Guide For The Fusion Welding of Titanium and Titanium Alloys

AWS G2.4/G2.
4M:2014
An American National Standard
Guide for the

Fusion Welding
of Titanium and
Titanium Alloys
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Copyright American Welding Society

Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale, 02/04/2015 00:02:24 MST
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
An American National Standard
Approved by the
American National Standards Institute
May 5, 2014
Guide for the

Fusion Welding of Titanium
and Titanium Alloys
2nd Edition
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Supersedes AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2007
Prepared by the
American Welding Society (AWS) G2 Committee on the Joining of Metals and Alloys
Under the Direction of the

AWS Technical Activities Committee
Approved by the
AWS Board of Directors
Abstract
The standard Guide for the Fusion Welding of Titanium and Titanium Alloys provides instructional guidance for the welding of
titanium and titanium alloys. This guide explains processes, equipment, materials, workshop practices, joint preparation, welding
technique, tests, and the repair of defects.

AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
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ISBN: 978-0-87171-848-8
© 2014 by American Welding Society
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
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Personnel
AWS G2 Committee on the Joining of Metals and Alloys
F. S. Babish, Chair Sandvik Materials Technology
G. Dunn, Vice Chair ExxonMobil Development Company
A. L. Diaz, Secretary American Welding Society
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R. E. Avery Consultant to Nickel Institute
S. O. Luke Black & Veatch
R. C. Sutherlin ATI Wah Chang
D. J. Tillack Consultant to Nickel Institute
AWS G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys

R. C. Sutherlin, Chair ATI Wah Chang
A. L. Diaz, Secretary American Welding Society
S. S. Delmore CK Worldwide, Incorporated
B. Krueger Los Alamos National Laboratory
K. T. Tran Naval Surface Warfare Center
G. E. Trepus Boeing Commercial Airplanes
Advisors to the G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys

R. D. Kellum Williamette Welding Supply Company
H. Kotaki Consultant to The Japan Titanium Society
S. L. Luckowski United States Department of the Army
J. A. McMaster MC Consulting
J. Simpson International Titanium Association
S. D. Sparkowich Nerac, Incorporated
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Foreword
This foreword is not part of AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014, Guide for the Fusion Welding of
Titanium and Titanium Alloys, but is included for informational purposes only.
This specification makes use of both U.S. Customary Units and the International System of Units (SI). The measurements
are not exact equivalents; therefore each system must be used independently of the other, without combining values in any
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way when referring to filler metal properties. In selecting rational metric units, the AWS A1.1, Metric Practice Guide for
the Welding Industry, and the International Standard ISO 544, Welding consumables — Technical delivery conditions for
welding filler metals — Type of product, dimensions, tolerances and markings, are used where suitable. Tables and
figures make use of both U.S. Customary and SI Units, which, with the application of the specified tolerances, provide
for interchangeability of products in both the U.S. Customary and SI Units.
A vertical line in the margin or underlined text in clauses, tables, or figures indicates an editorial or technical change
from the 2007 edition.
Comments and suggestions for the improvement of this standard are welcome. They should be sent to the Secretary, AWS G2
Committee on Joining Metals and Alloys, American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL 33166.
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Table of Contents
Page No.
Personnel ......................................................................................................................................................................v
Foreword.....................................................................................................................................................................vii
List of Tables................................................................................................................................................................xi
List of Figures..............................................................................................................................................................xi
1. General Requirements .........................................................................................................................................1

1.1 Scope ..............................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Units of Measurement s ..................................................................................................................................1
1.3 Safety .............................................................................................................................................................1
2. Normative References..................................................................................................................................1
3. Terms and Definitions ..........................................................................................................................................2
4. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................4
4.1 Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Iron, and Titanium..............................................................................................5
4.2 Surface Oxide Film .......................................................................................................................................5
5. Arc Welding Processes .......................................................................................................................................6
5.1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) .............................................................................................................6
5.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) .................................................................................................................6
5.3 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)..........................................................................................................................6
6. Equipment............................................................................................................................................................7
6.1 Power Source ................................................................................................................................................7
6.2 Welding Torch...............................................................................................................................................7
6.3 Tungsten Electrodes......................................................................................................................................8
7. Materials ..........................................................................................................................................................10
7.1 Base Metals.................................................................................................................................................10
7.2 Filler Metals ................................................................................................................................................10
7.3 Procedure Qualification ..............................................................................................................................12
8. Workshop Practice ...........................................................................................................................................12
8.1 Workshop Layout........................................................................................................................................12
8.2 Material Identification and Storage..............................................................................................................12
8.3 Inert Gas Protection ....................................................................................................................................12
8.4 Inert Gas Distribution .................................................................................................................................13
8.5 In-Chamber Welding...................................................................................................................................13
8.6 Open-Air Welding.......................................................................................................................................14
8.7 Shielding Gases...........................................................................................................................................17
8.8 Argon Safety ...............................................................................................................................................17
9. Joint Preparation........................................................................................................................................ 17
9.1 Joint Design .......................................................................................................................................... 17
9.2 Cutting ........................................................................................................................................................18
9.3 Preliminary Preparation ..............................................................................................................................19
9.4 Cleaning for Welding ..................................................................................................................................20
9.5 Fitup and Tack Welding ..............................................................................................................................20
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10. Welding Technique .........................................................................................................................................21
10.1 Welding Parameters......................................................................................................................................21
10.2 Preheating ....................................................................................................................................................21
10.3 Filler Metal Practice .....................................................................................................................................21
10.4 Starting and Stopping the Arc.......................................................................................................................21
10.5 Electrode Practice.........................................................................................................................................22
10.6 Wire Feeding................................................................................................................................................22
10.7 Interpass Cleaning ........................................................................................................................................22
10.8 Interpass Temperatures .................................................................................................................................22
11. In-Process Weld Quality Tests .......................................................................................................................22
11.1 Visual Inspection..........................................................................................................................................22
11.2 Dew Point Testing ........................................................................................................................................24
11.3 Bend Testing ................................................................................................................................................24
11.4 Hardness Testing ..........................................................................................................................................24
12. Nondestructive Test ........................................................................................................................................25
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12.1 Radiography .................................................................................................................................................25
12.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing...............................................................................................................................25
12.3 Ultrasonic Inspection....................................................................................................................................26
13. Repair of Defects ............................................................................................................................................26
13.1 Fabrication Defects.......................................................................................................................................26
13.2 Repairs Following Service Failures...............................................................................................................26
13.3 Porosity ........................................................................................................................................................26
13.4 Filler Metals for Welding Titanium Alloys Metal Joints ................................................................................26
Annex A (Informative)—Requirements of Base Metals..................................................................................................27
Annex B (Informative)—Requirements of Filler Metals ................................................................................................31
Annex C (Informative)— Informative References .................................................................................................35
Annex D (Informative)—Classifications for Titanium and Titanium Alloys..................................................................37
Annex E (Informative)—Guidelines for the Preparation of Technical Inquiries.................................................................. 41
List of AWS Documents on Joining Metals and Alloys..................................................................................................43
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List of Tables
Table Page No.
1 Approximate Current Ranges Depending upon the Electrode Diameter................................................................9
2 ASTM Specifications for Product Forms ..........................................................................................................10
3 Recommended Filler Metals .............................................................................................................................11
4 Recommended Shielding Gas Purity and Dew Point .........................................................................................13
5 Typical Joint Designs.......................................................................................................................................18
6 Typical Parameters for GTAW, GMAW, and PAW.........................................................................................................21
7 Surface Color in Titanium Welds......................................................................................................................23
8 Bend Test Requirements for Titanium Alloys....................................................................................................25
A.1 Chemical Composition Requirements of Base Metals (from ASTM B265).......................................................27
A.2 Tensile Strength Requirements of Base Metals...............................................................................................................29
B.1 Symbols for Chemical Composition and Composition Requirements ...............................................................32
D.1 Guidelines for Compatible Filler Materials .......................................................................................................37
D.2 Base Material Grouping S-51.................................................................................................................................................. 38
D.3 Base Material Grouping S-52...........................................................................................................................................38
D.6 Filler Material Grouping A-51B.......................................................................................................................................40
List of Figures
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1 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure....................................................................................................................3
2 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Structure......................................................................................................3
3 Interstitial Elements.........................................................................................................................................4
4 Substitutional Elements ....................................................................................................................................4
5 Titanium Surface Oxide Formed by Heating in Air...........................................................................................5
6 Large-Diameter Gas Cup and Lens for Titanium Welding ................................................................................7
7 Tungsten Electrode Tip Shape...........................................................................................................................8
8 Collapsible Plastic Chamber Purged with Argon .............................................................................................14
9 Typical Trailing Shield Design........................................................................................................................15
10 Examples of Backup Shields for Manual GTAW.............................................................................................16
11 Color Sequence in Titanium............................................................................................................................23
12 Contamination of Tungsten Electrode from Air Entrainment ...........................................................................24
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Guide for the Fusion Welding of

Titanium and Titanium Alloys
1. General Requirements
1.1 Scope. This guide provides information on welding processes and procedures that are recommended for use in tita-
nium fabrication. The document presents detailed and up-to-date technical information on the best practices to allow first
time fabricators of titanium as well as established fabricators to join titanium parts into high quality components.
1.2 Units of Measurements. This standard makes use of both the U.S. Customary Units and the International System of
Units (SI). The latter are shown within brackets ([ ]) or in appropriate columns in tables and figures. The measurements
may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system must be used independently.
1.3 Safety. Safety and health issues and concerns are beyond the scope of this standard and therefore are not fully
addressed herein. Safety and health information is available from the following sources:
American Welding Society:
(1) ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
(2) AWS Safety and Health Fact Sheets
(3) Other safety and health information on the AWS website
Material or Equipment Manufacturers:
(1) Material Safety Data Sheets supplied by materials manufacturers
(2) Operating Manuals supplied by equipment manufacturers
Applicable Regulatory Agencies
Work performed in accordance with this standard may involve the use of materials that have been deemed hazardous,
and may involve operations or equipment that may cause injury or death. This standard does not purport to address all
safety and health risks that may be encountered. The user of this standard should establish an appropriate safety program
to address such risks as well as to meet applicable regulatory requirements. ANSI Z49.1 should be considered when
developing the safety program.
2. Normative References
The following standards contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute mandatory provisions of this
AWS standard. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced standard shall apply. For dated references,
subsequent amendments to, or revision of, any of these publications do not apply. (Informative standards and specifica-
tions for titanium fabrication are available in Annexes C and D.)
AWS Documents:1
AWS A3.0M/A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering,
Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying;
1 AWS standards are published by the American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL 33166.
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AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
A5.12M/A5.12:2009 (ISO 6848:2004 MOD), Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for Arc
Welding and Cutting;
AWS A5.16/A5.16M:2004, Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods;
AWS A5.32/A5.32M (ISO 14175 MOD), Welding Consumables—Gases and Gas Mixtures for Fusion Welding and
Allied Processes; and
Other Documents:
ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes.2
3. Terms and Definitions

