s how s t he v ariation w ith f r
equency o f th e n o
ise
f
actor a nd o ptimum s our ce r esis
tance o f ag rounded g rid
s
tacked -ce ram ic t r
iode o f s imila r c on s
truc t
ion t o t hat C
ircu
it No
ise
d
esc ribed o np age 2 .22,C hap te r 2(V alve s)
. I twillb es een t hat Noise d ue t o circuit c omponen ts o the r t han v a lves i s
when t h ev alve i sp owe r-ma tched t hen oise f a
ctor i sc on stant p
roduced s olely b y t he r es
istive c omponen t; i nduc tive o r
a
t5 .5db u p t oa bou t4 00 Mc / s,w herea sb elow t hisf requency c
apac i
tive r eactance s d o n ot p roduce n oise. C oils h ave
ah ighe r s ource r es
istanc e ( ove r
-coup ling ) p roduce s c on- n
eglig ible r e
sistance i n t he v .h.f
. r ange s b ut t he l e
akage
s
iderab le i mp rovemen t i n t he n oise f actor. Above t h
is r
e
s istance o fc apac i
to rs a nd insu lator s isimpo rtan t a nd i tis
f
r
equency t h e n oise f acto r d oe s n ot d im inish b ecau se t he t
her efo re i mperative t o s e
lect g ood q uality c omponen ts,
o
ptimum s ource r esi
stance i st hen c omparab le w ith o r may i
nclud ing s uch i t
em s a s v a
lveho lders a nd s witche s. C ircu it
b
e l e
s s t han t h ec athode i npu t resistance ( 11gm f ort h
is v alve n
oise c an b e regarded a si n
clud ing n oise caused b yr egene ra -
i
s1 000 /9 = 10 o hm s)
. t
i
on a nd a l
though i ti scommon p ractice t oe nhance t he gain
The n oise f ac tor o f av alve i sa fected b y t he c a thode o
f l ow f requency c i
rcu i
t s b y a pplying r egene ration t his
t
emp era ture ,o wing t ot hee xistence o ft h es pacec harge i nthe s
hou ld b ea voided a ta l
lc osts inv .h
.f. re
ceive rsb ecau se o ft he
g
r
id -ca thode r egion . T he e xtent o f t he s pace c ha rge i s a
dd itiona l noise produc ed. C ommon c au ses ofr egene rat
ion
c
r
itica lly d ependen t on t h e t empe rature o ft he c athode a nd a
re:
c
on sequen tly t here w il
l b e c on s
ide rab le i ncrease i nn oise if (
a)I n suff
icientd ecoup l
ing o fs upp ly leads and,p articu larly ,
t
he h ea te r c urren t isr educed b y even av ery s ma l
l amoun t
, h
ea te ra nd cathode c ircuits. Int her ange 2 0-30 Mc /
s0 -0
1u F
e
.g. o nly 5p e rc en t. Iti smo sti mpor tan t,t herefor e,t oe nsure n
on -induc tive c apac ito rs a re a m inimum v a
lue f o r t his
t
hat t he c o rrect h eater v o
l tage i sa pplied t o valve s
, p art
ic- p
urpo se .
u
larly i nt h e ea rly s t
age s o ft he receive r. Ad justmen t o ft he (
b) I n comp lete n eutralizing o f tr
iode r .
f. amp lifie rs. An
v
alue o ft he g rid b ias inr e
la tion t o th e c ontact p o
ten tial of a
dju stmen t t hat m erely e nsur es t hat t he c i
rcu i
t d oes n ot
t
heg r
id i s am ean so fi mp rov ing t hen oise f ac
tor. I ft heg rid a
ctua lly o scillate isn ot suffi
cien t. A ccurate n eutraliz ing i s
b
iaso f av alve i ss teadily r educed b elow t hec u
t-of fp oin t the e
ssen tial a nd t he app rop r
iate m ethods a re describ ed l a
ter i n
n
oise s teadily d im inishe su ntilt hep o
in ti sr eached w he re grid t
h
i s c hap ter.
c
urren t b egin s t of l
ow ; b eyond t his p oin t then o
i se i nc reases (
c) C ircula t
ing r .f
. c urrents i n the cha ss
is, d ue t o mu lt i-
r
apid ly. F ig.5 .2s how st her e
la tion b e
tween n oise f acto ra nd p
oin t e arthing .
g
r
id b ia sa t ac on stanta node c urren tf ort wo typica lg rounded (
d) P oo r e ar
th c on tacts t o t he c hassis. F or l ow n o
ise
c
i
rcu its ab rass o r c oppe r c ha ss
is s hou ld b e e mp loyed ;
a
lum inium i s n o
t r ecommended b ecause i t is e xtreme ly
1
00 1
00000 d
ifi cult t om ake al a
sting e fective c onnection t oi t
.

SO 50000
Efect o
f Band w
idth

20 1
0000 Before l e
aving t he s ubject o f n oi se, t here i so ne f ur
ther

1
0
POWER MATCHED
,
4 5
000
p
o
r
e
in
ce
t w
ive ri
hich mu
sm easu
st b
red w
e c
i
on
th an
s
ide
o
red
ise g
. I
ene
ft
ra
h
to
e n
r i
o
i
tw
se f
ill b
ac
ef
to r o f a
ound t o
NO
ISE F
IGURE P
b
e i ndep enden t o f r eceiver b andw id th . T h
is i sb ecause t h
e
1
000 n
ois e f r
om t h
e g ene ra tor i sof t he s ame n ature a s o rdina ry
n
oi se so t hat ifth e b andw idth i sd oub led t heo vera l
l n oi
se i s
IP a
lso d oub led. F or t h e reception o f as igna l of f i
nite b and -
5
00
w
id th,h oweve r
,t heo ptimum s ignal- to -noi se rat
io i so btained
0
,0 E when t h
e b andw idth o ft he receiver i so nly just s ufi c
ien t to
cf
,
a
ccommoda te th e s igna l and a ny f urthe r i ncrease i nb and -
1
00 w
id th r e
su lts m erely i na ddit
iona l n oise. T he s i
gna l
- to-no ise
z r
atio a tt he r e
ceive rt herefore d epends o n t he p owe rp eru ni
t
4' 50 D
b
andw id th o ft het ran sm itted s i
gna l
. T oi lustrate thi sp oin t
,
v
) s
uppo se t hat t he r eceive r produce s IV o f n o
ise f or e ach
4
7.
)
0 I .
5
. 0
-ui 1
0 k c/s o f b andw id th a nd t hat a n amp litude modu la ted
1+ 0 Cr t
ransm it
te rr adiates as i
gna l 10k c/sw ide a nd p roduce s 10 01
0
6' a
t t he r eceive r
. T he s i
gna l
-to -noi se r a
tio i st here fore 1 0
,
1
0 SO 1
00 S001000 5
000 1
0000
p
rov ided t hatt her ece iveru ses ab andw idth o f1 0k c
/s. I fthe
b
andw id th o ft he t ransm iss
ion i sr educed t o 5k c/s a nd t he
FREQUENCY (Mc/s)
r
adiated p owe r rema in s the s ame , t he i npu t to t he r eceiver
F
ig.5.
1. Noise f
actor and o
pti mu m source r
es
istance p
lotted against w
ills t
ill b e 10µ V
,b u ti ft he bandw id th o ft her e
ceive ri salso
f
requency f
or atypica
l grounded grid triode (
type 7
077, gi
n 9 mA/V,
l
a64 mA )
. r
educed t o 5k c/s
, o nly 0 .5u N
I o fn oise w ill be a ccep ted a nd
5
.
2
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
9 c
om ing f requenc ie st om ix w ith t h el ocalo scilla to rt og ive t he
i
.
f.— the d e sired s i
gna l a nd t h
e i mage f requency —and t his
hasa n i nf
luence o n t hec ho ice o ft h ei .
f
. T oa vo id c onfu sion ,
t
h ei .
f.o ft hem ain r ece ive rw ill inf uture b er efe rred t oi nt his
c
hap te ra s t he s econd L i
One p u rpo se o fr .f
. amp lif
i cation a head o ft h e m ixe r i na
v
.h.f .c onve rte ri st oa t
tenua te s i
gna l sa nd n oise p re sen ta tt he
imag e f requency a nd t he h ighe r t he f irst i .f
. t he g rea te r s uch
a a
ttenua t
ion w il l b e. Many o f t he r .f
. amp lif ier c ircu its e m-
db)

p
loyed i nv .h.f. r eceive r s h ave a n e xtreme ly l arge b andw id th
ACTOR (

and i ft hey a res ow ide t h att hei mage r atio i su nity ( i

.e.,i ft he
s
en si tivity o ft he "s e cond c hanne l" i st he s ame a s t ha t f or
t
h ew an ted s igna l ) th e n o
ise f ac
to ri sd eg raded b y 3 db . C are
F

s
hou ld t h ere fo re b e t aken t o e n su re t hat t he f i
rst i .
f. i s
s
uf i cien tly h igh . A s t h e f ir
st i .
f
. i sr ais ed , t he p er fo rmanc e
ISE

o
ft h e m ain r e ceive r t ends t of all o fa nd i t
s c on tribu tion o f
NO

7
noise may b ecome s i
gn ifican t i ft he o ve ra ll g a
in o f t he
c
onve r
te r i si nsuf fic
ien t. T he v alue o f t h e f i
rst i .f
. f i
na l
ly
decided u pon d epends o n t he t ype o fc onver te r t o b e u sed
and t he f requency o n w h ich i ti st oo pe ra te .
Two o the r f acto rs a fec t t he c hoice o ff irst i .f
. F irs t
, i ti s
d
e sirab le t hat n o h armon ic o ft hel ocal o scilla to ri nt he m ain,
r
ece ive r s hou ld f a
ll i n t he v .h.f. b and i n u se, a nd s econd ,
t
h ere s hou ld b e n o b reak through f rom s ta tions o p era ting a t
0
6
— 1 —2 —2
.5 t
h e f r
equency s e
lec ted a s t h
e f i
rst i .
f.
GR
ID VOLTS Many c ommun ica tion s r eceive rs p roduce q uite s trong
F
ig. 5
.2
. Noise f
actor plotted against grid bias f
or grounded g r
id h
armon ic s i nt he 7 0a nd 1 44 Mc /s b and s a nd a l
though t hese
t
riodes
, t
he a
node current being held constant (
7077 a
t 1, 64 m A at
4
50 Mc s
; 6A M4 at la 10 mA a t 2
50 Mc s
).
a
re h igh -o rde r h a rmon ic s a nd a re t here fo re t uned t hrough
quick ly t hey a r et roub le some i n
a smuch a st h ey a r ed istrac t ing
when s ea rch ing f or s i
gna ls i n the b and i n q ue stion . T he
t
he si
gnal-
to-noi
se r a
tio wil
l increase to 20
. A n un s
table p
rob lem i smo re a cute w hen t h ec onver te ri sc ry stalc on tro lled
t
ran
sm is
sion, r
equir
ing a l a
rge b andwidth at th
e receiver
, t
h an w hen a t unab le f i
r st o sci
lla to r i se mp loyed . I n t h e
r
esu
lts i
n adeg
raded signal
-to-noi
se rat
io,s othe
re isc
learly a f
orme r c a se f reedom f rom h armon ic s i sr equ i red o ve r a
g
rea
t advantage to be ga
ined b y the employment of stab
le t
un ing r ange e qua l t o t h at o f the v .h.f. b and t o b e c ove red
t
ran
sm i
tters a
nd r ece
iving equipmen t having the smalle
st whe rea si nt hel a
tte ro nly h armon ic sf rom o ne s po tf requency
p
rac
ticable b
andw id
th. o
f t he l ocal o sc illa to r i nt he m ain r ece ive r h ave t o b e c on -
s
ide r ed .
T he a vo idance o f b reak th rough s i
gna ls a t t he f requency
CH O
ICE OF THE F
IRST I
.
F. s
e
lec ted f or t he f i
rst i .f
. i sa lso mo re d if i cult w hen t h e
Doub le f r
equenc y c onse rstun i su sua l
ly e mp loyed i n a c
onve rte r i sc r ystal c on trolled . B ecau se i ti s p rac tica lly
r
eceive r f o
r v .h.f. r eception a nd i tisc onven ien t t ob u
ild t he i
mpo s s
ib le t o f ind a b and s everal m egacyc le s w ide w hich i s
r
.
f. s tage s a nd f ir
s t conve rsion c i
rcuits a s as epa rate u nit
, c
omp le tely u no ccup ied , o the r s tep s h ave t o b e t aken t o
k
nown a s ac onve rter, theo utpu t ofw hich i sf ed i nto ac om - a
vo id b reak th rough . F requenc ie s i n t he r ange 2 0-30 Mc / s
mun ica t
ions r ece ive r with as u
itable f requency c ove rage f or a
re o ften c ho sen s ince f ewe r s trong s igna ls a r e n o rma lly
t
he f i
r s
t i .
f
. f
ound t here t h an o nt hel owe rf r
equenc ie s, b u t t h
i sc ond ition
Two m e
thod s a re p os s
ible f or tuning o ve r ab and w hen may w ell b er e ver sed d ur ing p er
iod so fh i gh s unspo ta c tivity .
d
oub le c onve rsion i se mployed : Par ticu lar a t
ten tion s hou ld b e p aid t ot hes creen ing o ft h e
(
a)T he oscilla tori nth ec onve rter may b ef ixed i nf requency main r eceive r w h
ich s hou ld b e tested b y i t
self w ith t h e i f.
a
nd m ay, t he re fore, b e c rystal c ont rolled , t uning b eing s
tage s o pe ra ting a t max imum g a
in . S igna ls may b e p icked
e
f ected b y varia tion o ft he firs
t i .
f
. (i
.e., b y t uning t he m a
in u
p o n t he a e r
ia l t erm ina l s a nd i ft hi s o ccur s t hey s hou ld b e
r
eceive r)o ve r ab and e qua l i nw idth tot hato ft hev .h
.f. b and r
eplaced b y ac oax ia l s ocke t. Unwan ted s igna l s m ay a lso
t
ob ec overed. e
nte r t he r eceive r a long t he p owe r s upp ly c ab le o rt hel o ud -
(
h
)T he os c
illa to ri nt hec onve rter m ay b ev ariab le a nd t h
e s
peake rl ead sa nd t he se m ay n eed t ob ed ecoup led o rf i
lte red .
main r eceive rt uning s et a tt he frequency c ho sen f or th e fi
rs
t O
the r s our ce s o f s uch i nte rference a re l ong e arth l ead s a nd
i
.
f
. I th asa lready b een s hown t hatt h
es ignal-to -no ise r a
tio o f u
nea r thed c on tro l s pind le s
.
ar e
ce iver d ep end s u pon t he b andw idth , a nd t his b andw idth When t h e m ain r e ceive r i sc on side red s atis fac to ry f rom
b
eing t ha
to ft h e mo s
ts e
le c
tive s tage (norma lly t h ei .
f
. a mpli
- t
h
i s p oint o f v i
ew , af urthe r test s hou ld b e m ade w ith t h e
f
i
er i nt he m a
in r e
ceive r) and t he a moun t o fn oise h eard w il
l c
onve rte r c onnec ted , p ref erably b y as ho rt l eng th o fc oax ia l
t
hu s b e d eterm ined p rovided n o signif ican t n oise i sc on- c
ab le, b ut w ith i t
s l oca l o scil
la to r in ope ra tive . I fa ny s igna ls
t
r
ibu ted b y the l a
te rs t
age s. T he use of ab andw id th e xceed- a
re h ea rd t hey w ill b e f i
rst i .
f
. s igna ls a nd t he d ecoup ling o r
i
ng 5k c/s f or t e
lephony a nd c on s
ide rably l e
ss f or c .w
. f
i
l
te ring o f t h e p owe r s upp ly l e
ads a nd a ny s im i
lar c on -
r
ecep tion i sthe re fore u nde s
irab le w hen ag ood s i
gna l-
to -noise n
ec tions s hou ld b e c hecked a ga in . I f d iff
i cul ty i s s t
i
l l
r
a
tio i st he prime c onside ration . e
xp e rienced , as tage o f i .
f
. amp lifica tion m ay h ave t o b e
I
n a ny s upe rhe te rodyne r eceive r iti sp os s
ib le f or t wo i n
- i
nco rpo rated i nt he c onve rter o r
, i fo ne i sa lready i nu se, i t
s
5
.
3
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
g
a
in may n eed t ob e i
ncrea sed so that t h
e ma in r
eceiver can (
b
) D
isad
van
tage
s
b
e run in al e
ss sensit
ive c ond i
tion. ) L
(
i ong -term oscil
lato r dr
ift m akes c
al
ib ra
tion o f t
he
Afte
r all a bno rma l sou rces of signa l pi
ck -up have b een d
ial unrel
iable.
e
l
im inated th ere m ay st
il
le xi
st ap ath f orif. si
gnals th
rough (
i) Warm -up d r
ift can be troublesome.
s
t
ray c apacities i nthe conver ter it
self. T his may be e l
im in- (
i
i) I
ti sd i
ff
icult to obtain a better t
han T 8 n o
te (but
a
ted to av e
ry l arge exten t by connec ting ap iece o
fc oaxial n
ot i mpossible
).
c
able as aq ua r
te r waveleng th (at signal frequency) sho r
ted (
i
v) Change o f o sc
illator o r m ixer valve alters the
s
tub i n parallel with t he a er
ial feede r at the input o f the c
al
ib rat
ion.
c
onverter. T his provides av ir
tual shor t ci
rcuit t
o signals at (
v) Microphony o ccurs o n s trong s i
gnals d ue to
t
he f i
rs
t i .
f. w hi
le ma in taining a h igh i mpedance t o t he v
ibration oft he osc
illator tuned c
ircuit by acous
tic
w
an ted v.h.f
. s ignals
. T he actual phys ical le
ngth oft he stub f
eedback f rom t he l
o u
sdp eaker.
w
ill depend o fc ourse u pon t he ve
loc ity factor of the cable (
v
i) They canno t re
ad i
ly be u s
ed r emote
ly.
u
sed i nit
sc on s
truc t
ion .

THE LOCAL OSC

ILLATOR C
rys
tal
-con
tro
lled O
sci
lla
tors
It isc lear t ha
t i ft h
e f inal banch 4
idth o f th e comp lete (
a
) A
dvan
tage
s
r
eceiveri st ob ethes ame ast ha
tu sed o nthel owerf r
equenc ies
t
hes tabili
ty o ft h
eo sci
llato ri nthec onverter mu stb easg ood (
i
) A
ccu rate vernier logging of s
ta
tions on th
e ma
in
a
s t he oscil
la tor i n the ma in r e
ceiver. F or the 7 0 and 1 44 r
e
ce iver di
al isp o
s s
ible.
(
i) AT 9 no
te isa s
sured.
Mc/ s bands i tisp ossible tob u
ild tunable oscil
lato r
so fg ood
(
i
i) Neglig
ible short te
rm o r warm-up d
rif
t.
s
tabili
ty a nd" n ote "w orking a tfrequencies either above o r
(
i
v) Absence ofc ontrols al
lows remote o
perat
ion.
b
elow t hes i
gna lfrequency b yt hev a
lue oft hef i
rs
ti .f
. On t he
4
20 Mc /s b and t unab le oscillators are norma l
ly d es
igned t o
o
pe rate ato ne -ha
lf o ro ne-third oft herequired frequency a nd (
b
) D
isad
van
tage
s
a
re f ollowed b y s u
itable f r
equency mu ltipliers
. C rystal
(
i
) E xp ens ive b oth i nv a
lve s ( for4 20 Mc /s a nd a bove )
c
on trolled l ocal oscil
lators c an b e used sa
tisfactori
ly i na ny
a
nd c ry s
ta l
.
v
.h.f. or u .
h.f. conver ter
.
The a dvan tages a nd d isadvan tage s of the t wo t ype
s o f (
i) P os sibil
ity o fa dditiona l s elf-gene ra ted w h is
tle s.
(
ii) Mo re a dju stmen ts a nd t herefo re mo re d if
ficu lt t o
o
s c
illator m ay be s ummar ized a sf ol
low s
.
a
l
ign i nt he f i
rst p l
ace .
Tunab
le O
sci
lla
tors The q ue stion o f o scillato r i n
jec tion a r
ise s i r
respec tive o f
(
a
) Ad
van
tag
es t
het ype o fo s ci
llato ri tisd e c
ided t ou se . A sa l
ready s tated ,i f
t
he r .f
. s tage s h ave h igh g ain a nd l ow n oi se f acto r, th e n oise
(
i
) Ad ire
ctly c
al
ibrated dia
l ispo
s s
ible. c
on tribu ted b y later s tage s te nd s t o b e l e
s s s ignif
i can t, b ut
(
i) The cost o
f acrystal i
sel
iminated. t
h
i sa ssume sr easonab le e ff
i c
iency i nt hem ixe rs tage. F ig.5 .3
(
i
i) Only one va
lve isrequir
ed. s
how s at yp ica l c onve r
sion c onduc tance c urve f or am ixe r
(
i
v) There isles
s likel
ihood o f h
armon ic i
n
ter
ference s
t
age a nd i n d
ica tes h ow t he i .
f
. o utpu t v a riesa st h ei njection
f
rom t he ma
in r e
ceive
r.
v
oltage i sc hanged , thes igna l v oltage b eing k ep tc onstan t: i t
(
v
) Only o ne c
lear channel isrequired o
n th
e m ain
w
ill b e n oticed t ha t ac onside rab le l oss o f g ain r esults i f
r
eceiver
. i
nadequa te o sc
illato r v oltage i su sed. T he n oise l e
vel i sa t
i
t
s h ighe st w ith i nadequa te i n
je ction v oltage , a nd a l
though

1
-
t
h
i
s
e n
ss
en
t
il
oise i
l f
ted i
a
r l
nt
n

h
c
e
rea
ss t
is c
se
h
s w
an w
hap te
hen t
hen i
r e ve
h
e i
ti
ry e
st
n
jec

for
tion v
oo l
t h a
ow. I
s b
oltage i
n t he d
een made t
st
es
oo h
ign
o e
igh i
s p
nsu
re-
re
t

t
h at a dequa te i n
jec tion v oltage s a re a ttained .
T he i n
jec tion v o
ltage i n at r
iode m ixe r— the t ype u sed b y
mo st a ma teur s atv .h.f.— is f ound b y m ea suring t h e c urren t
4
- -
f
low ing t hrough t he m ixe r g r
id r esisto r d ue t ot he o scillato r
i
nje ction , i .
e., t hed if erence i ng rid c urren tw i
th a nd w ithou t
t
h e o s ci
lla to r o pe rative. T he m aximum v alue o f o scillato r
3
voltag e n orma lly t o b e e xp ected i sa bou t 3v olts p eak , a nd
g
c
(
r
n A
iv)
w
i th ag r
id r es
isto r o fa bou t 5 0 Ko hm s, t hisc orre sponds t o
ag rid c urren t o fo nly 6 0 µA , so a ny l owe r i njec t
ion v oltage
m ay b ecome d ificult t od etect. I t mu stn o t bes uppo sed t hat
av oltage o f t h
is m agni tude i se a sy t o a chieve ; t o p roduce
s
uch av oltage a tt he m ixe rg rid i si nf acto ften q u
i te d ificu lt
.
Fig.5 .4s how s at ypica l t r
iode m ixe rc ircu it i nw hich t hec oi
l
L
I i st uned t o r esonance a t, s ay, 7 0.3 Mc / s a nd t h e s ignal
voltage d eve lop ed a cro ss i tfe d t hrough a3 0 p Fc apac ito r t o
t
hem ixe rg rid . S uppo se L 2i sc arry ing o scilla t
ion sa t5 0 Mc /s
,
10 2
.0 3
.0
coup led t hrough a 1 0 p F c apac itor t o t he g r
id o f t he m ixe r
PEAK HETERODYNE VOLTAGE (
V2 ). A t 5 0 Mc /s, t he i nduc tance L I i si n e fe ct as ho rt-
F
ig. 5
.3
. The r
elation b
et ween convers
ion conductance and o
sci
llator c
ircu it toe a rth,a nd a tt his f r
equency t he5 0 Mc /so scillation s
(
heterodyne) vo
ltage in atypical t
riode mixer (
6 A M4
, Va 1
25 volts
,
Rk 2
20 oh ms)
. t
h ere fore "s e
e "t he m ixe r g r
id c ircu it a ss hown i nF ig. 5 .5.

5
.
4
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
TU NABLE OSC
ILLAT ORS

The r equ iremen ts f or at unab le o sci

llato r are s imilar t o
t
hos e for av ariable f requency o scil
la to r designed f or t rans-
m
itte r con tro l
, i .
e. r obu st c onstruction t o g uard a ga inst
v
ibra t
ion, t he e mploymen t of o n
ly t h e best q uality c om -
p
onen ts
, i nclud ing v a
lve h o
lde rs a nd i nsulation, s hort a nd
r
ig
id w ir
ing a nd s elf-suppor ted c o
ils o f s tout w ire. T he
o
pe rating f requency o ft he osci
llato r may b e ei
ther a bove o r
b
elow t hes ignalf r
equency b utt oe nsuret h eb es
ts tability i tis
u
sua l for i tt o be o n the low f requency s ide of t he s ignal.
Whe re th e c hoice of s uch a f requency l eads to i n
ter ferenc e
w
ith al ocal t e
levis
ion c hanne l
, o peration o n theh igh s i
de o f
t
he s ignal may b e n ecessary a lthough a s mal
l c hange i n
i
n
te rmed iate f r
equency s ome time s e nables t he o sci
lla tor
f
requency t ob e placed t oa void s uch t rouble.
F
ig. 5
.4
. Typ
ical t
riode m
ixer (
V2) a
nd a
ssoc
iated o
sci
llator (
V3)
. T he valve e mployed w ill
, o f cour se, h ave c on siderab le
i
nf
luence o n t her esultso btained ,a nd t het ype chos en s hou ld
b
e o fr obu st c onstruction w ith s hort l e
ads t ot he electrode s
.
The 10p Fa nd 3 0p Fc apac i
to r s( C2 a nd C l) int hem ixe rg rid
c
i
rcu i
t b ecome ap oten t
ia ld ivide rs uch t ha to nly o ne q ua r
ter
o
ft heo rigina l5 0 Mc / sv o
ltage a tt hea node o fV 3 a pp ea rsa t 200C
1
HT+

t
he grid o fV 2.
A
n o bviou s c ourse w ould b e to inc rea se t he v a
lue o fC 2
, TO -
4 -
11 1 -0
.- TO
M
IXER GR
ID i
o pF 1
0pF M
IXER GR
ID
b
ut s ignal v oltage s a t th e g rid o f t he m ixer "s ee" t h
is
c
apacito rb etween g rid a nd e ar th since L 2,a ppea r sa s as ho r
t
c
i
rcu i
t a ts i
gna l f r
equency . T hu s o n
ly t h ree-qua rte rs o f t h
e
s
ignal v oltage a tt he a node o fV I a ppea rs a tt h e g rid o fV 2 C2
5-15pF
w
ith th ee xisting c apac ito rr atio ; ifC 2w a si n
crea sed i nv alue
e
ven l e
s s v o
ltage w ou ld b e ava ilable a tt he m ixe r g rid.
E
xp erimen tal a dju stmen t o f t he v alue s o f C l a nd C 2
1
0pF 1
0pF
may b e m ade ( with a pprop ria te readjus tmen t o fL i a nd L 2
)
t
oe fectt heb estc omp rom ise. C apac itieso f3 0p Fa nd 1 0p F
r
espectively a r eo ft hec orrecto rdero fm agn itude b ecau se an
r
.
f. voltage o f1 0t o2 0i sc ommon ly o btained a tt hea node o f IK 1
/
3Kf
l

V3a nd o ne q uartero ft hisv oltage a tt hem ixe rg rid i su sua l

ly
a
dequa te.
T
he r equ ired v alue o fo scilla tor injec t
ion v o
l tag e d epend s
u
pon t he a node p oten t
ia l of t h e mixe r v alve ; t h e l owe r t h
e
F
ig. 5
.6
. The Ka litron osc
illator. L is 2turns of 1
6 s
.w.g
. A i
n.
a
node v oltage t h e lowe rt he re quired i n
je ction v oltage a nd it d
ia meter for 1
20 Mc s. Cl may be 75 p
F per s
ect
ion.
i
st h
is f ac
t t hat h as m ade t heu se ofr ela t
ive ly h i gh v alue sf o
r
RI (Fig. 5 .4)c ommonp lace.
I
fR I isr eplaced t empo rarily b y av ariab le resisto ro fa bout Mode rn al
l-glass t
ypes on ei
the r B7G o r B 9A b ase
sa r
e s u
it-
2
50 K o hm s w hich c an b ea dju s
ted w hile l i
sten ing t o aw eak a
ble a nd some a dvantage may b e o b
tained b y using t he
s
ignal, i tw ill b e f ound t hat t he op t
imum v alue o f m ixer "special quality" o r "trustwo rthy " ( ruggedized) variety.
a
node p o
ten tial i sre adily o bta ined. T he v a
lue o fr esistance There aret h
reem a
in typeso fcircuitf ortunab le v
.h.f
.l ocal
t
hu sd e
term ined m ay w eaken s t
rong s i
gna ls s l
igh tly b utt h
isi s o
sci
llators: ( a
) K a
litron p ush-pull
, ( b) v .h.f
. C o
lpitts, (c)
o
fl i
tt
le c onsequence i nr e
lation t ot h e m arked i mp rovemen t Hart
ley.
efec
ted i nt he r espon se tow eak s ignals . The K ali
tron i sp ar
ticularly a pplicable t o the r equire-
ments of t h
e p ush-pull mixe r
, w hile t h
e C o
lpit
ts a nd t he
Hart
ley c i
rcuits are pr
ima ri
ly i n
tended f or use with single-
HT+ e
nded m ixer c i
rcui
ts. E ach o f t he circuits isc apable o f
p
roduc ing good r e
sults ifwell constructed.

V2 C2 V3 T
he K
alitron Osc
illa
tor
10pF
T
his ci
rcuit,shown i nFi g.5 .6
,i sw e
lls u
ited toth e6J6 va
lve
L2
i
nw hich the two tr
iodes h ave ac ommon c athode connection
a
nd t he ca
thode l ead in
duc tance ist herefore cancel
led o ut
,
C
l b
ut o the
r t ypes such as t he 1 2AT7 o r 12AU7 , w hich are
30pF d
ouble t r
iodes with separa te cathode s
, can b e used success
-
f
u
lly
.
Fore i
ther 70 or 144 Mc /s c onverters the osc
il
lator tuning
c
apacitor Cl m ay b e as mall spl
it-s
tato r type wi
th o ne fi
xed
F
ig. 5.5
. The triode mixer circuit of F
ig. 5.4 a
rranged to sho w t
he
potential d
ivider for med by t he o sc
illator c oupl
ing and r.f
. to
a
nd o ne moving plate pe
rs e
ction. T he wire used forthec oi
l
mixer s
tage coupling c
apac itors at the i
njection f
requency. s
hould n ot be t
hinner than 1 6s .w.g
. a nd th ecoi
ls should be
5
.
5
RSGB —RAD
I O CO M MUNICAT
I ON HAN DB O OK

moun ted d i
rectly o n thes oldering l ugsf i
t
ted t ot h
ec apac i
to r
. T
he Hart
ley Osc
illa
tor
The w ires to t he a node t a
gs o f ah i gh q ua l
i ty (preferably T
he H ar
tley os
cil
la torcir
cuitshown inFig
.5 .
9d ife
rsf r
om
p
.
t.f.e.) valveho lder s hou ld b e e qually s t
ou t. C areful pro- t
he v.
h.f
. C olp
itts osci
lla
to r a
rrangemen
t ( F
ig. 5.
7) on
ly in
p
ortion ing oft h e paralle
lc apac itance C 2 a nd t he size ofthe t
he posi
tion o f the h.t
. feed to the t
uning coi
l L b ut i
t
c
oil wil
l e nable t he required b andsp read t ob e o btained. g
enera
lly gives r
ather mo re o
utput.
W i
th a n h.t
. s upply o f1 00 v ol
t st h
ec ircuit p roduce sa bout
1
8 v o
l t
s p eak-to -peak a cro ss the a node c oil w h
ich g ives an
i
n
jec t
ion v o
ltage o ft h
ec orrecto rde rt ot hem ixe rwith 1 0p F
c
oup ling capaci tors. T he a c
tua lv alue o ft hei njection v o
ltage
w
ill depend u pon t he relative f r
equency t o w h
ich t he grid
c
i
rcu it of the m ixer ist uned a nd t he o scillator f requency, F
ig. 5.
9. The Hart ley o
scil
lator
.
f
oro ptimum r esu l
tsi ti sw orth t ry
ing s lightly d iferen tvalues S
im i
lar va
lues to those s
hown in
F
ig. 5
.7 a
pply.
o
fc oupling c apac i
to r
. I ts hou ld b en oted t ha tt heh.t. supply
t
ot hec oi
li st h
rough al ow v alue r e
sisto rR ;i fac hoke i sused
a
tt his point th e fr
equency o fo scillat
ion i sv ery l i
kely tob e
d
eterm ined b yt hechoke i ns
tead o fb yt h
et uning i nductance.

O
sci
lla
tor C
onstruct
ion
1
0pF The stabi
lity ofa ny oft hese ci
rcu
its may b e i mproved by
a
dop t
ing a t r
ough -
line c onstruct
ion f or the inductance i n
TO MIXER p
lace o f ac oi
l. T he f o
llow ing desc
rip t
ion o f a1 44 Mc /
s
GRID
Hart
ley c i
rcuit ilustrate
s t he use o
f s uch a n arrangemen t
.
S
uitable values f o
r t he various componen ts wil
l b e found
u
nde r Fig
. 5.10.
The osci
llatori sbuil
ti n acoppe rtr
ough m easuring 7i n
. x
1i n
. x1 i n. (
see Fig
.5 .11). The t
uned c i
rcuitc onsis
ts ofa
h
airpin-shaped l oop o fsi
lve r p
lated copp e
r t ube or wire of

F
ig. 5
.7
. The v
.h.f
. Co
lpitts o
sci
llator c
ircu
it. For 120 Mc s I
.shou
ld
b
e two turns o
f 16 s
.w.g
. jin
. dia meter
.

7+7pF 1
0pF
T
he V
.H.F C
olp
itt
s Osc
illa
tor
Thiscircui
t, shown i nF ig.5 .7, isavery p opularo ne a nd is
r
eadi
ly s een to be at rue C o
lp itts o
scil
la tor by r eferring to
F
ig. 5.8 w here t he a node -
to -cathode a nd g r
id-to -cathode
c
apacitances are shown . A t l ower fr
equenc ies the se capaci-
t
ancesa ren otlarge enough e fective
ly tot ap thet uned c ircu
it
a
nd t he
refore external c apac ito rs must be a dded.
The 6 C4 va
lve isv ery s at
isf actory int hec i
rcui
t a si tisfr
ee
HT-LT
f
rom m icrophony a nd g ive s af air
ly high o utput
. As u
itable LT+
v
alue fort h
et uning c apaci torC l is 5p Fw i
th a5 - 30 p F pr
e- 6
.3 V
s
e
t c apacitor C2 i n p arallel f or bandse t
ting. T he r equired HT+
b
and spread may b e o btained b y sui
tab ly propo r
t ion ing the F
ig. 5
.
10. Hartley osci
llator f
or improved stabi
lity. Cl is amini ature
c
oil and t he band setting c apac itor
. A s i n the K aliatron s
plit s
tator capacitor; C2, a miniature air s
paced t r
i m mer (W in.
g
rove and Rogers); C3 disc cera m
ic or s
ilver mica t
ype ; C4, CS, C6,
c
i
rcuit, the h.
t. feed t o t he t uning induc tance ist hrough a h
i-K cera m
ic feedthrough . The v a
lve is a 6AKS. The i nductance
r
es
istor a nd not through a n r.f
. choke i no rder toa void the 4i i
n. fro m the open ends to the point where R I is con-
n
ected. The d otted lines r
epresent a c opper box surround ing t he
r
i
sk o fspurious o s
cillations . i
nductance.