AWS A3.0M/A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering,
Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying, provides the basis for terms and definitions used herein. However, the follow-
ing terms and definitions are included below to accommodate usage specific to this document.
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply:
alpha grades or alloys. The alpha (α) grades or alloys are generally weldable and nonheat treatable. They are materials
with relatively large amounts of alpha stabilizers and low concentrations of beta (β) stabilizers. They are sometimes
referred to as having predominately an alpha phase. They have medium strength, good notch toughness, and good
resistance to creep at elevated temperatures. Silicon is sometimes added to enhance creep strength. A common alpha
alloy is commercially pure (CP) titanium.
allotrope. An allotrope is a structurally different form of an element such as graphite and diamond which are allotropes
of carbon. As can be seen with the example of carbon allotropes, certain physical properties can vary dramatically
from allotrope to allotrope. Alpha and beta allotropes of titanium have very different properties. Alpha and beta allot-
ropes are also referred to as phases.
alpha phase. The low-temperature allotrope of titanium with a hexagonal close-packed (HCP) crystal structure. The
alpha phase promotes increased weldability and higher creep strength.The interstitial alloying elements of the alpha
stabilizing type are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Interestingly, these are the same elements we guard against intro-
ducing during welding.
alpha-beta grades or alloys. Most of the alpha-beta alloys are considered heat treatable with a wide range of possible
properties. Their strength levels are medium to high but their creep strength is not as good as most alpha alloys. Their
forming qualities are acceptable but generally exhibit a significant amount of spring-back.
alpha stabilizer. An alloying element that dissolves preferentially in the alpha phase and raises the alpha-beta transfor-
mation temperature. Typical alpha stabilizers, such as aluminum, oxygen, tin, and nitrogen, increase the temperature
at which the alpha phase is stable.
beta grades or alloys. The beta (β) or near-beta alloys have a high percentage of beta-stabilizing elements, resulting in a
microstructure that is predominantly beta after solution annealing. During subsequent heat treatment, extensive
strengthening can occur by the precipitation (formation) of alpha (α) within the beta microstructure. Care should be
taken when welding these alloys due to the tendency to form alpha from the heat of welding. Post fabrication heat
treatment (aging heat treatments) of these alloys is common. Beta alloys are more dense, respond to a greater extent
to heat treatment (e.g., properties are altered), have higher short-term rupture strength, a greater strain-rate sensitivity
and improved fabricability (especially in the solution treated condition) than do the alpha alloys.
beta stabilizer. An alloying element that dissolves preferentially in the beta phase and lowers the alpha-beta to beta
transformation temperature. Typical beta stabilizers include vanadium, molybdenum, manganese, iron, nickel, copper,
and silicon. Beta stabilizers can be divided into two categories according to their constitutional behavior with titanium:
beta-isomorphous elements and beta-eutectoid elements.
2 ANSI Z49. 1 is published by the American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL 33166.
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beta phase. The high-temperature allotrope of titanium with a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure that occurs
above the beta transus.
beta transus. The minimum temperature above which equilibrium alpha does not exist.
body-centered cubic (BCC). A unit cell that consists of atoms arranged at cube corners with one atom at the center of
the cube (see Figure 1). This is the typical crystalline structure of the beta phase of titanium.
Figure 1—Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure
commercially pure (CP). The mechanical properties of CP titanium are influenced by small additions of oxygen and
iron. By careful control of these additions, the various grades of commercially pure titanium are produced to give
properties suited to different applications.
embrittled (or embrittlement). The severe loss of ductility and/or toughness of a material. An example of embrittle-
ment is when too much oxygen is introduced into the weld during welding causing the weld to become embrittled.
hexagonal close-packed (HCP). A unit cell that consists of a hexagonal arrangement of atoms in a plane and surround-
ing an atom followed by three atoms in the next horizontal plane (see Figure 2). This last plane is offset from the ini-
tial plane atoms, followed by an identical planar location of atoms above this. If the first plane is A and the second B,
then the repetitive arrangement of atom planes is A-B-A-B-A-B and so on. This is the typical crystalline structure of
the alpha phase of titanium.
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Figure 2—Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Structure
interstitial elements. An element with a relatively small atom that can assume a position in the interstices of the tita-
nium lattice (see Figure 3). Common examples are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon.
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Figure 3—Interstitial Elements
substitutional elements. To increase the strength of titanium metal and still maintain useful ductility, substitutional ele-
ments are employed. These elements replace titanium atoms in the lattice structure rather than situate in the voids
between them, as do the interstitial elements (refer to Figure 4).
Figure 4—Substitutional Elements
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4. Introduction
Titanium and its alloys are used primarily in two areas of applications where the unique characteristics of these metals
justify their selection. Corrosion-resistant applications typically utilize the low-strength, commercially pure grades.
High-performance, weight-critical applications utilize high-strength titanium alloys that are typically processed to more
stringent and costly requirements. However, as technical requirements in corrosive applications have become more
severe, the use of high strength alloys with greater corrosion resistance (which include palladium and ruthenium addi-
tions) is increasing. Most titanium alloys can be fusion welded and all alloys can be welded by solid-state processes.
Properly made welds in the as-welded condition are ductile and, in most environments, nearly as corrosion resistant as
the base metal. However, improperly made welds can be severely embrittled or exhibit reduced corrosion resistance.
The equipment and techniques used in welding titanium are similar to those required for other high-performance materi-
als such as stainless steels and nickel base alloys. However, titanium demands greater attention to cleanliness and to the
use of auxiliary inert gas shielding. At temperatures of about 800°F [425°C], the normal 40-Å surface oxide increases in
thickness by 2 to 3 orders of magnitude. Above about 1200°F [650°C], absorption leads to an increase in scale forma-
tion. In the molten state, oxygen and nitrogen are carried by convection throughout a weld and are then absorbed into the
underlying titanium.
To prevent contamination from air, complete inert gas shielding of the face and root of the weld is required. Similarly,
hot titanium reacts with and is embrittled by most materials, including organic and inorganic compounds and some met-
als. And in the case of welding titanium to other refractory/reactive metals, detrimental alloy compositions or com-
pounds may form. Hence, the parts to be welded must be meticulously cleaned of mill scale, oil and grease from
machining operations, dust, dirt, moisture, and other potential contaminants.
The precautions necessary to maintain the required levels of cleanliness and shielding for successful titanium welding
are discussed throughout this document. Many of the precautions may at first seem costly or unnecessary, especially for
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organizations that deal with titanium on an infrequent basis. However, it is important to remember that contamination of
the weld has the potential to significantly increase the overall welding costs through the need for excessive weld repair.
In this respect, the higher initial cost of establishing the proper procedures for titanium welding will result in significant
savings over the production run through reduced scrap and rework and timely delivery of high-quality products.
4.1 Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Iron, and Titanium. A basic understanding of how titanium interacts with oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon, and iron will help in understanding the importance of cleanliness and inert shielding in successful tita-
nium welding.
Oxygen and iron are controlled in the production of titanium and are the primary strengthening elements in the unal-
loyed grades. Nitrogen and carbon in the filler metal are held to the lowest possible level, usually only 25% to 50% of the
specification maximums.
Unalloyed titanium gains its strength due to the presence of residual elements occupying sites between titanium atoms in
the regular metal matrix. These elements are termed interstitial elements (as opposed to substitutional elements like iron
that replace titanium atoms in the matrix) (see Figures 3 and 4). One way to visualize the effect is to imagine the oxygen
intruding into the regular metal matrix, causing strain in the lattice. More oxygen leads to more strain. More lattice strain
leads to greater hardness. A similar effect occurs in titanium alloys.
As an alloying element, iron has a mild strengthening effect, roughly 40% that of oxygen. Iron is a strong beta stabilizer.
High iron will result in formation of an iron-rich secondary beta phase or TiFe compounds.
Unalloyed titanium is an “all-alpha” grade, which means its metal matrix has a hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure
at room temperature, as opposed to the body centered cubic (BCC) or “beta” structure of some alloys. Alpha alloys
transform to a beta structure above the beta transus temperature, about 1600°F [870°C] for unalloyed titanium. Alpha
grades do not respond to strengthening heat treatments, although they can be annealed or stress relieved.
4.2 Surface Oxide Film. When a clean or unoxidized titanium metal surface is exposed to air or any process stream or
gas where any amount of oxygen is available, a complex titanium oxide layer forms (see Figure 5). The tightly adherent
film consists of several distinct oxides: TiO2 near the surface, Ti2O3 beneath, and TiO closest to the metal. Above 800°F
[425°C], potentially detrimental oxides form at varying thicknesses depending on temperature and time. Depending on
the specific application, such oxides may or may not require removal.
Photograph courtesy of MC Consulting

Notes:
1. Figure 5 is a qualitative illustration of how discoloration varies with temperature. The corner of the specimen is nearest the heat
source. The hottest area exhibits scale formation and gray discoloration. As the distance increases from the heat source the color var-
ies until the blue, violet, and straw colors are present. Most welding specifications only allow the presence of blue to straw discoloration.
2. Initial surface preparation: 150-grit emery followed by detergent wash and clean water rinse. The first color band is approximately
1.25 in [31 mm] in radius.
Figure 5—Titanium Surface Oxide Formed by Heating in Air
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5
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
5. Arc Welding Processes

The practices described herein are limited to the gas tungsten arc, gas metal arc, and plasma arc welding processes.
These gas-shielded processes are well suited for joining titanium and titanium alloys, provided the gas shielding arrange-
ment adequately protects the weld area from the atmosphere. All three of these processes can be performed using man-
ual, semiautomatic, or automatic equipment in a chamber or an open-air environment with the use of auxiliary inert gas
shielding. Other processes, including laser, electron beam, resistance, and friction welding, are also used on titanium and
offer advantages for specific applications. Many of the principles discussed are applicable to all processes.
5.1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). The GTAW process is the most commonly used joining process for titanium
and its alloys. An arc between the tungsten electrode and base metal generates the heat for welding. Inert gas from the
torch maintains the arc and protects the tungsten electrode and weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Welds can be
made autogenously (i.e., without filler metal) or with the addition of wire.
GTAW can be performed in all positions and is the only process routinely used for orbital pipe welding of titanium.
Higher-productivity variants of GTAW have been applied to titanium. The hot-wire GTAW process increases the deposi-
tion rate by preheating the wire, providing improved productivity for multipass welding of thicker sections. The keyhole
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GTAW and buried-arc GTAW processes achieve deeper penetration by operating at higher currents, allowing square butt
joint welding of as much as 3/4 in [19 mm] thick titanium in one pass.
5.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). In GMAW, an arc is generated between a continuously fed filler wire and the
base metal. The filler wire can also be considered a consumable electrode. Four methods of filler metal transfer are uti-
lized with GMAW:
(1) Short-circuit transfer,
(2) Globular transfer,
(3) Spray transfer, and
(4) Pulsed-spray transfer.
In titanium welding, spatter from the GMAW process is undesirable for many reasons, but primarily due to the likeli-
hood of localized contamination as a result of hot spatter droplets coming into contact with the base metal, and those
droplets that become dissolved into the weld pool. Because of this, short-circuit and globular transfer methods should
never be used for welding titanium due to the large amounts of spatter they can generate. Spray transfer produces suffi-
cient energy to fuse titanium, however the preferred method of filler metal transfer is pulsed-spray, coupled to a push-
pull weld gun capable of synchronizing wire feed with the pulsation waveform.
Weld gas is either argon or helium, or a mixture of the two. Good results have been obtained with 75% helium + 25% argon.
The GMAW process has the potential to produce a small amount of black soot on the base plate on either side of the
weld bead. This soot should be removed between subsequent passes. As is common for welding titanium, the use of inert
gas trailing and backing gas shielding is recommended.
In general, GMAW is performed in the flat and horizontal positions. Vertical welding may be possible with modifica-
tions to the arc characteristics. However, overhead welding is not recommended.
Utilizing recent advancements in digital weld power supply technology GMAW of titanium is becoming a process of
choice for thick-section welded assemblies. With deposition rates and travel speeds that exceed traditional GTAW by
10X or more, the GMAW process has the ability to consistently fuse the root of a fillet weld, and reduce the heat input
into the weld area. The process provides an economical alternative for joining large structural components or equipment.
5.3 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW). Like the GTAW process, heat is transferred by an arc between a tungsten electrode and
the base metal. However, the arc is constricted by a copper alloy orifice to form a highly collimated arc column. A por-
tion of the shielding gas flows through the copper orifice to produce the characteristic plasma jet.
In the keyhole mode, the plasma jet fully penetrates the joint. Molten metal flows around the keyhole and behind the
plasma jet as the torch traverses along the joint line. The process is operated with direct current, electrode negative, but a
pulsed current can be used to broaden the tolerance window of welding parameters.
Because introduction of filler wire into the arc can cause instabilities in the gas plasma, keyhole PAW is normally per-
formed autogenously using square butt joint preparation and will produce a small amount of underfill. The process offers
productivity gains over conventional GTAW and GMAW.
6
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Single-pass welds can be made in titanium from 1/16 in to 1/2 in [1.6 mm to 12.7 mm] thickness, but the process is lim-
ited to the flat and horizontal positions. A more detailed description of PAW can be found in AWS C5.1, Recommended
Practices for Plasma Arc Welding.
6. Equipment
6.1 Power Source. Titanium and its alloys can be welded with most conventional power sources. For GTAW and PAW,
the best results are achieved with direct current, electrode negative (DCEN) polarity. Superimposed high-frequency cur-
rent or other non-contact methods such as lift start technology are used to initiate the arc to minimize the risk of tungsten
contamination at the weld start that occurs with a touch- or scratch-starting technique.
A digital controlled power supply capable of high-speed switching between primary and background current levels is
recommended for GMAW titanium. This technology has the capability of controlling droplet transfer to the point that it
nearly eliminates spatter formation. Another advantage of these advanced power supply systems is that they commonly
incorporate timed pre- and post-flow gas shielding, which is desirable to prevent contamination (not oxidation) when
welding titanium. Traditional transformer-rectifier power supplies that do not have this capability should not be used to
GMAW titanium. Although capable of producing a weld, severe spatter formation is likely to occur that can result in a
highly contaminated weld bead and surrounding base metal.
The power source must also be capable of breaking the arc on completion of the weld without stopping the inert gas flow
or weld contamination will occur at the weld stop position. This is best achieved with a remote-controlled switch or foot
pedal that controls both the welding current and the contactor. Torch, trailing, and backup shielding are necessary to
ensure adequate protection from atmospheric contamination.
6.2 Welding Torch. Welding torches are of two types: manual or semiautomatic. They are rated in accordance with the
maximum current that can be used at 100% duty cycle without overheating. These torches are available with both rigid
and flexible necks and adjustable head angles for welding in areas of limited accessibility.
Oversized cups and a gas lens are mandatory for welding titanium compared to those used for welding other materials,
unless welding is performed in an environmentally controlling chamber to eliminate atmospheric gasses. For example,
3/4 in to 1-1/8 in [19 mm to 28 mm] gas cups and lenses are used for manual GTAW of titanium (see Figure 6). The large
Photograph courtesy of CK Worldwide, Incorporated
Figure 6—Large-Diameter Gas Cup and Lens for Titanium Welding
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7
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
cup size is necessary to provide sufficient gas coverage around the weld pool while the gas lens will provide uniform,
non-turbulent flow. This type of cup and associated gas lens also allow the tungsten electrode to be extended beyond the
cup for visibility or welding in areas of limited accessibility.
6.3 Tungsten Electrodes. Tungsten electrodes are covered by AWS A5.12M/A5.12: 2009 (ISO 6848:2004 MOD), Spec-
ification for Tungsten and Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting, and are available in either pure tung-
sten or alloyed with various oxides for improved arc starting and higher operating currents. Each type has a color code
and individual electrodes are marked by the manufacturer, usually with a band or dot of the appropriate color on one end
of the electrode.
For titanium welding, thoriated tungsten (AWS EWTh-2) or lanthanated tungsten electrodes (AWS EWLa-1.5) are pre-
ferred, however, other oxide variations that conform to AWS A5.12M/A5.12:2009 (ISO 6848:2004 MOD), except EWP
(WP) may be used. Tungsten tip shape varies with welder preference, but a simple cone with a 30°–40° included angle
and blunted tip (equal to 1/3-D max) will give satisfactory results for most applications (see Figure 7). Grinding parallel
to the axis of the tungsten is recommended for optimum performance.
Tungsten electrodes are available in a variety of standard diameters from 0.010 in to 0.250 in [0.25 mm to 6.4 mm] diam-
eter and standard lengths of 3 in, 6 in, 7 in, 12 in, 18 in, and 24 in [75 mm, 150 mm, 175 mm, 305 mm, 455 mm, and
610 mm]. Selection of electrode diameter is dependent upon the anticipated operating current. General guidelines for
2%-thoriated electrodes, based on 100% argon shielding, are provided in Table 1.
For applications that require uniform penetration, e.g., the root pass of thin-walled components, a consistent (with regard
to the qualified welding procedure) electrode tip shape should be used. A tungsten electrode grinder is recommended,
but if conventional grinding wheels are used, the electrode should be ground along the length (longitudinally) of the
tungsten. The grinding wheel should be dedicated to tungsten use only to avoid potential contamination of the electrode
with foreign material. All metal grinding equipment should be equipped with dust extractor systems to avoid inhalation
of tungsten metal dust (see AWS Safety and Health Fact Sheet No. 27, Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes).3
3 AWS Safety and Health Fact Sheet No. 27, Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes, is published by the American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36 St,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166, and is also available on the AWS web site <www.aws.org>.
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Courtesy of MC Consulting
Figure 7—Tungsten Electrode Tip Shape
8
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table 1
Approximate Current Ranges Depending upon the Electrode Diametera
Electrode Diameter Direct Current A
Electrode Negative (–)
in mm Tungsten with Oxide Additives
0.010 0.25 up to 15
0.30 up to 15
0.020 0.50 2 to 20
0.040 1.0 10 to 75
0.060 1.5 60 to 150
1.6 60 to 150
2.0 100 to 200
0.093 (3/32) 2.4 150 to 250
2.5 170 to 250
3.0 210 to 310
0.125 (1/8) 3.2 225 to 330
0.156 (5/32) 4.0 350 to 480
0.187 (3/16) 4.8 480 to 650
5.0 500 to 675
6.3 650 to 950
0.250 (1/4) 6.4 750 to 1000
NOTE: If no value is given, no recommendation is available.
a The current values are based on the use of argon gas, and these values may vary depending on the type of shielding gas, type of equipment, and application.
Source: Adapted from the AWS A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Allied Products, A5.12M/A5.12:2009 (ISO 6848:2004 MOD), Specification for
Tungsten and Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting, Table A.2.
NOTE: Thoria is a low-level radioactive material. However, if welding is to be performed in confined spaces for pro-
longed periods of time, or if electrode grinding dust might be ingested, special precautions relative to ventilation should
be considered. The user should consult appropriate safety personnel.
The following statement was developed by the International Institute of Welding (IIW) Commission VIII on Health and Safety:
STATEMENT OF COMMISSION VIII ON HEALTH ASPECTS
IN THE USE OF THORIATED TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES
Thorium oxides are found in Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes up to 4.2% (ISO 6848-WT 40 Electrode). Thorium is radio-
active and may present hazards by external and internal exposure. If alternatives are technically feasible, they should be
used.
Several studies carried out on Thoriated Electrodes have shown that due to the type of radiation generated, external
radiation risks—during storage, welding, or disposal of residues—are negligible under normal conditions of use.
On the contrary, during the grinding of electrode tips there is generation of radioactive dust, with the risk of internal
exposure. Consequently, it is necessary to use local exhaust ventilation to control the dust at the source, complemented if
necessary by respiratory protective equipment. The risk of internal exposure during welding is considered negligible
since the electrode is consumed at a very slow rate.
Precautions must be taken in order to control any risks of exposure during the disposal of dust from grinding devices.
The above statement is based on a considered view of the available reports. Commission VIII will continue to keep these
aspects under review.
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AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
7. Materials
7.1 Base Metals. Titanium base metals for common industrial applications are covered by the American Society of
Testing and Materials (ASTM) product specifications. These specifications cover the grade, dimensions and tolerance,
manufacturing method, finish, identification, marking, and packaging requirements for all commonly used product
forms as listed in Table 2.
The grade designations developed by ASTM provide a convenient and widely used system for specific identification of
the various grades of unalloyed or commercially pure titanium and titanium alloys. Chemical composition and mechanical
property requirements for each grade from ASTM B265-05 are provided in Annex A. (Requirements within other ASTM
product specifications are similar to those stated in ASTM B265.)
7.2 Filler Metals. AWS A5.16/A5.16M:2013 (ISO 24034:2010MOD), Specification for Titanium and Titanium-Alloy
Welding Electrodes and Rods, covers the grades of filler metals suitable for welding most of the titanium base metals
covered by the ASTM specifications. Each wire composition is identified by a numbering system similar to the grade
designation used in the ASTM specifications for corresponding base metals. The chemical composition requirements for
these filler materials are provided in Annex B.
Recommended filler metals are shown in Table 3. Generally, matching filler metals should be used for each base metal
grade. Thus, when two Grade 2 components are to be welded, ERTi-2 filler metal should be used.
NOTE: The filler metal compositions are designed to match the properties of the corresponding base metals after an al-
lowance for about 100 ppm–300 ppm oxygen pick-up in welding. While the levels in the specification may not be perfect,
the overall intent is that matching filler metal will be selected for each metal grade.
While the grade recommendations are made to ensure that the welds achieve the required properties, some of the palla-
dium and ruthenium corrosion-enhanced fillers may be used on corresponding base material grades to achieve improved
corrosion performance. For example, ERTi-16 might be considered for welding Grade 2 in services where weld metal
corrosion might occur if ERTi-2 were used. ERTi-7 can be used for Grades 16 and 26 and ERTi-11 for Grades 17 and 27
and retain both strength and desired corrosion properties. However, the use of lower-strength filler metals should never be
used as a substitute for good shielding practice. Any substitution for filler material should be approved by the customer.
Joints between alpha unalloyed titanium and alpha-beta alloys such as Grades 5, 9, and 23 are more susceptible to hydro-
gen problems than joints between two alpha or two alpha-beta materials. This is because hydrogen solubility in the beta
phase is much higher than in the alpha phase. Hydrogen from welding dissolved in the beta phase may migrate to the
alpha phase where lower solubility causes precipitation and formation of titanium hydrides, which can lead to severe
embrittlement or delayed cracking. Hydrogen charged into the materials due to corrosion may have a similar effect.
Joints between low and high alloy grades (e.g., unalloyed Grade 2 joined to Ti 6Al-4V) are not recommended due to pos-
sible hydrogen embrittlement at the fusion line.
Table 2
ASTM Specifications for Product Forms
Number Product Form
B265 Sheet, Strip, and Plate
B338 Tubes for Condensers and Heat Exchangers
B348 Bars and Billets
B363 Seamless and Welded Fittings
B367 Castings
B381 Forgings
B861 Seamless Pipe (replaced B337)
B862 Welded Pipe (replaced B337)
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AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table 3
Recommended Filler Metals
Guide to Choice of Filler Metal for General Purpose Titanium Welding
AWS
ASTM Recommended
Base Yield AWS Alternate Filler Metal
Metal Strength, Recommended Filler Numerical
Grade ksi [MPa] Nominal Composition Filler Metal Metals Designationa Comments
1 25 [170] Ti (unalloyed) ERTi-1 — Ti 0100 —
5 120 [828] Ti-6Al-4V ERTi-5 — Ti 6402 —
7 40 [275] Ti-0.15Pd ERTi-7 — Ti 2401 —
9 70 [483] Ti-3Al-2.5V ERTi-9 — Ti 6321 —
11 25 [170] Ti-0.15Pd ERTi-11 — Ti 2251 —
12 50 [345] Ti-0.8Ni-0.3Mo ERTi-12 — Ti 3401 —
13 25 [170] Ti-0.5Ni-0.05Ru ERTi-13 — Ti 3423 —
14 40 [275] Ti-0.5Ni-0.05Ru ERTi-14 — Ti 3424 —
15 55 [380] Ti-0.5Ni-0.05Ru ERTi-15A — Ti 3416 —
16 40 [275] Ti-0.05Pd ERTi-16 ERTi-7 Ti 2403 ERTi-7 provides compara-
ble mechanical properties
and equal or better corro-
sion resistance
17 25 [170] Ti-0.05Pd ERTi-17 ERTi-11 Ti 2253 ERTi-11 provides compar-
able mechanical properties
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sion resistance
18 70 [483] Ti-3Al-2.5V ELI-0.05Pd ERTi-18 — Ti 6326 —
23 110 [759] Ti-6Al-4V ELI ERTi-23 — Ti 6408 —
24 120 [828] Ti-6Al-4V-0.06Pd ERTi-24 — Ti 6415 —
25 120 [828] Ti-6Al-4V-0.6Ni-0.06Pd ERTi-25 — Ti 6413 —
26 40 [275] T-0.10Ru ERTi-26 ERTi-7 Ti 2405 ERTi-7 provides compar-
sion resistance
27 25 [170] Ti-0.10Ru ERTi-27 ERTi-11 Ti 2255 ERTi-11 provides compar-
sion resistance
28 70 [483] Ti-3A1-2.5V ELI-0.10Ru ERTi-28 ERTi-18 Ti 6324 ERTi-18 provides compar-
and comparable corrosion
resistance
29 110 [759] T-6AI-4V ELI-0.10Ru ERTi-29 — Ti 6414 —
30 40 [275] Ti-0.5Co-0.06Pd ERTi-30 — Ti 3531 —
31 55 [380] Ti-0.5Co-0.06Pd ERTi-31 — Ti 3533 —
32 85 [586] Ti-5Al-1Sn-1Zr-1V-0.8Mo ERTi-32 — Ti 5112 —
33 40 [275] Ti-0.4Ni-0.015Pd-0.015Ru-0.14Cr ERTi-33 — Ti 3443 —
34 55 [380] Ti-0.4Ni-0.015Pd-0.015Ru-0.14Cr ERTi-34 — Ti 3444 —
36 60 [410] Ti-45Nb ERTi-36 — Ti 8451 —
38 115 [794] Ti-4A1-2.5V ERTi-38 — Ti 4251 —
a Numerical designators per A5.16/A5.16M:2013 (ISO 24034:2010 MOD), Specification for Titanium and Titanium-Alloy Welding Electrodes.
11
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Filler metals are available as either spooled wire or bare rod. Welding rods for manual welding are supplied in 36 in
[915 mm] straight lengths in diameters of 1/16 in, 5/64 in, 3/32 in, 1/8 in, 5/32 in, and 3/16 in [1.6 mm, 2.0 mm, 2.4 mm,
3.2 mm, 4.0 mm, and 5.0 mm].
Spooled wire for automatic welding is provided in diameters of 0.020 in, 0.030 in, 0.035 in, 0.039 in, 0.045 in, 0.047 in,
and 1/16 in [0.5 mm, 0.8 mm, 0.9 mm, 1.0 mm, 1.1 mm, 1.2 mm, and 1.6 mm].
7.3 Procedure Qualification. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) provides a widely accepted
standard for procedure qualification in titanium. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX, details proce-
dure and performance tests. The acceptance criteria are based on the result of tensile and bend tests from welds made
under similar conditions as intended for production. Once good procedures, including cleaning and shielding practices,
are established for a welding process/joint design, they must be strictly followed in subsequent production welding.
NOTE: AWS D1.9/D1.9M, Structural Welding Code for Titanium, and AWS B2.1/B2.1M, Specification for Welding Pro-
cedure and Performance Qualification, provides alternative rules for procedure qualification of titanium welding.
8. Workshop Practice
This clause provides information on workshop methods that are required to produce high-quality titanium welds. These
guidelines apply to GTAW, GMAW, and PAW and are generally applicable to other welding processes that may be used
to weld titanium.
8.1 Workshop Layout. Although in-chamber welding is still practiced by some fabricators, most titanium welding is
performed in an open fabrication shop and, less commonly, in the field. Regardless of where the welding is performed, a
clean and protected environment is necessary to produce a high-quality weld.
A separate welding area should be set aside for titanium fabrication. This area should be kept clean and protected from
dirt, smoke, and other airborne contaminants from welding, cutting, and grinding operations. Likewise, the working area
should be protected from wind and drafts that can interfere with inert gas shielding. An enclosed area protected by floor
to ceiling partitions and equipped with a positive pressure air system is preferred. For organizations engaged in titanium
welding on an infrequent basis, temporary enclosures, such as curtains or plastic tents around the weld site, are also
acceptable.
The humidity in the welding area should be closely controlled. High-humidity conditions are a source of oxygen and
hydrogen. All equipment, fixtures, etc. should be free from moisture. Slight preheating or wiping with a volatile solvent
like acetone can be used to dry material. Fume extraction systems should be designed to keep the general area clean
without producing noticeable drafts at the point of welding.
8.2 Material Identification and Storage. All titanium materials should be handled and stored in such a manner that
they are protected from contact with non-titanium materials, such as iron- or nickel-containing materials. For example,
storage racks can be lined with wood or plastic, and wood blocks should always be placed under titanium before it is set
on a concrete surface. It is also recommended that fork protectors be used or wood be placed between forks and titanium.
Traceability should be maintained (including the heat and test lots). It is good practice to segregate all titanium materials,
as it is essentially impossible to distinguish between titanium grades by appearance. Extra caution is appropriate on jobs
involving several grades of titanium. Each filler metal wire container or sheath should carry an identification label.
Where identification tags are not provided on each wire length, fabricators often color-code the material on one end.
All filler metals should be stored in closed and sealed containers until issued for use and then kept in the container or
sheath until selected for welding. Spooled filler wire and cut lengths are commonly shipped in sealed plastic bags or
sheaths. Wire bags or sheaths should be opened and handled carefully so they may be resealed for extended storage.
Filler metal bags or sheaths should be carefully resealed for storage where any extended period of time is expected
before reuse.
8.3 Inert Gas Protection. The weld pool, solidified weld, hot heat-affected zones (HAZs), and the root side of the weld
should be protected until the temperature cools to below 800°F [425°C] or until no visible oxide color forms. Only argon
or helium (or mixtures) are used as shielding gases. Other gases, including argon-oxygen mixtures, nitrogen, or CO2
should never be used. The low tolerance of titanium to atmospheric contamination also extends to gas impurities and
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12
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table 4
Recommended Shielding Gas Purity and Dew Point
Dew Point at
Maximum Maximum Moisture
Gas Product State Minimum Purity, % Moisture, ppm Content, ºF [ºC]
Argon Gas 99.99 40 –58 [–50]
Helium Gas 99.99 40 –58 [–50]
Source: AWS A5.32M/A5.32 (ISO 14175:2008), Welding Consumables—Gases and Gas Mixtures for Fusion Welding and Allied Process.
moisture in the shielding gas. The purity of the shielding gases should be at least 99.995% but it is recommended that
higher purity gas be used. The dew point of the gases should be –58°F [–50°C] or lower. Shielding gases conforming to
requirements of AWS A5.32/A5.32M (ISO 14175 MOD), Welding Consumables—Gases and Gas Mixtures for Fusion
and Allied Processes, are recommended for titanium. The purity and dew point requirements from this specification are
provided in Table 4.
8.4 Inert Gas Distribution. Shielding gases are supplied in pressurized cylinders or as a liquid in both portable dewers
and large stationary insulated tanks. For central liquid systems, the liquid is vaporized and the gas is piped to points
within the fabrication facility through a distribution system. Gas distribution lines should be welded stainless steel or
brazed copper tubing, except where flexibility or electrical insulation are required. All manifolds, valves, regulators, flow-
meters, fittings, tubing, hoses, torches, and other associated equipment should be clean, leak-free, and free of moisture.
If pressurized cylinders are used, it is inevitable that they will contain a small amount of moisture. This level is
extremely low when the gas cylinder is full, but as the pressure in the cylinder drops, the moisture content as a percent-
age of the shielding gas, increases. Some titanium fabricators use the cylinder until the pressure has fallen below 1000 psi
[6895 kPa], at which time it is used to supply gas for welding less sensitive metals. Inert gas for the torch, trailing, and
backup shielding should be supplied through separate flowmeters. Interlocked timed solenoid valves or manual on-off
valves are used to control pre-flow and post-flow of gas. A suggested arrangement is a timer-controlled pre-flow and
post-flow for torch shielding and solenoid valves with manual switches interlocked with the welding current for trailing
and backup shielding. It is also a common practice (although wasteful) to use bottle or manifold shutoff valves for trail-
ing and backup shielding, continuing to allow the gas to flow throughout the welding session.
Gas hoses should be nonporous, flexible, and made only of polytetrafluoroethyene (PTFE), polypropylene (PP), or high
density polyethylene (HDPE). Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP)-lined Tygon® has superior resistance to moisture
absorption and is recommended. Air and moisture permeates through rubber hose which should never be used in any
titanium welding operation. Periodic inspection of the gas delivery system for fitting, leaks, hose cracks, and pinholes is
recommended. Joints and hoses can be checked for leaks using a weak solution of a detergent in water or a leak-detect-
ing solution from a gas supply company. Gas hoses should be kept off the floor as much as possible to keep them clean
and prevent damage.
Dew point is a relatively easy check of the integrity of a gas distribution system. The dew point at point of application
should be –60°F [–50°C] or lower.
8.5 In-Chamber Welding. Welding chambers are typically restricted to the fabrication of smaller components.
Although the use of a chamber can be quite cumbersome and requires significant operator skill, complete inert gas pro-
tection of the weld can be provided regardless of the joint geometry or component complexity. Chambers are of two
types: flow-purged and vacuum-purged.
8.5.1 Flow-Purged Chambers. Flow-purged chambers may be flexible or rigid. Rigid plastic chambers are flow-
purged before welding with inert gas in a volume equal to 5 to 10 times the volume of the chamber. Flexible plastic
chambers are first collapsed and then flow-purged with argon or helium (see Figure 8). Plastic chambers, due to their
reduced cost and improved visibility, are well suited for occasional manual welding of titanium and are available from a
number of companies that supply specialized welding products to the commercial titanium welding industry.
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13
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Photograph courtesy of CK Worldwide, Incorporated
Figure 8—Collapsible Plastic Chamber Purged with Argon