1in
.d iame tera nd 4 1 in
.l ong held centra
lly i nt heb ox by two
t
ransverse s t
r
ip s o f p o
ly s
tyrene i
n. t h
ick s e cured t o the
s
ides by two s ho rt 6B .A. bol
ts o n each s ide t app ed i n
to t he
s
t
rips. T he cen tre -to-centre spacing oft he l i
mb s oft he hair-
p
in is 1i n
. T he v alveholder i sfi
tted int he si de o f the b ox
1 in
. from o ne e nd s ot h
at thes cr
een g r
id p in isi mmed iate
ly
a
djacentt oo ne e nd o ftheh a
irpin l i
ne. T he d istance b e
tween
t
heg r
id c ontact a nd theo thers ide oft h
e l ine i sc onven iently
b
ridged byt h
eg rid c apacitor( C3). Alle arthy c onnec tion so n
t
he v a
lveho lde r a nd t he ear
thed e nd o f t h
e g r
id -leak a re
t
aken t o at ag u nde ro ne ofthev alveholde rf i
xing b olt
s. T he
7.
F
most ri
gid c ons truc tion isensu red ift h
e h eate r a nd h.t. by-
F
ig. 5
.8
. The c
ircuit o
f Fig
. 53 w ith t
he addit
ion of t
he valve c
apac
i-
t
ies t
o sho w t
he n or ma
l Colpitts o
scil
lator c
ircuit. p
a s
s capac itors C 5 a nd C 6 are of the feed through t ype b ut

5
.
6
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
CRYSTAL
-C O NTR OLLED OSC
ILLAT ORS
7
'
I
n ac rystal-con trol
led o sc i
lla tor/mu ltip lier c hain f or a
P -2 21
/2 -1 c
onve rte ri ti susua lly d es
irab le t o multiply b yn ot mo re than
f
i
ve o r s ix times i na ny o ne s tage. T o d ecide w ha t will be a
/2 "
1 k 6BA s
uitable f undamen ta lf requency ac harts uch a st hats hown i n
NClearonee F
ig. 5.12 s hould b e prepa red .
Ho
les A
sa ne xamp le ,i ti sfound t hati ft
he l oca lo s c
illatori nt he
B
END U
P main re ceive rc ove rst h erange 2 6-5-28-5 Mc /s
,n oh a
rmon ic s
f
rom i tw i
ll fal
l i nto t he 144 Mc /sb and . I ft he m ain r e
ceive r
_3 W Centre Line
C i
ne h
as a n i .
f
. o f 500 k c/s and i t
s o sci
llator o pe rates a bove t he
IC
o
fapac i
n
itor s
igna lf requency , af i
rsti .
f.o f2 6-28 Mc /sw illb es a
tisfacto ry.
S
ince 2 6 Mc /s w i
ll b e t he t uning p osi
tion f or as igna l o n
BEND UP 1
44 Mc /s, t he injection f r
equency f or t he c onve rter w i
ll b e
54 D
ia 18 Mc /s ( i
.e
. 1 44-26 ) and r eferenc e to t h e char t will show
1
3/
45
how t h
i s may b e o btained .
I
.

l
I
tisn orma l p ractice t ou se a n o ver
tone o scil
la to rinw hich
t
he c rystal v ibra tes m echan ically a t app rox ima tely t hree o r
6BA C
learance Ho
les a11
41C
, f
i
ve t ime s i t
s f undamen tal f r
equency d ep end ing u pon t he
a
dju stmen t o f th e cir
cu it
. T here i sn o o utpu t att he f unda -
F
ig. 5
.
11. Deta
ils o
f t
he 18 s
.w.g
. copper box f
or the osc
illator of F
ig.
5
.
10. Two pieces 1
; in
. square are s
oldered into p
lace t o for m the men ta
l o ft he c rystal a nd t h e ha rmon ics p resent a re r e
lated
e
nds of t
he box. No h o
les in the botto m o
f the box for o utgo
ing only t o t h e ove rtone f requency . F or e xamp le, a 5 Mc /s
l
eads are s
hown .
c
ry s
tal o pe rat
ing o n i t
s third o vertone w ould g enerate n o
e
ne rgy b elow 1 5 Mc /s a nd b ehave l ike a c rystal o f t hat
s
i
lve red m ica c apac i
to r s may b e u s ed p rov ided t hey a re f
undamen tal frequency .
s
ecu rely f i
xed . Crystals s pe cially manuf actured f or o ve r
tone o peration
The b ands etting c apac ito r ( C2) i s moun ted o n as mall a
r ec omme rcial
ly a vai
lab le u pt oa bout 1 00 Mc / sa nd s u
itab le
b
lock o fp oly styrene Ii n
.t hick b ol
ted t ot heb ottom o ft h eb ox
b
etween t het wo s i
de so ft h e h
ai rpin l o op t ob r
ing i t
sc on tac t
l
ugs c lose t o t he e nd s o f t he l i
ne. T he s p
li t
- s
tato r t un ing
c
apac itor ( C l) s hou ld b e o f the m etal f r
ame t ype w ith o ne 1
8
mov ing a nd t wo f ixed p lates i n e ach o f it
s s e
ction s. I ti s +2 +3
moun ted a cro ss t he s ide m emb ers o f t h e b ox u sing 6 B .A .
b
olts,t hew id th c an b ev aried slightly t os uitt h
el e
ngth o ft he
c
apac itor. T he s haf to fC l i s31 i n
. f rom t h ev alve e nd o ft he +2 5
9 +3 +2 3
9.333 +3

b
ox a nd th ec onne ction s b etween t hes tato rsa nd the l ine a re
s
olde red a pp rox ima tely 1 4i n
. f rom t heo pen e nd o ft h e l i
ne. 2
9.5 1
9
.666 1
3
.111

The b and sp read a va i

lab le w i
th a ny g iven v ariab le c apac ito r F
ig
. 5.
12. Type of chart used f
or d
eter min
ing t he fundamenta
l
c
rysta
l f
requency r
equired i
n a
n o
sci
llator/ mu
ltip
lier cha
in.
d
epend s o n t h
is d i
stance — if nece ssary t he tun ing r ange c an
b
e a d justed b y a l
te ring i ts l
ightly.
S
c reen -grid v o
l tage i sf ed tot he l oop e nd o ft he line, a nd
t
heb ypa ssc apac ito ra rrangemen tss hou ld b es imi
lar t ot ho se c
i
rcu it sa re s uppl ied b yt he make rs. T he c osto fs uch c rys
ta ls
f
or o the r t unab le o scillato rs. A f eed through i nsula tor o r may s eem h igh w hen c ompa red w ith s urplus f undamen tal
small l ength o f p oly styrene r od d rilled t o p ass t he c oup ling mode t ype s b ut u n
le ss t he f r
equency o f o peration i sv e ry
l
ead f rom t h ea node o ft hev a
lve t ot h em ixe ri ss e
ti nt hew al
l h
i gh o r t he s pecified t olerance v ery cl ose ( which isu nnece s-
o
ft he b ox c lose t ot h e a node t ag o ft he v alveho lder. s
ary f o
r mo st ama teur p u rpose s
), c a reful c onside ration
The p owe r r equ iremen ts o ft he c i
r cui t a r
e v ery mode st, a s
hou ld b e g i
ven t o t he p u rchase o f a n o ver
tone c rystal
s
upp ly o f2 5-30 v olts a tl e
ss than 1mA g iv
ing s uficien t i n
- b
ea ring i nm ind t hats uch ac ry s
talw il
lg ive ag reaterc ertain ty
j
ection f or mo st m ixe rs, b ut ift hi
sp rove s i n
suf f
ic
ien t t heh .t
. o
ft roub le-f ree o pera t
ion a nd , i nt h
e c ase o fo ne oft he high
may b e inc rea sed t o a bou t 200 v olts w ithou t cau sing a ny f
requency c rystals o scillating a t 6 0 Mc /s or mo re
, w hethe r
s
eriou s dete rio ration i nt h e fr
equency s tability. Unde r t hese t
h e gr eate r c ost i sn ot o fset b y t he s aving i n v a
lve s a nd
c
ond ition s
,h oweve r,t hea node r esisto rw ou ld o fc ou rse n eed c
omponen ts a nd t hes mallers pace requ ired f orth ec onve rte r
.
t
oh ave ah i ghe r p owe r r a
ting. I
n t he e xamp le u nde r con s
ide rat
ion a n ideal cry s
ta l f r
e-
Aw e
ll re gula ted h .
t.s upp ly i sre quired f orb est re
su lt sa nd quency w ou ld b e 5 9 Mc /s
, n ec ess
itating o nly ad oub lers tage
av oltage -div ide rn etwo rk c onne c
ted a cro ssa n8 5 or 1 05 v ol
t t
o a rrive a t t he r equ ired i n
jec t
ion f r
equency o f 18 Mc / s
.
s
tab i
l ized s upp ly a nd p assing 5 -6 mA i sq u
i te satisfacto ry ,t he For t ho se w ho p ref er t o u se t he c heape r cry s
tals o the r
a
ctua l v o
ltage o n t he o scil
la tor b e
ing v aried u ntil t he c
ho ice s mu st b e made w ith t h eai d ofF ig. 5 .
12. I tw ou ld b e
opt
imum i njection t ot he m ixe r iso btained . unde sirab le t os tarta t1 3
-111 Mc /ss i
nce t h
es e
cond h armon ic
The f requency s tability i ssuch t ha t ac .w.t ran smis s
ion may wou ld f a
l la t2 6-222 Mc /sw h
ich i swithin t het uning r ange o f
b
eh eld f orc on side rab le p eriods w ith o nly s l
igh tv ariations i n t
h e m ain r eceive r a nd w ould r esul
t i n as purious c arrier
note w h
ile n o r e-tun ing i sn ece ssary d uring q uite l engthy u
sua lly r efer r
ed t o a s ab ird ie
. A f requency o f 2 9
-5 Mc /s
'
p hone t r
an sm i ssion s. A s atisfacto ry d egree o f o scilla to r appea r
st ob e ap ossibility a nd a5 -9 Mc /s c rys
tal,p rovided i t
s
tab ility isa ch ieved w ith in af ew m inu te sb uti ti sadvisab le t o w ould o pera te o ni t
sf i
f
th o ve rtone ,w ould s at
isfyt her equ ire-
a
rrange t ha t t he o scilla tor h .t. s upp ly r ema in s c onnec ted m ents. T he o scillator u n
it c ould t h
en c omp r
ise m erely o ne
during p eriod s o ft ran sm is s
ion. doub le t r
iode v alve, t he f i
rst s ect
ion o perating a s af i
fth
5
.
7
 R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
t
ance b etween t he c rystal electrode s and s pu rious o sci
ll-
HT+ 2
5 0V
2
.7K11 2
.7K1
1 a
t
ion s may b e g ene rated u nless t he c ircuit i s prope rly
C4
a
dju s
ted .
• The B utle r c i
rcui t ( F
ig. 5 .13) i s part
icu la r
ly u seful i n
L
,
I •• .▪C2
e
l C3
i
o°u
rpur r
ec eive rsa nd m ay b ee mployed e ither asa no vertone o ra sa
f
undamen tal o sci
llato r w i
th p rovi s
ion f or t aking a n outpu t
1
00pF a
tt wo , three o rf our t imes the f r
equency o ft hec rysta
l, a nd,
n .C I 1
50 a
l
though t wo s tages a re r equired, the ar rangemen t isv ery
s
at
i s factory w hen g ood s tabil
ity i st h
e ma in c r
iterion. F or
V
ib u
se a s af undamen tal o scil
lato r
, L 2i s omitted a nd t hea node
o
fV I bb ypa ssed t oe arth b y as uitable capac itor, theo utpu t
t
hen b e
ing t aken f r
om al i
nk w ind ing coup led t o LI.
Of
When s e
tting u p t h e oscil
lator a v o
ltme ter may b e c on-
n
ec ted a ss hown d otted i nthed iag ram and t het uned circuits
3
rd Overtone 27 0 3
.3
a
dju s
ted f o
r m aximum d ef
lection. F or hi ghest s t
abil
ity t he
2
70f1
C
rystal Kfl c
oils s hould b o
th h ave a l ow Q v a
lue, a nd i fnece s
sary
d
amp ing r esisto rs may b e connec ted a cro ss them f o
r t his
p
u rpo se.
F
ig
▪. 5
.
13. B ut
ler overtone crystal o
scil
lator circu
it. Output may b e Typ ical circuits fo r o ther ove r
tone o sci
lla tor s are g
iven i n
t
aken at two , t
hree o r f
our ti mes the frequency of the overtone
c
rysta
l. LI, C2 and L2, C3 tune to the o
vertone a nd c
l
eared o utput Chap te r 7( V.H .F. T ran sm it
ters).
f
requencies respect
ively. C l, C4 and CS a re bypass capac
itors of
nor ma
l values
.

F
requency Mu lt ipl ier s
overtone o s c
illa to ra nd t hes econd s e
ction s erving a s aq uad -
r
up le r. Unless t h e o pera ting ( ove rtone ) f requency o f ac rystal i s
Alterna t ively as tartc ou ld b e made a t1 9.65 Mc /s,o btained t
ha t r equi red f or i njection i n
to t he m ixe r, some f requency
f
rom a6 .
55 Mc /sc rystal v ibra t
ing o n i ts t h
i rd o ver tone , t he mul t
ip lication w il
l h ave t o b e a rranged a nd c ircu its t o d o
outpu t f r
equency b e
ing d oub led o r t r
eb led i n t h e s econd t
h
i sw ill bef ound among t hed e sign sf orc onve r
te rsd escribed
s
ection o f ad oub le t r
iode . T he mu ltiplie rc ha in c ould t hen b e l
a
te r int his c hap te r
.
c
omp le ted i no ne s ection o f af urthe rd oub le t r
iode i nw hich Wh ile b as
ica lly s imila r t o t h e f requency mu ltiplying
t
h e r ema in ing s ection s erved a s am ixe r s tage . c
i
r cu its in t r
an sm itte rs, t h e p owe r o utpu t n ecessary f or t h e
Doub le t r
iode v alve s a re u sed exten sive ly a s o scillato rs i n s
a
ti sf actory o pe ration o f am ixe ri sf ars mallert han w ould b e
v
.h.f. c onve rte rs a nd among t hose s uitab le a re t he 6 J6, r
equ ired f o r tran sm itting a pplica tion s a nd i n c on sequence
1
2AT7 , 6 BQ7A a nd ECC88 . T he t riode s ection o f t he g
rea te r mu ltiplica tion f acto rs p er s tage c an b e realized .
6U8 /ECF82 o r t he ECF804 i sa l
so s uitab le f or u se a s a n I
ti salway s g ood p ractice t os ta r
t w ith ar easonab ly h i gh
o
ver tone o scillato r. T he 6 J6 h a
s ac a
thode c ommon t ob oth f
r
equency c rysta l r e qui r
ing f ewe r s tage s o f mu ltiplication
s
ections o f t he v alve a nd t h
is
r
estric ts i t
s u se i nc e r
ta in a pplica-
t
ion s
. The 6 BQ7A a nd t he 0 HT+
FRO M OSC ILLATOR
ECC88 h ave a n i n
te rna l s c
r een
) 2 0 0f1
. 47 Kn.
b
etwe en t h e t wo a node s a nd a re Cc \
2. 10pF
t
here fo re p art
icu la rly s u
itab le f or iI
u
se w hen o ne s e ction i s t o b e 30pF
employed a s am ixe r. LA 47 OL V21 L3 1
00 0
S
eve ra l c ircu its h ave b een pF

d
esc ribed f o r o ve rtone o scil
l-
a
tor s
, s ome o f w hich o pe rate t he L2 33 0
c
rysta li nt hep ara llel( high i mped - • C2 CD
1
a
nce ) mode , w hile i n o the rs t he
c
rysta l i s i n t he s e r
ie s r esonan t
mode a nd t he refo re h a s al ow II
30pF 10pF
i
mpedance . T he l at
te r t ype o f
c
i
rcu it i si n mo re g ene ral u s e
. A FR O M OSC ILLATOR
f
eatu re w h ich i sc ommon t o a l
l
t
he s erie s-r esonan t c i
rcu its i st hat
t
hec ry sta l f orm sp a rt o ft he f eed- F
ig. 5.14. P ush -pull r.f
. a nd m ixer s tages.
b
ack l oop s o tha t i fiti sr ep laced
70 M O 1
44 Mc/s
b
y ac apac itor o scillation s w il
l LA, 3 t urns t h
in p .v.c. c overed w ire wound LA , 3t urns t h
in p .v.c. wire wound r ound L I
.
t
ake p lace a t af requency d ete r
- r
ound L I. LI, 8t urns 2 0 s.w.g. 4 in. outs
ide d ia m. spaced
L
I, 9t urns 1 8 s
.w .g 4 i n. d
ia m., 4 in. long
. one w ire dia m .
m
ined b y t he c oil i n t h e c ircuit L2
, 1 t urns 18 s.w .g
. 4i n. d
ia m. self-support ing, L2, 6t urns 2 0 s .w.g. 4 in
. dia m. self-support ing
t
ogethe rw i th i t
s a s soc iated c apa - 1
4 in
. l ong. approx . 1i n. long.
L
3, t o suit i.
f. in use. L3, to s uit i.
f
, i n use.
c
i
tanc e s. This c an , i n f act
, C
l. 47 p F
. Cl, n ot u sed.
h
app en e ven w ith t he c rystal i n C2, not u sed. C2, IS •I S pF s p
lit stator.
C n ,0 S — 4 pF. C n ,0 5 — 4 pF.
c
i
rcu it a s ar esul t o f t he c apa c
i- V
I , 2,6 .
16. VI, 2, 6J6.

5
.
8
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECEIVERS

r
athe r t han t he r everse b ecau se 0 HT+
t
her e i s ad istinc t p o ssib i
lity t ha t IKfl
o
ne o ft he u nwan ted mu l
tip le s o f 500pF 50 0 p F l. 0.0 1,uF
t
hec rysta l f requency m igh t r each
L2 '
t
hem ixe rw ith s uf i c
ien t p owe rt o
c
onver t —pe rhap s i nef f
icien t
ly — 75. L
4
10001p F-
as trong l ocal s igna l o n af re-
-

q
uency r igh to uts ide t heb and a nd V
I V9
c
au se i t
s a ppea rance w ith in t h e
r
ange o ft he t unab le i .
f
. 10 00pF
An e xamp le may make t h
is
p
oin t c lea r. An o vertone c r ysta l
i
su sed t op roduc e af requency o f
2
8 Mc / s. T his i s mu ltiplied b y

0
20
p
F
f
i
ve i n as ub sequen t s tage t op ro -
v
ide i njec tion f ort hem ixe ra t1 40

r
Mc/ s a nd a t unab le i .
f. o f 4t o 6
Mc/ s t hen c ove r s t h e 1 44 t o 1 46
Mc/ s b and . A lthough t he o utpu t FR O M
OSC ILLATOR
o
ft he mu lt
ip lie rs tage i st uned t o
f
i
ve t ime si t
si n pu tf requency t he re 2 2 0 pF

may b e s ufi c
ien t o utpu t 8 4 Mc /s
(multip lica tion o f t hre e), t o b ea t 22 0 pF V I I-1

w
ith o ne o f t h e B BC f r
equency 0L T

modu la ted t ran sm i ss

ion s, s ay t he F
ig . S.
IS . The W a ll man c ascode c ircuit.
L
igh t P rog ramme f rom Wro tham 7
0 Mc ,s 1
44 Mc /s
o
n8 91 Mc /s,a nd s oc au se th ef .m . L I, I 0i turns 1 8 s .w.g . 4i n
. ins ide d ia m . f t i
n. LI, 5 turns 1 6 s
.w .g. ii n
. ins ide d ia m. t apped 3
l
ong , tapped 4 1 t urns f ro m e arthy e nd, turns fro m e arthy e nd.
s
igna l t o a pp ear a t 891 l ess 8 40 L2, 6 t urns 2 0 s.w .g. o n i
n. d ia m . A ladd in L2, 4t urns 1 6 s
.w .g . ji n
. ins ide d ia m .
= 5 l Mc /s,w hich c ould b et h eI . 13,f
f or mer w
5
1 t
ith d
urns 2 0 s
.w
ust i
.g
ron c
. c
ore.
lose wound o n ii n. dia m .
L3, 31 t
L0 , I t
urns 1
urns 2
6 s.w
6 s
.g
.w
.
.g. e
i
n. ins
na m
ide d
. c
ia m .
lose wound o n
p
roduced b y a n ama teur s t
a t
ion Aladd in f or mer w ith d ust iron c ore. i
n. A ladd in f or mer w ith d ust i ron c ore.
operating o n 1 4 51 Mc /s. I tw illb e I -0 ,1
A
6 t
ladd
urns 2
in f
6 s.w.g
or mer w
. close wound o
ith d ust iron c
n
ore,
i
n. dia m . Heater c
wound o
hokes, 2
n A i n
0 i
. f
n. 2
or mer
8 s
.
.w .g. e na m . c lose

a
ppr ec ia ted t hat as imila r r esu lt hokes , 4 0 i n
. 2 8 s.w.g . e na m . c lose
migh t o btain n ea r a no the r of t he wo un d on A i
n. f
or mer.

f
.m. s ta
t ion s a l
though t h e ac tua l VI, 3 , 6AKS; V2 , 614 , EC9 I, 6L34 o r h alf 616 ( these t ypes a re n ot i nterchangeab le ). The p re-set
v
ariab le r esistor i n t he a node c ircu it o f V3 s hould b e a d
justed f or b est signa l-to -no ise r atio a nd
f
requenc ie s c once rned w ould b e afixed r esistor o f suitab le v alue s ubstituted . Initia l
ly , it may b e 1 00 K o h ms.
d
if eren t.
The p rocedu re i n s uch ac a se w ould b e t om ake t h e o ut- t
i
on so ft heb etterk nown a rrangemen ts. F ors imp lic ity o nly
put cir cu it o ft h e f r
equency mu ltiply ing s t
age mo re s elec tive , t
he t hree b a sic type s a re d iscus sed h e re: t hey a r e a l
l s u
itab le
by i mp rov ing i t
s Q , s o t hat t he r espon se a t8 4 Mc / sw a sr e
- f
oru se o n f requenc ie s below a bou t 1 50 Mc /s. Wh ich e ve ri s
duced a s much a s p ossib le, a nd t h en t oc oup le t o t h e m ixe r b
uilt, i ti ss t
rong ly r ecommended t h at ac oppe r o r b ras s
bym ean s o f al ink w ind ing r athe rt han v ia ac apac i to r, t hu s c
ha ssis b e u sed t o e nsu re t he b est p ossib le c onnec tion f o r
a
ttenua t ing t he u nwan ted f r
equency s t
ill f urthe r. e
arth r eturns a nd a c on sequen t r e duc tion i n c ircu la t
ing
Valve s s uitab le f or f r
equency mu ltip lica t
ion a r e d oub le- c
urren ts i nt hec ha s sis a nd t here fo re b et
te rs tab ility a nd g ain.
t
r
iode s, s uch a st h e 1 2AT7 , s ma l
l r .
f. p en tode s o ft he 6 AK5 No o ve r- r
id ing q ualities c an b e c laimed f or a ny o ne o f
o
rE F9 1 ( 6A M6 )c lassa nd t r
iode -pen tode sd esigned f orv .h.f. t
hese c ircu its : e ach h as i ts a t
trac tive f eature s, a nd i ndeed
f
requency c hange r s ervice s uch a s t he ECF80 ( 6BL8 )
, i
mp roved p er formance f rom o ne c ircu it i s mo re o ften t h e
ECF82 ( 6U8 ) a nd ECF804 , t he l a
tte r b e
ing p a r
ticu la rly r
esul t o f af ortuitou s c omb ina tion o f l ayou t o r c hoic e o f
s
uitab le d ue t o t h e h i gh mu tua l c onduc tance o f b o
th t h e o
p t
imum c omponen t v alue s t han a d efinite t echn ica l
t
riode a nd p en tode s e c
t ion s ( 11 a nd 7 .2 mA /V r espe c tive ly )
. s
up e r
io rity. S o f ar a s t he n ewcome r t o v .h.f w ork i sc on -
The 6 J6 ( ECC9 1) i sn ot s o s u
itab le f or u se i n ac r ystal c
erned t he s imp le r t he c ircu i
t t he g rea te r t he c hance o f
osc
illa to r/f requency mu ltiplie rc i
rcu it b ecau se t he t wo t r
iode s
ucce ss.
s
e c
tions s ha re ac ommon c athode a nd c athode b ias c ou ld n ot The c hoice o f p ush -pu ll o r s ing le-ended i npu t t o t h e
be e mp loyed . T he u se o f ac athode b ia s r e
sisto r i sn ot c
onve rte r d epend s l argely o n w he the r ab alanced o r u n-
e
ssen tia l i n af r
equency mu ltip lying s tage , h oweve r, a s t h e b
alanced a e r
ia lf eede ri se mp loyed ,a nd a lthough ab alanced -
neces sa ry w orking g rid b ias m ay b eo btained b yr ec t
if ica tion t
o-unba lanced t ran s former ( balun ) c ould b e i ntroduc ed t o
oft hed rive v o
ltage b etween g r
id a nd c a thode , b ut w ith s uch e
l
im ina te l osse s d ue t os t
and ing w ave s o n t h e f eede r, itm ay
ana rrangemen tt here w ould b en op rote c t
ive b iass hou ld t h e b
e p refe rab le t o a vo id t his c omp l ica tion b y u sing a n i npu t
c
r ystal f a
il t oo sc illate. c
ircu it t os uit t h
e t ype o ff eede r i nu se .

R
.F
. AMPL
IFIERS P
ush
-Pu
ll 6
16 R
.F
. Amp
lif
ier
A
lthough a la
rge n
umber o
f c
ircu
its f
or r
.
f. s
tages have F
ig
. 5.
14 shows the ci
rcuit o
ft he f
r
ont-end o
f aconver
ter
b
een descr
ibed f
rom t
ime t
o t
ime
, each wi
th i
t
s advantages e
mploying a push-pul
l circu
it ar
rangemen t i
n bo
th the r
.f
.
a
nd disadvan
tages
, many o
f t
hem are o
nly s
l
igh
t mod if
ica- a
nd mixer s
t
age s
, the ob
ject be
ing toreduce t
hecapac
itance
5
.9

• •• • ••
• •
• • • • mo.o. •
R
SGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
a
c ros s t he t uned c ircui ts b y e fec
tive ly p u
tting t he i npu t a nd ho
le int h
is screen with ac l
ea ranceofa pproxima tely iti
n
. al
outpu t c apac i
tance s o ft he v alves i ns eries a nd t oc ance l o ut r
ound a nd a tr i
ght ang les toL I and L 2.
t
he e f ect o f t he c athode l ead i nduc tance . S ome a dd itiona l With h.t. removed f rom V I a nd astrong i ncom ing si
gnal
,
g
ain i sa ch ieved b yt hes tep -up i ns igna l v oltage b e tween t he n
eutral
iza tion s hould b e car r
ied o u
t b y adju sting L . for
a
eria l i npu t a nd t h e g rids o ft he r .
f. s tag e
. m
inimum r e
spon se w hi
le k eep
ing L I a nd L 2 t uned f o
r
With t he a dd ition o f ap ush-pu ll o scillato r s uch a s t he maximum s i
gnal. C are s hou ld be taken t o ensure t hat th
e
Kalia tron a rrangemen t ( F
ig . 5 .6) t h
is c i
rcu it may b e u sed a s a
node c ir
cu it ofV 2 ist uned t ot he s
i
gna l frequency a nd no
t
ac omp lete c onve rte r; a lte rna tively t he r .f
. s tage a l one may t
ot hei mage o nt h
ew rong s i
de o ftheo sci
llatorf r
equency . If
b
e b uilt a s as epa ra te p re -amp l
ifie r f or u se w ith o the r c on- i
tistuned t ot he image f requency a ny a d
justmen t o fL3 wil
l
v
erte rs. I ft his p rocedure i sa dopted a n o utpu t l ink w ind ing c
ause a d ecrease ins ignal strength whe reas th e b ackg
round
may c onven ien t
ly b e c oup led t o t he c en tre o f L 2 a nd t he no
ise shou ld ri
se to ad i
stinct peak w hen L 3 i st uned tot h
e
i
nduc tance o ft his c oil a dju sted t o ma inta in r esonance . c
orrect frequency . When t he cir
cuit i so perating s a
tisfac
-
The l ayou to fc omponen ts s hou ld ma tch t ha t o ft hec ircuit
d
iag ram c losely a nd a l
l l eads s hou ld b e o f t he s ho rtest
p
o ssib le l eng th. T o o bta in t he f ul
l a dvan tage s f r om t h
is
c
ircuite ve ry e fo r
t s hou ld b e made t oa chieve c omp le te s ym -
metry i nb oth t he e lectrica l a nd t he m echan ica l f eatu re s
. A
c
opp e r s cre en s hou ld b e f i
xed a cro s s t he c has sis i ns uch a
p
o sit
ion t ha t t he g rid a nd a node c ircu its o ft he r .f
. s t
age a re
s
hielded f rom e ach o the r
. T his scr een s hou ld f i
t a cro ss t he
v
alveho lde r a nd b e s olde red t o t he c en tre l u g a nd t o t he
e
arthed h ea ter p in.
Ast he amp lif
ie rv alve i sat r
iode i tisn ece ssary t on eutra lize
t
he f eedback b etween a node a nd g rid c ircu its, n ot o nly t o
main ta in s tab ility b u
t t oa ch ieve t heo ptimum s i
gna l-to -no ise
r
atio. F or t he n eu traliz ing c apac ito r s m in ia ture a i
r s paced (
A
)
t
r
imme r s o f t he t ype made b y W ing rove a nd Rog ers a nd
6
h
av ing ac apac itance r ange o f0 .5-4 .5 p F ar e s uitab le.
V
ia 7
Neu tra lizing i sb est a ccomp l
ished b y t un ing t o as trong
s
igna l a nd d isconnec ting t h eh .
t. supp ly t ot her .
f.s tage . T he
LI 2
pF
t
wo n eu tra lizing c apac i tor s may t hen b e a dju sted i n s tep, .
CD

k
eep ing t hec apac itance sa sn early e qua la sp ossib le ,u ntilt he c1 l
oon
s
t
reng th o f t he s igna l i sr e duced t o am inimum , L I a nd L 2
b
eing a dju sted f or max imum s igna l a fte r each a lte ration o f
TO OSC
ILLAT OR
t
he n eu tra lizing c apac i to rs. T he p oin t o f b alance i sq uite
s
ha rp a nd c are t aken i nt h
is t ask willg of art owa rd so bta ining
ag ood s igna l-to -no is e r atio : f o
r b e st r esults i nt his r espec t, HT+
h
oweve r, an oise g ene ra to r may b e f ound mo re s atisf acto ry. 250V

Ad eta iled e xplana tion o ft heu seo fn o

ise g ene ra to r si sgiven
i
nC hap te r 1 9 (M ea suremen t s)
.
The 0 . 01p Fc athode b ypa ssc apac i
to ri nt hem ixe rc athode
c
i
r cuits erve sa s as hor tc i
rcu itf ort hei .
f
.c ur ren tsa nd s hou ld
b
e o ft h e n on -induc t
ive t ype .
V
IP

T
he C
ascode R
.F
. Amp
lif
ier

I
n thec ircui
t shown i nF ig. 5.15 t he fi
rst s t
age, w hich isa
t
r
iode-connec ted 6 AK5 , o perates a t a pp roxima te
ly u ni
ty 1
-
g
ain bute nablesa ne fect
ive i mpedance m atch t ob eo btained V
ia 2p
F

b
etween t hes i
gnal inputc i
rcu i
ta nd t hec athode i npu tcircui
t
o
f t he grounded g r
id t r
iode s t
age V 2
. N eutralizing i s
n
ecessary n o
ts o much t op revent i nstabil
ity i nt he f i
rst va
lve
a
stoo bta
in t he bes
t n o
ise factor, a nd i se fected i n
duc t
ively
b
y L. Ow ing tot he heavy l oading o fL 2 b y th
e l ow input
i
mpedance o fV 2
,t het uning oft hisc i
rcuit i svery f l
ata nd it
s TO OSC
ILLATOR

a
djustmen t may t herefore a ppear t o b e u nimpo rtan t
: h ow-
F
ig. 5.16
. S eries c ascode o r driven g rounded g rid amp l
ifiers w ith
e
ser
, much o ft he good p erformance o fw h
ich t he c i
rcuit is a
ssociated mixer s tage . The a rrange ment i n (B) g ives a pprec iab ly
c
apable will be los
t i fcare isn ot ta ken, p referably w ith t h
e more g ain. A ll values i n the two c ircuits a re sim ilar u nless o ther -
wise s
tated . A ll co
i ls are fi n
.d ia m. self-support ing a nd wound w ith
a
ido f anoise generator,t oarrive att heo ptimum a d
ju s
tmen t 1
8 s.w.g. LI, 51 turns t apped 2 1 turns f ro m e arthy e nd; L 2, 31
o
f L2 and L n. (
circuit (A)), 7 4 turns ( circuit (B)); L 3 (circu it ( B
) o n
ly) , 44 turns :
coupl
ing a pprox i mate ly i
n. f
ro m L 2, L 4
, L 5, to s uit i.
f i n use
; L p
,
T
he c oi
ls LI a nd L 2 s
hou ld be s hielded f r
om o ne a nother 5
-7 n
itw i t e
n am ., i n
.diam .(exa cts ize deter m ined w ith t he
b
y as creen moun ted a cross t he f i
rs
t v alveho lde r
. T he a
id ofn oise ge eeee t cr
); V I 6BZ7 , 6B Q7A , ECC .85 (w ith r educed h .t.);
V2, 12AT7 ( the o ther s ect
ion may b e used a s t he l ocal o sci
llator) .
n
eutral
izing i nductance L . s hou ld b e moun ted t hrough a A
ll c apacitors marked C a re 1 000 p F hi
-K f eedthrough t ype.