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8.5.2 Vacuum-Purged Chambers. Vacuum-purged chambers are typically either boxed or domed structures incorpo-
rating several clear viewing panels with glove ports. These types of metal chambers are first evacuated with a mechanical
pump to a pressure of about 3 × 10–3 torr [400 Pa], and then backfilled with argon gas. The chamber should be equipped
with an automatic gas delivery system to maintain constant positive pressure in the chamber and to bleed off excessive
pressure during welding.
For either type, it is essential that the air content within the chamber be reduced to very low levels prior to welding. A
dew-point meter should be used to sample the chamber environment and should indicate a dew point reading below –40°F
[–40°C] before welding is started.
For occasional use, where the cost of a dew-point meter may not be justified, the chamber environment can be tested by
using the welding torch to heat a small piece of titanium. If the weld is bright and shiny with no indications of color after
cooling, then a low-enough air content in the chamber has been achieved. It should be noted that welding titanium in a
chamber in and of itself does not mean that it is easier to achieve a successful titanium weld than using open-air tech-
niques. Chamber welding has its own set of potential problems unique to chambers. For example, due to low heat trans-
fer with argon parts may overheat, requiring extra time for cooling or resulting in a visible (usually light yellow or gold)
oxide film.
8.6 Open-Air Welding. The requirement for additional gas shielding to protect the face and root of the weld and the
cooling base metal during open-air welding is the most significant factor that differentiates titanium from most stainless
steel fabrications. Recommended practices for secondary (trailing) and back shielding are provided in the following
subclauses.
8.6.1 Trailing Shields. The function of the trailing shield is to blanket the solidified weld and adjacent heat-affected
zone with inert gas until the surface temperature has dropped to below 800°F [425°C]. The trailing shield should be
attached directly to the gas nozzle on either manual or semiautomatic torches. While trailing shields for titanium welding
are generally custom-made to fit a particular welding application, the following guidelines are provided for first-time
users (see Figure 9):
(1) The shield body should be constructed of copper or stainless steel, soldered or welded together to form a tight
compact body. Copper or stainless steel tubing should be used to deliver the gas. Degreased coarse copper or stainless
steel wool along with porous bronze or other types of diffusers can be used as the diffusing medium. The possible need
for water cooling should also be considered, particularly in shields for high-amperage automatic welding.
14
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Courtesy of MC Consulting
Figure 9 —Typical Trailing Shield Design
(2) The welding torch should go through the shield body so that the shield body provides an additional baffle that
extends slightly ahead of the torch. The shielding body should also provide a continuous baffle that fills any space
between the torch and shield. The baffle helps to direct the gas toward the work and reduces risk of air entrainment
between the torch and the shield.
(3) Shields are most effective when the shape of the shield conforms to the general contour of the component, and
when the bottom edges of the shield are held to within about 1/4 in [6 mm] of the weld surface being protected.
(4) Internal to the shielding device, gas introduced from the end of the shield should be directed toward the top of the
shield body, or gas introduced from the top should have a baffle to eliminate high velocities that can entrain air and help
to distribute the gas more uniformly over the shield area. The gas then flows downward through the diffusing medium
(i.e., coarse stainless steel or copper wool) and then through a porous bronze or stainless steel “felt” metal or diffuser to
provide a low velocity gas blanket at the workpiece. A copper, stainless steel, or similar screening material of sufficiently
fine mesh can also be used instead of porous bronze or stainless steel to close the shield bottom.
15
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
(5) The goal of the use of any trailing shield is to provide a non-turbulent blanket of inert gas to shield the weld and
heat-affected zone. The flow rate should be chosen accordingly. More is not necessarily better as an excess flow rate may
create turbulence drawing air into the weld zone leading to contamination.
The width and length of the trailing shield is a function of the welding heat input and should be determined for each par-
ticular joint design during welding procedure development. GMAW and automatic GTAW welding require longer trail-
ing shields than for manual GTAW due to higher travel speeds. If the trailing shield is too short, excessive oxidation on
the surface of the solidified weld will occur, indicated by visible surface color. A shield about 4 in [102 mm] in length
and 1-1/2 in [38 mm] in width is suitable for most manual work. In certain circumstances, a trailing shield may not be
required. For example, a tack weld or low heat-input root pass in heavy material may give satisfactory results just with a
large-diameter gas lens on the welding torch.
8.6.2 Backup Shields. Inert gas shielding of the root side of welds is required unless the backside remains below
800°F [425°C] or until sufficient weld thickness (typically 1/4 in [6 mm]) is deposited so that no color forms on the root
during welding. Backup shields can be made following the same design principles used for trailing shields, and then
manually held, clamped, or taped in place. Examples of backup shields are shown in Figure 10. Local gas grooves or
purge spaces can also be employed. For example, aluminum angle, with provisions for gas inlet and outlet, can be used
for purging the backside of T-joints. For more complex configurations, aluminum or copper foil can be taped to the
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underside, forming the necessary channel for the gas purge. In this case, care must be taken to prevent the foil from com-
ing into contact with the hot titanium. Likewise, purge containment bags made of plastic or heat-resistant glass tape can
be constructed around the joint. When such techniques are used it is important that all air is removed from the system. A
dew-point meter is recommended for monitoring the purity of the purging gas at the gas outlet. When this type of equip-
ment is not available, an inert gas purge equal to 12 times the volume of the air removed should be used.
8.6.2.1 Purging. For smaller pipe sizes or in structures where root access is limited, pure argon purging is satis-
factory for backup shielding. The ends of the pipe or open areas of a structure can be sealed with clear plastic or metal
sheet or thin plastic film and sealed with masking tape (cardboard or paper would allow air to diffuse and should not be
used). In general, gas is fed continuously from one end of the pipe or low point in the structure and is vented at a higher
point with secondary escape through the weld preparation (partially sealed with masking tape while the root pass is
completed).
(1) Argon is usually the best choice for purging because of its lower cost compared to helium, but in cases where
complex geometry presents air traps (closed high spaces where air is trapped by argon in the same manner as water can
trap air in a glass underwater), mixtures of argon and helium should be considered.
Photograph courtesy of San Diego Welding and Forming, Inc.
Figure 10—Examples of Backup Shields for Manual GTAW
16
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
(2) A good rule of thumb to estimate purge times is to purge 6 times the volume of the space being displaced for
spherical or tubular structures and 12 times the volume of the space for irregular shapes. However, this will vary depend-
ing on geometry, inlet conditions, faying surfaces where diffusion may be required for air or moisture removal, and the
presence of dead spaces or traps where air is not displaced by the argon.
(3) Continuous purging should be maintained at a moderate flow rate until the weld is complete or enough thickness
(usually >1/4 in [6 mm]) is deposited that no color forms on the root during welding.
(4) Interior surfaces in purged volumes should be free of dirt that can entrap air or moisture.
8.7 Shielding Gases. Gas selection is driven by the physical properties of the shielding gases, which have a major effect
on arc characteristics, heat input, and overall process performance. Welding-grade argon is generally employed for torch
shielding because its arc stability is better than with helium. Argon is also heavier than helium, and after leaving the
torch forms a blanket over the weld pool, whereas helium tends to rise. If a hotter arc and increased penetration are
desired, a torch gas mixture of, for example, 75%Ar–25%He can be used. Helium by itself should never be used for
torch shielding due to its poor arc-starting characteristics. Excessive flow rates will cause turbulence and will likely
make the torch shielding ineffective. Only the minimum amount of torch shielding gas that provides effective shielding
should be used. Excessive flows will entrain air into the welding arc, resulting in contamination of the weld deposit.
While the manufacturer’s recommended gas flow rates to the torch should be used, argon flow rates in the vicinity of
15 cfh–40 cfh [7.1 L/min–19 L/min] have proven satisfactory in practice.
Argon is also more common for trailing shields and backup shielding, although helium is sometimes used when the weld
is located above the shielding device. To produce equivalent shielding, the flow of helium must be 2 to 2.5 times that of
argon. The same general relationship is true for mixtures of argon and helium. Flow rates of 5 cfh [2.3 L/min] to 8 cfh
[3.8 L/min] are typical for a properly designed shield, so total flow rates for the trailing or backup shields will depend on
the size of the shield. Some experimentation may be needed to establish the flow rate. Purging gas flow rates depend
largely on the volume being filled.
NOTE: Individual flowmeters should always be used.
8.8 Argon Safety. Argon is heavier than air and will displace air in a closed tank in the same manner as filling it with
water. Fatalities have occurred due to argon asphyxiation. If welding or shielding is to be done in a confined space, con-
fined entry procedures should be rigorously followed and extra precautions taken to provide adequate forced ventilation.
Because fan-induced drafts create welding problems, it may be better to exhaust air and argon accumulation from the
low point of the vessel or chamber using a large diameter flexible duct connected to the suction of an adequate blower.
Remember that argon is a heavy fluid and in tall vessels or towers may not be easy to lift it up and out. Check with your
gas supplier if you are uncertain as to the suitability of the ventilation arrangement.
9. Joint Preparation
The need for care and planning at the materials preparation stage cannot be overemphasized. Careful preparation of the
weld joints is essential for successful arc welding of titanium. Selection of the preparation method and provision for pro-
tection of the weld surfaces are both important. Although a machined surface is generally best, other primary preparation
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methods are commonly used in preparation for titanium welding. All primary weld preparation must be followed by final
preparation before the first weld bead is initiated. This section will review proper joint designs and preparation proce-
dures required to insure optimum conditions for a successful titanium weld.
9.1 Joint Design. Weld joint designs for titanium have the same function as those for other metals, which is to provide
access to the root for the welding arc. However, the joint design for titanium must provide accessibility for inert-gas
shielding devices as well as postweld inspection of both sides of the weld as much as possible to allow visual inspection
to determine if shielding has been effective.
For GTA welds, a square groove can be used for all butt joints and corner welds on thin-gauge sheet and other product
forms where the thickness does not exceed 1/8 in [3.2 mm]. Thicker material is usually prepared with a single “V”
groove with an included angle not to exceed 45° to 60° and a root face of 1/32 in [0.8 mm] to 1/16 in [1.6 mm]. For plate
thicknesses greater than 1/4 in [6 mm] a simple open “V” can produce unacceptable distortion due to thermal stresses. A
“U” groove with an included angle as small as possible, consistent with achieving good sidewall fusion, may be used to
17
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
reduce total weld metal required. As a guide, the total included angle should not exceed 30° and be not less than 15°. A
double “V” or “U” groove is a better alternative when there is access to both sides of the weld.
Joint designs that are suitable for GTAW are also generally acceptable for GMAW and plasma arc when operated in the
conduction-limited mode. Keyhole plasma welding requires only a square-groove preparation for a thickness up to 1/2 in
[12.7 mm]. Keyhole and buried arc GTAW can use a square-butt preparation up to as much as 3/4 in [19 mm]. Thicker
material can be prepared as for GTAW, but with a root face up to 1/4 in [6 mm]. Typical joint design guidelines for butt
and T-joints are provided in Table 5.
9.2 Cutting. Titanium can be cut with conventional oxyfuel, plasma arc, water jet, or laser cutting equipment. A signifi-
cant amount of fumes are produced by oxyfuel and plasma arc cutting operations. Local exhaust ventilation should be
present and supply a minimum airflow to maintain a capture velocity in the cutting zone. When local exhaust ventilation
is not feasible or inadequate, respirators should be worn. Cartridge-type respirators can protect the wearer against metal
fumes, but not gases such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. Thermal cutting processes produce a contaminated
layer adjacent to the cut surfaces that must be removed prior to welding. An allowance for removal of contaminated
metal should include allowances for cutting tolerances, cut width, and any surface roughness, plus 1/8 in [3.2 mm] for
oxyfuel or 1/16 in [1.6 mm] per surface for plasma arc. For laser cutting, 1/32 in [0.8 mm] is typically sufficient.
Table 5
Typical Joint Designs
Square Root Face
Thickness Root Opening Groove Angle Dimension
Type in [mm] Process Weld Passes in [mm] Degrees in [mm]
0.010–0.062
GTAW Single 0 — —
[0.3–1.6]
0.031–0.125 Single-
Square Groove GTAW 0 — —
[0.8–3.2] Double
0.250–0.500 Single-
PAW 0 — —
[6.4–12.7] Multiple
0.062–0.125 0.10–1/16 0–1/16
GTAW Single 45–60
[1.6–3.2] [2.54–1.6] [0–1.6]
0.125–0.250 First 0/16–1/8 0–1/16
Single V GTAW 45–60
[3.2–6.4] Second [1.6–3.2] [0–1.6]
0.125–0.500 Single- 0/16–1/8 0–1/16
GMAW 45–90
[3.2–12.7] Multiple [1.6–3.2] [0–1.6]
0.250–0.500 0/16–1/8 0–1/16
GTAW Double 45–90
[6.4–12.7] [1.6–3.2] [0–1.6]
0.250–0.750 0/16–1/8 0–1/16
Double V GMAW Double 45–90
[6.4–19.1] [1.6–3.2] [0–1.6]
0.750–1.500 Double- 0/16–1/8 0–1/16
GMAW 45–90
[19.1–38.1] Multiple [1.6–3.2] [0–1.6]
0.250–0.500 First 0/16–1/8 0–1/16
GTAW 15–30
[6.4–12.7] Second [1.6–3.2] [0–1.6]
Single U
0.500–1.00 0/16–1/8 0–1/16
GMAW Multiple 15–30
[12.7–25.4] [1.6–3.2] [0–1.6]
0.750–1.500 Double- 0/16–1/8 0–1/16
Double U GMAW 15–30
[19.1–38.1] Multiple [1.6–3.2] [0–1.6]
0.031–0.125 Single or 0–1/16
GTAW 0–45 —
[0.8–3.2] Double [0–1.6]
Fillet
0.125–0.500 Single or 0–1/16
GTAW 30–45 —
[3.2–12.7] Double [0–1.6]
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
18
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
The carbon-arc process is not recommended for cutting or metal removal of titanium because excessive contamination is
unavoidable in the immediate area. This process will also create weld spatter that can cause potential problems on the
titanium metal surface.
Water-jet cutting is an excellent process for cutting titanium but can trap abrasive particles in the cut surface. Water-jet
cut surfaces are not contaminated in the same manner as thermal-cut surfaces. It is recommended that the water-jet joint
cut edges (as a minimum) be followed by draw filing to remove the embedded abrasive particles.
Titanium can be sheared using capacity limitations applicable to 300-series stainless steels. Sheared edges also require
subsequent machining or grinding operations to remove the shear cut edge that can entrap contaminants.
9.3 Preliminary Preparation. The following techniques are suitable for the preliminary preparation of titanium joints.
For all techniques described below, the final joint surfaces should be smooth and contain no crevices, roughness, or over-
laps that can trap dirt or cleaning fluids.
9.3.1 Machining. Conventional machining techniques including lathe turning, drilling, reaming, milling, and planing
are all used for titanium. Machined joints provide the most accurate fitup and are recommended for titanium. High-speed
steel tools are acceptable, but carbide tools will optimize production rates. Tool life can be extended through the use of
low cutting speeds, high feed rates, and copious amounts of cutting fluid, sharp tools, and rigid setups. Water-soluble
lubricants are recommended but chlorinated cutting fluids should never be used on titanium.
9.3.2 Sawing. Rigid setups used with coarse-pitched saw blades (< 10 teeth per inch [25 mm]) work well on bar stock
or other thick cross-section product forms. For sawing thin cross-section products such as tubing or angle material the
use of fine-pitched saw blades (>11 teeth per inch [25 mm]) will provide improved blade life. The use of vari-pitched
saw blades can provide improved cutting over those with constant-pitch. Low surface speeds, and generous amounts of
water-soluble coolant are recommended. Surface scale or contaminated surfaces can cause accelerated blade wear if not
removed prior to the sawing operation. Friction sawing produces similar shallow surface contamination that must be
removed in subsequent grinding, filing, or machining operations.
9.3.3 Abrasive Cutting. Abrasive cutting with rubber-bonded, 60-grit [254 micron] silicon carbide cut-off wheels
can also be used successfully. Abrasive cut edges should be rotary- or draw-filed to remove burrs and abrasive particles.
9.3.4 Grinding. Clean aluminum oxide or silicon carbide grinding wheels are most effective. An abrasive grit size of
60 [254 micron] or 80 [165 micron] should be used to avoid clogging. For belt grinding, resin-bonded cloth belts with
silicon carbide abrasive generally provide the best performance. Excessive heat should be avoided to prevent metal con-
tamination. Any visible metal oxide (burns) should be removed.
It is recommended that fluids be used when grinding titanium to minimize sparking. When it is necessary to grind by
hand or where coolants cannot be used, care should be taken to protect nearby personnel and equipment. The sparks are
hot enough to perforate gas hoses and initiate fires if directed into flammable debris. Preparations made by grinding
should be followed by draw-filing or carbide burrs. A fine-toothed flat file is drawn repeatedly along the metal surface to
remove minor irregularities.
9.3.5 Filing. Tungsten-carbide burrs (rotary files) and/or metal draw files are required for all final surface preparation
and conditions. Filing should ensure the removal of contaminants such as embedded steel or abrasive particles that could
have been introduced into the metal surface during preliminary surface preparation. The use of low-RPM electric tools
helps maintain titanium’s initial cleanliness better than air operated tools. Air tools are more rugged and usually lighter
in weight. However, where air-driven tools are used they should have a rear exhaust and be equipped with overhose to
eliminate potential secondary contamination for oil in the air.
9.3.6 Fire Prevention. Fine particles from dry sanding (including flapper wheels or sanding disks) or machining
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chips of titanium can ignite and burn. Use of water-based or other coolants generally helps to eliminate the dangers of
ignition during machining operations. However, the accumulation of titanium fines can pose a fire hazard. Avoid accu-
mulation of unoxidized fines or chips. Chips, turnings, and other titanium fines should be collected regularly and stored
in covered, dry steel containers, preferably in an outside yard area. Housekeeping is the key to reduction of a potential
titanium fire hazard. If a titanium fire does start, several methods can be used to extinguish the fire. The preferred meth-
ods include the use of a class-D fire extinguisher rated for titanium, or by smothering it with salt or dirt. Do NOT use
water, or fire extinguishers rated for A-B-C fires, these will only intensify the fire making it more difficult to put out.
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AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
9.4 Cleaning for Welding. Best results are obtained if the entire component is cleaned reasonably well prior to final sur-
face preparation of the weld joint, and by maintaining cleanliness throughout welding operations. Steam cleaning, hot
water and detergent wash, and non-chlorinated degreasing solvents such as acetone and alcohol can remove heavy grease
or machining oil on the component. The residual from chlorinated solvents promotes weld metal cracking and should
never be used on titanium. For high quality welds, the actual weld joint surfaces and adjacent metal must be carefully
cleaned prior to the final fitup and welding.
9.4.1 Mechanical Cleaning. The joint and adjacent base material on both the face and root for a minimum of 1 in
[25 mm] on either side of the joint should then be brushed with a stainless-steel wire wheel and thoroughly cleaned with
lint-free cloths or tissues dampened in a commercial solvent. Some shops reverse this sequence to reduce the risk of lint
from cleaning rags as well as to maintain cleanliness of wire brushes. Acetone (100% purity and not reconstituted) is
recommended; other solvents in order of decreasing effectiveness include isopropyl alcohol and denatured alcohol, all of
100%, and not reconstituted, purity. Under no circumstances should carbon-steel brushes, sandpaper, emery paper, or
steel wool be used for finishing because of the possibility of leaving iron or abrasive particles that can cause weld
contamination. All tools that come in contact with the final joint surface, including burrs, files, and stainless-steel
brushes, should be clean and used only on titanium.
9.4.2 Pickling. Pickling (chemical cleaning) is the most effective final cleaning and is also effective for removing any
surface iron contamination that may be present from machining, but it is hazardous and should be reserved for the most
critical applications only.
If the component is dirty or oily, degreasing must be performed first or the acid dissolution will be nonuniform, produc-
ing a pitted surface. If the pickled surface is used, welding should be done within a matter of hours and materials should
be fully protected in the interim. Pickling solutions are typically aqueous solutions of hydrofluoric and nitric acid. The acid
ratio should be maintained between 1:5 and 1:9. A common pickling treatment is 1 to 5 minutes in a room-temperature
solution of 3% to 5% hydrofluoric acid (48%–52%) and 35% nitric acid (70%) in water, followed by a water rinse and
air drying.
NOTE: Since these acids are supplied in a number of commercially available concentrations, the parenthesis show the
acid concentrations recommended to maintain the proper bath compositions.
Pickling should be separated and treated as a final cleaning step to be used in only the most critical quality requirement
cases. Hydrofluoric acid and nitric acid are potentially hazardous and aggressive, requiring extensive personal protection.
Pickling should be done only after the other cleaning methods prove inadequate. Pickling also will produce spent fluids
that must be disposed of properly. Spent acid from pickling must be disposed and may require special permits or removal
as a hazardous waste.
NOTE: Refer to the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) specific to your pickling acids. Occupational Safety & Health
Administration health guidelines are published online at http://www.osha.gov.
9.4.3 Final Surface Condition (Prior to Welding). After final cleaning, the prepared surfaces should not be touched,
but if necessary, only with clean, dry cotton gloves. Fingerprints, even from clean hands, are a source of oil and salt that
can contaminate the weld. Rubber gloves can leave traces of plasticizer that can act as a source of porosity and should
never be used in handling any titanium part. Recleaning is required at any time during the work cycle if the weld area has
been contaminated by dirty tools, gloves, handprints, etc. Generally, it is good practice to clean and weld the joint in the
same work shift. When this is not possible, the joint and adjacent metal should be covered with paper or bagged with a
plastic sheet or other material to minimize dust or dirt accumulation. For extended storage, cover the materials over the
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weld joint preparation. Edges for fitted joints should be sealed using ordinary masking tape. Tape should not be used
directly on or near the cleaned surface as it may leave a residue on the groove faces after removal.
9.5 Fitup and Tack Welding. Accurate fitup is more critical for titanium than for other materials. Uniform fitup helps
control underbead contour and reduces distortion. Poor fitup increases the possibility of contamination. When possible,
joints should be clamped rather than tack welded. All clamps and fixtures should be clean and grease free. When tack
welds are used, the same cleaning and shielding requirements used for all titanium welds should be employed, including
the use of trailing and backup shielding. Cracked or contaminated tack welds should be removed and the area be care-
fully cleaned before proceeding with the final welds.
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AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
10. Welding Technique

10.1 Welding Parameters. GTAW, PAW, and GMAW welds can be made using a variety of current/speed combinations.
Typical welding parameters for each process are provided in Table 6, but should be used as a guideline only.
10.2 Preheating. Preheat may be required if the presence of moisture on the joint preparation surfaces is suspected due
to cold material, low temperature, high humidity, or a wet work area (in repair situations). In such cases preheating of
titanium using lamps, resistance heaters, or induction heating equipment is preferred. Where gas torch heating is used,
the flame should be set to a slightly oxidizing range and should be kept moving during heating to avoid local overheat-
ing. No visible color should form during heating. When using resistance heaters or induction coils, contact of the heating
elements with the joint surface should be avoided.
10.3 Filler Metal Practice. Wire and rod are typically supplied from the manufacturer in a clean condition. However,
filler materials have a large surface-to-volume ratio, and if the material is slightly contaminated from die lubricants, this
contributes to weld contamination. It is recommended that the welder check the wire at the start of welding, or with any
new wire issued, or whenever a new wire spool is installed.
As a method to verify filler metal cleanliness, a general rule of thumb may be used. This process is to first cut a length or
unwind approximately two feet of wire from the spool. It is not necessary to sever the wire unless its usability is ques-
tionable. Using a lint-free industrial tissue or lint-free cloth (not a paper towel) dampened with acetone, wipe the wire in
a back and forth motion over 10 in–20 in [254 mm–500 mm] length, 4 or 5 times. Visually examine the wipe for any evi-
dence of contaminants. A slight darkening or smudge on the cloth is acceptable. A dark smudge or evidence of drawing
compounds, flakes, or particles from the wire should be cause for rejection and the spool returned to the manufacturer
for recleaning.
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Cut wire lengths should be issued and kept in clean, closed sheaths or tubes at the point of use. Wire should be removed
as it will be used and not several lengths laid on potentially dirty surfaces. Manually fed wire or rod should be handled
with clean, lint-free cotton gloves.
10.4 Starting and Stopping the Arc. Before starting an arc, the torch, trailing shield, and backup shielding gas hoses
and devices should be pre-purged to minimize potential contamination at the start of welding. A timer-controlled pre-
flow of argon gas will remove any moisture which may have condensed on the inside of the torch due to changes in the
surrounding temperature. Some fabricators run their purge gas flows continuously during active welding operations, but
use of a high-low flow arrangement that maintains a continuous flow at a low rate may be satisfactory and will reduce
gas consumption while reducing pre-purge times.
Table 6
Typical Parameters for GTAW, GMAW, and PAW
GTAW without Filler GTAW with Filler GMAW PAW
Thickness, in [mm] 0.060 [1.5] 0.125 [3.2] 0.500 [12.7] 0.500 [12.7]
Position Flat Flat Flat Flat
Electrode Diameter, in [mm] 1/16 [1.6] 1/16 [1.6] — —
Filler Wire Diameter, in [mm] — 1/16 [1.6] 1/16 [1.6] —
Current, amps 90–100 200–210 340–360 270
Voltage, volts 10 12 24–30 36
Travel Speed, in/min [mm/s] 10 [4.2] 12 [5] 15 [6.4] 10 [4.2]
Wire Feed Speed, in/min [mm/s] — 22 [9.3] 375–400 [159–169] —
Torch Gas, cfh [L/min] 15 [7.1] Ar 20 [9.4] Ar 50 [23.6] Ar/15 [7.1] He —
Trailing Gas, cfh [L/min] 30 [14.2] Ar 50 [23.6] Ar 60 [28.3] Ar —
Backup Gas, cfh [L/min] As required, Ar As required, Ar As required, Ar —
21
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
The torch and shield should be positioned over the part and held for 5 to 10 seconds before the arc is initiated to allow an
inert gas blanket to form. The arc should then be initiated with high frequency and then extinguished by current down
slope and a contactor. The torch and shield should be held over the weld until it cools. A timer-controlled post-flow of
torch shielding gas is recommended for a minimum of 30 seconds after the arc has extinguished to protect the just solid-
ified weld and the tungsten electrode from contamination. Secondary and backup shielding should be continued until the
temperature falls below 800°F [425°C]. It is noted that welding speed and current will affect the length and width of sec-
ondary shielding discussed above and sample welds should be made to determine the acceptable combination of speed
and gas shielding.
10.5 Electrode Practice. While tungsten electrode extension beyond the tip of the torch nozzle can be several times the
electrode diameter, the extension should be as short as possible but consistent with visibility and access. The use of a gas
lens will permit greater extensions that may be required for welding in deep “V” grooves or in corners. Electrode exten-
sions of more than 1 in [25 mm] are routinely used in deep weld preparations for welding in areas where the joint side-
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walls help contain the argon gas.
10.6 Wire Feeding. Welding wire should be fed into the weld pool in a smooth and continuous manner. The dip and dap
technique, commonly used in manual GTAW of stainless steel, can result in contamination of the hot end of the wire if it
is inadvertently removed from the shielding envelope and should never be used in welding titanium. At the completion
of each weld stop, approximately 1/2 in [12.7 mm] of the wire or rod should be removed before reuse. If the wire is kept
under the gas protection, this end removal is not necessary.
10.7 Interpass Cleaning. In addition to inspection for surface imperfections, each weld pass should be visually inspected
for surface color in the as-deposited condition. Interpass cleaning is not required if the weld deposit is bright and silvery.
For other colors, welding should be stopped, the shielding problem corrected, and the unacceptable area repaired and
inspected in accordance with the recommendations provided in 11.1, Visual Inspection. Welders should also be trained to
detect rapid movement of the arc during welding. If rapid movement of the arc during welding is detected, welding
should be stopped, the problem corrected, and any needed repairs to the work piece must be done before proceeding.
When excessive discoloration is noted on a weld deposit it is not adequate to just remove the discoloration. Depending
on the severity of the discoloration the entire weld bead may have to be removed to ensure adequate properties in the
completed weld.
10.8 Interpass Temperatures. A maximum interpass temperature of 250°F [120°C] is recommended to avoid heat
buildup that may require additional shielding. In any event, interpass temperatures high enough to cause heat tint should
be avoided. Contact thermocouples or pyrometers should be used to measure surface temperature. Temperature-indicat-
ing crayons should never be used on or near the weld surfaces of titanium due to potential contamination.
11. In-Process Weld Quality Tests