5
.
10
 V
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
t
ori
ly t
he r
e mova
l of VI f
ro m i
ts va
lveho
lder s
hou
ld r
esu
lt t
ive
ly. D ue t
o t
he l
ow impedance of t
he cathode i
nput
i
n a marked drop i
n t
he no
ise l
eve
l. c
ircu
it t
he g
rounded g
rid a mp
lif
ier i
s by nature a wideband
The c
ircu
it g
ives s
l
ight
ly m ore ga
in t
han does t
he push-pu
ll dev
ice and i
s t
hus we
ll s
uited a
s a 1
44-146 M c/s r
.f
. s
tage
6
J6 arrange ment and i
tis poss
ible t
o a
chieve a no
ise f
actor of p
retuned t
o t
he c
entre of t
he band
.
4db a
t 1
45 M c/s
. The i
nput impedance of a g
rounded g
rid t
riode i
s equa
l t
o
1
!gm where gm i
s t
he m utua
l conductance of t
he va
lve i
n
Ser
ies Cascode or Dr
iven Grounded Gr
id Circu
it amps per vo
lt, so f
or gm i
n t
he r
ange 6
-15 m A/ V t
his wou
ld

Th
is i
s one of t
he s
i mp
ler t
ypes of r
.f
. a mp
lif
ier c
ircu
it but imp
ly i
nput impedances bet ween 1
67 and 67 oh ms
.

i
s never
the
less c
apab
le of e
xce
llent r
esu
lts
. T wo v
ers
ions a
re A co mp
lete 1
44 M c/s conver
ter emp
loy
ing two g
rounded

s
ho wn i
n F
igs
. 5
.16 (
a
) and (
b). The l
atter possesses an g
rid t
riode r
.f
. a mp
lif
ier s
tages i
s descr
ibed l
ater i
n t
his

addi
tiona
l t
uned c
ircu
it (L3) and g
ives apprec
iab
ly h
igher chapter
.

ga
in but with so me r
educt
ion i
n band w
idth a
lthough t
his i
s
s
t
ill adequate f
or co mp
lete coverage of t
he 2 m band
. No
Va
lves f
or V
.H.F
. Operat
ion
s
creen
ing i
s necessary and t
here i
s no var
iab
le t
uning
, t
he V
alve
s s
pec
ial
ly d
esigned f
or g
rounded g
rid s
erv
ice i
nclude
i
nduc
tances be
ing ad
justed by s
pread
ing or c
los
ing t
he t
urns
. t
he 6
J4, E C91 and 6L34 on t
he B7 G base and l
ater t
ypes
A g
rid d
ip o
sci
llator i
s au
sefu
l a
id a
lthough f
ina
l ad
jus
t ment c
apab
le of operat
ing a
t f
requenc
ies of t
he o
rder of 900 M c/s
s
hou
ld be made on i
nco m
ing s
igna
ls or with a no
ise g
ener- — 6 AJ4
, 6A M4
, 6A N4
, E C C88 and G E C A.2521 (
6 C R4)
, a
ll
a
tor
. on t
he B9 A base
. The G E C A.2599 (
6 C T4) and t
he R C A
As i
n any v
.h.f
. c
ircu
it, on
ly t
op qua
lity bypass capac
itors N uv
istor 6C W4 a
re exce
llent va
lves des
igned f
or t
he
a
re r
eco m mended and t
hey s
hou
ld p
referab
ly be of t
he f
eed- g
rounded c
athode c
onf
igura
tion
.
t
hrough t
ype s
oldered t
o t
he chass
is. Al
l r
.f
. l
eads s
hou
ld be
a
s s
hor
t a
s poss
ible and m ay
, with advantage
, be t
hin s
trips of TYP
ICAL T W O AN D FO UR METRE DES
IG NS
copper f
oil r
ather t
han wire i
n order t
o r
educe t
he i
nductance
. R
SGB C O N VERTER C
IRC UIT

Th
is c
onver
ter
, u
s
ing a d
oub
le t
r
iode v
alve a
s ac
omb
ined
The Grounded Gr
id A mp
lif
ier
g
rounded g
rid r
.f
. a mp
lif
ier and mixer
, was des
igned p
ri-
With any t
riode r
.f
. a mp
lif
ier so me means m ust be adopted m ar
ily a
s as
i mp
le c
ircu
it f
or t
he ne wco mer t
o v
.h.f
. Desp
ite
t
o p
revent i
nstab
ility due t
o f
eedback be
t ween t
he i
nput and i
ts s
i mp
lic
ity i
t i
s
, ho wever
, capab
le of s
atisfactory perfor m-
output c
ircu
its
. I
n t
he g
rounded g
rid conf
igurat
ion i
t i
s t
he ance and i
s i
n u
se i
n many s
tations
. The c
ircu
it i
s s
ho wn i
n
g
rid
, r
ather t
han t
he cathode
, wh
ich i
s ma
inta
ined a
t z
ero r
.f
. F
ig. 5
.17
.
potent
ial t
hus p
rov
iding a s
creen be
t ween t
he c
athode and O ne s
ect
ion of a 1
2 A T7 doub
le t
riode va
lve (VI) i
s con-
anode wh
ich f
or m t
he i
nput and output e
lec
trodes r
espec- nec
ted a
s a g
rounded g
rid t
riode r
.f
. s
tage with t
he i
nput

1
2 L
3

01 V
IP •
V
2
V
ia C
4ei
n 1/ 1
2
A77
8
2 2
6
AM6
I/
211AT7 ,
.. — 6
-8K s
o
( p
F C
S2
3
-30pF L
9
• •

C
S! CI L
I I
F TI
1
7

1
R
FC3

:
I0
R
FC24 8

R
I4
1
C
18

2
001
1 C6
T2000pF
,
C
2 2
000 F S
i
1
000p
6
-3 V
R
40 M
2T+
50V
W V
'
2
20K

C
I3 HT+150 V
1
.
4 3
-30pF
S
TABILIZED
8
11 L
I, 7t urns 2 2 s .w.g. t inned c opper i
n. dia m . spaced o ne w ire
2
.28 d
ia meter; L 2
, 8t urns 1 8 s.w.g. tinned c opper i
n. d
ia m . i
n
.
l
ong tapped 6 t urns f ro m a node e nd; L3, 4t urns 18 s.w.g. tinned
2
-2K c>
C) I
T c
opper
d
ia m. jin
i
n
.
. l
i
n
. l
ong; L S
ong
, 8t
; L 4
, 1t
urns 1
urns 1
8 s.w.g
4 s
. t
.w .g. t
inned c
inned c opper j i
opper j i n
. d ia m
n
.
.

I
i
n
. long, c entre t apped; L 6
, 7. 8, 24 t
urns 3 4 s.w.g. ena m. close

,
f
r
.CII C
l2 wound o n A ladd in i
n. dia m. for mer ( L6 a nd L 7
, a re wound o n
t
he sa me f or mer a nd s eparated b y ji n.); L 9, 8t urns 3 4 s.w.g.
I
000pF 3
0pF e
na m. close wound - hi n. fro m L 8; RFC I, 1 9 in. 30 s.w.g. e na m.
2
0K 'RIO jin
. dia m. s elf-support ing ; RFC2 , 3, 9turns e ach 26 s.w.g. d .c.c
.
1
?
.
21
7 pF
-8 on Neosid iron c ore t ype I ;R I, 3,5, )watt ; R 2, 1watt ; R4, 7
,8 , I
2208
jwatt; R 6
, 9 ,10 , jwatt . S ilver -mica c apac itors s hould b e u sed
f
or C4, 5
,7 , 1 0, 12
, 1 5. 16. B ypass c apacitors may b e hi-IC tubu lar
o
r disc cera m ic. Osc illator i n
ject ion is e ffected b y wrapp ing 3
o
r 4t urns o f t hin i nsulated h ook-up w ire r ound t he lead f ro m
F
ig. 5
.
17. C
ircu
it d
iagra m o
f t SGB 1
he R 44 Mc sc
onverter
. C4 t o the g r
id o f VIb .

5
.
11
 RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
T
he c oup led i nduc tanc es L 2 a nd L 3 f o
rm a n i mp edan ce
match ing n etwo rk b etwe en t he o utpu t o ft heg .g
.t . s tage a nd
t
he t r
iode m ixe r and i tish e re t hat s uf icien t gain i sr ealized
t
op rovide a dequa te s ensitivity a nd ag ood n ois e f acto r. L 2
i
sr esona ted a tt h
e c en tre o f t he b and b y C 3 a nd L 3 b y i t
s
i
nduc tance a nd t he i nput c apac i
ty o ft he m ixe r
. T he d egree
o
f c oup ling b etween t hese c oi
l s d ete rm ine s th e b andw id th.
T o e nsure t he be s
t s i
gna l-to -no ise r at
io i tisn ece ssa ry t o
r
un V I ba t al ow a node v oltage , h ence t heh igh v alue o fR 4.
By s o d oing, t he g a
in o f t h e stage i sr educed t o ac ertain
e
xten t
, b u
t a st hen oise f al
l s mo re r ap idly t han t h es i
gna l for
r
educ tion s d own t oa pp rox ima tely 4 5 v olts an e
t g ain i nt he
r
eadab i
lity o fw eak s ignals i so b
ta ined .
C5 f orm s ab ypa ss f or s ignal a nd o sc i
llato r f requenc ie s
p
resen t a t t h
e m ixe r a node a nd a s i ti sp art o f t he t uning
c
apac ity f o
rt hep rima ry o ft h ei .
f
.t ran s forme ri nc on junc tion
w
ith C 6 i tisp ossible t o u se ar ela tively l a
rge v alue w ithou t
f
ear o f b ypa ssing t h
e i .
f
. s igna l. T o b e f u
lly e f ective i ni t
s
d
ual r o
le, C 5 s hou ld b e of g ood q uality a nd c onnec ted b y
s
hort l eads b etween t hea node t ago ft hev a
lveho lde ra nd t he
c
ommon e arth ing p oin t oft he st age.
Rear v
ie w of t
he chass
is sho w
ing the r.
f. mixer v a
lve i
n r
ight fore- The i .f
. amp lifier ( V2 ) is a6 A M6 b u t any r .f
. p entode o f
g
round w ith t
ri m mers C
I a nd C3. The osci
llator doub
ler asse mbly s
imila r c harac teristics c ou ld b e e mployed i n t h
i s p osition .
i
st o t
he le
ft: Cu7 may be seen bet ween the doub
ler co
il L
5 a nd the
ch
ass
is. T
he e xact inte rmed iate f requency i sn ot i mpo rtan t p rov ided
i
ti sa bove 5 Mc /s ; w ith t he t ran sforme rs d esc ribed i ti s
c
ircui
t arranged tocouple 80-100 o hm coaxial f
eeder t
ot he 1
0-2 Mc /s.
c
athode i mpedance
. L I serves to m a
tch th
i s i
mpedanc e to A s e
cond 1 2AT7 ( V3) i su sed a s aH artley o scillato r/
t
hec athode inpu
t cir
cuit o
fV I aw hich isapproximately 150 d
oub le r
,t hei njection v oltage f ort hem ixer b e
ing t aken f r om
ohm s
. T he p
rime funct
ion oft he3-30 p Ftr
imme rcapacitor t
he a node o ft he d oub lers ection . T he i njection f requency i s
CI ist o p
revent s
hort ci
rcuiting of the b
ias fo
r VI aw hen o
n t he /ow s ide o ft h
es igna l
. As pl
it- stato r tuning c apac ito r
t
hea eria
l fe
ederh a
s d.c. c
ontinuity
, but ita
lso he
lp s t
ot une i
sused s o tha t, as t he r oto r i sleft f ree, n o r .
f
. c ur ren t f lows
o
ut s ma
ll a mounts of reactance d ue to a n i mperf
ectly t
hrough t h
e b ea ring s
, am ajo r cause o fn oise a nd f requency
matched input s
ys
tem . l
ump ing i nv .h.f.o scil
la tor s. H .T.v o
ltage t oL 4i sf edt hrough

- 63/
4'

D
IAL SW
ITCH
MECHANIS M

C9 CB-
FLEX
IBLE -, F
t
COUPLING L1
3
/9
D
V2 R6 .
0.,
1M.
001C
1f3
0 I COAX
IAL
LEAD
II
/
Z R711 v
—
_T
A
G
SOL
ID V 3 VALVEH OLDcR
o o
COUPL
ING C6
1
g BOARDS

0 0
R4

1 .T
AG BOARD

C
l2 e2 RFC 213
C4
L3
R3 OSC
ILLATOR INJECT
I ON
V
I LEAD THROUGH
L
I

L4
31
/
e /
4DIA \.

POLYSTYRENE C
14 PAC L2
BLOCK APPRO
s
a
f q v\
C
I /
8
I1/
/
4
2
1 A
;DIA

!
I
.Ftn i
i
„
POWER SOCKET AERIAL
OUT SOCKET

F
ig. 5
.
18 (
Left). Top v
ie w o
f t
he c
hass
is s
ho w
ing t
he a
rrange ment of the pr
inc
ipa
l c
o mponents
. (
Right)
. L
ayout o
f t
he c
o mpcnents b
elo w
the chass
is.

5
.
12
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
R
8 t othecen
tre tap ofthecoil
. Its hould b
e noted t
hat t
h
is L
5/C 17 s hould t une t o 1 45 M O j ust s ho rt o f m in imum
p
oint isno
t bypa s
sed to chass
is, to do so would p
robably c
apac ity. Am eterw i th af .s
.d .o fa bou t2 50 v olts ist hen c on-
r
e
sult inin
stabi
lity and apoor note. n
ected b etween t hem ixe ra node a nd c ha s
si sa nd 1 .
3 a djusted
The g
rid o
f the doubler s
ect
ion o f V3 isdr
iven vi
a C16, b
yo pen ing o rc losing t het urn su n
tilt heh ighe stm ete rr eading
b
ias be
ing produced across the g
rid leak RIO. The anode i
so b tained . C 3 s hou ld b e d etuned t o a void i n
te r-ac tion
c
i
rcuitcomprisesL 5
,s e
rie
st uned byt h
e 8p FPhil
ipstr
immer b
etwe en L 2a nd L 3a nd c are t aken t ha tC 17 ma intain sr e
son -
C
17. a
nce i nt heo utpu tc i
rcu ito ft h ed oub le r
. C 13 i st hen a djusted
t
o s et t he osc i
llato r t o af r
equency o f ( 145 — i .
f
.)/2 , o r
Construc
tion 6
74 Mc /s with t he i .
f
. m entioned a bove . T his may b e
d
one w ith t h
e a id o f ag r
id d ip o scillato r o r ac lo sely c al
i-
The l a
you t i ss hown i n F ig. 5 .18 a nd i sq ui
te s traigh t-
b
rated a bsorption w aveme te r
. I n t he l a
tte r c a
se i tw i
ll b e
f
orwa rd. T he 3 0 p F concen t ric t r
imme r (CI) h as it
s s pigo t
b
ound t ot h e c entre c onduc tor o ft he a erial s ocke t with f ine n
eces sa ry t o mon ito r t hea node c urren t o ft h
e o scilla to ra nd
wa
tch f or the "k ick " w hen L 4 p as ses t hrough r esonan ce.
w
i re b efo re s o
lde r
ing a nd i sa dju stab le t hrough t he h o le
p
rov ided i nt hed eck o ft hec ha ssis. When mak ing t his join t The d ouble r a node c ircu it o f V 3 s hou ld b e s et t o t he
r
equi red i njection f requency , i .
e. twice t hat o ft he o s c
illa to r
.
c
a re mus tb et aken t oa void o verhea ting,a sb oth c omponen ts
I
ft he c ircuit v a
lue s a re a s s hown , t he o nly r esonanc e p oint
a
r ea dve r sely a fected b ye xce s s
ive h eat. I fth ea erial plug i s
w
ithin t he range o fC I7 w ill b e thec orre ct o ne. T hi sw il
l b e
i
n p os
ition d uring t he o peration t he p in o f t he socke t w ill
i
ndica ted b y av o
ltme te rc onnec ted b etween m ixe ra node a nd
r
ema in c en t ral, b ut t he u se o f h ea t shun ts i n the f orm o f
c
ha s
si s a sa l
ready d e scribed . B y adju sting t h
e s pacing o fI A
c
rocod ile c lip s i sr ecommended .
a
nd t he c apac ity o f C 13 t he 1 4,4
-146 Mc /s b and m ay b e
C3 i s moun ted o n as mall b ra ss b racke t a nd p rotrude s
s
pread o ver the e nt
i re d ial.
t
hrough t h et op o ft hec ha s
sis. L 2i ss uppo r
ted a to ne end b y
H
.T . m ay nex t bea pplied t ot he r .
f. and i .
f
. s tage s a nd C 3
t
he a node t ago ft he valveho lde r( pin n o. 1)a nd a tth e othe r
t
uned t or esonance ,w hich w ill bei n dicated b y ac on side rab le
i
ss olde red t o al u go nt he b ody o fC 3. T he e arthy e nd o fL 3
r
i
se i nt he n oise l e
ve l
. I ti se s
sen t
ia l t hat t he a erial b e c on-
i
ss olde red t ot heb racke tc lose t ot he p oin t w here t hes pigo t
n
ected t ol oad V ia. I tm ay b en eces sary t oo pen o rc omp ress
o
f C 3 p as ses t hrough , t he t wo c oils b eing a r ranged s o t hat
t
he t urns o f L 2 s o t hat r e
sonance o ccu r s a t a bou t m id-
t
he i
ri nne rf acesa rea bou tk in,a par t. T he othe re nd o fL 3 i s
c
apac ity o fC 3. I nstab ility may b ep roduced a tl ow c apac ity
a
ttached t o t he m ixe r g r
id c apac itor C 4 a nd n o f urthe r
s
e
tting s o fC 3, b ut i ft h
i s h appen s m ake s ure b y rota ting C l
s
uppo rt i sn eces sary. T he o sc i
lla to r i n
jec t
ion l ead may b e
t
hat t his i snot d ue t oi n
cor rect a erial l oad ing.
wrapped t hree t ime s r ound t h e g r
id l ead a tt his p oint.
A
ll p rel
im inary t uning a dju s
tmen ts s hou ld b e made a t
The t wo r .f
. c hoke s ( RFC2 & 3 )i nt heh eate r leads t oV I
m
id -sca le o n C 14 a nd i fthisc apac ito r i sn ow t uned o ve ri t
s
a
re moun ted a bove t hec hassi s and w ound s ide b y side o n a
r
ange t h e backg round n o
i se s hould v ary o n
ly s l
igh tly o ver
Neo sid i ron c ore, t he o utere nds o ft he c oi
ls b eing s o
lde red
t
he b and . I ft h
ere i s as ha rp f a
lling o f
, t ighte r c oup ling
t
ot hel ead -ou tw i resw hich t hen s erve a ss uppo r
t s
:o ne end i s
c
onnec ted t o at ag plac ed u nde r ab o
lt s ecu ring t he p.t.f
.e .
v
alveho lde r f or V I a nd t he o ther t o t he t op o f t he bypa ss
c
apac ito r C 2.
I
n t he i nte rests o ff r
eedom f rom p ick -up o fs i
gna ls att he
i
ntermed ia te f r
equency , a ll leads t o t he i f
. a mplifier shou ld
b
es ho rta nd t hei n
te rnalc onnec tions t ot hei .f
. tran sformer s
s
hou ld b e s o a rranged t h a
t t he e xterna l c onnec t
ions a re a s
d
ire cta sp ossible . T he s hielding o ft hec oaxia l lead f r
om L 9
t
ot he o utpu t s ocke t s hou ld b e c onnec ted t oc hassis a tb oth
e
nd s t hough i t
s l ength i su n
impor tan t.
A
ll p owe r s upp l
ie s ar e t aken t h rough a n o ctal pl ug a nd
s
ocke t o n t he r ear d rop o ft he c ha s sis
. As witch i sp rovided
o
n t he p ane l w hich, i n i ts OFF p osition , remove s h.t. from
t
he r .
f. a nd i .
f. s tagesd uring t r
an sm iss
ion , l e
av ing t he m ixe r
a
nd o scilla to r o perative s o t hat i ti sp oss
ible t o mon i
to r a
t
ran sm itte r w ithou t o ve rload ing e ithe r t he c onver ter o r t he
a
ssoc iated r eceive r.

Ad
justment
S
et t he m ain r e
ceiver to a pproxima tely 1 0.2 Mc /s a nd
a
djust thec ores ofL 6, L7 and L 8 for max imum n o
ise. T he
e
xactf r
equency i sn o
ti mportan ta nd some l at
itude ispo ss
ible
t
oa void unwan ted signa
ls atthei ntermed iate frequency. T he
g
ain from V 2 issuch that the r.
f
. /
i.f
. gain c ontrol se
tting in
t
he ma in receiver will be quite l ow
, r esult
ing i n no b ack-
g
round n oise being audible when t he send /
receive s w
itch o n
t
he converter isa tthe SEND po s
ition.
The next step ist o r
esonate L 3. W i
th n o h.t
. on t h
e r.f
.
s
tage, the osci
llator should be a djusted t o give in
jection at An underchass
is vie w o
f the 144 Mc sc
onverter. LI a
nd L2 are i
n t
he
r
ight f
oreground . The c o-axial l
ead f
eeds the i
.
f, s
ignal f
ro m L9 to
1
45 Mc /s
. ( This may r equi
re thet empora ry remova lofC 12)
. the output socket CS2 at t
he top r
ight.

5
.
13
R S G B — R A DI O C O M M U NI C A TI O N H A N D B O O K

b
etween L 2 a nd L 3 i srequ ired, f ol
lowed b yre adju s
tmen t of A
s many o perators use the RCA AR88D a nd s imilar
C3 a t 145 Mc /s
. c
ommun icat
ion r e
ceivers as at unable i.
f
., relat
ive ly l ow
Cl isn ot at uning c ontrola nd n or esonanc ee fects s hou ld f
r
equenc ie s are used; 2.1-2
•7 Mc /s (fo
r the 70 Mc / s con-
b
ef ound w hen i tisa d
ju sted,b uta tl ow c apacity s ett
ing s the v
erter) and 2-4 Mc /s (for t
he 144 Mc/sconverter) w here the
g
rounded g r
id s tage w ill almo s
tc ertainly g o in
to o sc
illa t
ion . AR88D h as e
xcellent bandspread and st
abil
ity. Ad iferent
S
ligh ta djustmen ts tot h
e i nduc tance o fL I may b e ne ce ssary i
n
te rmed iate frequency c an b e e mp
loyed i f desired a nd
a
nd , i f an oise g enera to r isn ot a vailable, the se shou ld b e d
etails are gi
ven l a
ter on th
is poin
t.
made f or the b est r eadab ility o f aw eak ' phone s igna l o n P
recautions h ave been taken to el
iminate breakth rough ,
a
pp roxima te
ly 1 45 Mc /s
. W ith a djustmen t s made a s wh
ich c an bet roublesome ats uch l
ow i.
f
.'s
,a nd these( which
d
e scribed t here s hou ld b e n o d iff
iculty i n obta ining r e a
lly i
nc
lude t he use of as c
reen over the o
sci
lla
to r cr
ystal) h ave
s
atisfactory p er
fo rmance . T he c onve rter mu st n o
t b e c on- p
roved c fec
tiLc.
n
e cted to ab alanced f eede rw ithou tt hea ddit
ion o f ab alance -
t
o-unba lance t r
an sforme r or b alun . B
asic C
ircu
itry
With this ora ny o therc onve rte rt hee fe
cts o fv arying t he Both c onve r
te r s u
se a n earthed c athode , capac ity neutra -
t
un ing o r coup ling a djustmen ts a s w e
ll as th e h .
t. v ol
tage l
i
zed , 6 C W4 Nuv istor r.f
. amp lifi
e r inductively coup led i n
to
a
pp lied t o the r.f
. a nd m ixer s tages a nd t he oscillator i njec- at r
iode m ixer, i nt he anode c ircuit o fw hich i sconnec ted a
t
ion may b est bee xam ined w ith t hea i do f an o
i se gene rato r
, s
uitab le If
. t uning c oi
l. T op rovide al ow i mpedance f oru se
but although t h
is i sa dvisable t oe nsure o pt
imum r e
sul ts iti s w
ith ac oaxial c able, the o utpu t isf ed to the ma in receiver
possible to o btain a n a ccep table p e
r formance w ithou t t h
is t
hrough at r
iode c a
thode f ollowe r.
a
id. I tis mo st i mpo rtan t t o ensu re t hat the h eater v oltage Whilst t he c onverters a re b asically s imi
la r
, t he c rys
ta l
a
ctua lly a pplied t o t he v alve i s i n a ccordance w ith t he o
s c
illator/mu lt
ip lier stage s d ifer
. I n b oth i nstances t he
make r's rat
ing . o
s c
illator v a
lve i sa n EF9 I ( 6A M6 ) i n as imple C olpitts
c
ircuit. T his ist ob epref er
red t ot heS quiero sci
llatorw hich
S
I MPLE HI G H P
ERF OR MA NCE CO NVERTERS FOR 7
0 AN D may p rove d ifi cult tou se, particularly with s urp
lu sc rystals.
1
4 MC ,
S US
I NG N UV
IST OR R
.F. STAGES I
n t h
e c ase o ft he 70 Mc /s c onve r
te r
, a n 8500 k c/
s FT243
The
seconverte
rs, a
lthough re
asonab
ly simp
le tocon
struc
t c
rystali su sed, t heo sci
llatora node c i
rcu i
tb e
ing t uned t ot he
e
ven by ab
eginner, g
ive aper
formance v
ery c
los
et othe b
es
t f
ou r
th h armon ic o ft hec rys
ta l fr
equency . T he outpu to ft his
a
vai
lable b
ut do not u
se any e
xpens
ive v
alves
. s
tage i sc apac ity c oupled t o t he grid o f the EF9 I d ouble r

N
O
TE- H
O
LES '
ZAR
E 2
B
ACL
EAR
ANC
E A
N
D A
R
E F
O
R S
U
PPO
RT P
I
L
LAS F
R O
R C
O
I
LS O
RPH
I
LLI
PS T
R
IMM
ERS

.
2
.
/
l
i
.13
•/'
8r
-i4-
01 +
/
4.
S
C
REE
N'A
' S
C
REE
N '
E •
1
43
'. 42
1
Y
*
• • H
O
LES T OS
U
I
T .1\
F
ED-THR
OUGH P
I
L
LAR
S
0.

C
2
L
5 :
L
s
3W
A
E
R
IAL _ S
CR▪EN '
B'V
I
E
WED F
R
OM A
R
ROW '
r
.
S
O
CKE
T
3/
4.
/
5 D
8.I
A
WD
I
A
V
2
' H
2 O
L
F
E
ED
S T
-T
HR
OS
O
UG
U
I
T
H
O
U
TPU
T C
R
YS
TAL P
I
LL
ARS 1
.
-3/
4'
-
01.
4
-5
/8%
.
S
C
REE
N'B
' S
O
CKE
T
I
1
TA
9
1 711
/21
.
S
C
REEN '
C
'
1
/
116
-1
.
-1 5 W
S
CREEN '
C'V
I
EW
ED F
R
OM A
R
ROW '
Y
H
O
LES 4
/8.D
I
A ;
1
/1
1 )
1
-A
‘
.04 1 1
9
46
.
/
34* -
.4
.4- 7
/ -
1
8..1
.4
-- 3/
47
-
01
1
31i
2
'
1:
1
0 . A
l fle gi LOU N T
C
A
PAC
ITO
RS
* ••
F
ig. 5
.19. Mechanical deta
ils of t
he 70 Mc s Nuv istor
L 2W 1
4
. -
15/
t
i /
59• c
onverter. The v alveholder for the Nuv istor valve
7
. a
b
nd a
e fi
ny s
older
tted t
-
in t
o t
ype f
he s
eedthrough c
creens b efore t
apac
itors s
he a sse mb
hould
ly is
S
CREEN '
A'V
I
EWE OM A
D F
R R
ROW '
X
' mounted on the l
id o
f the die
-cast b ox.

5
.
14
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS

S
CREEN '
A S
CREEN E 31
4.
/ ,
1
_
t
i
e
• • •

44
*
3HOLES DR
ILLED TO S
UIT
4
-
. 0 \ F
EED-THROUGH P
ILLARS

S
C
REE
N '
I
V V
IEWED F
ROM

1/
8
" /
1 2"

3HO
LES D
R
ILLED •
2. T
O SU
IT F
EED
-THROUGH 3
/4" 5
,e
P
I
LLARS 1
"4 1.
4

11/
8"
0 _
r
_

S
CREEN S
CREEN S
CREEN D* S
C
REEN '
C. V
IEWED F
ROM '
Y
'

o-
, -1 1/11
5
.—s1

/
4
4 •
4#
"
' 9
h
e
8H OLES /
1 2.D
I
A'
9HOLES D
R
ILLED TO SU
IT H
OLE S
IZE T
O SU
IT 22pF
/
1 8 "DIA 1
000pF F
EED•THROUGH CAPAC
ITORS C
ERAM
ICON CAPACITOR
4
BA
C
LEARANCE ,h0

/
2 .
1 1 ' 54
6

58
/ •
15/ 1
4 _3/ _.
,4 SI
B" 1.
1
1 8" 4.

S
C
REEN '
0
' V
IEWED F
ROM
S
C
REEN '
A V RO M ARROW '
IE WED F X
' CREEN M
S ATER
IAL 2 S
WGB
RASS (
BEND
ING Q
UAL
ITY)

F
ig. 5
.
20. Mechan
ica
l d
eta
ils o
fthe 1
44 M O

s
tage, the a node o f which i stuned t o af r
equency o f 6 8-0 The only componen t moun ted through t heb ody oft heb ox
Mc/ s
, hence p roducing a n i.
f
. of2 1-2-7 Mc /s. i
stheB u
lgin P 360 three
-way m iniatu re p owe ri nputs ocket
,a
For th
e 1 44 Mc /s converter, a7100 k c/s FT243 c rysta l i
s f
l
ying l e
ad f rom w hich carries t
he p owe r to th e h
ea ter and
u
sed b ut t he osci
llator a node circuit ist uned t o the f ith h
.
t. feedth rough capac i
to rs moun ted o n s c
reen "E ." T h
is
h
a rmon ic of the crys
tal. I fV 4 fa
ils to oscil
late, reduce t he s
c
reen a l
so s e
rvest os upport RFC I a nd i t
sa ssociated 0-01 iF
v
alue o f t he 2-2 K o hm s cathode r esis
to r; poo r activity c
eramic c apacitors
. RFC2 i ssolde red d irect
ly t o the heads
c
rystals m ay r equire a v alue as l ow a s 1 00 o hm s
. T he o
ft he approp ria
te feedthrough c apac itors. O the r aspect
s of
s
ub sequen t ECC81 ( 12AT7 ) d ouble tr
iode i sc onnected i n c
onstruction m ay b e s e
en f rom t he p hotographs , b u
t i t
c
ascade a nd d oubling ineach h a
lf produce s af i
nalf r
equency s
hould b e n oted that in the photog raph o f t
h e top of the
o
f 1 42 Mc /s w h
ich results ina n i
.
f. of2 -4 Mc /s. c
omp leted 1 44 Mc /s c onverter the a foremen tioned p ower
I
n both c onverters the output from t he local osci
llato r i
s s
ocket iss hown a tt he wrong end o ft he box.
l
ink c oupled t o the m ixer stage a nd mo re than s uff
icient
output isa vai
lable toe nsure eff
ic
ient m ixing. No s i
gnif
i cant Component
s a
nd Wir
ing
s
pu rious respon ses from t h
e c r
y s
tal o sc
illator c ha
in h ave A
lmo st a l
l the c omponen ts used i n b oth conve r
ters are
been found w ithin the tuning range oft he converters
. s
tandard typ es r
ead i
ly a vai
lab le. A l
l valveho lderss hould be
o
f the low l o
ss variety, pre f
e rably p.
t.f
.e. As pecia
l h o
lde r
,
Mechan
ica
l C
onstruct
ion C
inch T yp e 1 3
3 -65 -
10 -001, i s required f or t h
e 6 C W4
Each conve r
ter isbuil
t o n the l
id ofa n Eddystone 7 i in
. Nuvis
to ra nd isgene ral
ly a vailable fr
om d ealer
ss tocking th
is
x4 i in. No. 845 di
e-cast b ox
. T h
is ensures ea
sy a ccess fo
r t
ype o f valve. A s t he 6 C W4 h a
s av e ry low a node-grid
a
ssemb ly a nd w i
ring. T he c ons
truction o f the i nter
ior c
apacity, iti sessential t hat t he neutralizing capacitor Cg
s
hould h ave am in imum c apacity n ot greater than 1p F
. A
s
creens, wi
th d imensions, i sshown i n F
igs. 5.
19 a nd 5.20
.
I
f solder-
in t ype feedthrough c apacitors are used , these
, Wingrove a nd R oge rs o r P les
sey m inia ture 1 -
10 p F a ir
-
t
ogether with the Nuvi s
tor h olde
r, should be soldered i n
to s
paced t r
imme r i s s u
itable. T he P h
ilip s concentric type
p
o s
ition before attemp t
ing t o bolt the sc
reen s e
ction s to
- s
hould n o
t b e u sed d ue t o i t
s r e
lat
ive ly high m in
imum
g
ethe r a
nd t o mount the a
s sembly on the li
d. c
apacity.
5
.
15
 RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK

f
e
ed through i n
sulator s a re u s
ed b oth
f
or suppo rt a nd feed -through p urpo ses
r
e
su lt
ing i n an eat a nd r i
gid a s
semb ly
.
A
l
l w iring a ssociated w ith t he r .
f
.
c
i
rcu i
try s hou ld b e k ept a s sho rt a s
p
os s
ible. D ecoup ling a nd earth returns
a
ssociated w i
th e ach v a
lve a re made t o
s
o
lde r t ag
s w hich a re h e
ld u nde r t h
e
s
ecuring n uts f or the v alveholde r con-
c
erned. I n t h e case o f the Nuv is
to r
,
t
ags 8a nd 1 0arew ired t othef r
ame l ug
s
o
f the h o
lde r
. T he e arth lead from t h
e
B
ulgin p owe r s ocket i sc onnected t o a
s
o
lde r t ag u nde r o ne o f the s ecuring
b
olts ofs c
reen "E ."

T
he 7
0 Mc
/s N
uvis
tor C
onve
rte
r
T
he circuit isshown i nF ig. 5.21 a nd
mechanica l d e
tai
ls i n Fig. 5 .
19. C oi
l
de
tails a
r eg i
ven inT able 5.1 .
T
oa l
ign t hec onverte
r, disconnec t the
h
.t
. s upply f rom V I, remove t he c ans
f
rom L 7 a nd L 8 and fi
rst a djust L 8 f o
r
maximum i ndicat
ion o nt h
er .f
.c hecking
An i
nterior v
ie w o
f t 0 Mc sc
he 7 onverter. Note the u
se of c
era mic f
eedthrough i
nsulators meter —Fig. 5 .
22. T hen a dju st L 7 in a
for s
upporting t ir-spaced c
he a o
ils. s
imilar manne r. T he t un
ing r ange o f
e
ach c o
il i ssuch that only t he required
harmonic s hou ld be selected b ut i ti s
Al
l 001 µF c apac itors a re high K c eram ic t ypes
. T he w
ise t o check t h e a
ctual frequenc ies with a n a bsorption
1
000 p F f e
ed through c eram ic capac itors can e i
the r be t he waveme te
r o r g .
d.o. When t hi
s h as been d one t he c ans
s
older-
in o rn ut secured t ypes. All o the
rf ixed capac i
to rsa re s
hou ld be replac ed on L 7 a nd L 8, and the t wo c ores r e
-
c
eramic, suitable typ es being ma rke ted by R ad
io spares L td. a
dju sted fo
r max imum r .
f
. o u
tpu t fr
om t h e coup ling l ink
A
ll res
is tors are I w att t ype exc ept the 8 .2 K o hm s h .
t. L4
. T he ou
tpu ts hould bec onnec ted tothec ommun ica t
ions
f
eed forV I, w hich a s a w att r
ating. A n umbe r of KLG r
eceiver, tuned t o 24 Mc /s. L 5 will be a pp roxima tely

4
000pF RFC
1 1
000pF
2
-2K 8
.2 K

1
2 00'

T 0
.
,T
.
5 mH HT+
4
000pF I
1
50V
68 K

0
.01 0
.01
4
.7K
6-
11
_L
C2 oaf
3
-30 /00 L4 T
o L
6 L
7 LE
I
pF • •
•..
,
1 68-6 34
-3
CN de\ "MCA Mc/s
C)
1
-1 0 pFA
I. V2 V3
C, L3
c
, f
2AT7 1 E
F9 I
—
, (
-
2
2pF
- -
*-1
1 I- 4
.--11 -- -.
2
2pF

AER
IAL()
r
o 8 L
I \
1
000pF
3
-30
P
F

RFC3 8
575 k /
s
1
4000pF 1
mH
i
i 0 0 0pF
1
000pF 1
000pF 6
.3V

RP
O2
OUTPUT
F
ig. 5
.21. C
ircu
it d
iagra m o
f t
he 7
0 Mc sNuv
istor c
onverter
. A2
2 pF c
era m
ic c
apac
itor s
hould b
e c
onnected f
ro m p
in 6(
anode) o
f V2 t
o e
arth

5
.
16
 V.
H.F.
/U.
H.F.RECE
IVERS

TABLE 5
.
1 CN i
sin
cor
rec
tly a
d
jus
ted
; t
he m
inimum p
os
it
ion r
e
fer
red
I
nductor d
eta
ils f
or t
he 7
0 Mc
's C e
ee
t
o isv ery sharp and to ac e r
tain ex
ten t adju stmen t i sinte r
-
Tunab
le i
.
f
. 2
-
1 t
o 27 Mc s
. Crysta
l 8
500 k
c/s
. d
ependen t with C 2 and C l. No d iff
iculty s hou ld b e e x-
p
er
ienced , h oweve r
, i n obtaining the c orrec t se
t t
ing . F or
L
I 8turns 1 8 s.w .g. e nam , wound o n i
n. mandrel, le
ngth f
i
nal a d
ju s
tmen ts anoise generator isde s
irab le (see C hap ter
1in.
. tapped 3 t urns f rom e arth end, air spaced. 1
9—M easur ements) but ift h
is isnot a vai
lab le, C l, C 2, C 3
L
2 1
3 turns 1 8 s.w .g. e nam . wound o n i kin. mandrel, le
ng th
Ii n.. t
apped 5 1 t urns f rom CNa i
r s paced. a
nd L 5 (a
lso L 7 and L 8) should be a d
ju s
ted f or m aximum
L
3 8
4 t urns 1 8 s .w .g. e nam . wound o n i
n. mandre l
, o
utpu t on al o
cal si
gnal. F inal
ly the capac ity o fC l s hou ld
l
ength j i n
., a ir spaced .
L
4 2turns 18s.w .g. e nam . wound o n i
n. mandre l a
nd placed b
e in c
reas ed sl
ight
ly s o that the c
ircuit isd etuned t owa rds
b
etween L 2 and L 3. 7
0 Mc /s a nd the o u
tpu t just drops. T his i sn ear t o t he
L
5 Maxi-Q i .
f
, t rans former t ype 1FT 1 /1'6, with si
lver m ica
c
apacitor s in c an r emoved a nd p rimary a nd secondary o
ptimum p os
it
ion f or t he b es
t s i
gnal-to -no i
se r a
tio. I n
w
ind ings in s erie s (top o f lower layer wind ing to bottom p
ractice a n oi
se f a
cto r of b et
ter t han 2 .5db s hould b e
o
f u pper layer w ind ing ).
L
6 2turns 2 2s.w .g. p .v.c. covered tinned c opper wire wound o
btained .
a
t h.t. end of L 7.
L
7 1
0 turns 2 6 s.w .g. e nam . wound o n 4i n. by Ij i
n. f
ormer ,
s
lug tuned ( Aladd in t ype w ith can)
. T
he 1
4
4 Mc sNuv
istor C
onver
ter
L
8 1
0 turns 2 6 s.w .g. e nam . wound o n i
n. by 14in. f
ormer ,
s
lug tuned ( Aladd in t ype w ith can)
. T
he ci
rcuit o
fth
e 1
44 Mc/s c
on%c
r
teriss
hown i
nFig
. 5
.23
R
FC' 2
.5 mH r .
f. choke .
R
FC2 S
I i n. 18 s .w.g . e nam . wound o n i
n
. mandre l, close a
nd th
e m echan
ica
l a
rrangemen
ts i
nFig
. 5
.
19.
s
paced .
R
FC3 1mH r .
f. choke .

2TURNS -
--
--.
.
.y
1
6SWG
D
IA
c
orrect. A djust C3 fo
r max imum h i
ss; two p os
ition s w
ill b
e
f
ound , the one with the s maller capacity being t he correc
t F
ig. 5
.22
. R
.F c
heck
ing meter
OAB1
o
ne. OR
As trong signal i
st hen requi r
ed ( f
rom al ocal t ransmitte
r E
QUIVALENT
o
r signal generator) and shou ld be f e
d to the a erial socket
.
0- 500p A
Ad
ju stC l and C 2fol
lowed b yC 3 and L5 form aximum o ut
-
p
utf ol
lowed b yadjustmen to f CN, t
heneutral
izing c apacitor
,
w
ith a n in
sulated s c
rewdr ive r
, fo r minimum o u tput. ( I
n
p
ractice this i s u
sually f ound t o b e n ea
r t h e m inimum The ad
justmen t of th
is converter isv ery simi
la r to th
e
c
apacity of CN. )T hi
s p rocedu re should be repea ted s evera
l 7
0 Mc /sun
itexceptt hatthec ommun icationsreceiveri ss
ett o
t
imes a s t here is some i n
te ract
ion b e
twe en t h e adjust- 3 Mc/s, c
orre
spond ing to as igna
l frequency o f 1 45 Mc/s
.
ments. F
irs
t p ower i
sa ppl
ied w i
th t h
e h.t
. disconnected f r
om V I
.
The i n
it
ial a d
justmen ts are n ow c omp le
te a nd h .t
. may T
he c an isremoved f r
om L 9 and the slug isa dju s
ted for
b
e reconnec ted toV I. I fthere is at e
ndency f or o sci
llat
ion, max
imum r .f
.i n
dication f
ollowed byC 5( r
.f.indication be
ing

2
.2 K 1
000pF 8
.2K RFC I 1
000pF
1
000 O M i
m
i
1
000pF L
6 2
.5mH.- 1- 7 4
7+
1
\ -- "
.
T
o K 1
50V
L
2 6
8K L
4 1
000 pF
T-
6 -
0- T
,
000pF 4
.7K 2000pF
0
.01 2
.2 1
2
.2K L7 I
I—
T
o 142
L4 L
6 L
5 00
1
C
l Mc/s L
I
3
3
-•OpF 1
0 i 3
5.5 OK
2
2pF 7
1 Mas
V CN tai\ 0
.01
L
3 3
- 30pF ff .\
I-
10pF,
I15 6
CW4
z VI 12AT7 6 1 5 V 4
2
2 V3 C5 EF91
11
r
1 p
Fww w
e 6
2
7pF -1 \
1 2
2p 2 0
.01 7 2 T
i
T 7
4
V2 2
2pF
1
2457 1 1
5
: C4 8
1 7 -.
-c )3 p
F
L
I E 1
0 3- 4
,
5 9 3 4
l
4
,5 1
0pF
1
2

4
7K
3- 2
20K O
I K 1
00 .
30K 1
47,

I- 7
100
1
0pF 1
0pF k
ciS

1
.
.
,1
EAR1
'01
2
700

1 1
1000pF
AER
IAL .
000 10
.01 R
FC2 1
000pF 6
.3V
( 000 \
OUTPUT

F
ig. 5
.23
. C
ircu
it d
iagra m o
f t
he 1
44 Mc
's Nuv
istor c
onverter
.

5
.
17
RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
TABLE 5
.
2
I
nductor d
etai
ls f
or the 1
44 Mc/s C t
er
Tunab
le i
.f
. 2to 4 Mc
/s. Crysta
l 7
100 k
cis

LI 4turns 1 8 s .w.g. e nam . wound o n i

n
. mandre l, l ength
i
n
., tapped 1 t urns from e arthy e nd, air spaced.
L
2 8turns 1 6 s.w .g. enam . wound o n 17, i
n. mandre l, l ength
1in.
, tapped 3 1 t urns for CN , a
ir spaced .
L
3 4turns 1 6 s.w .g. enam , wound o n i t
,in. mandre l, l ength
i
n.
, air spaced .
L
4 Iturn 1 6 s .w.g. e nam . wound o n f i n. mandre l, i n
ter-
wound a t ear thy e nd of 13, air spaced.
L
S 3
2 s.w.g. enam . wound o n i
n
. b y 21 in. former ( Aladd in
t
ype w ith c an), 1l a
yer 1 i n. l
ong a nd 1l ayer I in
. l ong.
T
issue p aper i nterleaving, s ecured w ith p o
lys tyrene
c
ement . T uned b y t wo s l
ugs. 3 -3 K o hm r esistor i n
p
aralle
l.
1
6 a
s for 1 4 but mounted a d
jacent t o the h .t
. e nd of 1 7, ai
r
s
paced.
L
7 3
1 turns 1 6 s.w .g. enam . wound o n is in. mandre l, l ength
i
n.
, air spaced .
L
a 7turns 1 6 s.w .g. enam . wound o n i
n. mandre l, l ength
1in.
, air spaced .
1
9 1
0 turns 2 6 s.w .g. enam . wound o n i
n
. b y 1 i n
. f ormer
s
lug tuned ( Aladd in type w ith can).
R
FC! 2
.5 mH r .
f. choke .
R
FC2 2
6 in. 18 s.w.g . enam . close wound o n i
n
. mandre l, self
-
s
uppor ting, ai rs paced. The 144 Mc
's c
onverter. The s
creen
ing can for t
he c
rysta
l h
as b
een
R
I
-C3 mH r .
f. choke . r
e moved f
or t
his p
icture.

o
bserved a t L8 and L7 re
spect
ively)
, and then C 4
. A gain
, c
entred o
n 3 Mc /s
. C l, C2 and C 3 ar e t
hen ad
justed for
t
he tuning range ofeach tuned c
ircu
it issuch that on
ly t h
e maximum outputo n ast
rong lo
cal si
gnal. CN isad
ju s
ted for
r
equired harmonic should be s
e
lected but itiswis
e toc heck m
inimum o u
tput with an in
sulated screwdriver
, the cor
rect
t
he actual f
requencie
s with an a
bsorption meter o
r g.d
.o .
, if s
e
tting b
eing ve
ry a i
tica
l. When h .t
. h as been r
e
connec ted
a
vai
lab le
. L 5, which isve ry f
l
at in it
s tuning
, s hou
ld b e t
o V I t
he converter is r
eady f o
r use. F inal ad
ju s
tmen t

An u
nders
ide v
iew o
f t
he 1
44 Mc
/s c
onve
r No
te t
hat L
3 s
hou
ld r
cat
i L
4 a
nti v
i
tt , v r
sa

5
.
18
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECEIVERS

10 H 3
-3 K
6X4 5W HT+
1
50 V

F
ig. 5.24
. A po wer supply suitable for CV287
u
se w ith e
ither the 7
0 Mc so r 1
44 Mc s 1
5 0B3
c
onverter . A semi-conductor rectif
ier MAI NS Q5
150/
15
o
fs u
itab le rat
ing could be s
ubstituted
f
or the 6X4 valve.
2
5 0V AC HT—
LT -

6 31

s
hould again, i
fp o
ssible
, be c
arr
ied out w i
th an o
ise g
ener- Wir
ing D
eta
ils
a
tor
. The orientat
ion o ft he valveho lde r
s s hould b e a
s f o
llow s:
Measured u nder labora
tory condit
ion s the no
ise fa
ctor V
2, V 3, pins 1and 9a re o n thes creen "A "s ide
, V 4, pins 1
o
f the origina
l mode l was 2.
9db, p rotect
ion agains
t i .
f
. a
nd 7 a re o n the screen "A " s i
de w hen v iewed f rom t he
b
reakthrough b e
tter than 80db
, the i mage re
sponse bet
ter u
nde rs
ide o fthec hass
i s
. E arth
ing o ft he valveholde r p
i ns is
t
han 20db d own at 144 Mc/s a
nd th
e o veral
l ga
in 23db
. i
mpor tant: al
l pins tob ee arthed a rec onnec ted tot hec entre
s
p
igo t o f the valveho lder. F or V 2 and V 3, t
hese are c on-
n
ected b y as short aw ire as p ossible, i.
e.
, f rom th e nearest
e
ar
thed p in, to 6B .A . s o
lde r t ags u nder t he valveho lder
P
ower S
upp
ly
r
e
taining n u
ts nea rer sc
reen "A ."
Ap ower supply wh
ich delivers 6.3 vo
lts at 1.
5 amp s and I
n t h
e c ase ofV 4 the earth t ag is moun ted u nde r th
e n ut
1
50 v
olts a
t3 0 mA isadequate and as ui
table ci
rcuitisshown n
earer the crystal h o
lde r
. S creens "C" a nd "D "a re also
i
nFig
.5 .24
. T he components area l
lo f amode stsize a
nd the s
o
lde red t o th
e c entre s p
igo ts of th e
ir r e
lated v a
lveho lde r
s.
c
omplete uni
t can be bui
lt in
to a 3i in. x4 1
- in
. E ddystone
1
4
4 MC
,S BA N D C O N VERTER US
I N G TRA NS
IST ORS
No
. 650 di
e-cast box
. T he s moothing capacitors and c
hoke
a
re mounted ins
ide th
e box. At ransmit/rece
ive re
lay can be With mode rn alloy d ifu sion and m esa e p itax ialt ran si sto rs,
a
dded ifrequir
ed to mute the conve r
ter w h
ils
t at ran
sm it
ter c
ompac t yet h ighly e ff
icientc onve rte rs for t he ama teu rv .h.f.
i
soperat
ing, by removing t
h e h.
t. supply. a
nd u .h.f
. b ands may b e c onst
ruc ted. F ig . 5 .25 s how s t he
c
i
r cu it diag ram o fs uch ac on -
TR2 v
erte rf or t he 1 44 t o 1 46 Mc /s
R4 R6
TRI 1
00 0 27K G
M037 1
3 a
l
loca tion .
L1 L
2
A
F139 AS i
emen s AF I39 t ran sisto r
AER IAL
I
( C
I IF (
TR I),o pe ra tes a s ag rounded
OUTPUT
L
4
b
a se r .
f
. s tage w ithou t i npu t
C3 wid\ t
un ing , t he f eede r i mpedance
2
-20pF ,K.
f
orm ing a f a
ir ma tch w ith t he
R
I C6
4700 2
-2 0 emitte r i
mpedance . The
pF c
ollec to r c ir cuit i s r esona ted
o a
t t he c ent re o f t he b and b y
C2 1
0 0 0pF L
I/C3 , r esisto rs R I, R 2 a nd
I00 0pF
R3 s et
ting t h e d .c
. o pe rating
1001 1 c
ond ition s s o t hat a pp rox i-
TR4 L
7
0
617 1 ma tely 2 mA i sd rawn f rom
t
h e 9v olt s upp ly.
R
I2 The d eg ree o f i nduc tive
100f1 R
I3
2
.2K
c
oup ling b e twe en L I a nd L 2
CRYSTAL b
(
tuned b yC 6)i sac omp rom ise
R9
6.8K
b
e twe en s
igna l t
ran sfe r
,

)
TT
2-20
C
13 1
C9
R
II pF bandw id th a nd t h e r ejec tion
C
1
2T
T
)
2
20
(T
0
.01
o
f s econd c hann el a nd i nte r
-
100 0pF 100 0pF m ed iate f
requenc ies. No
COLLECTOR neu traliza tion o r s creen ing i s
A
F139 nece ssa ry p rov ided t his c oup -
G
M0290 A
F2 12 l
ing i sn ot made t oo t igh t a nd
G
MO 378 cha ssis c ur ren ts e l
im ina ted b y
EMITTER
TAB T
AB 0
6171 theu seo fs ing le p ointe arthing
F
ig. 5.25
. C ircu it diagra m o f the converter a nd transistor c onnect ions. For d etai
ls o f Rx s ee t ext. o
f t he v ariou s c i
rcu it s. T o
Crystal frequenc ies for other than the i f
, of 2
4 to 26 Mc sd escribed w i
ll be f
ound i n Table 5.3 t ogether
w
ith v a
lues f or CIS when t his is required.
t
his e nd, t he b as e b ypa ss, C 2
,

5
.
19
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
c
omponen t v alue s given w i
l l w ork s atisfactorily w ith over-
t
one c rystals i nt he range 3 0 to4 7 Mc /s. An 0C 171 (TR3 )
s
erve s a sa n overtone c rystal osci
lla tori n acircu it which has
b
een f ound v ery r e
liable f o
r c rystals i n
tended f or t
his mode
o
f o peration o n frequenc ie s of t h
i s o rder
. I n this ci
rcuit
c
onf igu ration t he transistor w il
l o s c
illate o n
ly w hen a l ow
i
mpedance e x
ists b e
tween b ase a nd e arth. T his condit
ion
i
ss a
tisfied a t the o vertone f r
equency w hen t h e s
eries im-
p
edance o f the c rystal fa
lls t o al ow v a
lue. F or a n i
f. of
2
4 t o 2 6 Mc /s t he crystal o vertone f requency i s4 0 Mc/ s
.
Ano the r 0C 17 1 ( TR4) ac ts as at r
iple r to 1 20 Mc /s
. An
a
l
te rna tive t ype o f t r
ansistor w ould b e t he AFZ 12. T his
s
tage i s b i
ased b y e mi
tter -base r ec
tificat
ion , t he e m
itter
r
esisto r R 11 s erving t olimit thec o
llecto rc urren t toa pproxi-
mately 1mA . T he v a
lue o f 220 o hm s w as a rrived at as a
c
omp rom i se b e
tween e ff
iciency a nd t he d ange r of t he
H
OLES '
A
'— 8BA C LEARANCE '
B' -6BA C
LEARANCE t
ran sistor b eing d amaged b y exce s
sive p eak c urrent.
'
C
'— 3/
16" DIA, CLOSE FIT F
OR TRANS
ISTOR '
D
'-5/
11. D
IA
E'-3
/115 DIA, CLOSE FIT F
OR TRANS
ISTOR
'
F
' -7/32 . S
QUARE, CLOSE F
IT FOR TR
IMMER
Construct
ion
F
ig. 5
.26
. Details f
or d
ril
ling the l
i
d ofthe E
ddystone d
ie-ca
st box o
n
which al
l co mponents f or t
he 144 Mc/s t
ransistor c
cccc r
ter a
re Top reventi f
. break th
rough t h ec onver ter mu stb eb u
iltin
mounted
. am e
talc ase a
nd a nE ddy stone d ie-castb ox T ype 8 45 measur-
i
ng4 1 in
. x2 1 in. x1 i n. w asu sed f ort hep roto type. T he
c
omponen ts a
r e al
l moun ted o n the l i
d o f the b ox, dri
lling
i
se arthed t o at agu nder o ne o ft he b olts h olding t hec oaxial i
nst
ruction s b
eing given i nF ig.5. 26. T he l ayouto fthem ain
a
eria l s ocke t a nd t he d ecoup ling c apac ito r, C 4, earthed a s c
omponen ts isshown i nF ig. 5 .27. C are mu st b e t
a ken to
c
lose ly a s p o ss
ible t o C 3. S im ilar a rrangemen ts a re made e
nsure th a
t good c ontact e xists b e
tween t he earthy e nds of
f
or C 5 a nd C 6. Itw il
l b e n oted t ha t t wo b ypa s sc apacitors, t
he 2t o 2 0 pF tr
imm ing c apac i
to rs ( C3, C 6 a nd C 11) a nd
C13 a nd C 14 , are c onnec ted i np a
ra llel a c ro s
s R 13, the fi
rst t
he case
. I n t
he p rototype t he
se w ere o f th e ceramic t ube
h
av ing al ow i mpedance t os ignal a nd o scillato r frequenc ies t
ype m ade b y R adio spares. An a lterna tive w ou ld b e the
a
nd t he s econd t o t he i.
f
. B oth a re e arthed t ot he same t ag E
rie type 5 35 w hich, h owe ver, r equire s slightly d iferent
a
sC 5 and C 6. s
i
zed f i
x
ing h o
le s
.
The m ixe r, TR2 , i s at ype GM0378 . T he s ignal i sfed to
t
he b a
s e from at app ing o n L 2 and o scilla tor i n
je ction taken
t
ot he e mi
tte r via t he coup ling l oop L 8 f rom L 7/C 11 i nt he Ad
justment
o
utpu t o f th e crys tal o scil
la tor c hain . R 5 , R 6 a nd R 13 After c heck ing t he wiring a 9 v olt b a
tte ry may b e con -
c
on trol t he d .c
. o perating c ond ition s
. Op timum p erform - nected , t aking c are t hat the correctp olarity i so bserved . T he
a
nce r equ ires as tand ing c urren t o f a pp rox ima tely 0 .4 mA to
ta l c urren t shou ld l i
e b e
tween 6a nd 8mA .
which r ises t o0 .6 mA w hen t he i n
je ction i sa pplied. The o scillator s hould b e a d
ju sted f i
rst
. A s t he c ore i s
The i nduc tance L 3 i s resona ted b y s t
ray c apacitance in
ser ted i n
to L 5
/L6 t hec ur rent increas es t o amax imum a nd
(
app rox ima tely 5p F) att h
e i .
f. w hen t his i si nt he range 2 4 t
h en f a
lls s harply : t he core s hould b e s e
t j ust s hort o f t he
t
o 2 6 Mc /s
. S hou ld i tb e d esired t o u se a n i .
f
. l owe r than m aximum c urren t p o
sition. I tw ou ld , ofc ou rse, b e ag rea t
2
0 M O , C 15 may b e requ ired . I t
s c onnec tion s a re shown advan tage w hen a d just
ing t hec r
ysta l o scillato r t ob e a b
le t o
d
otted o n t he c i
rcu it diag ram . S ugge sted v a
lue s a re given l
i
sten t o t he o ve rtone f r
equency , b u
t ar eceive r c overing
i
nT able 5 .3. T he e arthy e nd s o fC 7 a nd L 4 (and C l 5w hen 40 Mc /s i ssome th ing o f ar ar
ity. T he o scillato rs i n mo st
u
sed )a r
ec onnec ted t o at agh eld b yo ne o ft heb o
ltss ecuring r
ece ive rsg ene rate h armon icso fsuf icien t amp li tude h oweve r
t
he i f. o utpu t coax ial socke t. f
or ab ea t to b e o btained o n h a
lf t h e cry stal f r
equency l ess
The o sci
lla tor c ha in i s straigh tforwa rd a nd w ith t h
e ha
lf t he i .
f
., i.
e. i ft he required s i
gna l i so n 4 0 Mc /s a nd t he
i
.
f. o ft he r ece
ive r i s4 65 kc /
s, ab ea t s hou ld b e o btained a t
app rox ima tely 2 0 Mc /s less0 -23 Mc / s or 1 9.77 Mc /s. I tw ill
TABLE 5
.
3 p
robab ly b e n eces sary i no rde r to h ear t he b eat t o b r
ing a
C
ircu
it mod
ifica
tions f
or o
ther in
ter med
iate f
requenc
ies a
nd l
ead f rom t he a eria l input o f the r eceive r c lose t o b ut n ot
c
rysta
ls
t
ouch ing L 5/L6 .
Th
ird In
ject
ion The n ext step i st o tune t he circu its a sso ciated w ith TR4 .
Tunab
le I
.
F. Overtone F
requency C
ircuit Mod if
ications Asa lready m en t
ioned t hec urrentp as sed b yt hiss t
age s hou ld
Crysta
l •
4
.
5-6
.5 M
c/s 1
6 500 Mc s 1
39 5 M
c s L3 wound i
n
. l o
ng b
e a pp rox ima tely 1mA a nd i fn ece s sary t he v alue o f R 11
w
ith 38 s .w.g
. e narn. may b e a dju s
ted s l
igh t
ly t oa chieve t his
. C 11 i st uned f or a
w
ith 50 pF i n par
allel
(
C15)
. s
l
igh td ip i nth ec ol
lec to rcur rentt owards t hel ow c apac i
tance
9
-11 Mc
/s 4
5 000 Mc
/s 1
35
.0 M O C
IS 20 pF
. e
nd o fi t
st ravel. A fterc onnec ting t hem ain r eceive rt ot hei .
f.
2
1-23 M
c/s 4
1 000 Mc
/s 1
23
.0 M O C
I 55 pF
.
2
7-29 M
c/s 3
9 000 Mc
/s 17
.0 N O None
. o
u tpu t s ocket t he c ore o f L 3/L4 s hou ld b e a dju sted f o r
3
0-32 M
c/s 3
8 000 Mc
/s 1+0 M O 5pF i
nparal
lel with 13. max imum n oise o ve r thec hosen i .
f
. r ange a nd ac he ck made
3-35 M
c/s 3
7 000 Mc
/s 110 Mc/s 5pF i
nparal
lel with 1.
5.
t
ha t t he a d
ju stmen t found f or C 11 a lso g ive s max imum
•
Type HC6 U n
oi se. R emova l o f t he cry s
tal o r c oup ling a n a bsorption

5
.
20
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
TABLE 5
.
4
I
nductor d
eta
ils f
or t
he 1
44 Mc sT
rans
istor Converter

5turns i
n
. diam. 4i n
. long. 2 2 s
.w.g
. t i
nned c opper w ire
.
1
2 5turns 1g i n. diam. i
n
. long. 2 2 s.w.g. tinned c opper
t
apped It urn f rom e arthy end. 1/12 s paced i r i n
. a part
.
L
3 5
0 turns on 5g i n
. former 4 i n
. long. 3 4 s.w
.g. e nam . D us
t
i
ron core
.
L
A
I 3 turns p .v
.c. c overed ( 7 40 s.w.g. "R adio spare s ")
wound over 1 3.
L
S 2
5 turns on i
n
. former 4 i n
. long. 26 s .w
.g. enam . D us
t
i
ron core
.
L
6 2 turns p .v.c
. c overed ( 7 x4 0 s.w.g. "R ad
io spare s ")
wound over L S.
L
7 5turns -1)
, in. diam. i
n
. long. 2 2 s.w.g. tinned c opper.
L
B Iturn p.v
.c. c overed ( 7 •4 0 s.w.g
. "R adiospare s") i nter
-
wound ate arthy end o f L7
.

waveme ter cl ose to L 7 and tuned t o i t

s resonan t frequency
s
hou ld b o
th r esult in areduc t
ion i nn oise output.
As t
rong l ocal signal int h
e r ange 1 44 to 146 Mc /
s i snow
r
equi red, fa
i
ling w hich use may b e m ade o f ag.d.o., and C 3
A 4m F
ET c
onverter w
ith a c
ascode amp
lif
ier
.
a
nd C 6a d
ju sted form aximum s igna l strength along w ith the
c
ore o fL 3/L4 a nd C ll. F inal
ly , using aw eak signal, al
l the
s
t
age i nclude t
he AF139, AFZ12 a
nd,with s
ome degradation
a
dju stmen ts should b e verif
ied.
i
n perfo rmance
, the AF114 or 0C171
. I tshould be noted
The u se of ag .d.o., unless t r
an sisto r
ized, i sn ot recom -
t
ha
t a lthough t h
e d i
sposi
tion of l
e
ads o n the AFZ 12 is
mended f or s e
tt
ing c oi
ls i n compac t t ran s
istorized e quip-
s
imi
lar t o t
he GM0378 , the b
ase a
nd e m
itte
r connections
ment. I tisd iff
icult too btain at rue r eading ofr esonance i n
a
re in
te rchanged
.
t
he s ma
ll space a vai
lable a nd a l
l t oo e asy t o damage t he
t
ransistors by t he application ofe xces s
ive r .
f.
F
ield Ef
fect Trans
istor (
FE T) Converters f
or 7
0 and
If arel
iable n oise source isa vailable t hec oup l
ing b etween 1
44 Mc
js
L
I a nd L2 a nd t he values of t he bia sing n e
two rk s R I
, R 2,
R3 a nd R 5, R 6
, R 13 m ay be a dju sted f or o pt
imum n oise The f i
eld e fect transistor o fer
s ap e
rformance r i
sa i
led
f
i
gu re, but the i mprovemen ts obtainab le are n o
t l i
kely tob e o
nly b y t h
e p arame tr
ic amp lif
ie r
. W ith the avai
labil
ity of
g
reat. s
uch FET s as t he T exas I nstrumen ts Ltd. 2 N3819, itis
The p erformance o ft his conve rter w il
l b e found t o be at p
racticable t o d es
ign v .h
.f. a nd u .h.f
. r e
ceivers with ex-
l
east thee qual o f ag ood v a
lve t ype u sing a6 C W4 r .
f. s
tage. t
remely l ow n o
ise l e
vels a nd a t the s ame t ime with a n
i
mmun i
ty t o strong s ignal ( c
ro ss-modu lat
ion ) efects le
ss
A
lternat
ive Trans
istors t
han those s hown b ya lmo s
ta ny v a
lve c onverter
, and fa
rl e
ss
t
han f o
r r .
f
. a nd mixe r stages using n ormal trans
istor
s.
AC iM0290 m ay b e subst
ituted for t
he AF 139 int h
e r .f
.
The e lements i n aF ET h ave a d iferent n omenclature
s
t
age w ith a marginal improvemen t in per
formance b u t it f
rom t hose i n an ormal t rans
isto r
, a nd for ease o
fr e
ference
w
il
l b e found n
ecessary toi nc
lude ar e
sis
tor( R x)o
fb e
twe en
t
his isbrief
ly m entioned .
1
0 a nd 5 0 o
hms b etween the col
lector and tuned ci
rcuit, as F
ET Nor ma
l T
rans
istor Va
lve
i
ndica ted on the c i
rcuit diagram, t o overcome a s light (
approx. on
ly)
S
ource Em
itter Cathode
t
endency t owards i n
stabi
lity
. T h
is res
istor w as no
t f ound G
ate B
ase Gr
id
n
ec e
s sary when us
ing t h
e AF 139. D
rain C
ollector Anode
T
ran si
stor
s w h
ich may a l
so b e employed i n t
he m ixer I
ts hould b e n oted t hat with the 2 N38 19, a n n-channel
d
evice e mployed i n these de s
igns, the d rain i sc onnected
(
-IND
ICA
TES E
A
RTH
ING T
A
G t
o the p o
sitive s i
de o f th
e supp ly vo
ltage w hile t he gate i
s
n
egatively bias ed a nd,asi n avalve
,d raw sn egl
ig ible cur
rent.
W
AY T
he n ew a nd h i
ghe r performance T IS88 F ET may b e used
T
A
G ST
RI
P w
ith advan tage t o rep
lac e th
e 2N38 19, espec ially int he RF
s
t
age,eithern eu tral
ised orc ascode. No change si nc omponen t
v
alues are n ecessa ry but itshould be n oted t hat the source
a
nd g ate connec tion s of the TIS88 a re i n
te rchanged w ith
r
e
spe ct to tho se o ft h
e 2N38 19.

The T wo and Four Metre Converters

2W
AY T
A
G S
T
RIP Acommon -sou rce, neutral
ized r .f
. s t
age feeds via d ouble
t
uned ci
rcuits i n
to ac ommon s ource m ixer( F
ig.5 .28(a)
). F or
2H
O
LES l
ie D
I
A
t
hose wishing t oa void even the simp le procedu re assoc
iated
C
RYSTAL M OUNTING B
RACKET
1SW6 A
LUMIN
IUM
w
ith neutralizing t h
e r.f
. s t
age, ac ascode v ar
ian t isshown
F
ig.5.28(b)w hich d oesn ota ppreciably a l
tert h
ep er
fo rman ce
i
na ny respect b ut d oes require a nothe r 2N3819 . T he local
7
1
. o
sci
lla
to rc hain use st wo cheap si
licon n -p
-n planart rans
istors,
F
ig
. 5
.
27. L
ayout o
f t
he p
rinc
ipal c
o mponents o
n t
he u
nders
ide o
f
t
ype 2 N3826 ( Texa s In
strumen ts Ltd.), one as a n osc
illator
t
he li
d o
f t
he boa
. w
ith a n HC -6/U o vertone c rystal, o perat
ing i n the 3 0 to

5
.
21
RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
r
a
, 102 TR3 TP4
T
1S88 o
n2N38
19 T
IS88 O
R 2
N38
I9 2
N3826 2
N3826

(
a)

AER
IAL

AS

C 13
2200 T
4
.75

2
C
I4
200 T
IC
IA

2200p ,

pF pF

V
IE WED FR OM LEAD END

2
N38
19 2
N3826 c F
ig. 5
.28
. (a) Circu
it o
fthe neutral
ised F
ET converter. (b) An
•--- D
a
l i
ve cascode i
nput circu
it. Operat
ion iss at
isfactory
f
or supply vo
ltages between 1
0 and 1
4 volts.
T
IS88 TR I TR5 •
T
IS8
13 O
R 2
N38
19 • ADD
ITIONAL COMPONENTS

C7
TO M
IXER T
he a er
ial c o
il i s a ir-spaced a nd i s suppor ted b y
I
SpF
wi r
ing p ins o n the b oa rd. A s t he c onve r
te rs i lustra ted
w ere intended f o
ri nco rpo ration i n
to ac omp lete v .h.f. re-
ceiver
, t he a er
ial a nd i .
f
. t e
rm ina tion s w ere, l ike t h
e
g
round a nd i nput n ega tive c onnec tion s
, made t o w ir
ing
p
in s b ut, i fr equired , t wo B ell
ing -Lee c o-ax ial s ockets
m ay be moun ted o n t he c ha ss
is, a fte r dril
ling t he n ece s
-
s
a ry holes. No e xtra s hielding i sr equ ired a nywhe r e, t h
e
need f o r itb e
ing a vo ided b y p rope r l ayou t a nd c oi
l
posit
ion ing.
3
5 Mc /sr ange
,t heo thera s amu ltipl
ie r
,d oubling f or 4m and The l og
ica l st
ep s forc on s
truc tion a re:
quadrup ling for 2 m
, with d ouble t uned circuits feed
ing i n
to (a) Cut a nd ma rk o ut t he c hassis.
t
he m ixe
r. (b) Bend u p th ec ha ssis.
The standard o utput i .
f
. f or b oth c onverters i sin t h
e (
c) D r
ill al
l h oles.
r
egion o f 3 Mc /s but design d ata i sgiven for i .
f
.'s be
tween (d) Fit the ea r
thing t a gs a nd t wo B e
lling -Lee s ocke ts
, i f
2a nd 3 0 Mc /s for the 2m c onver ter and b e
tw een 2 a nd 10 r
equired.
Mc/s f o
r t he 4m . An A ladd in f orme r
, w i
th e nclosing ) P
(
e ush t he pi ns into t he L ek trok it w iring b oa rd .
Neo sid p ot c
ore, isused t oa ccommoda te the o u
tpu t trans
- (
f) C onnec t t he leads o n t he u nde rs
ide o f th e b oard.
f
orme r f
o ri.
f.
's up to 16 Mc /s, but a bove th
is f r
equency , t
he (g) Moun t t he Lek trok it b oard i nt h e cha s
sis.
A
ladd in forme r on
ly i srequired. T o alter the i.
f
. i tiso n
ly (h) Moun t t hec rystal a nd i t
s h olde r o n the b oard .
n
ec essary t o change the i .
f
. t r
an sforme r coi
l a nd o vertone (
i) Manuf actu re a l
l t h e c oils a nd f i
x t he A ladd in
c
rysta l a
nd p erform as mal
l amoun t ofr e
-peak ing. fo
rme rs tot he c ha s s
i s
.
(
j
) A ttach a l
l t he o the r c omponen ts, i nput c oi
l, e tc
.
and w ire u p.
Construct
ion T
he m etal w ork f o r t he c onve rter s h ardly n eed s a ny
The c onve rtersa rec on s
truc ted o n apiece ofL ektrok i
tp in s
pec
ia l commen t asF ig. 5 . 30 i sself-exp lana tory.
b
oa rd , u sing w ir
ing p ins p ushed i n
to t he h o
les t o suppo rt T
he w iring p i ns s hou ld b e p ushed i nto t h e L ek trok it
mo st c omponen t
s, i n
clud ing t he c rysta
l a nd t he transi
stor s b
oard f rom t he u nde rside s o t hat a bou t t wice a s much p ro-
(
see F ig. 5 . 29). A s tanda rd, s qua re
p
iece o f L ek trokit l am inate b oard
F
IXING HOLE EDGE O F BOARD F
IXING H
OLE
may b e c ut i n
to three, e ach p art o f
which m ay t hen b e used t o b uild a
c
onve rter, a lthough t wo f i
xing h oles
mus t b e d rilled a ppropr iately i nt he
c
entre o f e ach p iece. T he b oard i s
moun ted i nside a s imple, t rough
s
ection , 2 0 s . w
.g. alum inium c ha s
sis,
u
sing 6 B .A. s crews a nd n uts, stand -
i
ng t h e b oa rd i
n
. a way f rom t he
c
ha ssis. T he f our c oil former s, i .e
.
t
ho se a ssoc ia ted w ith t he o sci
llator
a
nd mu ltip l
ie r s t
age s
, t ogethe r wi th
• WIR
ING P INS REQUIRED FOR BOTH 2 METRE A ND 4 METRE CONVERTERS — 3
2 O
FF
t
her .
f. —m ixe ri n
terstage c oil and t he
i
.
f. t ransfo rme r are a l
l moun ted o n o EXTRA W IRING PINS FOR CASCODE M ODIFICATION — 2O FF
t
he c ha ssis ( see Fig
.5 .31). F
ig. 5
.29. Wir ing pin a
rrange ment.