Contamination due to inadequate shielding is probably the most common defect responsible for rework. In-process weld
quality tests are important to assure that satisfactory welds are being produced. The tests described below allow the
welder to monitor weld quality and should be supplemented with any of the required nondestructive tests described in
the next clause.
11.1 Visual Inspection. Most elements of visual inspection of titanium welds are the same as for other metals, including
weld contour, undercut, penetration, and reinforcement. However, visual inspection for surface color can also be used to
assess the effectiveness of inert gas shielding, and indirectly, weld quality. A properly shielded weld will exhibit a bright
and lustrous silver color. Atmospheric contamination will change the surface color of the welds from silver to straw, pur-
ple, dark blue, light blue, yellow, dull gray, and powder white as the degree of contamination increases (see Figure 11).
Visual inspection must be performed in the as-deposited condition, prior to any type of cleaning, brushing, or metal-
removal operations. Welding over a contaminated weld to remove color will only make the weld worse, even though it
looks bright and shiny. The contamination from the surface is now absorbed in the weld and the entire weld pass must be
fully removed.
Qualified personnel should inspect each weld pass, including the backside of two-sided welds and adjacent material. A
guide to interpretation and disposition of color is provided in Table 7. A bright silver color indicates correct shielding
and no corrective action is necessary. For multiple pass welds, a straw color on commercially pure alloys should be
22
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
SILVER LIGHT STRAW DARK STRAW PURPLE
BLUE YELLOW GREY WHITE BRUSHED
Note: The Titanium Weld Color Inspection Guide is provided “AS IS” without warranty of any kind.
EWI makes no warranties, express or implied, that the Titanium Weld Color Inspection Guide is
free of error, or is consistent with any particular standard of merchantability, or that it will meet the
requirements for any particular application. EWI disclaims all liability for direct, incidental or conse-
quential damages resulting from the use of the Titanium Weld Color Inspection Guide.
Source: Reproduced, with permission, from Harwig, D. and J. Talkington, 2000, Development of
Weld Color Inspection Standard, Columbus, OH: Edison Welding Institute (EWI).
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 11—Color Sequence in Titanium
Table 7
Surface Color in Titanium Welds
Color Interpretation Action
Silver Correct shielding None
Light straw to dark straw Slight surface contamination, acceptable Remove surface oxide by brushing, correct shielding
Purple Moderate surface contamination, unacceptable Remove weld bead by grinding, correct shielding
Dark blue to light blue Heavy contamination, unacceptable Remove weld bead
Yellow to gray to white Very heavy contamination, unacceptable Remove weld bead and 1/32 in [0.8 mm] to 1/4 in
[6 mm] of the material beneath
removed by stainless steel wire brushing, while the same color on higher strength alloys, like Ti 6Al-4V, should be
removed by a tungsten carbide rotary burr. A straw color on the final weld surface generally does not require removal.
Colors below straw generally indicate sufficient contamination to warrant complete removal of the weld and adjacent
1/16 in [1.6 mm] of material.
It should be noted that surface color is an indication of the effectiveness of the trailing shield only and does not guarantee
that the torch shielding was adequate. This is due to the fact that entrainment of air into the torch shield gas can contam-
inate the weld but still result in a silver color if the trailing shield provides adequate protection. Contamination of the
tungsten electrode will be evident if significant air has been entrained into the torch shielding gas, as shown in Figure 12.
With proper shielding, an appearance equivalent to 0% should be achieved. For all others, work should stop and the
source of contamination detected and corrected prior to resumption of welding.
23
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
0% 0.5% 1% 1.5%
Note: Percentages indicate air in the argon torch gas.