5
.
22
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS

5
' TABLE 5
.
6
Data f
or I
.
F. T
rans
for mer 1
3

1
'
/
4
" T
. 3 . 6 7
5 600
ohm o hm
I
cm I
c
m 1
cm I
cm Tunable I
.F
. C
rystal pr
n
aT:
iu
c
e ? i
acr §
.
F
or mer c
oup- c
oup -
I
.
F. c
entre f
req
. t ' i
n l
ing l
ing
FOLD UP
t
urns n
nnnn
7
/•
F
our Met
res
11-24 2
.1 M
c/s 3
4
-15 2
05 WA 6
6 3
6 P
ot-core 5 1
3
1
58 5
8 3
6 P
ot-core 4 1
/BA
L 4
1
' 8 14 21-2-7 2
.4 3
4
-00
, 41-41 4 -40 3
3
-00 4
6-8 3
1 3
2 P
ot-core 2 6
I 1
9 2
8 P
ot-core 1 3
7
-1-71 7 .40 3
1
-50 1
6-5
91-94 9 -40 3
0
-50 1
0-3 1
5 2
8 P
ot-core 1 3
9/
3i
T
wo Me tre
s
3' 1
-8-3-8 2
-8 M
cis 3
5
-55 3
69 u.
H 88 3
6 Pot
-core 6 1
7
B. 8
.
1- 11
4 .— a r3
/ : -4.
-
1 1
.1j 4
3.
-1.1
5 /
- 8%1 2
-0-4-0 3
-0 3
5
-50 3
16 82 3
6 Pot
-core 6 1
6
4
-0-6-0 50 3
5
-00 1
05 4
7 3
4 Pot
-core 3 9
3_
. *A
I )*
4 •.
C
X 4
5. 80-10-0 9 .0 3
4
-00 3
1-6 26 3
2 Pot
-core 2 5
4
5 s A A T 1
4.0-16.0 15
-0 3
2
-50 1
-3 15 2
8 Pot
-core 1 3

c9I. y
e 2
0-0-22-0 21
-0 3
1 0
0 5
.8 29 2
6 A
ladd
in 2 5
c
/w f
ormer

"
8
- 1
1
5
2
4
-0-26

2
8
-0 2

-0-30
5
-0

-0 2
9
-0
3
0
-00

3
8
-67
4
-
1

3
-0
27
Ow
25
2
6 A

6 A
2
ladd
f
o
in
rmer
ladd
in
2

2
5

5
FOLD UP c
/w f
ormer

11
4"
/ 1
3/
4" M
ATER
IAL - 2
0 S
W
IG
A
LUM
INIUM SHEET
w
ire f rom t hec rystal c l
ip m ay b e s o inserted . I fthec ascode
r
.
f. s tage i st o b e u sed , t h e e arth c onnec tion t o t he b ottom
H
OLES '
A
' - 3/
32. (
1
18A C
LEARANCE)
H
OLES M ARKED '
X
' A RE o
f R 2 may a lso b e m ade u nde r t h
e b oa rd w ith a dvan tage.
R
EQUIRED ONLY I
F COAX
IAL
'
8
' - 7/64f (
68A C
LEARANCE) S
OCKETS ARE T
O BE Moun ting t he L ektrok it b oa rd i nt h e cha ss
is r equire s t h
e
F
ITTED u
se o f t wo 6 B .A. x4 i n
. c h. h d. s c
r ew s and n u
ts, s pac ing
'
C - 3/
8 'D
IA
t
heb oa rd i
n
. a way f rom t hec ha ss
is. T he crysta lh olde r is
F
ig. 5
.30
. Cha
ssis d
ri
lling p
lan
.
f
i
xed t ot h eb oa rd b ys olde ring t h ec onnec tion st ot wo w iring
p
ins. T he c ry stal i sinse rted a nd i st hen c lamped i np osition
b
yb end ing a6B .A.t agc are ful ly o ve ri t
,a f
te rt heta gh asb een
t
rudesabove theboard asi sle
ft be
low. T he b
est type o
fpin
s
olde red t ot hee arthed w iring p in p rov ided .
t
ou se i
sthat w
ith ashou lde
ra nd longitudinal s
plines (
Vero
The c oils f or T 2 a nd T 4 a r e p roduc ed b y c lose-wind ing
E
lectron
ics Type 2
143). O therwise, Lektroki
t LK30 11 p
ins
2
2 s .w.g. e name lled w ire o n t he s hank o f a4 i n. dril
l ( wind
may be us
ed. T he fi
nished converter looks neater ifs
ome
o
ne mo re t urn t han r equ ired ). I ft h e wire i st h
en p u
lled o f
w
iring i
sdone underneath theb oard, p
rior to moun t
ing iti
n
c
arefu lly, i tm ay b e s prung , b y r otation , o n to th e Aladd in
t
he chas
sis
. In par
ticular, the ba
ttery wiring and t h
e e
arth
f
orme r. No te t hat t hee ar thed e nd o ft hes econdary o fT 2 is
n
ear er t o t he c has s
is. T he p rimary i ss i
tua ted a t t he o uter
e
nd o ft he f orme r
, w ith i t
s "c old "e nd n earer tot he se con-
TABLE 5
.
5
d
ary. T he t wo c oils ar es paced b y 13g in
. T he e ar
thed e nd o f
C
oil D
eta
ils t
he p r
ima ry o fT 4 isc lose t ot hec hassis a nd t hee arthed e nd
o
ft h e seconda ry ( which i ss i
tua ted r ight a tt he othe r end o f
F
our Me t
res t
he f orme r) i sn ea rer t ot he p rimary . T he c ore s for both T 2
L
1, 3 0 turn s
, 3 6 s.w .g. enam ., close wound o n 100 K o hm s watt a
nd T 4a re p repa red b yc utting as t
anda rd c ore inh a
lf; t hey
r
e sistor (requ ired f or cascode o nly).
T
i. s econda ry : 8t urn s
, 22 s .w.g. enam ., se
lf-
suppor ting (wound o n a
rel ocked i np osition, i ns
ide t hef orme r
,b ym ean so fn ar row
ji n
. m andre l)
; P rimary : 3t urn s. 22 s.w
.g. e nam ., pushed i nto s
t
rips o fp olythene s hee t.
"c old" e nd o fs econdary .
1
2. P rimary : 6t urn s
, tapped 2 t urn s from e arthy e nd
, 2 2 s .w.g. The m ain w ind ing o ft h e o scillator c o
il T 5 i sclose-wound
e
nam .,c lose wound o n0 .3i n
.A ladd in former ; Seconda ry
: 6t urn s. n
ear t h e c ha ssis e nd o ft h e A ladd in f orme r
, i t
s ea r
thed e nd
2
2 s .w.g. e nam., c lo
se wound c
hassis
, s paced i
n. f rom
p
rima ry. b
eing c l
o se t ot he c has s
i s. Al a
ye ro fa dhe s
ive Me linex t ape
1
3, s ee Table 5 .6
. f
ac
ilitate s p utting t he o the r w ind ing s o n t op, the f eedback
T
4, P rimary : 4t urn s. 22 s.w .g. enam ., cl
ose wound n ear chassis o n
0
.3 i n
. Aladd in fo rmer ; S econdary : 4turns, 22 s.w.g. enam.. c lose c
oil att he c old e nd a nd t he o utpu t w ind ing n ear t he cen tre
wound , spa ced i
n
. from p rimary . o
ft he ma in w ind ing .
T
S. M a
in: 1 t urns, 2 8 s.w.g. enam ., close wound o n 0-3 in
. Aladd in
f
ormer ; E mitter: 1t urn, 2 8 s.w.g. e nam., overwound a t "c o
ld"
The i f
. t ran sforme rT 3 shou ld h ave e ach h alf ofi t
s t uned
e
nd o f m ain w ind ing ; Output : 2t urns, 28 s.w .g
. e nam., o ver- w
ind ing w ound i nt wo a d
jacen t c oil forme r sec
tion s, leav ing
wound a tc entre o fm a
in w ind ing .
Two Me tres o
ne s ection a vailab le f or t he o utpu t
-coup ling s e
condary .
L
1, 1 5 turns, 2 8 s.w .g. enam ., close wound o n 100 K o hms watt
resistor (requ ired f or cascode o nly).
T
i, S econda ry : 4t urn s, 22 s.w.g. e nam., se
lf-
suppor ting (wound o n L
in
ing
-up a
nd Opera
tion
ji n
. m andre l)
; P rimary : 2t urns . 22 s.w
.g. e nam ., pushed i n
to
"c old " e nd o fs econda ry . T
he o utput i .
f
. t uned ci
rcuit will not n ormally r equ
ire
1
2, P r
imary : 5t urn s
, tapped 2 t urns from e arthy e nd
. 2 2 s .w.g. p
eaking for i.
f
.'s b e
low 1 0 Mc/s
. T he cry
stal osc
illator wi
ll
enam ., clo se wound o n 0 .
3 i n
. A laddin f ormer ( i
gnore t ap f or
c
a scode ); Seconda ry: St urns, 22s .w
.g.e nam., close wound o
nly o
sci
llate strongly o n th
ec orrec
to ver
tone frequency a nd
cha s
sis
, s pa ced i
n
. from p rimary . p
robably w i
ll n o
t o sci
llate a
tall unlocked u n
less the crys
tal
1
3, S ee T able 5 .6.
14
, S .a sf o
r 4m . h
as anexc ept
iona lly h i
gh shunt capacitance. If ar e
ceiver i
n
t
he 35 Mc/s region i snot a
vai
lable c orrect ope
ration o fthe
5
.
23
RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
f
rom o the r (unwan ted) sta
tion s w ork ing i nt he same b and .
Th
is isd ue t o the c urvature o f t he mu tua l c haracteristic o f
t
he F ET b e
ing s uch t hat cros s-modu lation d oes no t readi ly
o
ccu r
; a tt he s ame t ime the c harac teristics ar e almo st i deal
f
or the r ole o f m ixe r. T he a b senc e o f ah eated, e mis s
ive
c
athode, a part fr om o ther c on side ration s, isc onduc ive t o a
l
ow n o
ise l evel
. B oth t heconver te rsa rec apable o fp rovid ing
anoise facto r bette rt han 3db p rov ided t hat the n o
ise f actor
o
ft he ma in r eceive r (var
iab le i .
f
. t une r
) i n
to w hich i ti sf ed
i
sn ot it
self w or
se t han abou t 1 0db. T his l a
tter prov iso i sa
r
esu
l t oft hec onve rter gain h av ing b een h eld to al ow v alue
t
om inim ize o veralls t
rong-signa le f
ec ts. S hould c onstruc to rs
w
ish t o us e tune rs w ith rathe r p oor n ois e perfo rmance t he
n
ecessi
ty o f a n e xtra amp lify ing s tage may b e a voided b y
s
imply r educ ing t h e values o ft he 1 0 K o hm s r .
f. stage a nd
A 2m F
EY u
sing t
he l
i
zed i
nput s
tage
. m
ixe r sou rce f e
ed r es
istors
, t hu s inc reasing t h
e g ain o f t he
c
onverter. T he m in imum a dv isab le r esi
stanc e sa re 500 o hm s
o
sci
llator may b e che cked b y th
e m ethod d escr
ibed o n p age f
or the r.
f. s t
age a nd 1K o hm f o
r t he m ixe r
.
5
.20 in c onnection w ith t he adju s
tmen t o f the 2m t ran- To achieve g ain e qual to t hat o f t he o r
igina l conve rter s
,
s
i
storized conver ter
. I fth
eo scil
lator d oesn o
ta ppear tow ork b
utw ith t heu se o f a9v ol
tb atte ry,t h ef ol
low ing c omponen t
a
ta l
l, the senseo f th ef e
edback w ind ing should bere versed. modif
ication s shou ld b e made :
An r .
f
. d etector l oop a nd diode a nd a set of c
alib rated C
hange R
2 to6.
8 Kohms
a
bsorption w aveme te rs will be f ound u seful when t uning R4 t
o6.
8 Kohms
u
p the mu lt
ip l
ie rcoils. Howeve r, ift he
se are not availab le
, R
IO to 1
0 Ko
hms.
t
he 1p Fo sc
illato rin
je ction capacitor
O
SC ILLATOR C
OIL M
ULT
IPL
IER
l
ead may b e t empo ra r
ily moved t o C
I4 E C
O
IL
t
he mu ltip
lie r c o
llec tor a nd t he N
EUTRAL
IZING C
APAC
ITOR
mul
tiplier coil tuned t o g
ive an o
ise
p
eak. T hen t he injec t
ion c apacitor T R4 •T
R3
E C B B C E
s
hou ld b e r econnec ted t o the s econ -
d
ary w inding o f t he mu ltiplier c o
il
which m ay i t
se
lf b e a l
igned , a nd t he
p
r
ima ry re-peaked . U.
• —
VE C
B V
E 0
I
ti snex t n ecessa ry t or esona te t he •
•
CRYSTAL
S
TATOR
m
ixe rg a
te c ircuit. I nt h ec ase o fi .
f
.'s C
4
b
elow 6 Mc /s w ith t he 2m c onve rter
a
nd b elow 3 Mc /s w ith t he 4m c on- I
FO JTPUT G S 0 S

v
erte r
, i t may b e d if i
cult t o d i
s-
t
i
ngu ish b etween t he n oise p eaks d ue E
I
f C
7
C
9
C
S C
3
t
o o peration a bove a nd b e
low t he I
F TR
2 E E
f
r
equency o f t he l ocal o scil
la tor. A C
OIL T
2 1 C E
v
ery p ronounced d ip i n n oise T5 ( a) T
R1 E
,
.
.
._ M
IXER C
OIL 00 0 00 0 00
b
etwe en noise peaks p
robab ly
I
NPUT C
OIL A
ERIAL C
OIL
i
ndica tes t oo much o scillato r i n
-
j
e
c t
ion . T his may b ec hecked b y mea su ring t hem ixers ource
c
ur rent ( connec t a0 -10 v oltme ter a c
ro ss R 4). T his c urrent
s
hou ld n ot i n
crea se b y mo re t han a f ew p er c en t w hen
t
he l o
cal o sc i
llator i ss wi
tched o n
. I fi td oe s, reduce t h
e
c
oup ling b etween t h e t wo p arts o f T 4. Op eration o f t he
m
ixe r att oo h igh al evel ofo scil
la tor i n
jection w il
l p roduce
av ery p oo r s t
rong s ignal p erfo rmance .
With a 7 5 o hm l oad r esis
tor ( or a n aerial) p lugged i n
to
t
he i nput s ocke t, i ts hou ld b e f ound p oss
ib le t o t une t he
p
rimary o fT 2 tor esonance a ts ignal f r
equency . A t thes ame
t
ime ( i
n th e c a
se o ft he s i
ngle, e arthed -sour ce r .
f. stag e)
, t he
n
eu tralizing c apaci tor m ay b e a djusted f o r b est s tability.
The i nputc ircu it may t hen be s et u p int h
eu sua l manne rf or
v
alve r .
f
. amp l
ifiers a nd t he e ntire c onverte r f i
nally p eaked
u
sing as i
gna l g enera tor o re xterna l signals.

P
erformance
I
NPUT C
OIL A
ERIAL C
OIL
One oftheadvantages o
f FET
's overordinary t
rans
istor
s,
o
r even valve
s, isthe
ir ab
ili
ty to opera
te sat
isf
actor
ily in F
ig. 5
.31 (
a) Wiring diagra m for t
he two-FET c on-
v
erter
. ( b) Modif
ications for i
ncorporat
ing a c
ascode
t
he pre
sence ofst
rong si
gnals
, o
fthe order o
f 100 mV orso, r
.
f. s
tage.

5
.
24
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
TABLE 5
.
7 s
upp lying h i gh a nd l ow t en sion v oltage t ot h eu nita rea vo ided .
Co mponents L ist The f ollow ing d esign , g iving a bou t 8 db o f g ain, w as
o
rig ina ted b yL .W . Au rick , K 3QAX / W2QEX a nd a ppea red
i
n t he F al
l 1 964 i s
sue o f Ham T ips : i ti sp ub l
ished h e re b y
Cl, 3 ,1 0
30 p F disc c eram ic.
C2, +7 p F c eram icon ( 4m ), n ot r equ ired f or 2m . k
ind p erm i ssion o ft h ec opy righ t h olde r,t heR adio C orpo ra-
C4, 2 -8 p F m inia ture t rimmer , Ple ssey t ype 7 365 (not required for t
ion o f Ame rica .
cascode ).
CS, 1 0 p F c eram icon ( 4m ), 2 .
2p F ceram icon ( 2m).
By refe rence t oF ig. 5 .32 i tw ill b e s een t ha t, int he r eceive
C6, 1 0 p F c eram icon ( 4m )
, n ot r equ ired f or 2m . position , s igna ls a re a pp lied t hrough C l , t he g amma -
C7, 1 5 p F c eram icon . ma tching c apac ito r
, v i a relay c on tac ts X a nd Y t o t he b ase
C8, Ip F c eram icon .
o
f at ype 2 N2708 t ran sisto r. L I, i np aralle l w ith C 2, i nt he
C9. 1 3, 1 4, 1 6, 220 3 p F disc c eram ic.
C10 , 22 p F ceram icon ( 4m ), 6.8 p F c eram icon ( 2m )
. c
ollec tor c ir cuit i st uned t o t he c en t re o f t h e b and a nd t he
C11 , 12, 3 3 p F ceram icon ( 4m ), 68 p F cer am icon ( 2m). amp l
ified s igna ls p as s, via C 3 a nd r elay c on tac ts A a nd B t o
C15 , 15 p F c eram icon . t
he i nne r c onduc tor o f ac oax ia l c ab le t o t he a e r
ial c hange -
R
1, 3 3 Ko hms.
R
2, 4 .1 0 Ko hms ( 10- 14 v o
lts )
, 61 K o hms ( 9volts).
o
ve r s witch i n t he s tation a nd t hence t o t h e r e
ce ive r. O n
R
3, 1 0
3 Ko hm s. t
ran smis sion t he r elay i s e nerg ized i n t he p re-amp lifie r
,
R
S, +7 K o hms . d
is connec ting t he latte r
, a nd c onnec ting t he f eede r d ire ctly
R6, 8 ,4 70 o hms . t
ot he a erial.
R7, 2 2 Ko hms .
P.
9,22 K o hms . I
twil l b es een t hat R I/ R2 f orm st h e b ase b ia s
ing p o
ten tio-
R
10, 1 5 Ko hms ( 10- 14 v olts)
, 1 0 Ko hms ( 9v olt
s). mete r a cro s s t he s upp ly, R 3 p rov ide s e mitte r b ias a nd r ad io
T2, 4 ,5 , 03 i n. d iam . n y
lon A ladd in f ormer , w i
th i ron dust core. f
requency c hoke s RFC ' a nd RFC2 a r e inse rted t op reven t a
13, 03 i n
. d iam . n ylon A ladd in f ormer , w ith i r
on d ust core. for
ifs a bove 1 6 M c/s. N eo sid p ot c ore o n A ladd in former f o
r i.
f.s l
osso fs igna l t hrough t he b ia s
ing r esis to rs
. A2 0v o
l ts upp ly,
below 1 6 MO . w
ith t h e p o sitive s ide e arthed a s t h e 2 N2708 i n an -p-n t ype
TR1 , 2, 2N38 19 F ET ( Texa s Instrument s L td.).
t
ran s
isto r, i sc onnec ted b y o ne p air o f lead s i n at hree -co re
TR3 , 4, 2N3826 ( Texa s Instrument s L td
.).
X1, H O6 il l crys tal a nd h o
lder , a s r equired . c
ab le t o t erm ina ls 1a nd 2 , t he r ema in ing l ead b eing r un
The f ollow ing a dd itiona l c omponent s are r equired f or t
he cascode b
etween t erm ina l 3a nd o ne s ide o f t he p air o fa ddi tiona l
mod ification s:
c
on tacts o n t he a erial c hangeove r s w
itch p reviou s
ly m en -
C17 , 1000 p F disc c eram ic
R
11, 1 2, 3 3 Ko hms . t
ioned .
L
1, 1 00 K o hms ( see T able 5 .
5 )
. I
n th e o rig ina l d esign t he r e
lay i s ar e
la t
ive ly i nexp ensive
TR5 , 2N38 19 ( Texa s I nstrumen ts L td. ) or T IS88. 1
2 v olt o pen t ype, n orma lly e mployed f or a erial c hangeove r
s
erv ice a tt he l owe r f requenc ie s a nd s uitab le f or tran sm itter
i
npu ts u p t o 1 00 w at ts. I ft h e mo re e xpens ive c oax ia l t ype
we re s ub st
i tu ted p owe r c ould b e i ncreased s ubjec t t o t he
t
rans isto r n ot b e
ing o verloaded b y s t
ray r .
f
.
A TRA NS IST OR MAST -HEAD AMPL IF IER FOR 1 44 MC /S The p re-amp lif
i er i sc on struc ted o n a n a l umin ium p late
S
iting av . h
.f. a e rial i nt he b e st p o sition f or t r
ansm is sion i
ti n
. s qua re h aving a i n. l ipf or moun ting o n th ew a l
l o fa
a
nd r ecep tion o ften m eans t he u se o f al o ng c oax ial c able me tal b ox 4 i n
. x2 f i n
. x2 1 i n. A ll w iring s hou ld b e as
w
ith c on sequen t l os s o ft he w eake r i ncom ing s ignals d ue t o s
hor ta sp ossib le a nd t her e
lay s hou ld b ef ixed t ot heo ppo site
f
e
ede r a ttenua tion . T he u se o f ap re -amp lifi er moun ted o n s
hor t w all o f t he b ox . T he u nit may b e moun ted o n t he
t
hea rray i t
se lf g oe s al ong w ay t owa rd si mp rov ing r ecep tion , a
e rial b oom i na ny c onven ien t manne r
, p erhap s t h e e asie s
t
a
nd i fat ran sisto r p re -amp lifie r i su sed t he d ificultie s o f me thod b e
ing b y m eans o f aU -bo l t f astened t o t he t op o f
t
he b ox . A b raided c opp er s t
rap

(
s
hou ld b e c onnec ted b etween a l ug
CENTRE OF on t he n ea re st w a
ll o ft h e b ox a nd a
DRIVEN E LEMENT poin t o n t he b oom d irectly i n l i
ne
oe ,GCA
I M
A3 -M5A0TpCFH w
ith t h e g amma -ma tch. A s t he
e
ar th s t
rap c ould b e as ou rc e o f
i
n duc tive r eac tance t hat mu st b e
c
ance lled b yC l, i ts hou ld b e k ep t as
s
ho rt a s p o s sible. C apac ito r C l i s
c
onnec ted t o t he g amma -ma tch b ar
t
hrough a c e ram ic f eed -th rough
moun ted o n t he b ox c lose t o t he
r
elay . C l mu st b e i solated f r
om t he
box b y m ean s o f as mall p iec e o f
poly sty rene s hee t a nd a h ole p ro-
1
v
ided s o t ha t a dju stmen t may b e
COAX DOWN MAST efec ted b y a n i nsula ted s crewdr ive r
.
4 2 3 A c ork o r r ubbe r b ung s hou ld b e
SWITCH ON MA IN .
-20V +20V
AER IAL R ELAY T
AB i
ns erted i nt he h ole a f
te r a d
ju stmen t
L.. -J 2
1 2701 t
o k eep o ut d amp . R e s
i sto r R 4
F
ig. 5.32. C ircu it d iagra m o f at rans istor mast h ead amp li
fier f or the 2m b and . C I must b e s hou ld b e o f s uch a v alue t ha t t he
c
apab le o f c arry ing t he t rans m itter a eria l c urrent . C 4, 5, 94 70pF disc cera m ic. C 6, 7, 85 00pF r elay o pe rate s s at
is fac to r
ily f rom t he
f
eedthroughs . R 4 must b e of s uitab le r at ing a nd v alue t o operate t he r elay f ro m t he 20 v olt
s
upp ly . Other r esistors a re of •wa tt ra t
ing. 2
0 v olt s upp ly .
5
.
25
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
S
ett
ing
-up —Transm
iss
ion s
hort le
ng ths ofwi re toa djac ent ta
gs o n t hecha s
sis ar
e n ot
W
ith t
he r
e
lay in the TRANSMIT p
osi
tion
, the length of s
uficien
t f or th
i s p urpose. One c onven ien t m e
thod i sto
t
he g
amma match
ing bar and t
he va
lue of Cl ar
e adjusted moun t an e a
rthing c o
llar a round t h e valveho lder and t o
w
ith t
hea
idof as
tand
ing wave r
at
io br
idge, u
nti
lt hes.w.r
. i
s b
olt itf i
rmly o r s o
lde r itt o the c hassis; t h
e a pprop r
iate
a
s n
ear 1t
o 1as p
oss
ible
. v
alveholde rtagsc an then b es oldered tot h ec o
llar
,a ss hown
i
nt he photograph. Whe re v alve el
ectrode s r
equire decoup -
l
i
ng t oearth, fe
edth rough c apaci
to rs should b e used. T hese
S
ett
ing
-up —Recept
ion s
hould b e moun ted a s closely as prac t
icab le to the valve-
Ha
sing a scer
tained
, by m ean
s of ag rid dip m e
ter, t
hat ho
lde r t
ag. T hose c apacito rs bui
lt into c avi
ties and similar
t
he c
ircuit LI C 2 wi
ll t
une to th
e centre of the band, an c
on s
tructions shou ld b e made o f p.t
.f.e. o r polythene fi
lm
a
ppropriate te
st si
gna
l islo
cated o
n t
h e rece
ivera nd C2 and c
lamped b e
tween m etal surfaces.
C
3 a djusted a l
ternat
ive
ly u nt
il th
e s tronge
st r esu
lt is
o
bta
ined . T h
is wil
l b
e wi
th C 3 n
ear maximum a nd C 2near
m
inimum c apaci
ty. TU NED C
IRCU
ITS
As t h e resonan t f r
equency o f at uned c ircu it i sr aised t he
capac itance a nd i nduc tance mu st b e r e duced u nti
l ap oin t i s
reached a tw hich t he n ecessary i nduc tance b ecome ss o s mall
U
.H.F
. R
ECE
IVERS
that i ti si mp rac ticab le t ou se t h e ord ina ry t ype o fc oil c on -
The 70cm band in
volve
s a n i
n
creas
e infrequency oft h
ree st
ruc tion a nd i ta s
sume st hef orm o f ah airp in l o op. F ig .5 . 33
t
imest ha
t used f
orthe2 m band a
nd th
e2 3cm band af u
rther ilustra tes h ow p rog res s
ively h igh f requenc ie s a re a ttained .
i
ncrease of t
hree t
imes
. S i
nce the l
osse
s in die
lectr
ics
, the Fig. 5 .33 ( b) i sf r
equen tly e mp loyed o n 7 0cm w hile F ig.
r
.
f. skin efec
ts inconduc
tor s a
nd va
lve tr
an s
it time
, lo
sses 5
. 33 ( c) iss im i
la r to ab utterf
ly c ircuit w he re t hec apac ito ri s
oft he s plit
- sta to r type. F ig.5 .33 ( d) r ep re sen ts amu ltiplica -
ti
on o ft his s truc tur e a nd i nF ig. 5 .33 ( e) t h ere i si ne fec t a n
inf
inite n umbe r o fl oop s inp ara llel, i .e. ac ylinde r c losed a t
both e nds w ith ac entra l rod a nd k nown a s ac oax ia lc av ity.
The c apac itance e lemen t i sp rov ided b y at hreaded r od T ,
w h
ich p as sest hrough at hreaded e nd -p la te ; ad isc D I i sfixed
t
ot he l owe r e nd o ft he r od so t h at i ti sp a ralle l to as imilar
Photograph o f a B 9A v a
lve - d
isc D2 a t
tached t o ac en t
ral s uppo rt. T he s imp le h a
irp in ,
holder with a n earthing c o
llar
u
sed t o earth t he g rounded s
hown a t F ig. 5 .33 ( b), i s av ery c onven ien t f orm o fc on -
e
lectrodes of av alve. Slots a re s
truc tion : i tcan b em ade o fw ide s trip r athe rt han w ire a nd i s
p
rov ided ad
jacent t o tags c on-
n
ected t o the e xternal circu it. e
spec ia l
ly s uitab le f orp ush-pu llc i
rcu its . I t may b et uned b y
Leadthrough b ypass c apac itors parallelc apac itanc ea tt heo pen e nd Po rb ys e
rie sc apac itance
a
re mounted c lose tot he socket .
i
nserted a tt h ec losed e nd S. I n amod if ica tion o ft h e hairp in
l
o op,o ne s ide c an c onsi s
to f as traigh tw ire o rs tr
ip w hile t he
o
the rs ide isas heeto fm etalw hich c an b ep art o ft hec ha ssis,

1
11
111
1
*1
1E t
h
i
sk
e strip b
nown a
eing s
s as t
r
paced f
ip l i
ne
rom t
. When v
he m
e
eta
ry c
l; s
lo
uch a
se t ot
n a
h
r
e m
rangemen
etal s hee
t
t
but i n
su lated f rom i tb y as o
lid d ie
lec t ric f i
lm , i ti sk nown a s
am ic ros t
rip.
i
ncrease r apidly a s t he frequency i sr a
ised, part
icu lar c are A
ll o f t he se r esonan t e l
emen ts c an b e e i
the r s e
rie s o r
mus t b ee xercised i nt hec hoice o fc omponen ts,m aterials and p
a rallel t uned . T uned c ircuits i nt he f orm o fh airp in l oop s
v
alve sf oru se o n t heu .h.f
. b ands i fh igh performance i stob e o
r s trip l i
ne s c an b e u sed q uite s uc ce ss fully u p t o a bou t
a
ch ieved . 7
00 Mc / s
; a bove t h
is f requency b u t
terf ly c ircu its o r c oax ia l
Me tal p arts w hich f o
rm a ny p art o f
,o ra rewith
in t hef i
e
ld c
avitie s mu st b e e mp loyed . B ecau se a c yl
ind rica l c avity
o
f, at uned c i
rcuit o rc arry r.f
. c urr ent s
, should be o fc oppe r u
sua lly r equi re s t he u se o f al athe f or i t
s c on struc tion , a
o
r b ra ss a nd n o t o f steel o r a l um inium a l
though t hese s
imp le rt yp ei nt hef orm o f at rough w hich c an b em ade v .
ith
mate rialsm ay be u s ed ifthey a res i
lve rp la
ted toa na dequate h
and t ools i sf requen tly u sed : s ee F ig. 5 .34 . T he o pen s ide
t
h
ickne ssf ort hef requency i nu se . Whe re fac
il
itie
sa rea va
il- may b ec losed w ith aw el
l-fi
tting l i
d i fr equ ired : t he om ission
a
ble , iti sb est top l ate al
l such p arts. T hey should, h oweve r, o
ft h e l i
d o nly r educe s t he Qs l
igh tly. One e nd o ft het rough
n
ot b e p o
l ished b ut l e
ft ma tt and p rotected from t ar n
ish b y i
sc l
os ed b y ap late t ow hich t he i nne rl ine i ss ecur ed a nd t he
l
acquer ing . I n su
la ting ma te r
ials u s ed i n
o
r n ea r t uned c i
r cui ts or i n the manu -
f
acture o f v alveho lde rs s hould b e o f
p
.
t.f.e. ( f
luon )
, p oly styrene o rp oly thene . D
I
S
uch m a terials a s P erspex , c eram ic,
D
2
m
ica o r p .v.c. shou ld b e e mployed o nly
w
ith c aut ion ; B ake lite and n ylon s hou ld
n
ot b e u sed .
A n umbe r of v alve t ype s using g l
a s
s A
b
ase s r e qu ire s eve ral o f the p ins t o be
Fig
. 5.33
. Progress
ive d
eve
lop ment o
f t
uned c
ircuits f
ro m a c
oil t
o ac
avity a
s t
he
e
f ective ly e arthed t o achieve s tability; f
requency i
s i
ncreased.

5
.
26
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
o
r t h e r esonan t f requency o f a n u nknown c avity o bta ined .
The c ho ic e o f t h e r atio o f o ute r t o i nner d imen sion s i s
g
ove rned b ye lec tr
ica la nd m echan ica lc on side ra t
ion sa nd t he
p
urpo se. T he v a lue o ft h ec apac itance C i sg iven b yt hev alve
c
apac itance , w hich may b e a pp rec iab le, t oge the r w ith a ny
F
ig. 5
.34
. A t
rough l
i
ne t
uned t
uning c apac itance t hat may b e p re s en t. I t may p rove t ob e
c
ircu
it.
s
o l arge t hat th e l eng th r equ ired f or ah i gh i mp edance c avity
b
ecome s s os ho r t ast ob e u nmanageab le : i ne xtreme c a ses it
m
igh te ven b e s ho rte rt han t hev alve w hich i st ob e moun ted
i
nside i t
.
T
OP 5D
E Cav it
ie s a r
e mo st r e adily c on st ruc ted o f l eng ths o f s t
an -
d
ard s i
zed b ras so rc oppe r t ubing a nd t hec ho ice o ft he r a
tio
o
fo u ter t oi nne r d imen sion s w ill o fc our se b e l i mi
ted b y t he
r
ange o f s i
zes a va i
lab le. F or o scilla tor o r a mplifier a node
t
hree e
dge s o
f the p
late mu st make a s ound low res
istance t
ank c ircu its,c av itie ss hou ld i ng ene ralh ave al ow i mp edance
c
onnection wi
th the t
rough, preferably bysolder
ing. T uning (
of t h e o rde r o f 3 0-40 o hm s ) w he reas f or i npu t c ircu its t he
may b
e e fec
ted b y adisc type c
apac i
toro r as ma
ll t
rimme r i
mpedance m ay b ea s much a s 1 00 o hms o rh ighe r. Op timum
c
onnected between itand thee nd oft he in
ner li
ne. Q f or a n u n
loaded c avi ty o c cur s w hen t he c harac te ristic
A c
av i
ty o r t
rough l i
ne mu st h ave dimensions for the i
mpedance Z . i s7 o hm s
. I fi ta ppear s n ece ssary e i
the r f or
f
r
equency u s
ed and the st
ray capacitance asso
ciated w
ith the a
ch iev ing a p rope r i mp edance ma tch o r f or r educ ing t he
v
a
lve o r crys
tal connected t o it
. T he dimensions c an be c
apac itance l o
ad ing , t hec onnec tion f rom t hev alve o rc r ystal
c
a
lculated from the b
a s
ic equation: c
an b e tapped d own t o a "l owe r "p oin t o n t he i nne r c on -
d
uc to r( i
.e. n ea re rt hez ero p oten tia le nd ). When t hi
si sd one
1 t
he v alue o f Ci sc alcu la ted b y d i vid ing t he v alve o r c r ystal
/= t
an-
1
2
7
r 2
7
r f
Z0C c
apac itance i nF arads b yt het ota l l eng th o ft hel i
ne i ni nche s,
d
ivided b y t he l eng th f rom t h e s ho rt c ircuited e nd t o t he
w
here 1ist
he l
e
ngth i
nt h
e s ame uni
t s a
sw ave
length, fi
sthe t
app ing p oin t. T he t app ing p oin t s hou ld n ot, h oweve r, b e
f
r
equency i
ncyc
les p
ersecond , Cist hecapaci
tance (t
ota
l) i
n t
aken t oo f ard own t he i n nerc onduc to r o the rw i se t hec av ity
F
arads
, Zo i
sth
ec ha
racter
i s
tic impedance ino hms. w
ill p robab ly o pera te i ns ome o the r mode t han w a
s i ntended
T
he fo
rmula may b
e mo re convenient
ly rewri
tten a
s: a
nd t he r esonan t f requency v ,i lt hen b e q ui
te d if eren t f rom
t
hat e xp ected .
3
0000 1
0
' Becau se o f t he v aria tion i nc apac itance b etween v ar ious
= t
an -'
2
7
rf 27
rfZ0C s
amp le s o ft he s ame v alve o rc ry s
ta l ( usua l
ly o ft he o rde r of
3
0 p er c ent) p rov ision s hou ld b e made f or v arying t he
w
here /isincent
ime tres
, fisin Megacyc
lespers e
cond , Cisin e
lectr ical l ength o f ac ircu it i fr eplacemen ts a r e likely t o b e
p
i
cofarads and Zo i sinohms. made . T hi s can b e a ch ieved b y s l
id ing t he l ine o r c av ity i n
T
he c harac
teris
tic i mpedance Z . for ac oaxial li
ne is a
nd o ut, t hu s c hang ing t he e fec tive l eng th , b ut s ince av e ry
o
bta
ined f r
om t he formula Zo = 1 38 lo
g io ;whe re b i
sthe h
igh m echan ica l p reci sion i se ssen tial a nd t he s l
id ing s ur-
i
n
side di
ame ter of the oute
r tube and a ist he ou t
side d
ia- f
ace s mu st b e p lated w ith n on -tarn ishab le m ate r
ia l s uch a s
m
eteroft heinnert ube
. F or asquare t
rough li
ne th eformula r
hod ium , i ti sn ot r ecommended f o r ama teur p u rpo ses.
i
s
: A mo re c onven ien t m ethod i st o u se a s ma l
l t r
imme r
c
apac itance f ormed o ft wo d isc s, o ne moun ted o n t he i nne r
Zo = 1
38 l
og 1
0
P +6
.
48 — 2
.
34A — 0
.
48B — 0
.
12C
c
onduc to ra nd t he o the rc arried o n as crewed s tem moun ted
t
he i
ns
ide d
imen
sion o
fthe t
rough i
n at hreaded b ush f i
tted i nt h eo u
te rc onduc to r. S ome m ean s
w
here p o
fl ock ing o rg r
ipp ing t het hread o ft h ea dju stab le e lemen t is
t
he o
uts
ide d
iame
ter o
fthe i
nner l
i
ne
d
e s
irab le t o e n su re n o t o nly a s ound c ontac t b u t a lso t o
A — 1+ 0
.405p -
4 p
reven t a ny w obb ling o ft he d isc a si ti sa dju sted .
1— 0
.
405p -
4 Ag raph r e
la ting t he d iame te rs a nd c apac itance r ange s of
d
isc t ypec apac ito rsi sg iven i nF ig . 7 .7 i nC hap te r 7(V .H .F .1
B — 1+ 0
.
163p -
4
U
.H .F . T ran sm itte rs).
I— 0
.
163p -
4

1 0
.067p -
1
2
C
1 - 0
-067p -
12

I
nput a
nd Output C
oup
ling
I
tc an be s
een from t he fo
rmu la for evaluating /t h a
t Z .C
'
o
ccur sonly inone portion ofthee quation. Qu ite clearly an T
h ree method sm ay be used toc ouple poweri nto oro utof
i
nf
inite numbe r o
f v a
lue s of Zo a nd C w i
ll give t he same are
sonan t c avity or li
ne: (a) at apping may b e m ade o nto
mul
tiple. Thus at rough l i
ne or cavity with ac haracteris
tic t
he inner li
ne n ea
r the closed end (Fig.5.36(a)
) ; (b
) ac oup-
i
mpedanc eZ .of 100 o hms and ac apacitance o f 8p F w il
l be l
i
ng l oop m ay b e in
serted n ea
r t he inner li
ne t owards the
t
he same length a
s o ne for w h
ich Zo i s200 o hm s a nd C i s c
l
osed e nd ( Fig. 5.36(b)
); ( c
) ac apac
ity p robe may b e
4pFi fthey a
reb o
th t uned tothes ame f requency. F rom t hi
s i
n
serted n ear t he open end oft he inner li
ne (F
ig. 5.36(c))
.
i
tfollow s t
hat ag raph can b e plotted o f fr
equency v ersus The fi
r
st m ethod a l
low s no ea
sy m eans ofadjustmen t and
l
ength of in
ner li
ne for various v a
lue s ofZ .C, a s shown i n f
orl ow imp edanc es thetapping p oin
t i sof
ten inconveniently
F
ig.5 .35
. W i
th it
sa id atrough line orc avi
ty can bed es
igned n
ear the clos ed end. T he second i s more ver
satile si
nce the
5
.
27
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
d
eg ree o fcoupling c an b ere ad ib
a
dju sted e i
ther m echan ically b y
r
otating t he l oop o r v arying
i
t
ss i
ze, o re l
ectr
ica lly b y tuning
t
hel oop w i
th as e
rie so rp arallel
1
700 t
uning c apacitor: w hen v e
t.)
t
i
gh t c oupling i s r equired t he
l
oop s hould b e b oo t shaped a s
1
500 s
hown i n Fig. 5 .36 ( b
). T he
Z
o C =2
5 t
hird m e
thod i sg enera l
ly s u
it-
a
ble o nly f or h i
gh i mpedance
1
500 c
oup ling , t h
e p osition o f t he
Z
o C 50 p
robe v arying th ec oup ling, b ut
i
fr e
qu ired i tc an b e ma tched
i
400
t
o al ow i mpedance c i
rcu it
, f or
Z
o C =1
00
i
nstance , by inserting aq uar ter-
wave l i
ne: d e
tails o f t h
is t ech-
1
300
n
ique w il
l b e found i nC hap ter
Z
o C =150
1
4( V.H .F. A er
ia l
s).
1
200
T HE MI XER
Z
o C =2
50
Two b as
ic t ype s of m ixe r are
100 u
sed i nu .h.f
. r eceive rs— triode s
Z
o C = 400 (
gene ral
ly c
onne cted in a
g
rounded g rid circui t
)o rc rystal
t
1000
,
d
iode s. I n some c ase s at h er
-
Z
o C = 600 m
ion ic d iode may b e u sed
i
nstead o f t h
e c r ys
ta l t ype b ut
— 900 t
hep e r
formanc e may b ei nferior
Z
o C 800 b
ecau se it
sc apac itanc ei sh ighe r
.
For t h
e 7 0cm b and e ithe r t ype
800 may b e used , b ut t r
iode v alves
0
Z
o C =1
200 a
re mo re often used t han c rystals
c
b
ecause t hey a re mo re r eadily
7
00 a
vailable a nd h ave ac onve r s
ion
Z
o C =
1600 g
ain, w herea s crystals a nd t h e
r-
m
ion ic diode sh ave ac onve r s
ion
600 l
oss. F or the 2 3cm b and a nd
b
elow ( i
.e. f r
equen cie s a bove
1
250 Mc /s) th e m ixer i sa lmo st
500 i
nva r
iably ac rystal.

Tr
iode M ixer s
400 At r
iode v a
lve c an b e used a s
a m ixe r i n t wo e s
s entially
d
ife rent w ays. T he n on -
linear
3
00 c
ha racte r
istic nece ssary form ix-
i
ng r esults f r
om b ias
ing t he
v
alve t o o perate e i
the r o n t he
200 a
node b end o r o n t he g rid
c
urren t b end ( leaky g rid). I n
t
he a node b end m ethod t he
1
00
a
ppl ication o fthel ocalo sci
llato r
v
oltage w il
l d r
ive t he a node
c
urren t u pwa rds; i n the l eaky
2 4 6 8 1
0 1
2 1
4 1
6 •1
8 20 22 2
4 26 2
8 30 g
r
id m ethod i tw ill drive t he
L
ENGTH OF INNER CONDUCTOR IN CENTI METRES a
node c urrentd ownwa rds. P ro-
v
ided t hat t he r e commended
o
sci
l lato r i
n
jection v
oltage
a
pplied i sc orrect t he resultan t
a
node c ur rent will b e the s ame
b
y e ither m e
thod a nd t he con -
F
ig. 5
.35
. Chart p
lott
ing f
requency a ga
inst l
ength o
f inner l
ine f
or
v
arious va
lues o
f the c
haracter
ist
ic impedance mu ltipl
ied by the
v
ersion g ain a nd then o
ise facto r
t
ota
l capacitance
. w
il
l b e t h e same . F or a node
5
.
28
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
i
f
. s
tag
e may b
econside
red be
tte
rva
lue. I
n awell
-de
signed
a
r
rangemen
t t
he n
oise f
acto
r isoft
he s
ame o
rde
r.

C
rysta
l M
ixers
As ac rys tal m ixer a c
t s a s ad iode a nd o perate s n on-
l
i
nea r
ly a round t he b ottom b end i n t h e c harac te r
is t
ic , t he
o
sci
l la to r i njection v o
ltage a pp lied mu s t b e s uf icien t t o
(
c)
(
a) b s
wing t h eo pe rating p ointw ellr ound t heb end. I ft hev oltage
F
ig. 5.
36. Three methods o f coupl
ing i nto a l
ine or cav
ity. (a) i
st oo l ow t he c onve rsion e f
iciency w ill b e l ow b ecaus e t he
Tapping t
he i
nner conductor. (
b) Boot-shaped coup
ling l
oop at l
ow
impedance e
nd of i
nner c
onductor. (c) Probe a
t h
igh impedance e
nd
c
urva tur eo ft hew o rking p ortion o ft hec ha rac teristic w i
ll b e
o
f inner c
onductor . r
e
lat ive ly s l
igh t. On t heo the rh and ,i ft hev ol
tage i st oo h igh
t
he c onve r s
ion e f
i ciency i sn o g r eate r b ut mo re n oise i s
p
roduced b ecaus e t h
e n ois e o utpu t i sp ropo rtiona l t o t he
o
sci
l lato rv oltag ei npu t. I ti sc l
ear t h ere fore t ha tt hei n
jec tion
b
end o peration, v alves h aving i ndirectly h eated c a
thodes v
oltage e mp loyed i sf air
ly c r
itical i fo ptimum n oise f actor i s
c
an b e p rovided w ith a utoma t
ic b ias
. T ho se u.h.f. valves t
ob e a chieved a nd s ome m eans o fa d
ju sting i t
sv alue s hou ld
w
ith a c ommon h eater a nd c athode c onnec t
ion, h oweve r
, b
e p rov ided i nt he r eceive r. P re ferab ly , am ete r s hou ld b e
w
ill need a s epa rate h eate r wind ing. When d isc-seal valves i
ns
ta lled p ermanen t ly i nc ircu it so t ha t t he o scillato rv oltage
moun ted i nc avi
tie s are u sed t he grid d isc o r ri
ng w ill have c
an b e s e
t f o r the b e s
t p er fo rmance . T he m ete r shou ld b e a
t
ob ei nsulated f rom t hec avity i fth
ey a ret ob eu sed asl eaky m
ic roamme ter c onnec ted i n s erie s w ith t he c rys tal, t he
g
rid m ixers. a
ppl ied v oltag e b eing v aried t o p roduce a p rede te rm ined
The c hoice o f m ethod w ill a l
so d ep end o n w hether t h
e c
urren t w hich w ill v ary a cco rding t o t h e t y pe o f c ry stal:
v
alve i sconne c
ted i n ag rounded g r
id o r g rounded c a
thode e
ven d if eren t s pecimen s o f t he s ame t ype w i
ll p roduce
c
i
rcu i
t. I ft rouble i sexp erienc ed w i
th i .f
, b reakth rough t h
e d
if er ent c ur ren t l evel s
. T he c ur ren t i sl i
kely t o b e i n t he
m
ixe ri npute lectrode ( the g r
id o rt hec a
thode a sthec a
se m ay r
ang e 0 -
1- 1 mA .
b
e) shou ld b e bypa ssed t oe ar
th w ith ar eactance t hat islow Some c r ystals r e qui re a s ma l
l n ega tive b ia s f or o p
timum
f
ort he i.
f.e mployed . At ypical 7 0cm m ixe r i sshown a sp ar
t p
erfo rmance a nd as uitable b ias v oltage c an b e p rov ided b y
o
fF ig. 5 .
41 l a
ter i nt h
i s chap ter. i
nc
lud ing a r esisto r o f 5 00- 1000 o hm s i nt he c ircuit, b ut i t
The a dvantage so f at r
iode m ixera ret h eu seful p owe rgain s
hou ld b e b orne i nm ind t hat s ome m icroamme te rs h ave a
t
hat itprov idesa nd t h
er educ t
ion i nt hen umbe ro fi .
f. st
ages r
es
i stance o f t h
is o rde r a nd s ome m ay e ven h ave t oo h igh a
-
s
uit
ing f rom t he f a
ct t hat i tacts as a n i.
f. amp lifier it
self
. r
es
i stance . T he r esisto r a nd m eter mu st b e a dequa tely b y
-
p
as sed f or b o
th r .
f. a nd i f. c urren ts. An umbe r ofc ry stals
The exactv alue o fo sci
llato rinjection isn o
tv ery c r
itical and
avalve isn ots or ead i
ly d amaged b ya cciden talp ick u po fr .
f
. s
ui
tab le f or 7 0cm a r e a vai
lab le, e xamp le s b e
ing t he GEX66
p
owe r f rom t he t ransm itte r as ac rystal, b ut i tiso fc our se (
CV2290 ) o r USA CK7 10 , a nd f or 2 3cm t h e t yp e C S2A
moree xp ensive a nd t h
ea l
te rnative ofi nclud ing a na dd i
tional (
s
im ilar t ot he CV 103 ) o r 1 N21 o r SI M2 .
F
ig .5 .
37 s how s at ypical m ixe rc avi ty f or 2 3cm o pe ration .

CAV
ITY H
igh Q B
reak
I
F
11 3 C
RYSTAL T
RANSFORMER
The loca l osc
illa torv oltag e in ar eceive rm ay b eg ene rated
O
SCILLATOR I'-- -11 " b
y as ingle v a
lve o r, a s m entioned i n t he v .
h.f. re ceive rs
O
R H IGH '
C
r C. I
B
REAK A
ERIAL <D I •
s
ection , at al owe r f requency t o o btain b e
tte r s t
abil
i ty, a nd
• C) t
hef requency mu ltiplied b yo ne o r mo re d oub lerso rt r
eb lers.
The o u
tpu t ofa n o s
cilla tor c on tains f requenc ies othe r t han
C
RYSTAL t
he r equ ired o ne ( i
.e
. , h armon ic s in a dd i
tion t o the f unda -
• C
URRENT
men tal) t ogether w i
th s ome n oise ; th e o utpu t o f ac ha in o f
_ 1
/4.D
IA M
ETER multip l
it rs t
age si nc
lude sl owe rf r
equenc ie si na ddition t ot he
/2" D
1 IA r
equ ired f r
equency . I d eal
ly t he l ocal o scil
la tor v oltage i n-
C
APACITOR
P
ROBE j
ected i n
to t he m ixer s hould b e ap ure s i
ne w ave o f t he
r
e quired f r
equency ; othe r frequenc ie s m e
rely g ene rate mor e
n
o ise i nt he m ixe r w ithou t c on tribu t
ing a ta l
l t o the s ignal
C
LIP O
N INNER /
S
ince a l ow n oise l evel i sa n e ssen t
ial r e
qu iremen t i n u .h
.f.
L
INE T
O FIT r
eceive rs, t h
ev o
l tage i nje c
ted i nto t hem ixe rs hould b ea tt he
C
RYSTAL
f
undamen tal o n ly a nd a l
l o the r f requenc ies s hou ld b e
7/1
6"
r
emoved b y af i
l
te r
. S uch af i
lte ri sk nown a s ah igh Q b reak
3
/52•i 5/
4. a
nd u sually c onsis ts o f ac oax ial c avity w ith ac oup l
ing l oop
a
tt he l ow p o
ten tial ( "c o
ld " ) e nd a nd a p robe c oup ling a t
C
OUPL
ING L
OOP 4 t
h e h igh p otential ( "h ot" ) e nd , b oth b eing f a
irly l oo sely
3/
8"
to
om x C
RYSTAL BODY INSULATED FROM MOUNT
ING c
oup led s o that ah igh Q v alue i sa ch ieved . E xamp le s of
B
Y 0.005" POLYTHENE SHEET FORMING A
W
IDE FORMED F
ROM
B
YPASS CAPACITOR C 70cm a nd 2 3cm h igh Q b reaks a re s hown o ve r
leaf. T yp ical
I
NNER O
F CABLE
p
e rfo rmance o f a7 0cm f i
l
ter w ould b e a n a ttenua tion o f
F
ig. 5
.31
. Typ
ica
l mixer c
avity a
nd c
ircu
it f
or 1
296 Mc
/s.
— 15db a t af r
equency 3 .5 Mc /s a way f rom t h
e o p era t
ing
5
.
29
RSGB —RAD
I O CO M MUNICAT
I ON HAN DB O OK

- t
he mixer i fthe if
. istoo high, because the si
gna
l circui
t is
t
hen sof arremoved i nfrequency from theo sc
il
latori n
ject
ion
f
r
equency t hat i
tb ecome s d
ificu
lt t o mainta
in an adequa te
m
ixer h eterodyne v ol
tage. A s uitable f i
r
st i.
f. f
or ac on-
v
erte
r for 7 0cm will be found between 2 0-30 Mc /
s a nd for
2
3cm b e
tween 3 0-40 Mc /s; a70cm r ece
iver w h
ich incorpor-
a
tes ag ood r .
f
. st
age m ay use th
e s t
anda rd if
. of 1
0.7 Mc /s
o
r al owe r f
requency ifp r
eferred
.

F
irst I
.
F. Amp
lif
ier
The ea r
ly stag es oft h
e i.
f. amp lifier f o
llow ing ac rystal or
t
herm ion ic diode m ixer mus tb eo ft hel ow n o
ise t ype b ecau se
t
h
i s t ype o f mixer h a s ag a
in l e
ss t han u ni ty. L ow n oise i s
most r eadily achieved w ith ad ouble t r
iode v a
lve s uch a st he
E
88CC , ECC89 , 6 BQ7A , o r ECC84 ( 6C W7 ) u sed a s a
c
ascode ; see F ig. 5 .
16. A f
te r the e arly s tag es, a n o rdina ry
Two h
igh Q B
reaks
, t
he l
onger f
or 430 Mc s
, t
he s
horter f
or 1
296 p
en tode may b e used b ut one h aving al ow e quiva lent n oise
Mc s
.
r
esistanc e isp referab le.
When t hem ixeri sat r
iode,c onne cted e i
the ri n ag rounded
f
r
equency . T his w ou
ld e n sure t hat
, p rovided t hat t he c
athode o r grounded g rid circuit, ap entode t ype o ff i
rst i .
f
.
o
r
igina l sour
ce ish i
gher than 3 .5 Mc /s
, no other f r
equency s
tage i ss a
tisfacto ry b ecause i n e fect t he f i
rst i .
f. s t
age i s
o
fs ufic
ien tm agnitude to matterw ould befedi n
to them ixer
. a
lready at r
iode .
Where t he las
t v alve in af r
equency mu lt
iplied o sci
lla
tor The m ixer o utpu t impedance mu st b e sui tab ly m atched t o
c
hain iso f t
he disc-sea
l or c oaxial type w
ith a t uned cavi
ty t
he i nput i mpedance o ft he fi
rst i .
f
. a mplifier v alve . T h
is i s
a
node c ircu
it, th
is c av
ity c an r eadi
ly b e made s ufic
ient
ly p
a r
ticu larly impor tan ti fac rystalo rt h erm ion ic d iode i sused
s
e
lective too perate as ahigh Q b reak. b
ecau se inb oth oft heset ypest hei mpedance i srelatively l ow
(
abou t 5 00 o hm s a s am ixer). T he c ircuit d esign a nd t he
p
recau t
ion s nec essary t oa void i .
f
. b reak th rough a r e simi
la r
t
ot hose r e
lat
ing t ov .
h.f
. rec e
ive r
s.
An i f
. amp lif
ier f ol
low ing ac rystal m ixe r s hou ld h ave a
n
oise f a
cto r of 2-4db a nd f ol
low ing a t r
iode m ixe r, 6-8db .

LOCAL OSC
ILLATORS
The l o
cal o scillator voltage for au . h
.f. conve rter m ay be
g
enerated e i
the r at af r
equency n ear to the signal f r
equency
(
i
.e.
, pl u
s or m inu s the fi
r
s t i
.f
.) ora t al owe r fr
equency a nd
mult
iplied. T he se a l
ternatives h ave b een d iscussed e arl
ier
F
ig. 5
.38
. E
ssent
ial d
i mens
ions f
or h
igh Q b
reaks
. i
nt h
isc hapteri nc onne c
tion with 2 mand 4m c onve rter
s. T he
2
3 cm 3
0 cm 70 cm s
ame c onside ration s apply t o u.
h.f. rece
iver s b u
t b ecause of
I
nside dia meter of outer c onductor 4
3/64 in
. 43/64 i
n. 4
3/64 in. •
Outside dia meter of inner c onductor i
n
. i
n. S
.in
. t
he highe r frequenc ies involved f requency s tability ise ven
D
i mension A ( end t o tap o n i nner) 4
, i
n. i
n
. fin
. more impo rtan t. R ec e
ivers fort e
lephony r eception o n 70cm
D
i mension B ( end to c oup l
ing p robe) I
S in
. I
f i
n. 5
1 in
.
D
i mension C ( dia m. of tr
i m mer ) in
. i
n. s
in. c
an beb u
iltu sing af undamen tal frequency t unab le osci
llator
D
i mens ion D ( length o f inner c on- b
ut forc .w. the o scil
lator mu st be o n al owe r fr
equency ( f
or
ductor) l
( i
n. 2i
n. 6in
.
D
i mens icn E ( length o f o uter c on- e
xamp le, 200 Mc /s). A l
l practical rece
iver sf or2 3cm e mploy
ductor I
f i
n. 2f i
n. 6
.) in
. acrystal oscillato r a nd f r
equency mu l
tiplier c hain, a s do
D
i mens ion F (
dia m. of p robe ) i
n
. i
n. Iin
.
•
I in. o.d. t ube with 20 s
.w.g. wa
ll. many for 7 0cm .

S
elf
-exc
ited Osc
illators
THE I
NTERMED
IATE F
RE QUENCY I
n a dd
ition t o t he v arious s table osci
llato rs a l
ready
The same basic consideration s apply t o the choice of t
he d
es cr
ibed f or use i n2 m and 4m e quipmen t, atyp e d e
signed
f
i
rs
t i n
termediate f
requency t ob eu sed f ort heu .h
.f. b
and sas b
y RCA i n S w
itze r
land i suseful over the fr
equency r ange
f
or 70 and 144 Mc/s. I tshou ld b e borne i nm ind, howeve r
, b
etween 4 20 a nd 1 300 Mc /s. I tcan b e ab as
is f or expe r
i-
t
hat the f
requency range s t
ob e covered a r
e s omewha t wider menta lw ork as ar eceive rosci
llatora nd i
salso invaluable a sa
a
nd t he
refore itisdesi
rab le toa dop t ah ighe r fi
rst i
.
f. fo
r a s
i
gna l s ource a nd a s af orm o f gr
id d ip osci
lla tor
. I ti s
u
.h
.f. converter
. T his also he
lp s toi mp rove s econd channel r
e
la t
ive ly easy t oc on s
truc t and e mploys ar e
adily a vailable
r
e
jection. r
eceiving t ype valve, the 6 AF4A .
A
lthough i n
terf
erence f r
om s econd c hanne lsignals i
salmo s
t T
he b asic c ircuit i s shown i n Fig
. 5 .39 w h
ile, a
u
nknown i nthe u.h
.f. ranges p oor second c hanne l ra
tio wil
l p
icture o f such a n osci
l la
tor i sshown , wi
th t he e nd c over
c
ause a d e
ter
ioration i n the n oi
se p erformance o f the r
emoved . T he tuned c ircui
t i softhe butterf
ly t ype, but the
r
ece
iver; for e
xamp le, a 1:1r a
tio w ould i ncrease th
e n o
ise i
nduct ive el
emen t isf o
rmed b yt h
e m eta
l box w hich c ontains
f
ac
tor b y 3db. T rouble m ay b e e xperienced , howeve r
, in t
he o sci
llator a nd i st uned b y as pli
t-s
tator capac i
to r con-

5
.30
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS

OUTPUT TABLE 5
.
8
D
i mens
ions o
f b
oxes for u
se with f
our types of c
apac
itor i
n t
he
H
T+100V r R
FC'
1 o
sci
llator c
ircu
it o
f F
ig. 5
.39
C2
w
i
s
.
1
.
C
.
4 Capac
itor I
ns
ide d
i mens
ions o
fbox Approx
.
E
ddystone Capac
itance f
requency
Type No. L
eng
th Width Depth r
ange
L
I 51 2
4 —24 p
F I i
n
. fi
n
. I
f i
n
. 8
00-11 5
0Mc/s
5
87 1
0 - 1
0 p
F 2
1 i
n
. I
f i
n
. 2
1 i
n
. 6
10-925 Mc
/s
5
84 3
4 + 3
4 p
F 2
1 i
n
. 1 i
n
. 2
1
. i
n
. 4
20-850 M O
1
068 4
0 +40 p
F 5i
n
. 2 i
n
. 2
1
. i
n
. 3
00-550 Mc
/s

R
FC3
C
2,C3 — 4pF
R
I (Set Tex
t)
6
.3v 1
0K
C5 C
6 1
00pF
1
00pF L--
f
requency r ange f or e ach a nd o the r relevan t dimen sion s
.
The b ui
lt-in c apacito r
s a re f o rmed o ft wo bra ss plates f i
xed
B
RASS BOX GR
ID C
URRENT METER
b
y s mall screw s (10 B.A .) t o t he f i
xed v anes o ft he t uning
F
ig. 5
.39
. C ircuit o
fu.h.f
.o sc
illator. C
l, see Tab
le 5 .
7; C2, 3
,a pproxi-
c
apac itor b ut i n
sulated t h ere from b y s everal sheets o ft h
in
mately 4 p F (
see text, va
lue b etween 2 and 6 p F
); C 4, 5
,6 , 100 pF p
olythene o r p .t
.f.e. fi
lm ( abou t 0 .
0 1 in.)
. T he drill
ing a nd
l
eadthrough c apacitors; L
I, sides o
fbox (see Table 5.7
); L2, c
oup ling
l
oop; RFC I, ISturns 30s.w.g
. e na m
. i n
. i.
d. in. long; RFC2, 8t urns
t
apping mu st b e done w ith g rea t care.
2
8 s.w.g
. e na m. )
;in
. i.d
. I} in
. long; RFC3, 15 t
urns 2 8 s
.w.g. ena m. The t wo a node t ags o f t h e v alveho lde r
, w h
ich mu st be
Iin
. i.d
. i
n. long (
two w ires wound as at wisted pair)
.
I
made o fp .
t.f.e.,a res o
lde red d irectly too ne pla
te a nd t het wo
g
r
id t a g
s t o t he othe r
. T he h eate r
, c athode a nd a node
s
uppl ies are f i
ltered w i
th c hoke s a nd b y-pa s
sed t o t he b ox
n
ected a cro s s theo ppo site side so ft he b ox. T his results ina w
ith l eadthrough c apac itor s w hich p rovide t hee xterna l con-
r
i
gid c on struc t
ion h av ing t he w ide t uning r ange a sso c
iated n
ection s. Ac oup l
ing l oop i s moun ted i nt he b ox att hee nd
w
ith b utterfly c ircu its. D rif t d ue t o v ar
iation s i n v a
lve r
emo te f rom t h ev a
lve a nd a djus ted s o thatc onnec tion o fan
c
apac itance a nd l oading a re r educed b y efectively t apping e
xterna l 7 0 o hm l oad d oe s n otc ause t he o scil
la tion t o
t
he g r
id a nd a node o f t he valve d own t he tuned c ircuit b y c
ease.
c
apac itive p o
ten tiome te rs formed b y b ui
lt-
in c apacito rs and The e arthy e nd oft he g rid l eak i sbrough t out t hrough a
t
hev a
lve e lectrode c apac itance . T he e fectoft hev alve o nt he l
eadthrough c apac itor a nd i sa vai
lab le t o c heck t he g r
id
c
i
r cuitc an b er educ ed s t
illfu rthe rb y mak ing t hese capac i
to rs c
urren t. W ith n o a node v oltage a ppl
ied t he coupling l oop
smaller b ut t he o u tpu t v ol
tage w i
ll f a
ll , th
e v a
lve c ea s
ing t o may b ec onnec ted b y as ho rt l ength o fc able toa no the r loop
o
scillate i ft he v a
lue s a re too s mall
; c onversely i fthe v a
lue s c
oup led t o a nothe r oscil
la to r o r t r
an sm itter
, a nd t he t uned
a
re i ncreas ed , t he o utpu t will i ncreas e b ut the drif
t w ill al
so b
ox u sed a s a n a bsorp tion w aveme ter, t he grid c urrent
b
e i ncrea sed . T yp ica l v a
lue s a r e between 2 -6 p F. p
rovid ing i ndication. A lte rna tively, w ith a node v oltage
The b ox i smade o fa bou t1 8s .w.g.b ra ss
o
r c opp e r s heeta nd t he s eam ss olde red :
i
t
s h eigh t s hou ld b e j ust s uficien t
t
o a c
commoda te t he s pl
it-s tato r c ap -
a
cito rw ith t he v alve h older moun ted o n
t
he e nd , t h e v alve i t
self b eing s hielded
b
y am etal c himney o r aw ell f i
tting
c
ove r. I ft he b ox i st oo h i gh t he e nd
s
pace w ill a ct a s ac avity a nd p roduce
s
pu r
iou s mode s o f o sci
llation . T he
s
plit-s
ta to r c apac i to r s hould h ave b ra ss
p
late s s olde r ed a cro ss t he s ide s o f t he
f
i
xed v ane s a nd t he p la
te s c lamp ed t o
t
he s i
de s o ft he b ox b y ad oub le r ow o f
s
crew s. U nle ss t h e side s oft he b ox a re
i
n i nt
ima te c ontac t w ith t he c apac ito r
t
hroughou t i t
sl eng th t he Qo ft hec ircu it
w
ill b e r e duc ed. T he w id th o f t he
c
apac ito r w ith t he p lates i n p os
ition
d
ecide s t he i n
to-n al w id th o f t h
e b ox :
t
he r ema ining s ide s o f t he b ox s hou ld
h
ave ad imen sion o ft wice t he w idth.
The m id-f requency a nd t uning r ange
d
ep end o n t he s i
ze o f t he b ox a nd t he
c
apac itance s wing o f t he s plit
- s
ta to r
c
apac ito r. A s r e
la t
ive ly f ew s ui
tab le
c
apac ito rs a r e a va i
lab le t he c hoice i s
s
omewha t l imited b ut T able 5 .8 g ive s
f
our t ype s o f E ddy stone c apac ito r
, t he The u.h
.f, o
sci
llator o
f F
ig
. 5
.
39 w
ith t
he v
alve r
e moved s
how
ing t
he c
onstruct
ion
.