Source: Adapted from Smith, L. S., P. Threadgill, and M. Gittos, 1999, Welding Titanium—
A Designer’s and User’s Handbook: The Titanium Group.
Figure 12—Contamination of Tungsten Electrode from Air Entrainment
11.1.1 Inadequate Cleaning. Inadequate cleaning is sometimes indicated by a discolored or brown tint on the base
metal surface along the weld. Often there is a bright silver line right along the weld toe and the brown coloration occurs
just beyond. This indicates that material immediately adjacent to the weld toe was heated sufficiently to volatize the for-
eign materials on the surface (which are then absorbed by the molten weld pool), while surface temperatures further out
were only high enough to char the foreign materials.
11.2 Dew Point Testing. There is always the possibility of the gas being contaminated either as-delivered or somewhere
between the supply and end-use point. To ensure gas quality at the end-use point it is recommended that a dew point
check of the gas feeding the torch, trailing, and backup shield be performed at the beginning of each worker shift or
whenever the gas flow is interrupted (i.e., during a change in gas cylinders or replacement of a gas hose). It is recom-
mended that no welding be performed until the dewpoint is –60°F [–50°C] or lower. Where purging is used and visual
inspections of the backside of the weld are not possible, dew point measurements of the exit gas are the ONLY means to
verify whether purging is adequate to initiate welding. If –40°F [–40°C] or less cannot be achieved in a reasonable
period of time, stop, reclean, double-check closures, apply preheat if necessary, and try again.
NOTE: There is no relation between dew point and oxygen measurements. An oxygen meter is not a replacement for the
dew point measurement.
11.3 Bend Testing. Bends tests are a very effective method for assessing contamination in the weld deposit. Longitudi-
nal face or root bends are preferable to transverse tests. The latter of these produce nonuniform straining across the base
plate, heat-affected zone, and weld. The tests should be performed in the as-welded condition since machining of the
samples will remove the possible contaminated surface layer. Coupons should be properly prepared for the bending tests,
paying close attention to size and surface condition, and be representative of the intended weld applications and Welding
Procedure Specification (WPS). Welds with satisfactory ductility will bend over the radii shown in Table 8 without
cracking.
11.4 Hardness Testing. Hardness tests provide direct evidence of atmospheric contamination since contaminated welds
exhibit greater hardness. More importantly, hardness testing will detect contamination that occurs from inadequate torch
gas shielding for welds exhibiting acceptable surface color. It should be noted that the hardness delta is so small with the
high-strength alloys that it may or may not be a reliable measure of contamination. This is ONE method or criteria to
determine weld acceptability. Recent work has shown that a Rockwell B of 88 is equivalent to 20% elongation for CP
Grade 2 weld metal. Future work could be developed to similar criteria for other alloys.
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
24
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table 8
Bend Test Requirements For Titanium Alloys
Bend Radius Bend Radius
Titanium Grades (from ASME BPVC, Section IX, QW-466.1) (from AWS D1.9/D1.9M)
1, 11, 17, 27 4T 4T
2, 7, 16, 26 4T 4T
3 5T 5T
12 5T 6T
9, 18, 28 5T 8T
5, 24, 38 5T 8T
23, 29 N/A 8T
12. Nondestructive Test

Titanium, like all metals, is susceptible to certain welding defects. However, the range of possible defects is much less
than for steel fabrication. Solidification cracking, a common defect in stainless steel and aluminum welds, is not com-
monly found in titanium. The same applies for liquation and reheat cracking. Most of the defects encountered in titanium
welds can be traced to the use of incorrect welding parameters, lack of cleanliness, or incorrect gas shielding that result
in defects such as lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, and underfill. Porosity can also be encountered, typically the
result of hydrogen. Gas metal arc welds are susceptible to the same defects and are also prone to spatter, further increas-
ing the risk of contamination. Plasma arc welds are susceptible to the same defects as gas tungsten arc welds. In the key-
hole mode of operation, incomplete penetration results in gross tunnel porosity. Autogeneous keyhole welds in thick
titanium typically exhibit a minor amount of underfill that can be corrected by a GTAW capping pass. Visual inspection
is the probably most effective method and should be used regardless of other inspection requirements.
12.1 Radiography. Radiography is a very useful inspection technique for titanium and its application does not differ
substantially from the radiography of other metals. Radiography will (most commonly) reveal:
(1) Tungsten inclusions as sharp white spots,
(2) Porosity as dark spots that usually appear as circular indications,
(3) Lack of fusion that appears as a dark line or area,
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(4) Cracks as dark lines, usually angular and sharp, and
(5) Incomplete penetration.
Radiography does not differ from other metals, except that titanium penetrameters should be employed to be certain
proper sensitivity is achieved in the low density material. X-ray radiation from a discrete source will generally provide a
clearer image than gamma radiation from a source and is preferred where the X-ray source has sufficient kV.
12.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing. Under normal circumstances, weld metal cracking is very rare in titanium. However,
problems can arise where several weld seams intersect or where contamination has occurred. In these cases, surface
cracks can be detected by dye penetrant inspection. However, problems have been encountered with this inspection tech-
nique due to failure to completely remove all traces of the penetrant prior to rewelding. Therefore, it is recommended
that dye penetrant inspection not be used on repair surfaces to be welded over unless a crack has been detected by visual
inspection, and then only in the limited areas of the crack to confirm its removal.
All traces of the penetrant must be removed by filing, if necessary, and thoroughly cleaned with solvent from the sur-
rounding area, typically back at least 2 in [50 mm] from the weld. The use of liquid penetrant inspection on partial pene-
tration welds is discouraged because the penetrant can move into tight spaces or crevices and create cleaning problems.
Fluorescent penetrant may provide greater sensitivity in some instances.
25
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
12.3 Ultrasonic Inspection. Contact ultrasonic inspection (UT) is in common use and effective for porosity, lack of
fusion, incomplete penetration, and other discontinuities, particularly in heavy sections. UT is adaptable to some config-
urations where radiography cannot be applied in a manner that will find specific types of discontinuities because of the
component geometry. Used in conjunction with radiography, the combined methods provide an even greater level of
assurance that all internal discontinuities will be identified.
13. Repair of Defects

13.1 Fabrication Defects. Repairs in titanium should be made with the same care and workmanship as for the original
weld. The removal of defects should be by machining or grinding.
CAUTION: Arc gouging should never be used for any type of defect removal or backgouging. Grinding wheels, disks,
sanders, etc. must always be followed by a finishing pass utilizing a carbide file or tungsten carbide burr to remove any
embedded grit.
Final preparation for all cases described should be by tungsten carbide burring or filing, followed by stainless steel wire
brushing (used only for titanium) and acetone or alcohol degreasing for a minimum of 1 in [25.4 mm] on each side of the
repair area. The final surface of the repair weld should be inspected for surface color in the as-deposited condition by
qualified personnel.
Repairs of minor defects in titanium welds, such as tungsten inclusions or porosity, can be accomplished in a straight-
forward manner. The inclusions and porosity can be removed by machining or grinding and then appropriately cleaned
prior to filling the hole or depression with the appropriate filler metal. When a line of pores is indicated by radiography,
the weld can be remelted, typically up to a maximum of three times, subject to a satisfactory color inspection after each
pass.
NOTE: Not all customer specifications may allow for this rework without prior approval. This remelt will require a
higher current than that used on the original weld, but can potentially remove all or most of the aligned porosity. Should
this fail, or if the defect is of a more serious nature, the entire weld bead must be removed by machining or grinding and
then rewelded. These types of repairs are costly and time consuming, and consideration should be given to patching, if
permitted, or complete replacement of the component.
13.2 Repairs Following Service Failures. Field repairs represent the most difficult situation under which to produce
welds of satisfactory quality. The onsite equipment is usually dirty and the repair must often be done under less than
ideal conditions, including high winds, high humidity, or extremes in temperature. Significantly more time will be
required in preparation than actual welding. The equipment must be cleaned to eliminate any source of water or dirt.
After removal of the defective material by cutting or grinding, the entire work area should be cleaned and then enclosed
to eliminate drafts, dirt, water, etc. This can be accomplished by plastic sheets draped over the work area or attached to
temporary supports. Preweld cleaning follows the procedures outlined earlier.
Repairs that must be made to partial penetration welds, or in areas where there are crevices, present a special problem.
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This is due to the difficulty of removing the contaminants in crevices or the faying surfaces of partial-penetration welds.
Preheating to dry the restricted area and possibly volatize potential contaminants may minimize this problem during a
repair. Welding over poorly cleaned areas will result in contamination, which will result in a poor weld and possibly pre-
mature failure and a repeat of the costly repair.
13.3 Porosity. It is generally agreed that the primary source of porosity is hydrogen. The use of mild preheat, proper
cleaning procedures (base metal and wire), air conditioning, etc. will help reduce this problem.
Porosity is sometimes encountered on square butt joints where insufficient time is allowed for gas to escape while the
weld is in the molten state. Changing to a more stringent cleaning procedure, use of a low-temperature preheat, and
changing parameters to increase the time that the weld puddle is in the molten state should help eliminate this condition.
13.4 Filler Metals for Welding Titanium Alloys Metal Joints. If welding of dissimilar titanium alloys (i.e., different
strength levels) to each other is required, then the customer should be consulted beforehand.
26
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Annex A (Informative)
Requirements of Base Metals
This annex is not part of AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014, Guide for the Fusion Welding of
Table A.1a
Chemical Composition Requirements of Base Metals (from ASTM B265)
ASTM UNS
Grade Number N C H Fe O Al V Other
1 R50250 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 — — —
2 R50400 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — —
3 R50550 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.35 — — —
4 R50700 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.50 0.40 — — —
5 R56400 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.40 0.20 5.5–6.75 3.5–4.5 —
6 R54520 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.50 0.20 4.0–6.0 — 2.0–3.0 Sn
7 R52400 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.12–0.25 Pd
9 R56320 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.25 0.15 2.5–3.5 2.0–30 —
11 R52250 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 — — 0.12–0.25 Pd
12 R53400 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.2–0.4 Mo

0.6–0.9 Ni
13 R53413 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.10 — — 0.04–0.06 Ru

0.4–0.6 Ni
14 R53414 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.15 — — 0.04–0.06 Ru

0.4–0.6 Ni
15 R53415 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.04–0.06 Ru

0.4–0.6 Ni
16 R52252 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.04–0.08 Pd
17 R52402 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 — — 0.04–0.08 Pd
18 R56322 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.25 0.15 2.5–3.5 2.0–3.0 0.04–0.08 Pd
19 R58640 0.03 0.05 0.020 0.30 0.12 3.0–4.0 7.5–8.5 3.5–4.5 Mo

--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5.5–6.5 Cr
3.5–4.5 Zr
(Continued)
27
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table A.1a (Continued)

Chemical Composition Requirements of Base Metals (from ASTM B265)
ASTM UNS
Grade Number N C H Fe O Al V Other
20 R58645 0.03 0.05 0.020 0.30 0.12 3.0–4.0 7.5–8.5 0.04–0.08 Pd

3.5–4.5 Mo
5.5–6.5 Cr
3.5–4.5 Zr
21 R58210 0.03 0.05 0.015 0.40 0.17 2.5–3.5 — 14.0–16.0 Mo

2.2–3.2 Nb
0.15–0.25 Si
23 R56407 0.03 0.08 0.0125 0.25 0.13 5.5–6.5 3.5–4.5 —
24 R56405 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.40 0.20 5.5–6.75 3.5–4.5 0.04–0.08 Pd
25 R56403 0.05 0.08 0.0125 0.40 0.20 5.5–6.75 3.5–4.5 0.04–0.08 Pd

0.3–0.8 Ni
26 R52404 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.08–0.14 Ru
27 R52254 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 — — 0.08–0.14 Ru
28 R56323 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.25 0.15 2.5–3.5 2.0–3.0 0.08–0.14 Ru
29 R56404 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.25 0.13 5.5–6.5 3.5–4.5 0.08–0.14 Ru
30 R53530 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.04–0.08 Pd

0.20–0.80 Co
31 R53532 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.35 — — 0.04–0.08 Pd

0.20–0.80 Co
32 R55111 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.25 0.11 4.5–5.5 0.6–1.4 0.6–1.4 Sn

0.6–1.2 Mo
0.6–1.4 Zr
0.06–0.14 Si
33 R53442 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.02–0.04 Ru

0.01–0.02 Pd
0.1–0.2 Cr
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.35–0.55 Ni
34 R53445 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.35 — — 0.02–0.04 Ru

0.01–0.02 Pd
0.1–0.2 Cr
0.35–0.55 Ni
35 R56340 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.20–0.80 0.25 4.0–5.0 1.1–2.1 1.5–2.5 Mo

0.20–0.40Si
36 R58450 0.03 0.04 0.0035 0.30 0.16 — — 42.0–47.0Nb
38 R54250 0.03 0.08 0.015 1.2–1.8 0.20–0.30 3.5–4.5 2.0–3.0 —

a Single values shown are maximum values unless otherwise specified.
28
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table A.2
Tensile Strength Requirements of Base Metals
Common
ASTM Grade Industry Names YS min. YS max. TS min. Elongation
1 CP1 25 45 35 24
2 CP2 40 65 50 20
3 CP3 55 80 65 18
4 CP4 70 95 80 15
5 Ti 6-4 120 — 130 10
6 — 115 — 120 10
7 Ti-Pd 40 65 50 20
9 Ti 3-2.5 70 — 90 15
11 Ti-Pd 25 45 35 24
12 Ti Grade 12 50 — 70 18
13 — 25 — 40 24
14 — 40 — 60 20
15 Ti Grade 15 55 — 70 18
16 Ti-Pd-Ru 40 65 50 20
17 Ti-Pd 25 45 35 24
18 Ti 3-2.5 + Pd 70 — 90 15
19 — 110 115 — 15
20 — 110 115 — 15
21 Beta 21S 110 115 — 15
23 Ti 6-4 ELI 110 — 120 10
24 Ti 6-4 + Pd 120 — 130 10
25 — 120 — 130 10
26 Ti-2 + Ru 40 65 50 20
27 Ti-1+ Ru 25 45 35 24
28 Ti 3-2.5 + Ru 70 — 90 15
29 Ti 6-4 + Ru 110 — 120 10
30 — 40 65 50 20
31 Ti Grade 31 55 80 65 18
32 Ti-5111 85 — 100 10
33 Ti Grade 33 40 — 50 20
34 Ti Grade 34 55 — 65 18
35 Ti Grade 35 120 — 130 5
36 Ti 45Nb 65 95 60 10
38 Ti4-2.5 115 — 130 10
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
29
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014

--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
30
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Annex B (Informative)
Requirements of Filler Metals
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
31
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table B.1
Symbols for Chemical Composition and Composition Requirements

Alloy
Symbols Chemical Composition Requirements, % (by mass)a, b, c, d
AWS
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
ASTM A5.16/A5.16M UNS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS

Numerical Grade Classification Numberf Chemical C O N H Fe Al V Pd Ru Ni Mo Other
Ti 0100 1 ERTi-1 R50100 Ti99,8 0.03 0.03 to 0.012 0.005 0.08 — — — — — — —