5
.
31
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
a
pplied
, t he g r
id c urrent w i
ll k ick d ownwa rd s w hen a n Mc/s presen ts ap roblem , a nd o ne s o
lution i st ou se at r
iode
e
xterna
l circuit ist uned t hrough t h
e o scil
la tor f requency , o
f the plana r or disc-sea l t ype in as uitab le c avi
ty . V a
lve s
t
he box ac
ting a s agrid dip oscilla
to r
. A t u.
h.f., h oweve r, it t
hat may b e e mployed a re t he types DET29 , 2 C40, 4 46A ,
i
sn ot r
ecommended t hat the o sci
lla
to r be t uned a c ross the 6
BY4 o r 7 077. I ti sp ossib le, howeve r, t o e mploy a s em i-
b
and to find the re
sonan t fr
equency o fa n unknown c i
rcuit c
onduc tor d iode a s af requency mu ltip lier, t he c ircuit i n
b
ecause there are var
iou s p o
in t
s a tw h
ich d ipso ccur,d ue to F
ig. 5.40 u sing a 1 N64 c rystal mu l
tiply ing f rom 2 00-600
m
ino r ir
regularit
ies i n the b ox a nd c oupling l oops w hich Mc/s. T his a r
rangemen t w il
l f urnish a c ry
s tal c ur rent o f
make id
entifi
cation d ifi
cult. 4
00 µA i n an orma l cr ystal m ixer. S im ila r m ethods c an b e
When the oscil
lator isu sed as as ource o fs ignal itmay b e employed a t l ower f requenc ies or a t highe r frequenc ies f or
a
node modu lated w ith tone b y as mall a .
f
. o sci
lla tor, or d
oub l
ing t o 1 200 Mc /s a l
though f or t he l a
tte r th e c rystal
f
r
equency modu lated b y 50c /
s i fthe bottom e nd o ft h
e g r
id would need t o be moun ted i n ac avi
ty s imilar t o t hat f o
r a
l
e
ak i sconnected tot h
e live 6.3 volt heater supp ly. c
rysta
l m ixe r. As u
itab le c rystal for mu ltip l
ie r service h a
s a
l
ow f orwa rd r e
sistance a nd i sc apab le o f p assing a h i gh
C
rysta
l O
sci
llator Mu
ltip
lier C
hains c
urrento ft heo rdero f5 0 mA . T he h igh c ur
ren t i snece ssary
b
ecaus e the h armon ic c omponen t iso nly as mall pe rcen tage
The p rov ision o f t he f inal o scillato r frequency b y mu lti-
o
ft het o
talc urrent ; al ow c urrent w ould r e
sult i n av ery low
p
lication f rom al owe rf requency c rystal h as b een r ef
er red t o
o
utpu t
. C ry stal mu ltiplie rs mu st b e f ollowed b y s e
lec t
ive
a
lready i nc onnec tion w ith 2a nd 4m r eceive r s. T he i n
fo rma -
t
uned circuits o r ah igh Q b reak b ecause t h eo utpu to fl owe r
t
ion g ene rally a pp l
ie s t o7 0a nd 2 3cm e qu ipmen t a part from
f
requencies i sc onside rab le a nd w ill d ete r
io rate t h e m ixe r
t
h e fact t hat mo re mu ltip lying s tages a re r equ ired. B ecau se n
oise factor.
t
h e in
jec tion f requency r equi red i s much h ighe ri ti showeve r
d
e s
irab le t o u se ah ighe r f r
equency c r ystal i no rde r to k eep
t
h e numbe r o f s t
age s d own t o ar easonab le f i
gu re. Wh ilst
l
owe rf requency c r ystals a rec heap ert he i ncreased c osto ft he
e
xtra s tage s mu s
t b ec ons ide red. A na dd itiona la dvan tage o f R
.F. AMPL
IFIERS
t
he h ighe r frequency c rystals i st hat less d ifi culty i slikely t o Because m ixer sofa ny t ype are inherently mo re noisy t h an
a
rise d ue t os e
lf-g ene rated w histle s int he r e ceiver a nd t he re amplif
iers iti sd es
irable tha t the mixe r in alow n oise u .h.f.
i
sl ess likelihood o f i nte rference t o othe r u se rs by s pu r
ious r
eceiverh ep receded b ya tl easto ne r.
f. amp l
ifi
e rstage. S uch
r
adia t
ion . F or examp le, a7 0 Mc /s over tone c rys
ta l isq ui te astage, because i tusually i n
volve s additional tuned circu its,
s
atisfactory f or b oth t he 7 0 a nd 2 3cm b ands a nd t he f re- i
mp roves t he s e
cond c hanne l r a
tio a nd f u
rther re duces t he
q
uency i sc l
ear o f B and s I ,1 a nd I I t elev ision a nd s ound no
ise. F or t h
is reason a lone iti soften w orthwh i
le.
b
roadca s t
ing . Whe reve r p os sible, th ec rysta ls cho sen s hou ld R.F. amp lificat
ion o n th e u.
h.f. bands c an be achieved b y
h
ave a l ow t empe ra ture d ri f
t. A lterna tive ly , they c an b e u
sing ( a
) g rounded g r
id t r
iodes, (b) t r
avell
ing w ave t ube s,
moun ted i n as imp le o ven t o g ive a r ea sonab le c ontro l o f (
c) parame tric a mplif
iers, (d) tunnel d iodes
, a nd (e) m ase rs.
t
empe ratu re. T
rave l
ling w ave tub e
s a r
e v ery expen sive a nd do n ot e f ect
Overtone c ry s
ta l o sci
lla to rs t end t og ive r ather l owe r o ut- much i mp rovemen t o n triode v alves a t fr
equenc ies b elow
p
u t than t ho se d esigned f or u se w ith f undamen ta l cr y
sta ls 1
300 Mc /s.
a
nd t h
is may i nvo lve a n a dditiona l a mplif ying s tage a tt he
c
rystal f r
equency . T he mu ltiplie r stage s may u se a s ma ll
P
arametr
ic Amp
lif
ier
s
p
en tode f or t he l owe r f requenc ie s s uch a s t he p entode
s
ection o f a6 U8 o r a6 AK5 a nd d oub le t r
iode s s uch a s t he Parame tr
ic a mplif
ie rs are ac ompara tive ly recent d evelop -
6
J6 u sed i np ush -pu ll a s t rebler s at t he h ighe r frequenc ie s. men t i n the f i
e
ld o f low n o
i se a mplif
ica tion . A s t he name
Smalld oub le t e
trode ss uch a st h e QQV02 /6 a rev ery u sefula s s
ugge sts, they o perate b y v i
r tue o f av arying c i
r cuit pa ra-
f
requency t reblers u p t o6 00 Mc /s. mete r, i n th
is c ase, r eactance , w h
ich i sm ade t o s t
ore a nd
I
n a2 3cm mu ltiplie rc hain t he l as
t d oub le r f r
om 6 00- 1200 r
e
lease s i
gnal e nergy w ithou t a dd ing n ois e
. Two b a s
ic type s
h
ave b een d eveloped t o d ate : ( a) t he b eam p arame tric
amp lifier, or A dler t ube, w hich r e
semb le s at ravelling w ave
t
ub e, a nd (b) the s emi-conduc to r p arame tric amp lif
i e
rw hich
C
IRCUIT TUNED
u
ses t he prop erty o f as em i-conduc to r t hat i t
s j unction
R
I TO HARMON IC c
apac ity i s p ropo r
tiona l t o t he a pplied v o
ltage . B o
th
6
80K CR I (
600 MC/i r
equ ire a n externa l low p owe r" p ump "o sci
llatoro perating
C
I
a
ta ni ntegral mu ltiple o fthes i
gna lf requency ,w hich p rovide s
t
he e nergy f rom w h
ich t he a mplified s igna l isderived . T he
s
pF M
IXER Adle r t ube ha s sup erio r prope rties a nd p er formance t o t he
s
em i-conduc to r ty pe, b u
t h as t he d i
sadvan tage tha t it mu st
OSCILLATOR TUNED TO
200 MCis S
IGNAL T
UNED b
e s pec ial
ly m ade f or the frequency b and o ver w hich i tist o
APPROX (
650 MC A) 1
0 I
F ampl ify, w hich make s t he t ube a nd i t
s a ssociated p ump
s
ou rce as omewha t e xp ensive p ropo si
tion f o
r t h
e ama teur .
C2 I
F
1
0pF OUTPUT Gains o f2 0db w ith n o
ise f a
cto rs o f 1-3db a re o b
ta inable a t
I f
requenc ies int he 200-800 Mc /
s r egion.
I

F
ig
. 5.40
. Circuit of acrysta
l frequency mult
iplier fro m 200 tc 6
00 Tunnel Diodes
Mc/s
. The res
istor-capacitor c
o mb inat
ion i
n s
eries with the crys
tal The h
igh fr
equency p
erfo
rmance o
f t
he t
unne
l diode h
as
i
s to prov
ide a uto mat
ic bias to t he to perating p o
int for
mult
ip l
ication. b
een st
eadily imp
roved due t
o be
tte
r manuf
actur
ing te
ch-
5
.
32
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
I
FT
RFA
MPL
IF
IER M
I
XER 1
0
.7 Mc/
s
1
.
6
AM4 ,,
± 8 1
A
PPROX 3" LONG x 1/
4' W
IDE
F
ig. 5
.41. R .F. amp lifier a nd m ixer 1
8swg S
ILVER PLATED S TRIP
f
or 430 Mc /s. C l, 4.5 p F tri m mer I
(Wingrove and Roger s t
ype OUTPUT
C
.320I); C 2,4, 1000 p F( T
.C .C. t ype
CT H310 ); C 3
, 34 p F P hilips trim - I
NPUT 6
AM
I, L
2
C6 4
1
.
CS
I R
I 3
5pF
mer; C S. 7 , 0.0
1 F( T.C.C . t ype
5
43); C 6
, 3 5 p F ( T
.C .C . t ype
CH2
SNB I01 ); CHI , 2,2 4 s.w.g. e na m.
c
lose wound i r i
n. i.d
. 1i n. l ong;
L
I, hairp in l oop 1 i n
. l ong - r
} i n
.
CH 1 L
I R
2
w
ide 1 3 s .w
.g.; L 2
, s i
lver p lated C> C2 B
•2K
b
rass s trip 3 i n. l ong i
n
. w ide 1
000pF
s
paced i
n
. f ro m c hassis; R 3 R4 1 C
7
C5 I
BK
2
20 o h ms. 0
.01
C
I
4
•SpF

HT
4-250V

n
ique a nd ins ui
tab le circuitry isc apab le o fl ow n oise amp li- can b et ried a nd mod ification se asily made w ithou ti nvo lv ing
f
i
cation u p tos everal hund red m egacyc les. T he tunne l diode ac omp lete r econs truc tion o ft he r eceive r o rc onve rter.
i
s an egative r e
sistanc e d evice a nalogous t o a Q mu ltiplier A7 0cm a . amp lif
i era nd t r
iode m ixer u sing 6 A M4 v alve s
a
nd at y p
ical m ethod o fu se ist oc onnec t the diode a c
ro ss a i
ss hown i nFig. 5 . 4
1. T he amp l
ifie ra nd m ixera r e o pe ra ted
p
art of the t uned i nput c ircuit o f ar eceiver
, s o r a
ising t he i
n t he g rounded g rid c onf igu rat
ion w ith a s t
rip l i
ne a s t he
e
fective Q o ft he i nput circuit a nd i ncrea s
ing t h
e g ain f rom coup l
ing e l
emen t b etwe en t he v alve s. T his l ine i s s erie s
t
hea er
ial inpu tt ot hei npu to fth ef ollow ing r.f
. s t
age. S ince t
uned a t t he m ixe r e nd w ith a f orm o f p i n etwo rk w hich
t
he tunnel diode o pera
te sa t acur ren t o fthe orde ro f 1mA , m a
tche s t he i mpedance o f t he l ine d own t o t he c athode
a
nd i t
s m ajo r noise con tribu t
ion i sd ue t o shot n oise, low impedance o f t he m ixe r. T he a e r
ia l f eede r i sc onnec ted
n
oise amp l
ificat
ion r esults. I n p ractice i ti s d e
s i
rab le t o d
irec t
ly t ot her .
f.s t
age c athode v iaa ni so
la ting c apac ito rb ut
i
n
co rporate s ome f o rm o fd .c. stabilization o ft he o perating atuned i nputc ircu itm ay b ei ncluded i ft roub le ise xpe rienc ed
p
oint, as nega t
ive r es
istance d evice s are p rone to i ns
tab ility f
rom i nte rference f rom l ocal s t
ation s o r i .
f
. b reak through .
u
nless thi
s p recau t
ion i staken . Ag e rman ium t unnel d iode The l ocal o scillato r i n
je ct
ion may b e c oup led t o t he s t
rip
u
sed i n th
is w ay i sc apab le o f g a
ins o f the order o f 25db l
ine b y al oop n ea rt h e line orc oup led d irectly t ot h e line b y
w
i
th 3 db n oise facto r at 100 Mc / s. as mallc apacito r( abou t 1o r 2p F)c onne cted n ear e ithe re nd .
The t un ing c apac itor o f t he f i
rst i .
f. t ran sforme r mu st b e
w
i red f rom t h em ixera node p ind ire ctly t oc hassisi no rde rt o
Ma
sers b
ypa ss t he signa l a nd o scillator f requenc ie s, a nd s hou ld n ot
The m aser ( mic rowave a mplif
i cat
ion b y s t
imu lated e mi
s- b
e a cro ss t he c oil i nt he i .
f. t r
an sforme r c an. T he c a thode
s
ion o fr adiation ) isc apab le ofv ery l ow n o
ise a mplification b
ypa ss c apacitance c omp rises t wo c apac itor s, one f o
r s igna l
i
n t he m icrowave r eg
ion a nd n oise f a
ctors o f 0 .
1db a re f
requenc ie s and o ne f or i .
f
. T he h .
t. i sc onnec ted t ot he l i
ne
t
heo retically p ossible w hen t hec rystala nd asso c
iated c ircui
ts v
ia ad ecoup ling r esisto r at av oltage a nti-node a bou t h alf-
a
rec ooled t ot het emp era ture ofl iquid h e
lium . T he mode o f way a long t h el i
ne ,s omewha tn ear ert ot h er .f
. valve t han t he
operation i sbriefly a s fol
low s. C ertain c rys
ta l
line ma teria
ls c
ent re. T hisp o
in ti sf ound b yt empo rarily c onne cting t heh .t
.
s
uch a s r uby o r r uti
le w hen d oped w i
th t races o fc h
rom ium t
o t he c en tre a nd b y t ouch ing t h e l ine w ith a p enci l a nd
e
xhib it th e proper ty o fa mpl
ifying m ic rowave e nergy w i
thin r
etun ing i fnecessary u nt
il ap oint i sr eached w he re t h ep enc il
c
ertain w el
l d efined f r
equency b ands b ecause o f re
sonance s h
a s n o e f
ect. T he h .t. s hou ld t h en b e p e rmanen t
ly c on -
o
ccur ring w ith in t he s tructure o f t he mo lecules o f the n
e c
ted t o t h
i s p oint. T his a rrangemen t h a s ab andw id th a t
mate r
ial. T he m as e
r m ay t ake two f o rm s
: ( a
) t he crystal is t
he 3 db p oints o f a bou t 6 Mc /s a nd u sed w ith a n orma l
moun ted i n acav i
ty a nd o peratesa s ar elat
ively n arrow b and 1
0.7 Mc /s i.f
. h as an o
is e f a
cto r of7 -8db .
t
wo t erm inal d evice, o r ( b
) t h
e c rystal m a
terial m ay b e F
ig.5 . 42 ist hec i
rcu ito f at wo stage p re-amp lifie rf or7 0cm
d
is
tribu ted a long as l
ow w ave st
ruc tu re similar to tha t used u
sing t wo CV354 ( DET23 o r TD03-5 ) d isc s eal v alve s. I t
i
n at rave l
ling w ave t ube w hen a u nilateral f our t e
rm inal u
ses at rough l ine t uned i nt he same w ay a s the 6 A M4 r .
f
.
d
evic e r esults w i
th a much g reate r b andw idth. C urrent amplifier. I tr equ ires as epa rate h ea te r tran sforme r w i th a
d
evelopmen t isd irected a t imp roving t he t r
avell
ing w ave w
ind ing f ore ach v a
lve a st het ypess ugge s
ted h ave ac ommon
mase r
. h
eate r a nd c athode c onnec tion . T he b andw id th i sa bou t
6Mc /s, t heg ain 2 0db a nd t he n o
ise f acto r, used i nf ron to fa
r
eceive r o fn ois e f ac
to r 8 db, i sb etween 3a nd 4 db .
V
alve U
.H.F
. Amp
lif
ier
s
The t ype I 2AT7 a nd 6 BQ7A v alve s may b e u sed i n r .
f
.
A
s r.
f
. a mpl
ifier
s f o
r u .h.f te
nd t o b
e more e
xper
imen ta
l s
tage s fo r 70cm a nd c an b e c onven ien t
ly a rranged a s p u sh -
t
han the rema
inde ro f ar e
ce iveritisconven
ienttoconstruc
t p
ull g rounded g r
id amp lifiers u s
ing t wo p arallel l i
ne s s eries
t
hesestagesass eparate pre-amp lif
ier
sc onne
cted b
etween th
e t
uned a tt hee nd r emo te f rom t hev alve ,w ith h .t
.f edo nt ot h
e
a
erial f
eeder a
nd t h
e m ixer s t
age. In t
his w
ay, v
ar
ious type
s l
i
ne s a t a nti
-noda l p o
in ts. T hey r equ ire n eutralizing , h ow .
5
.
33
7—TRCH

1
. 0.
-- 0•••••
••1•
1•1• -.
RSG
I3 —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
I ON HANDBOOK

H
.-1 1i2
. 51/
2. 5'

C
I
^
I V
I
L
3
C
6 V
2
L
6
C
o
C
SI

Rf42 '

R
2 ,
er •
-
er
C
3 C
2 T
O
P V
I
EW C
II C
4 C
S C
8

V
I C
6 C
o

L
3 F
ig. 5
.42
. Two s
tage 4
30 Mc
's p
re-
1
.
6
amp
lif
ier u
sing CV354 v
alves c
oup
-
C
l R
4T1 =
k l
ed with s
trip l
i
nes i
n atrough. CI
,
S
I
DE V
I
EW
4
7 pF (T
.C.C. t
ype SCTI); C2
,3,4,5,
C
IO /
2
'
I
NPUT 21/
1 8 1, 3300 pF (
T.C.C
. type CT H3I5
1
30/1 LT); C6, 9 3
-8 pF P
hil
ips t
ri m mer
;
CS
I O
UTPUT C7
, 10, 20 pF s
i
lvered mica (T
.C .C.
V
2
L
6 x CS? t
ype SMB
101 o
r SCT
I I
)
; L
I, 2
, 4
, 5
,
C
I r
.f
. c hokes i
n. dia m
. Ii n
. long
4
7pF
C
O wound w ith 24 s.w.g
. ena m
.; L3, 6,
3
-8pF 3
1 in
. b y i
n
. si
lver plated 18 s
.w.g
.
L
I C> b
rass strip; VI, 2, DET23 ( CV3S4)
.
C>
C>L2 CSI a
nd CS2 are Be
lling & Lee c
o-ax
sockets t
ype L34S.
•_ \1
1
0
,„1
.]
‘
,

2
201
1
•
1
: C
2 C
3
• 3
300pF 3
300pF

6
.30

e
ver
, wh ich can be re
ad i
ly d one with two shor
t lengths o
f T
here a
re at p
resent few va
lves su
itable for r
.f
. st
ages at
w
ire (about 1i n
.) cross-connected from the cathodes and 2
3cm and al
l a
re ofthe coax
ial d
isc sea
l type
. E xamp les a
re
l
y
ing n ear to t
he oppo s
ite anode l i
nes
. T he 6BQ7A i st
he t
he DET29, EC56, 6 299
, 6280, 6BY4 a nd 7077. Abr idged
s
l
ight
ly b e
tter va
lve. No ise factors of about 1 0db are d
ata
,u nfo
rtunate
ly incomplete o
n th
ese valve
sa nd othersfor
o
bta
inab le from s
uch a s t
age. 7
0cm and 23cm, isshown inT ab
le 5.9.

I
nput Match
ing
TABLE 5
.
9 I
n o rder t o a chieve max imum ef iciency, i ti sn ecessary
R
.F. A MPL
IFIER VALVES t
hat t he aerial f e
eder s be matched tot he rece
ive r inpu t
. T h
is
i
se ven mo re i mpor tant on 23cm b ecause t he m isma tch i s
7
0c m 2
3c m l
i
kely t o b e mo re s evere
. An i mprovemen t oft he o rder o f
Type Co Mount
ing S
lope 3
db o r more c an b e obta
ined b y using a ma tching d evice.
No
. t
ion Gain N
.F . Ga
in N
.F . mA/V
db db ,d b db One s uch d evice i s at wo stub tuner
, w h
ich c onsists:of t wo
5
.5
a
djus table s hort -circuited st
ubs o f maximum l ength wave-
I
2A17 Normal G
lass B9A 1
0 1
0 I — —
m
inia
ture b
ase I l
ength s paced 1 w avelength apart, w hich can b e connec ted
6
1
3Q7A Normal G
lass B 9A 1
2 6
.4 b
y p lug s a nd s ocke ts be meen the fe
eder a nd r eceiver i nput.
m
inia
ture b
ase
6AM4 F
rame grid G
lass B9A 1
4 9
.8 The d evice s hould b ea d
justed on as ignal fo
rt he bes
ts ignal-
b
ase , t
o-no ise p erformance .
PC86 F
rame g
r
id G
lass B9A 1
5 1
4
.0
ba
se i
A
.252I/ P
lanar G
lass B9A 1
8 7 ' — — 1
5
.0
A
.2599 ba
se 1
DET29 D
isc s
ea
l Coaxia
l — — i 1
3• I • 1
4
.0
EC56 D
isc s
ea
l Coaxia
l — — I — — 1
6
.0 TYP
ICAL U
.H.F
. CO NVERTERS
6
299 D
isc s
eal Coaxia
l 1
7.5 4
.5 1
6 8
.5 1
2
.0
6
280/ S
I MPLE 4
20 M C
'S CO NVERTER
4
I6A D
isc seal Coax
ial 2
0 4
.0 ' — — 5
0
.0
6BY4 S
tacked Coax
ial 1
4 6
.0 I 1
4 8
.5t 6
.0 T
he c i
rcuit of asimple but e fec
tive 70cm c onverter de-
Ceramic
7
077 S
tacked Coax
ial 1
5 4
.5
I
1
5 8
.0 9
.0 s
i
gned b y G2DD i sshown i n F
ig. 5.43 (
a). Itc an be buil
t
Ceramic o
n as tandard E ddys
tone die-cas
t b ox type 650 m easuring
6
C W4 Nuvistor Twe
lvar 5 p
. 2
0 1
2
.5
4
1 i
n. 3
i
, in
. 2in
.
Ac r
ystal fr
equency o fabout 7740.6 kc/s w
il
l p roduce a n
•
at 2
300 M O ta
t 9
00 M O
i
.
f
. int he 1
7 Mc sr ange bu
t ifah igher i
.
f, isd
esired acrystal
nd n
oise f
i
gure
s a
re approxima
te d
epend n c
ing o i
rcu
it a
nd
No
te: g
a
in a
bandwidth
.
o
f 7555.5 kcis would produce an i.f
. of 27 Mc/s. T he fi
rst

5
.34
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS

The t
wo s
tage 4
30 Mc s p
re-
ampl
ifier o
f F
ig. 5
.42
. The
c
hass
is shou
ld b
e made f
ro m
1
8 s
.w.g
. c opper or b
rass
si
lver p
lated
.

t
r
iode o f VI together v ‘
ith L I i st he o sci
llator circuit and b
rass as s
hown i nF ig . 5
.43 (b)
. T he ou
tpu t from t hec rysta
l
o
perates o n the th
ird o vertone o f the c rystal drk ing t he o
sci
llator chain isi n
jec
ted i n
to t he mixer crystal circuit by
s
econd t r
iode of VI w hich o perates a s at ripler giing a n mutual coupl
ing b etween L 4 a nd L 5
. W ith n o f e
eder c on-
o
utpu t of 69 Mc /s
. T he se cond d ouble t r
iode, V 2, doubles n
ected, acrys
talc ur rento fabou t 300tIA can beo b
tained b u
t
t
o 139 Mc /s in i
ts f
i
r s
t h alf, and t r
iple s to 418 Mc /s in the t
his va
lue % k
il
l fal
l a bout 25 p er cent w hen t he feeder i s
s
econd. T he 418 Mc is o utpu t isd eveloped a cross the str
ip c
onnected. T he optimum v a
lue f orthem ixe rcrystals pecif
ied
l
i
ne c i
rcu i
t, L4, C 8
. Ano ther s trip line, L 5
, t uned b y C 9
, i
sbetween 6 0a nd 120 tiA wi
th L 5.C 9 r
esona ted atth es i
gnal
c
omp rises the tuned circuit f o
r t he mixe r crystal, the fe
eder f
requency. T he coils 1_
1, L2, L 3, L6 and L 7 are wound o n
b
eing t apped o n to the s t
rip, t h
e d .c
. c rysta
l c urrent being A
laddin mou lded f orme r
s a nd t uned by d ust cores, w hich
monitored b y the meter. s
hould be of the high frequency t ype (coded y e
llow )
. Ho les
The s t
rip li
nes L4 a nd L 5, are formed f rom o ne p i
ece o f f
oraccess foradjustmen ta re dri
lled intheo u
tside oft he b ox
.

3
0-50V R
I 1
20 -
150V a
s
H
T+
2
2K 2
1
0 2
00-250V
R
2 R
3 R
h
I
CH
2
2K 2
2K R
4 2
K
L
2 1
000pF
= = C
4 C
5

R
I3
1
000pF 6
8K

C
I C
2 C
3
- 4
70 4
7 4
7 C
l2
p
F • p
F p
F
1
000pF

R6 J 7
1
0K V
I 4
7K 4
7K 5
12
2
00 1
000pF
1
000pF

(
0
) 635

o— C
ONNECT
ION P
OINTS
B — A
NODE 6
.
16
C — T
RIMMER C
8
B
END UP D — T
RIMMER C
9
A
T 90° F
ig. 5.43 (a). C l, 4 , 5, 6, 1 0, 1 , 1 2, 1 3,
E — C
RYSTAL D
IODE C
L
IP
midget mica; C 2, 3 ,7, cera m icons ; C8 , 9,
F — F
EEDER S
OCKET 3
-8 p F P hilips t r
i m mers ; CR I, s il
icon
d
iode t ype CV102 o r CV103; L I
, 2 2 turns ,
2
2 s.w.g. e na m., c lose wound , tapped a t
M
AT. 1
8sw
ig B
RASS S
HEET
. f
our t urns ; L 2
, s ix t urns, 20 s .w.g. ena m .,
c
lose wound; L 3, t wo t urns , 2 0 s .w .g.
ena m
., close wound; L 4, 5s ee Fig. 5.43(b);
L6, 2
2 t urns, 3 2 s .w.g. d.s.c
., close wound ,
c
entre t apped; L 7, 3 7 turns 3 2 s.w.g. d.s.c.
c
lose wound; L 8
,f our turns , 32s.w .g.d.s.c.,
wound a t e arthy e nd o fL 7(all coils except
L4, 5
, a re c lose wound o n i
n
. d ia m .
F
ig. 5
.43(b). Di mens
ions of the str
ip li
ne L 4 and L S wh
ich is made fro m a s
ing
le piece of Aladdin f or mers , a nd s hou ld h ave h igh
1
6 s.w
.g. brass a
nd spaced -
A i
n
. fro m t
he chass
is, f
ixed a
t r
ight a
ngles t
o each o
ther in acorner f
requency cores ); MI, 0 -500 0 A; XI
,
of t
he chassis
. 7
740 6 k c so r 2 3
-2 Mc s o vertone c rysta l
.

5
.
35
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK

b
1
he i
amp
a
l
.
if
in r

e s
T
f
.o
i
e
he u
e
ce

en i
u
ed b
tpu
yt
ive
nde
ss
r
t f
hep
r o
s
r

b
ide o
hown i
om t
en
ta
hem
tode V
ined f
ft
nt
hec
h
r
ixe
3a
rc

om L
onver
e photog
r
nd l
8
.
te
ys

r f
raph
ta
l i
ow i

r
om w
.
ss
tepped u
mpedance o

hich t h
pi
u

e l
nL
tpu

a
tt

you
6a
ot

t c
nd
h

an
e
f
a
t
s
c
ha
to
t t
ocke
c
onve
f
or t
r b
h
t (
r
h
te
e t
e
e a
i
ing s
er
ia
n p
r f
re
o
r t
ap wil
l
igh
l i
fe
h
l n
t
sp
ly b
rop
rence t
e a
ot b
e
r
e
e

ia
low t
r
ly ma

e f
o at
l c
ar f r
A v
s
c

e
ie w
i mp
le 4

e s

lev
onnec
om t
i
t
i

h
gna
tched t
o
f t
30 Mc
onverter s

oi
ion t
ion
ec
, t
en
he
,s c
ho w
t

l f

h
t
r
s f
yp

tr
e
e o
e
u
nders
rysta
ing t
he s
tr
l c

ip l

ede
) i

e p
pt
o
i

equency
ide o
ontro
he l
ne

su

int
.
.

r a
l
f t

. P
he
led
ayout a
nd

rov
nd au
sed o
imum p o
ided
.h
n t
s
it
.f
.
h
e
ion

I
f at unable c onve rteri spreferred s ot hat af ixed If.c an b e The c oupling b etween t he f i
rst a nd s econd r .
f
. s t
ages
u
s ed or a n If
. s elected w h
ich i sf ree from break through , t he c
on sists o f at uned t ran sfo rme r c omp ris
ing t wo i dentica
l
c
onver te r can b e mod ifi
ed s o t hat th e f
i
r s
t s ection o f V 2 is c
oils o f I t urns o f 1 8 s.w.g . ename lled copp er w i
re w ith a
u
sed a sa no s
cillato ro n 104 M O o ro n 139 Mc /s,t h
es econd i
n
. i nternal diame ter, th e tu rns and t h
ec oi
ls b eing s paced
s
ection a ct
ing a s af requency q uadrup ler or t rebler respec - b
y o ne w i
re d iame ter. T he c oupling b e
twe en V 2 a nd t he
t
ively. T he o
scillato rc an beb and spread t oc ove rt hep ortion c
ry s
tal m ixer ( CR 1) i siden tical excep t tha
t t he secondary i s
o
ft he 70cm b and r e
qu ired. As uitable osci
llato rc o
il w ould u
n tuned .
c
omp rise 3t urn s 1i n. i .
d
. c entre -
tapped a nd t uned b y a A
ll t he r.
f. c hoke s i n t he h eater a nd c athode l eads a re
bandse tc apacito ro f3 0p F( Phil
ip st r
imme r)a nd b andsp read a
ir-co red , con s
isting o f 2 3cm o f 2 4 s
.w.g. w ire, formed b y
w
ith a5p F v
ar iable. T he second s ect
ion s hou ld b e loo sely c
lose w inding o n a Ii n
. d iame ter rod. T hose i nt he a node
c
oup led t o t
he o scil
la tor b y aw ire close to t he a node l ead. c
ircuits , howeve r,a re sl
igh tly d amped b yfully o verw inding a
Iw att 1 00 K o hm r es
isto r w ith 2 4s .w
.g. w ire.

NI G H G A
IN 4
30 M C
/S C O N VERTER L
oca
l O
sci
lla
tor C
hain
T
hisc onve r
tere mployst wo A.2521 (6CR4)g rounded -grid T
he l o
cal o sci
llator chain u se
s ad ouble t r
iode v a
lve
amplif
iers inc ascade, an A
.252 1 quintupler i
nt h
e frequency B
.719/ECC85 o r 6 AQ8 (V5), the fi
r
s t t
r
iode o perat
ing as a
multip
lier c hain a nd conven t
ional c o
ils in al
l t he tuned S
quier o sci
llator a nd t he second a s a q uadrupler
. A n
c
ircuit
s. T he c i
rcui
t diagram i sshown i nFig. 5
.44. A
.252 1/6CR4 ( V6) ac
ts as quintupler multipl
ier to th
e final
I
n order t o obta
in t he best noise f
actor an input tuned f
requency. H igh o rders of mul
tipl
ica t
ion h ave b
een u sed to
c
ircuit isp rovided i n the c a
thode o f V I and th e feeder r
educe t h
e n umbe r ofcr y
sta
l h armon ics which can produce
c
onnec ted to at ap vi
a C 32
. A er
ial matching and tuning are s
puriou s response s
. T he anode c ircui
t o f V 6 uses coils
qui
te cri
tical
, t he c
orrect tuning posi
tion for op
timum n o
ise wound t o t h
e s ame s pecif
icat
ion a s t h
e s i
gnal frequency

5
.
36
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS
HT • 200V
-0

R2 R3
4
.79 4
.7K 4000 P 1
1 OK
4W /
2W

1000, 4- 1 1
000Cp
i I- 1 1C4
1
0 00
CRC 0719 69 P
r
GEA66 1
00K 4.76
.
4
,1524 L7 AU 2
1 L
I6
RD 1
77
V
I V2 C24 V36 / 2
4,, 2
26 y
4000pF

L0
SKI
1
.
13
o
so
L
9
C32 c
c .C
73 •
1•
,
47pF
562
L
12 8
9
CF
I4 4
00 0
c I
-
1
4. RS $7 $
42 C30
6 CO 4
000
C22 6011 C27 001
1 CM
000 0.5- C29 F
o
r
f
t
p
r OpF
C
16

105 05-6pF 1
0009F C6 C7
4
000 F CO
000 F
4000pF 1000pF 4000 F

ALL RES
ISTORS ARE (/
4 WATT RAT
ING UNLESS OTHERW
ISE S
TATED

CIO _ sZ t j CR R
I

r
$
13
1
000 p
r
4
.711
1W 4
000pF

I4
C1 0p
F
r iD
L
i
e 2,
-
'°C) VSK 07
49 V
S
F
ig. 5
.44
. C ircuit d iagra m of the high-gain 430 Mc s
c
onverter. C1-
13 , 1000 p F feedthrough c apac
itors;
C
14-21
, 0.5
-6 p F cera mic t
r
i m mers; SKI, Greenpar type
2
UG447 U c oaxial s ocket with type UC88C U p lug;
1 L24
SK2, te
levision type coaxia
l socket.
A t_ CO0 e

R. 6
pF R
47
6
0K 6
01(
1
000

- 4 I
I
C
41 10009F C
I 3 4
000pF 6
.3V
0

t
ransformers
, b u
t t h
e t wo co
ils are s
paced by abou
t 0.6 in
. a
re fed to the GEX66 m ixer ( CR I ) and the i.f
, o u
tpu t is
t
o ass
ist inthe r
eject
ion o funwan ted harmonics
. t
aken to atap o n the inputc oil oft he cascode amp lif
ier (V3).
As ui
table c
rystal would beo ne w
ith afr
equency of20.375 The pos
ition o fthis tap h as a bearing o n the noise perform -
Mc/s, giv
ing an i.
f. varying be
tween 2 4 a
nd 3 0 Mc/s f
or a a
nce ofthe cascode s t
age ,b ut invi ew oft heg enerous amoun t
s
ignal fr
equency range o f431
.5 to 437
.5 Mc /s
. o
fr .
f. g
ain the noise con tributed b y V 3 should be n eg
ligible
.
A cathode f o
llower i s used t o c ornea t he o utpu t to low
i
mpedance b efore t r
ansf er t o t he t unable ma in r eceiver.
M
ixer a
nd I
.
F. Amp
lif
ier
With some re ce
iver s it may b e d esirable to reduce th e ga
in
T
he o
utpu
ts o
f t
he r
.
f
. amp
lif
ier a
nd t
he l
o
cal o
sc
illa
tor
o
ft he c
ascode s tage to a void cros s-modu lation.

Construct
ion
The converter is cons
tructed o n ac hassis of 20 s.w.g.
s
i
lver-pla
ted b rass measuring 6 in
. 5i n
. I
S i n
. deep.
I
tisdivided in
to c ompartments by so
ldering cross sc
reens to
t
he ma in chassis. See Fig. 5.45
. T he sc
reens a cross the
A
.252 I va
lveho lder
s need to b
e part
icularly cl
ose fi
tt
ing and

'4 '
19 "4
/.7) =
; /".Mixer" TABLE 5
.
10
C
RI
S
UPPLY COMPART MENT SE
I M I
n
duc
tor d
eta
ilsf
o
rth
ehi
gh g
a
in 4
3
0 M
c/sc
onve
rter
C
i C
2 A.
L
I-6 2
3cm 2 4 s.w.g., 4i n
. diam ., a i
r c ored .
L
7, 8 2
4 s .w.g., close wound o n 100 K o hm 4 w att res
istor.
L
9 aturn 1 8 s.w.g., ai n
. d iam .
, a ir cored .
L
10-13 I
f t urns 1 8 s.w.g., ai n. diam ., air c ored.
L
14 44 s .w.g. d .s
.c., close wound o n 1 00 K o hm 4 w att
r
esistor .
L
15 25 t urns 2 6 s.w.g., ai n
. d iam .
, t apped 7 t urns f rom
e
arthy e nd .
L
16 23 t urns 2 4 s.w.g., 4i n. diam ., ferrite slug tuned.
L
I7 2
5 t urns 2 0 s .w.g.
, 4i n
. d iam ., t apped 5 4 t
urns f rom
c
rysta l end .
L
18 64 t urns 1 8 s.w.g., 4i n. ',
ham .. tapped a t 34 t
urns.
L
19 3# 1
1 c hoke ( Painton t ype 2 00 151).
L
20, 2
1 24cm 2 4 s.w.g., 4i n
. diam ., air cored .
111
2 .- 1 1 -
1 11
4.- 4. --
1 4/
1. L
22 26 s .w.g., close wound o n 1 00 K o hm 4 w att res
istor.
L
23 I
f t urns 1 8 s.w.g., Ii n. diam ., air c ored.
6
"
L
24 l
at urns 1 8s .w.g., Iin
. d iam ., tapped a t 4turn
, airc ored.
F
i
g. 5
.45
. L
ayout o
f t
he p
rincipal co mponents i
n t
he 4
30 Mc
's E
namelled copper w ire throughout , except where o therwise stated.
converter
.

5
.
37
RSGB —RA D
I O CONINICNICAT
I ON HAN DB O OK

An u nder
-chassis view o f the con-
v
erter. The c o mponents may b e
i
dent
ified b y r
eference to the l
ayout
d
iagra m Fig
. 5
.45.

a
l
l theg rid t ags oft he valveholde rs hould be so
lde red t ot h
e A TRA NS
IST OR
IZE D C O NVERTER FOR 4
32 M C ,
S

s
creen and n ot t o the m ain chas s
i s
. I ti spruden t to p u
t a Th
is c onve r
te r, the circuit o f w hich i sg i
ven i nF ig. 5 .46
,
s
crap B9A v alve i nto the holde r w h
ile th
is isbeing d one, s
o emp
loy s u .h.f
. t ransistor s w ho se price s compa re favourab ly
t
hat the c ontac ts are not pulled o ut ofa l
ignmen t. P .T.F.E. w
ith v alve so fs im i
la r performance . No a pology i sm ade f o
r
v
alveholde rs w ere used throughou t int h
e prototyp e. t
he u se o f "l ump ed " t uned c i
rcu it s w hich a re g ene ral
ly
Ap owe rs upp ly compa r
tmen t runs down t hec entre oft he c
onside red t o b e p oor p ractice a t f requenc ies i n exce ss o f
c
hassi
s a nd c on tains theh .t
. fi
lter resis
tors and feed -
through 4
00 Mc / s. T hey w ere found t ob e f ar easier tot ame a nd t o
c
apacitors w hich t ransfer the s upplies to the various c om - c
onstruc t t han t he accep ted t uned l i
ne sa nd n o difi
cu lty w a
s
p
artmen ts. T he m ixe r crysta
l l ies across the e nd o f the e
xperienced i n a chieving t he t heo retical g ain a nd n o
ise
p
owe r supp ly c ompa rtmen t
. f
i
gure f or t h e transistors c once rned.
The conve rte rr e
qu iresa n h.
t.s upp ly o
f2 00 vo
lt sa t6 0 mA With t he GM0290 r .
f. s t
age t h e n oise f actor i so f t h
e
a
nd ah ea ters upp ly o f6.3 volt
sa t 1.
8 amp . Individua l va
lve o
rder o f 5 db a nd ag ain o fs ome 1 4db i so btainable w ith a
c
urrents a re
: b
andw id th o fatl e
ast 2Mc /s. I fsl
igh tly inferiorp erfo rmance
S
tage Anode c
an b e a ccep ted t he s omewha t c heap e
r GM0378 m ay b e
C
urren
t s
ubstitu ted f or t he GM0290 r .
f. a mp lifier
.
Osci
lla
to r V5 9
.5 mA ( t
ota
l) U
.H .F . t ransistors a re p articula rly s en s
itive t o s t
ray r .
f
.
Quintupler V6 8 mA a
nd e ve ry c are mus t be t aken t o guard a gain st powe r f r
om
R
.F . amplif
ier
s V
I, V2 1
5 mA e ach t
het ran sm i
t terl e
aking a cro s
st her elay e mployed f o
rc hange -
I
.F. amp l
ifi
er V3 5 mA o
ver s wi tch ing b e
tween r eceive a nd t r
an smit. T he r .
f. s t
age
V4 5.
5 mA t
rans
i sto r c an e asi
ly b e ruined i fs u ch p recau tions a r
e n o
t
M
ixe
r CR I 0
-5 mA t
aken.

P
erformance C
ircu
it
Measured u nde r l abora
to ry cond
ition
s, t h
e f o
llow
ing I
n Fig. 5.
46, t h
e upper s e
ction o f t
he di
ag ram c omprises
p
erformance f i
gures w ere ob
tained
: t
he r
.f
., mixer and i.
f. amplif
ier stages and th
e l ower s
ect
ion
C
en tre fr
equency 433 Mc,
's t
he c
rystal control
led osc
illator-mu lt
iplier c
hain , t
he ou
tpu t
R
.F. gain b efore mixer 2
5db o
fw hich isfed tot h
e mixe r
, TR2 .
Noise fa
ctor 7
db TR1 iso p e
rated a s ag rounded b ase amp lif
ier w
ithou t
R
.F. b andw idth 4 Mc/s i
nput tun
ing. T he output ist uned to 432 Mc / s by L
I/C3 ,
Image re
jec t
ion 5
0db t
he col
lector b eing tapped d own L I in th e in
teres
ts o f
I
ntermed iate frequency 26-25 Mc/
s s
t
abil
ity. C apacity coupl
ing i se mployed b e
twe en TRI a nd

5
.
38
 V.
H.F.
/U.
H.F.RECE
IVERS
E
XTRA COMPONENTS I F
MASTHEAD PRE-A MP
I
S USED —
I2V

\
I 1 1
00I
1 OSC
ILLATOR I
NJECT
ION 1
041A

R
S R
8
1
000 2 S
CREEN l
oon 2
20 0
C7
1
0pF
;
<)RFC GM 0290 L
i . L
S
TR
I
OUTPUT
3
3pF CD CS
24 Mc/s
1 c 1
5
CS2
pF

CS1 Q
I
NPUT
432 Mc/s
C9
1000
C2a F
T p
F
0
C
l2 C
I3

T0
.
0
10.
F
T 1
000pF Frt
. S
UB-
T
C2b 0
10 00pF 0
.001
R
I 2 R6 +0.0
1/JF CHASS
IS C8 C
IO CII
3
-3K 0
-0 1 FT
6
2 f
1 I2
R.2K
+04 3
1pF

I
F DOTTED LINE IS CONNECTED
F
T I
NDICATES F
EED- THROUGH CAPAC
ITOR CONVERTER CAN BE USED AT
MASTHEAD — POWER FED VIA OUTPUT
COAX CABLE

R
I4 R
17 R
20

l
oon
R
I9
C
I4 5
6n
5
pF
L
I3

TR4
0C
170 L
14

R
1
1
1
R
11 Le 140
•L12
IK

1
0p
F
C2 f
I
R
I2 C
IS i
nsC16 CI7 RI6 4
pF C22

T T
3
.9K 1
000pF T 2
20 1
000pr
F
T F
T 1 000 F
T C20 F
T
p
F
• • •
C
.)
X
I 3 4 Mc/s 1
000pF
CRYSTAL FT
F
ig. 5
.46
. The r .
f.
, mixer and I
.
E
. stages of the t
ransistorised 4
32 M O converter
(
upper diagra m) and o
vertone osc
illator and multiplier cha
in (lower d
iagra m)
.

•
)
u
sual, am ethod found to b
e more e fect
ive than loading L 3
e s
c
ree
n w
ith a re
sistor
.
" sc
reen
The in
clusion ofan i.f
. amplif
ier on the c
onverter c hass
is
T
R
1, 2a
nd 7 T
R3
,14 5a
n
d 6
h
as cer
tain advantages
. I tal
lows L 3 and L5 to be tuned for
a more le
vel r
esponse over t
h e bandwidth of pr
ime i nteres
t,
a
nd b y i
ncreas
ing the4evel o
ft he i.
f
, output he
lp s t
o r educe
TR2 a s li
nk c oup l
ing w ith the n ecessari
ly d im inu tive c oils b
reakthrough o n p oorly screened r e
ceiver
s u sed a s the
p
roved i mp ract
icab le
. L 2 may a ppear toc ontrad ic tthis sta
te - t
unable if
.
ment b ut i t
s ac
tua l f
unc tion ist hat ofa n r.
f
. c hoke p laced i n
t
he f i
eld o f LI t o increase t he coupling c o-eff
icien t withou t
i
ntroduc ing ah igh impedance a tt he in
termed ia te f r
equenc ie s TABLE 5
.
11
b
etween b ase and e m i
tter o fth e mixer: the inc
lus ion o fs uch CO MP O NE NT DETA
ILS
a
n i mpedance i s ac ommon c ause o f l
ow m ixer s ensitivity.
C
3. C 21, 4 p F Wingrove a nd R ogers a i
rspaced t r
im mers .
Osci
llato r in
jection a t 4 08 Mc /s isa ppl
ied t o t he e mit
te r C7
, 1 0 pF Wingrove a nd R ogers airspaced t r
immer .
o
f TR2 . T he capac i
tor C 7 toge ther with t he in ductance o f C6
. C 8
, C 10, C 11, C 12 , Ma llard m iniature p aper c apacitors, 30V
working .
t
he c oup l
ing l oop L 14 a nd t he Ii n. connecting l ead form a C
S1, C S2, B e
lling L ee L 734/S f l
ush mount ing c o
-ax ial socket s
.
s
eries r esonan t c i
rcu it a t 408 Mc /s mak ing f or efi c
ien t O
ther c apacitors a re m iniature c eram ic, except f or C 13 wh ich isa
Radiospare s 000 1 i.
/F Stand -of t ype, and C 9 1000 p F Radiospares
t
rans fer ofe nergy b e
tween o scillator chain a nd m ixer. f
eed-through c apac i
tors .
L
3 a nd t he output c apac i
tance o f TR2 f orm a r esonan t E
ddys tone 6 50 d ie-cast b ox.
A
ll res
istors are R adio spare s miniature #w att
.
c
ircuit a t t h
e i n
termed iate frequency o f 2 4 Mc /s. P recise GM0290 ( 1 of ) and GM0378 ( 2 o f) transistors a re manuf actured
a
djus tmen t o f the fr
equency o f t h
is ci
rcuit ise fected b y the by: Texas Instruments L td., M anton L ane, B edford .
X
tal, M iniature 3 rd o vertone t ype HC -6 /U, in
. s pacing, with
c
ore o f L 3. I n order t o d amp L 3 in the i n
teres ts of b and - holder. ( Henrys R adio L td., Edgware R oad, London W .2.)
w
id th a nd s t
abil
ity, thec oup l
ing c oil L4 is made l a
rger t han
5
.39
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK

R
I
LES '
A -
10 IA C
L
EARANCE
1
/3" 1
.
110 -11A
'
C -I
DA CL
EARAN
CE
1
/
64" 1
•1
1') CI
A
'
0 -3
/
16" 1 -17I DIA
O
P
ENED A S NE
CESSARY
F
O
R FEED
-ID IO M
C
A
PACI
TORS
'
E. - 3
/
16" I17"
I D I
A
O
P
ENED A
S NEC
ESSAAY
F
O
R FI
TT
ING T V
0
111 1/
4' 01
A
F
I
LE T O SU
IT S/
16" DIA
P
O
LYSTYRENE CO
IL F O
RMER
F
I
XED W ITH P
OLYSTYRENE
C
EMEN
T
'
1
' -3
/
16' D
IA A
PP
ROX
DRILLING DETAIL S UN
IT 2 (V
ie wed f
ro m Copper S
ide) O
P
ENED FOR CR
YSTA
L
M
ATER
IAL
: P
R
INT
ED C
I
RCU
IT B
O
ARD IC
O
PPER L
AM
INA
TE) H
O
LDER
- 1
/
1 .X 1
/31" CUT-O
UTS
T
O ACCOMOOAT
E L E
ADS
F
ig
. 5
.
47. T
he d
ril
ling d
eta
ils f
or u
nit 2
,viewed f
ro m t
he c
opper s
ide
. O
F I4 ,S A
NO 6

The i.f
. amp l
ifier
, TR3 , re quires n o pa r
ticu lard es cr
iption . The output of TR5 i scoupled to TR6 b y L10, TR6 a ct
ing
R
ecou rs e i sm ade t or e
sistor d amp ing a cro ss L 5 toa ssist in a
s ad ouble r f
rom 6 8 to 136 Mc /s
. T h
is c ircuit i
si d
entica
l
a
chieving t h e required b andw idth. w
ith that of th
e p reviou s st
age, the o
utpu t c o
il, L
11 , be
ing
In th e o sci
llator-mu ltiplie r c hain, TR4 o perates i n a n r
esonated b y the o utput c apac
itance o f the t r
an s
istor
.
o
vertone c ircuitu sing am inia ture HC -6/U c ry s
tala t3 4 Mc /s. F
inally
, TR7 o perate s a
s af requency t
r
ip ler f r
om 1 36 Mc /
s
Th
is circu it i sp erfect
ly s atisfacto ry f or ove r
tone c rystals of t
o4 08 Mc /
s. L 13 a nd C 21 are t
uned tot he lat
terf r
equency,
t
his t
ype b ut dificulty may b e expe rienced i f FT243 c rystals t
hec ol
lector be
ing t apped d own L13 ino rde r toachieve th
e
a
re sub stitu ted. o
ptimum Q . T he o utput l i
nk, L14, which h as b
een m en
-
L7 a nd t he o utpu t capaci tance o f TR4 t une t o 3 4 Mc /s. t
i
oned p revious
ly w hen dealing with t
he m ixer, isposi
tioned
Th
isc ircu iti sli
nk c oupled t o TR5 b yL 8, theo u
tpu to f TR5 i
nt hecentre ofL 13.
b
eing t uned t o6 8 Mc /s
, b ias b e
ing o btained b yb ase/em itter
r
ect
ifi
ca tion o f the d r
ive f rom L 8. S upp lemen tary b ias is Construc
tion
d
erived f rom R 15 w hich h as b een c ho sen f o
r max imum T he conve r
te r i sin t wo u n
its, the r .f
. s e ct
ion a nd t he
o
utput f rom TR5 . T o some e x
ten t t he v alue o f R 15 i sa
o
scillator-mu ltip l
ier c i
rcuits, a nd b o
th a r e h ou sed i n a n
c
omp rom is e b etween e ff
iciency , o utpu t
, a nd t he d ang e
r o f Eddy stone d ie-ca st box t ype 6 50 w hich p rov ides c omp lete
t
herma lr unaway . I ncreasing i t
sv alue increase st he eficiency s
creen ing.
o
ft he s tage b ut att he expen se o f p eak o utpu t: reduc ing it T he wo rking d iagrams ,F igs.5 .47 t
o5 .49 s how i ndetailt he
b
elow t h e v alue given,w hile e nhanc ing t heo utpu t
, h o
lds t he c
omponen t p arts
, c onstruc t
ion a nd a ssemb ly o f the c on-
d
ange ro ft h ermalr unaway u nderc ondition so fh igh amb ien t v
erte r. Fig. 5 .47 s hows t he dri
lling o f t h
e c oppe r lamina te
t
em pera tu re. b
oa rd u sed f o
rt heo sc
il
lato r-mu ltipl
ierc hain , Fig. 5.48 gives
n
o t o n
ly t h
ed ri
lling detai
ls o ft hec oppe rl am ina te boa rd for
TABLE 5
.
12 t
he r .
f
. s ec
tion b u
t a l
so d e
tails o f the s cre ens. F ig. 5 .49
CO
IL DETAILS s
how s how t he assemb l
ies a ref i
tted into t he d ie-cast box.
One d e
tail w h
ich i s n ot i lu s
trated b ut d oes r equire
L
1 2t urn s, in
. diam . i
n. l ong , 18 s .w.g. tinned c opper w ire, men tion i sthe moun ting o ft he sub-assemb lies o n the l i
d of
w
ith l eads 1 i n
. l ong. T he c o
llector o f T R1 i sc onnec ted t o t
he b ox. E ach s ub-assemb ly i s moun ted o n f our b rass
ma
in b ody o f c oi
l a t C3 e nd. C 5 i sc onnec ted t o m a
in b ody o f
c
oil at C 4 e nd. S e
lf suppor t
ing . p
i
lla rs s o t hat i ts t
ands a way f rom t he l id
. T he p i
llars
L
2 1t urn, i
n
. d iam ., 22 s .w.g. t inned c opper w ire, s pa ced I i n
. s
uppor t
ing t he r .
f
. b oard a re i
n
. l ong a nd t hose f or the
f
rom a nd c onnec ted "i np hase" w ith L 1. S e
lf s uppor ting.
L
3 * i n. d i
am ., ji n. long , 3 6 s.w .g. e name l clo se w ound . D ust o
scillator-mu l
tip l
ier b oard a re 1 k in
. l ong. B oth s e
ts o f
i
ron s lug t uned . p
i
lla rs are drilled a nd tapp ed 6B .A. ate ach e nd.
L
4 4t urn s, 7/42 p .v.c. insula ted ( Radio spare s
) wound o ver L 3.
L
5 1 g i
' n. diam ., 1i n. long. 3 6 s .w.g. e name l, clo se wound . D ust
i
ron -s
lug t uned . Ad
justment
L
6 2t urn s 7/42 p .v
.c. insula ted ( Radio spare s
) wound o ver L S.
L
7 * i n. diam ., * i n
. long , 2 6 s .w.g. e name l, c
l ose wound . D ust Trans
istors ar e easily d e
stroyed b y t h
e application o f
i
ron s lug t uned .
L
8 3t urns 7 /42 p .v.c. insula ted ( Radio spare s) wound o ver L 7
. i
ncorrectv o
ltage s
,s ob efo re apply
ing p owertot hec onve r
ter
L
9 * i n. diam ., 1.in. long, 2 6 s .w.g . ename l, close wound . T uned amo stcareful v
isualc heck shou ld b
e made t oensure thata l
l
w
ith S a
lford 2 00 M c/s dus t c ore , coded b lue.
L
10 I f t urns, 7 /42 p .v
.c. i nsula ted , wound o ver L 9
. c
onnec t
ion s are c orrect. Above a l
l, make s ure t ha
t t he
L
11 8 t urn s, * i n
. d i
am ., 2 2 s.w .g. tinned c opper , spaced b y wire b
attery polar
ity i scorrect.
d
iame ter. D us t iron s lug t uned , as L 9
.
L
12 1 t urn , 7 /42 p .v.c. insula ted w ire, wound o ver L 11. The oscil
lator-mu ltiplier c hain should be adjusted f i
rst
.
L
13 2 t urns , i
n
. di am., f in , lo ng. 22 s .w.g. tinned c opper , with While mon i
toring 3 4 Mc /
s, ei
the ron ar ece
iver or by m eans
i
n
. l eads a t C 21 e nd ( TR7 c o
llector i stapped i nto t he m ain
body o fc oil), a nd j in. l o
ng a tC Ue nd. S el
fs uppor ting . o
f as ensi
tive w aveme ter, a d
ju s
t the co
re of L7 to the p o
int
L
14 1 t urn, f i n
. di am.. 2 2 s .w.g . tinned c opper , with i
n
. a nd where there i s no a pp reciable change i n fr
equency e ven
i
n, l e
ads i nterwound w ith L 13 ( )i n
. spacing f rom c oil L13).
t
hough t he core i sa djusted s l
ight
ly a bove and b e
low t h
is

5
.
40
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS

3h
"

4
"
7
C
OPPER E
TCR
ED H
- 7 /1. •
S
R F
I
LER A
WAY

f
4) 1 T '
16 76 5 " '
.1 N
I
LES '
A
' — 1
0 B
A C
LEARANCE

0
- A
1B
I0
62 1 0

A CL
1A

EARANCE
3
/32 -1093 ) D
I
A

0
T — 6BA CLEARANCE
1
4
1 7
/64"1
.109 -1DI
A

3
1.
D
IA
3
/
16" L
117"
) D
I
A
D
R
ILL 1/
4" DI
A AND F
I
LE

4
1
%
T
O S
UIT C
ASE OF 1
13

(
I
) A6
— D
R
ILL 1
F
I
LE T
/4" 0
O SU
1
A
IT 5
116" D
IA
P
OLYSTYRENE COIL FORMER
3 T
O BE A P M- F I
T AND
F
IXED W ITH POL
YSTYRENE
C
EMENT

DR
ILLI NG DETAILS UN
IT!

"
1 (
Vie wed f
ro m Copper S
ide)

1
14
" 1
14
" Al m
M
ATER
IAL
. P
R
INTE
D C
C
O
IRCU
PPER L
IT B
AM
OARD
INA
TE I
N
I
P 14
"
3 •
•
• 13
4
"
1/"
2
1 1V
s'
W r
is 1
Vs" 4.
7 4 D
I
A REAMED FO
R
P
1
.F
.E. B
USH
F
I
LED O
UT F
O
R T
N
T M
ATER
IAL F
OR S
CREENS: - 1SECT
ION BUSS 0
1
11TA
IN R
A
IL

SCR E E N '
8'

/
1( 1
4"
1" 3
4— "
), 14
1. R
OLES D
R
ILL
N
o 51 T
A
P IBA
b* -1 /2*
6 /
334
. SCRE EN '
A
' \,4
14
'

1,1
1 07
,
414 -
' 1
" 3
4
f
t
3
/* 3/•
3W
(Cr O
UT 1
6 X 16

F
ig. 5
.48
. The d
i mens
ions f
or u
nit 1
, w
ith t
he a
ssoc
iated s
creens
.

meter acros s R15 a nd a d

ju st t h
e c oup l
ing o f L 8 to L7 for
maximum d r
ive t o TR5 c on sis
ten t w ithr e
liable o peration of
S
CREEN t
he c rys
tal o scil
lator . No t l e
s s than 0 .
2 v olts s hould b e
o
btained .
A
s af i
nal c heck o n the c rystal o sci
llator, a nd w ith the
meter acros s R15, r emove t he c rystal. No v oltage s hou
ld
n
ow b e present a c
ro ss R 15. I fb y c hance t here i s
, then the
c
rystal osci
llato r st
age i sself-os c
il
la ting.
Connect t h
e v ol
tme ter acro ss R 16 a nd a d
ju st the s l
ug in
L9f or maximum r eading. C heck t hat L 9istuned t o6 8 Mc /s
b
y m eans of aw aveme te
r.
s
et
ting. By s w
itching t
h e p ower o n and o f, check th a
t the Connect t h
e v o
ltme ter a
c ross R 18 , adjust the s l
ug o fLI1
o
sci
llator remains on frequency . I fi td oes n ot
, t hen the f
or max imum i ndication o n t he m eter a nd c heck t hat the
o
sci
llat
ion i s not controlled b y t he crystal
, a nd f u
rther f
requency a tL 11 i s1 36 Mc /s
.
a
djustment tot hecore ofL 7 isn eeded. A
s t h
e t uning r ange o f th e comb ination C 2 1/L13 i n the
Should t
hec rys
tal f
a
il too sci
llate atall
,e i
ther trya nother c
ollector c i
rcuit o f TR7 i s limited, aw aveme ter i s no
t
0C170, ad
ju s
t the b
ias tot h
iss tage, o
re ase o ft hec oupling a
bso lute
ly n ecessary t o c
heck t he f r
equency o f t h
is circu
it
.
w
inding L 8 unti
l the ci
rcu it iso perat
ing i n as a
tisfactory Toa djustL 13, tempo rari
ly d isconnec tC 7, and f rom p ointA
manner. o
n t he outpu t l i
nk o f L14 c onnec t ac rys
ta l diode a nd
Once th
e crysta
l osc
il
la tor isf unct
ioning , connect av ol
t- s
ensitive m icroamme ter in s eries t o e ar
th, b ypassing t he
5
.
41

.1
111. M IM
I& M . • •••••• =•• •
R
SGB -RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK

(
,
) C
RYSTA
L 1
110E1
UN
IT 2
C
2
1

C
OPP
ER S
I
DE U
P
PERMOST

1
2
L
I
D O
f ED
DYS
TONE DI
E-CAST
B
OX V
I
EWED FROM I
NS
IDE

C2
0 L
13
C2A LE
AD BROUGH
T TH
ROUGH L
14 L
EADS T
O 1
4
C
HASS
IS HO
LE AND SO
LDERED UN
IT 1 F
E
ED T
H
ROUGH B
USH S
OLDER T
A
G

1
2 AND C1
1 LEA
DS B R
OUGH
T
S
OLDERING T
HROUGH H
OLE A
ND
P
O
IN T S
OLDERED TO C
HASS
IS

C
S
'

C
2
12 L E
AD
B
R
OUGH T 1
7 AND C
10 LEADS B RO
UGH
T
T
H
ROUGH T
HROUGH H
OLE A ND
C
HASSIS HOLE S
O
LDERED TO CHASSIS
S
OLDERER
W
ASHERS C LAMPING B
AS F
EED T
H
ROUGH B
USH
SCREEN:4 1
0
A
ND S C
REEN L E
ADS
C
OPPER S
I
DE U
PPERMOST
F
ROM i l
i
2
T
O CH
ASSIS

E
ARTH
P
OWER C
ONNE
CTOR S
OLDER T
A
G

F
ig.5
.49
. V
iew s
how
ing pos
ition o
fun
its when f
i
tted i
nto ma
in h
ous
ing
. Locat
ion o
f ma
jor c
o mponents o
f u
nits a
lso s
hown
.

m
ete r w i
th a s ma ll c apac ito r. Ad ju st C 21 f or m aximum Ad
just C3
, C7 a
nd C 2
1, in t
ha
t orde
r, f
or max
imum
i
ndica tion o n the m ic roamme ter. o
utput
. Fina
l a
d
justmen
ts ar
e made o
n weak s
i
gna
ls int
he
A
lterna tively, av oltme ter may b e c onnec ted a cros s R 6, u
sual manne r
.
a
nd w i th C 7s ett oh alf capac ity,C 21 s hou ld bea djusted f ora This conver
te r has been f ound t o have a weak s i
gnal
r
i
se i n the s tanding r eading . T his r i
se w i
ll b e q uite s mall, p
erformance rather bette
r than av alve t
ype u
sing an A
.252 1
b
utj ust pe rceptib le o n t he 10v olt range o fa n A vo Mode l 7 v
alve. T he
re a r
e, howeve r
, certain shor
tcomings which are
(
1
,000 o hm sp erv o
lt). F ina l
ly , C l isa dju sted t ot hep osi
t ion smal
l in the l
ight of the overal
l p e
rformance
. T hese are a
wh
ich c au ses af urthe r r i
se i nt he stand ing v o
l tage. t
endency t o cross
-modu lation f rom very powerfu
l n earby
A
s af i
na l check t hat all isw el
l w ith t h e oscil
lato r-mu lti- s
tat
ion s
, and also, under conditions of v
ery h
igh loca
l fi
eld
p
l
ie r c hain, r emove t h e crystal. A l
l d rive t o t h
e m ixe r TR2 s
t
reng th , st
ations i nt he9 0 Mc /s f.m. band c an b eat wi th the
s
hou ld c ea se. 6
8 Mc /s mu l
tipl
ie rs tage t op roduce t hei .
f
. o f2 4 Mc / s
. B oth
T
he c onve rter m ay n ow b ec onnec ted t ot he ma in r eceive r
o
ft hese f aul
tsc ou ld b ec l
ea red, t h
e fir
st b y arranging ag ain
v
ia al ength o f c oax ial c able . T une t he r eceiver b e
tween
c
on trol o n the r.
f. amp lifie
r, a nd t he second b y the u se ofa
2
4 Mc /s and 2 6 Mc /s a nd a dju st the c ores ofL 3 a nd L 5 t o
s
uitab le t rap in t he i npu t circuit. Howeve r, since t he c on-
g
ive a n e ven n oise r espon se o ver t h
i s f r
equency r ange .
d
i
tion s w h
ich c au se th ese e f ect
s a re rar
ities, their i n
clu s
ion
A
tten tion t ot hev a
lue so fR 7a nd R 9a nd/o rt hed irection o f
t
hew ind ing so fL 5a nd L 6shou ld o ve rcome a ny r e
gene ra tion was n o t fe
lt to be w arran ted.
c
au sing p eaks i n t h e n oise r esponse . When m aking t hese GM0290 a nd GM0378 t r
ansistors m ay b e moun ted i n
a
dju stmen ts i t may b e n ecessa ry t o remove t he c rystal a nd TO -15 -2 e
ncap sulation s
, des
igna ted GM0290A and
a
lso R I. S uch s tepsa r eh oweve ro n
ly n eeded i fitiss uspe cted GM0378A r espe ctively. T he c onnec tions a re i n l i
ne a nd
t
ha t p art oft he n o
ise b eing h ea rd c ome s from t h e fron t-end w
ith t hep ip on t hec ase d ownwa rds
, th e le
f
t-hand l e
ad i sthe
b
ase , f ol
lowed b y t hec ollecto r,e m
ittera nd c ase ins equence .
o
f t he c onve r
te r
, a nd n ot f rom t h e i .
f. amp lifier a l one.
After r es
to ring a ny c onnec tion s r emoved , a djus t C 3 f or The d otted c onnec tions a nd c omponen ts i n F ig. 5 .46
a
sso cia ted w i
th t he in put a nd o u
tpu t oft hec onve rte r are
, in
max imum n oise.
For t he n ext a dju stmen ts e i
the r al ocal s i
gna l o n th e 4 30 t
hec ase o ft hei npu t
,f orf eed ing p oweru pt hec oax ial feeder
t
o a m asthead p re-amp lifier, s hould t h
i s b e r equired.
Mc /s b and i srequ ired , o r as i
gna l fr om ag .d.o. o r as i gnal
g
ene rato r
. I feithe r o f t he last t wo s ou rces i sbeing u t
ilized S
im ila rly thea dd ition o ft hed otted connec tion t ot heo utput
a
nd i tisn ecessa ry t oe mploy ah armon ic, b e q u
ite s ure t hat l
ink w ould e nab le t he w ho le c onverter ( s
uitably w ea ther-
t
h ec orrect h armon ic h asb een i dentified a nd t hati na ddition p
roof ed )t ob ef i
tted a tt het op oft he ma s
ta nd s upp l
ied w ith
powe r f rom t he g round v ia t he coaxial c able j o
in ing c on-
r
ecep tion i sn ot o c cu rr
ing o n the i mage f requency w hich i s
3
84 Mc /
s ( 408 Mc /sl ess than t he i.
f
. )
. v
er
ter a
nd ma
in r
e
ceive
r.

5
.
42
 V
.H.F
./U
.H.F
. RECE
IVERS

T
he c
o mp
leted 4
30 Mc sc
onverter u
s
ing 2N38
19 f
i
eld e
fec
t t
rans
istor
.

FET C onver ter f or 4 30 M O ab ipolar t ran s

isto r m ay b e s ubsti
tuted f or the FET i n
The conve rters hown i nF ig. 530 f ol
low s t h
eg ene ral f orm t
hes econd m ixe r
. I nthisw ay, thet o
talc osto ft hec onve rter
o
f t he 7 0 a nd 1 44 Mc /s u nits d esc r
ibed e arlier a nd l i
ke i
s r educed. Howeve r
, t he s trong -s
igna l p erformance i s
t
hem i sinexpen s
ive a nd e asily p ut t ogethe r
. I tn eve rthe less d
egraded t o t he extent t hat t he front-end w il
l o nly a ccep t
g
ives av ery h i
gh p erfo rmanc e a nd m ea suremen ts s how s
ignals u p t o af ew m il
livo lts w ithou t exhibiting s eriou s
t
heo veral
l n oise fac to rt ob e int he re g
ion o f5 db , thes pread n
on -
linea ri
ty w hereas, u sing t he F ET , several 1 00 mV
b
eing f rom a bout 4t o5 .5db. Doub le f requency c hang ing i s s
ignals are a cceptab le
. T here i sn o othe r s
ignif
ican t c hange
employed w ith in t he c onve rter t o r e
duce s econd -channe l i
np erformance p roduced b y t h
is mod ificat
ion , apart f rom a
efects toa n a b
solu te m in imum . smal
l i n
crea se i nthe inser
t ion g ain. T he second m ixe r stage
The m ain r eason s f or u s
ing F ET's, r athe r t han o rd ina ry i
sn ot p rotec ted b y a ny s electivity to i n
te rf
ering i n
-band
b
ipo lar tran sistor s
, i nt he r.f
. a nd m ixe r s t
age s o f t h
i s c on- s
ignals a nd y et h as 20db o r s o o f gain a head o f i t
. T he
v
erte r are r athe r dif e ren t from t hose w hich s ugge sted t heir modified d esign w il
l h andle mo st s i
gna ls f
r om d i
stanc es of
u
se i n the 7 0 a nd 1 44 Mc /s c onverte rs
. T he 2 N38 19 , a s a more t h
an a m ile o r s
o, e ven w ith mu tua l beam a lignmen t.
c
ommon g ate r .f
. amp lifier a t 430 Mc /s, p rov ide s as atis- Howeve r, ift he fu
ll strong -signa l perfo rmance i sr equ ired,
f
acto ry, st
ab le , inse rtion g ain o f from 1 2 t o 1 4db , t ogethe r t
he all
-FET d esign i srecommended .
w
ith a n e xce llent n ois e p erformanc e. I n t he c ase o f t he
m
ixe r
, the mo st us eful f ea
ture o f the F ET i st he h igh i n put C
ircu it
i
mpedance , i nt her egion o f 1K o hm, a t
ta inab le i nc ommon An un-neu tral
ized c ommon -gate r.
f. st
age,u s
ing a2 N38 19
s
our ce at u .h.f., to gethe r with t h
e g ood n o
is e p erformance . (
Texa s Instrumen ts) isinductively coupled i n
to ac ommon -
The f orme r c harac te r
is tic e ase s th e d e s
ign o f t he l ocal s
our ce fir
st m ixer, also a 2 N38 19
. I t is fo
llowed b y a
o
scillator c hain w hich , i nt h
isc ase,r equire so n
ly t h
ree s t
age s f
urther m ixe r e mploying a 2 N38 19, al
so inc ommon -sou rce
i
na l
l, using c heap s i
licon p lana rd evice st op rovide a dequa te o
r
, i n the a l
te rnative d es
ign, ac ommon -emitter 2 N3826
l
ocal o sc
illa tor i njection . T he e xc el
len t s trong s i
gna l s
i
l
icon p lana r
, w ith l o
cal-oscil
lator i n
ject
ion a t the crystal
p
rope r
ties o f t he FET a s
sist i n preven t
ing o ve r
load f rom f
r
equency i t
self.
n
ea rby t ran sm it
te rs a lthough t his a b
ility i s n ot s uch a Double t uned c i
rcuits
, w ith mu tual inductance coup ling,
n
ece ssi
ty o n 7 0cm d ue t o the l owe r d ens i
ty o f a c
tiv ity a s a
ree mployed b etween t her .
f
.s tage drain and fi
r
s tmixerg a
te.
c
ompa red w ith t h e v .h.f. b ands . A mod ification t o t he The aerial inpu t isfed into the source o f th
e c ommon -gate
s
tanda rd d esign i st herefo re i n
cluded i nFig. 5 .
50 (b ) inw hich r
.
f. stage via ac ircuit which is ad ouble pi
-coup ler
, with t wo

5
.
43

•
RSGB —RAD
IO CO M MUN
ICAT
ION HANDBOOK
TR
I TR2 TR3
T
IS88 O
R 2
N38
19 T
IS88 O
R 2
N38
19 1
IS88 OR 2
N38
19 —
I2V

R
I R
3
C
I 2
20l1 C6 2
2K
A
ERIAL 6
-
13pF 4
.7pF

I
F
3
3pF OUTPUT
5
C
9 C
II C
i2
2
-20pF c7
•1
0pF 1
pF 0
.1
C2 e
l
e C3 3
30pF T
T 47pF T 330pF

2
N3826

TR6
V
IEWED F
ROM L
EAD END 2
N3826 2
N3826 2

S
G

2
N38
19 2
N3826

C
1
4
D1
-
7
s
:
6
.8
p
F R
i4
4
70(
1 1
5K C2 /
C
I9 r
e
.

1S88 3
30pF
CI6
7 330pF
I2
j
200
p F T2
C20
200pF T

1
. 2
— (
200 f
(b) —
I2V F
ig. 5
.50
. (a) Converter f
or 7
0c m u
sing t
hree FETs; (
b) a
n alternat
ive
second mixer emp loy
ing a cheaper b
ipolar t
ransistor.

FROM For example,a nothers u

itable i
f. wou ld be3.0t o5.0 Mc/s
,
TR 2
DRA
IN r
equiring a 33
.0 Mc /s cry
stal
. T he d esign for T2 would be
e
ssentia
lly unaltered a nd tha
t for T3 wou ld be a s f