0.10
Ti 0120 2 ERTi-2 R50120 Ti99,6 0.03 0.08 to 0.015 0.008 0.12 — — — — — — —

0.16
Ti 0125 3 ERTi-3 R50125 Ti99,5 0.03 0.13 to 0.02 0.008 0.16 — — — — — — —

0.20
Ti 0130 4 ERTi-4 R50130 Ti99,3 0.03 0.18 to 0.025 0.008 0.25 — — — — — — —

0.32
Ti 2251 11 ERTi-11 R52251 TiPd0,2 0.03 0.03 to 0.012 0.005 0.08 — — 0.12 to — — — —
0.10 0.25
32
Ti 2253 17 ERTi-17 R52253 TiPd0,06 0.03 0.03 to 0.012 0.005 0.08 — — 0.04 to — — — —
0.10 0.08
Ti 2255 27 ERTi-27 R52255 TiRu0,1 0.03 0.03 to 0.012 0.005 0.08 — — — 0.08 to — — —
0.10 0.14
Ti 2401 7 ERTi-7 R52401 TiPd0,2A 0.03 0.08 to 0.015 0.008 0.12 — — 0.12 to — — — —
0.16 0.25
Not for Resale, 02/04/2015 00:02:24 MST

Ti 2403 16 ERTi-16 R52403 TiPd0,06A 0.03 0.08 to 0.015 0.008 0.12 — — 0.04 to — — — —
0.16 0.08
Ti 2405 26 ERTi-26 R52405 TiRu0,1A 0.03 0.08 to 0.015 0.008 0.12 — — — 0.08 to — — —
0.16 0.14
Ti 3401 12 ERTi-12 R53401 TiNi0,7Mo0,3 0.03 0.08 to 0.015 0.008 0.15 — — — — 0.6 to 0.2 to —
0.16 0.9 0.4
Ti 3416 15 ERTi-15A R53416 TiRu0,05Ni0,5 0.03 0.13 to 0.02 0.008 0.16 — — — 0.04 to 0.4 to — —
0.20 0.06 0.6
Ti 3423 13 ERTi-13 R53423 TiNi0,5 0.03 0.03 to 0.012 0.005 0.08 — — — 0.04 to 0.4 to — —
0.10 0.06 0.6
(Continued)
Table B.1 (Continued)


Alloy
AWS

Ti 3424 14 ERTi-14 R53424 TiNi0,5A 0.03 0.08 to 0.015 0.008 0.12 — — — 0.04 to 0.4 to — —
0.16 0.06 0.6
Ti 3443 33 ERTi-33 R53443 TiNi0,45Cr0,15 0.03 0.08 to 0.015 0.008 0.12 — — 0.01 to 0.02 to 0.35 to — Cr: 0.1 to 0.2
0.16 0.02 0.04 0.55
Ti 3444 34 ERTi-34 R53444 TiNi0,45Cr0,15A 0.03 0.13 to 0.02 0.008 0.16 — — 0.01 to 0.02 to 0.35 to — Cr: 0.1 to 0.2
0.20 0.02 0.04 0.55
Ti 3531 30 ERTi-30 R53531 TiCo0,5 0.03 0.08 to 0.015 0.008 0.12 — — 0.04 to — — — Co: 0.20 to 0.80
0.16 0.08
Ti 3533 31 ERTi-31 R53533 TiCo0,5A 0.03 0.13 to 0.02 0.008 0.16 — — 0.04 to — — — Co: 0.20 to 0.80
0.20 0.08
33
Ti 4251 38 ERTi-38 R54251 TiAl4V2Fe 0.05 0.20 to 0.02 0.010 1.2 to 3.5 to 2.0 to — — — — —
0.27 1.8 4.5 3.0 Sn: 0.6 to 1.4
Ti 5112 32 ERTi-32 R55112 TiAl5V1SnMo1Zr11 0.03 0.05 to 0.012 0.008 0.20 4.5 to 0.6 to — — — 0.6 to Zr: 0.6 to 1.4
0.10 5.5 1.4 1.2 Si: 0.06 to 0.14
Ti 6321 9 ERTi-9e R65321 TiAl3V2,5A 0.03 0.06 to 0.012 0.005 0.20 2.5 to 2.0 to — — —
0.12 3.5 3.0

Ti 6324 28 ERTi-28 R56324 TiAl3V2,5Ru 0.03 0.06 to 0.012 0.005 0.20 2.5 to 2.0 to — 0.08 to — — —
0.12 3.5 3.0 0.14
Ti 6326 18 ERTi-18 R56326 TiAl3V2,5Pd 0.03 0.06 to 0.012 0.005 0.20 2.5 to 2.0 to 0.04 to — — — —
0.12 3.5 3.0 0.08
Ti 6402 5 ERTi-5 R56400 TiAl6V4B 0.05 0.12 to 0.030 0.015 0.22 5.50 to 3.50 to — — — — —
0.20 6.75 4.50
Ti 6408 23 ERTi-23 R56408 TiAl6V4A 0.03 0.03 to 0.012 0.005 0.20 5.5 to 3.5 to — — — — —
0.11 6.5 4.5
Ti 6413 25 ERTi-25 R56413 TiAl6V4Ni0,5Pd 0.05 0.12 to 0.030 0.015 0.22 5.5 to 3.5 to 0.04 to — 0.3 to — —
0.20 6.7 4.5 0.08 0.8
(Continued)
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--`,,`,,```,``,,,,,`,`,,,``,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Table B.1 (Continued)
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014

Alloy
AWS
Ti 6414 29 ERTi-29 R56414 TiAl6V4Ru 0.03 0.03 to 0.012 0.005 0.20 5.5 to 3.5 to — 0.08 to — — —
0.11 6.5 4.5 0.14
Ti 6415 24 ERTi-24 R56415 TiAl6V4Pd 0.05 0.12 to 0.030 0.015 0.22 5.5 to 3.5 to 0.04 to — — — —
0.20 6.7 4.5 0.08
Ti 8211 21 ERTi-21 R58211 TiMo15Al3Nb3 0.03 0.10 to 0.012 0.005 0.20 to 2.5 to — — — — 14.0 to Nb: 2.2 to 3.2
0.15 0.40 3.5 16.0 Si: 0.15 to 0.25
34
Ti 8451 36 ERTi-36 R58451 TiNb45 0.03 0.06 to 0.02 0.0035 0.03 — — — — — — Nb: 42.0 to 47.0
0.12
Ti 8641 19 ERTi-19 R58641 TiV8Cr6Mo4Zr4Al3 0.03 0.06 to 0.015 0.015 0.20 3.0 to 7.5 to — — — 3.5 to Cr: 5.5 to 6.5
0.10 4.0 8.5 4.5 Zr: 3.5 to 4.5
Ti 8646 20 ERTi-20 R58646 TiV8Cr6Mo4Zr4Al3Pd 0.03 0.06 to 0.015 0.015 0.20 3.0 to 7.5 to 0.04 to — — 3.5 to Cr: 5.5 to 6.5
0.10 4.0 8.5 0.08 4.5 Zr: 3.5 to 4.5
a Single values are maxima, unless otherwise noted.

b The remainder of the alloy is titanium.
c Analysis of Fe and the interstitial elements C, O, H, and N shall be conducted on samples of rod/wire taken after the rod/wire has been reduced to its final diameter and all processing operations have been
completed. Analysis of the other elements may be conducted on these same samples or it may have been conducted on samples taken from the ingot or the rod stock from which the rod/wire is made. In
case of dispute, samples from the finished rod/wire shall be the referee method.
d Any element intentionally added (O, Fe, N, and C) shall be measured and reported. Residual elements, total, shall not exceed 0.20%, with no single element exceeding 0.05%, except for yttrium, which
shall not exceed 0.005%. Residual elements need not be reported unless specifically required by the purchaser. A residual element is any element present in the metal in small quantities that is inherent in
the sponge or scrap additions, but not intentionally added. In titanium these elements include, among others, aluminum, vanadium, tin, chromium, molybdenum, niobium, zirconium, hafnium, bismuth, ru-
thenium, palladium, yttrium, copper, silicon, and cobalt.
e Formerly ERTi-9 ELI.
f SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Annex C (Informative)
Informative References
AMS-4902, Titanium Sheet, Strip and Plate Commercially Pure Annealed 40 ksi [276 MPa] Yield Strength, SAE International.
AMS-4905, Titanium Alloy, Damage-Tolerant Grade Plate 6Al-4V Beta Annealed, SAE International.
AMS-4911, Titanium Sheet, Strip and Plate 6Al-4V Annealed, SAE International.
AMS-49 18, Titanium Alloy Sheet, Strip and Plate 6Al6V-2Sn Annealed, SAE International.
AMS-4930, Titanium Alloy Bars, Wire, Forgings and Rings 6Al-4V, Extra Low Interstitial, Annealed, SAE International.
AMS-4931, Titanium Alloy Bars, Wire, Forgings and Rings 6Al-4V, Extra Low Interstitial, Duplex Annealed, Fracture
Toughness, SAE International.
AMS-4934, Titanium Alloy, Extrusions and Flash Welded Rings 6Al-4V Solution Heat Treated and Aged, SAE International.
AMS-4935, Titanium Alloy, Extrusions and Flash Welded Rings 6Al-4V Annealed Beta Processed, SAE International.
AMS-4936, Titanium Alloy, Extrusions and Flash Welded Rings 6Al-6V-2Sn Beta Extruded Plus Annealed, Heat Treat-
able, SAE International.
AMS-4942, Titanium Tubing, Seamless Annealed, 40 ksi [276 MPa] Yield Strength, SAE International.
AMS-4965, Titanium Alloy Bars, Wire, Forgings and Rings 6Al-4V Solution Heat Treated and Aged, SAE International.
AMS-4967, Titanium Alloy Bars, Wire, Forgings and Rings 6Al-4V Annealed, Heat Treatable, SAE International.
AMS-4971, Titanium Alloy Bars, Wire, Forgings and Rings 6Al-6V-2Sn Annealed, Heat Treatable, SAE International.
AMS-4978, Titanium Alloy Bars, Wire, Forgings and Rings 6Al-6V-2Sn Annealed, SAE International.
AMS-4979, Titanium Alloy Bars, Wire, Forgings and Rings 6Al-6V-2Sn Solution Heat Treated and Precipitation Heat
Treated, SAE International.
ASME BPVC-IX, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), Section IX: Welding and Brazing Qualifications,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
ASTM B265/ASME SB-265, Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Strip, Sheet and Plate, American Society for
Testing and Materials.
ASTM B348/ASME SB-348, Specification Titanium and Titanium Alloy Bars and Billets, American Society for Testing
and Materials.
ASTM B363/ASME SB-363, Specification for Seamless and Welded Unalloyed Titanium and Titanium Alloy Welded
Fittings, American Society for Testing and Materials.
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ASTM B367/ASME SB-367, Specification Titanium and Titanium Alloy Castings, American Society for Testing and
Materials.
ASTM B381/ASME 381, Specification Titanium and Titanium Alloy Forgings, American Society for Testing and Materials.
35
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
ASTM B861/ASME SB-861, Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Seamless Pipe, American Society for Testing
and Materials.
ASTM B862/ASME SB-862, Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Welded Pipe, American Society for Testing
and Materials.
AWS B2.1/B2.1M, Specification for Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification, American Welding Society.
AWS C5.1-73, Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Welding, American Welding Society.
BS 2TA11, Specification for Sheet of Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium Alloy, British Standards Institution.
BS 2TA12, Specification for Forging Stock of Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium Alloy, British Standards Institution.
BS 2TA13, Specification for Forgings of Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium Alloy, British Standards Institution.
BS TA56, Specification for Plate of Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium Alloy, British Standards Institution.
BS TA59, Specification for Sheet and Strip of Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium Alloy, British Standards Institution.
Edison Welding Institute, Titanium Weld Color Inspection Guide, Columbus: Edison Welding Institute.
MIL-A-46077, Armor Plate, Titanium Alloy, Weldable, United States Military Standard.
MIL-F-83142, Forging, Titanium Alloys, Premium Quality, United States Military Standard.
MIL-T-9046, Titanium and Titanium Alloy Sheet, Strip and Plate, United States Military Standard.
MIL-T-9047, Titanium and Titanium Alloy Bars (Rolled or Forged) and Reforging Stock, United States Military Standard.
MIL-T-81915, Titanium and Titanium Castings, Investment, United States Military Standard.
Oates, W. R. and A. M. Saitta, eds., 1998, Welding Handbook, Vol. 4, 8th ed., Miami, Florida: American Welding Society.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA), Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 Labor, Chapter XVII, Part
1901.1 to 1910.1450, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
S9074-AQ-GIB-010/248, Requirements for Welding and Brazing Procedure and Performance Qualifications, Naval Sea
Systems Command.
Talkington, J., D. Harwig, H. Castner, and G. Mitchell, 2000, “Development of Titanium Weld Color Inspection Tools,”
Welding Journal 79(3): 35–38, Miami, Florida: American Welding Society.
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36
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Annex D (Informative)
Classifications for Titanium and Titanium Alloys
This annex is not part of AWS G2.4/G2.4M: 2014, Guide for the Fusion Welding of
Base material and filler material groupings generally follow standards like NAVSEA S9074-AQ-GIB-010/248, which
provide the groupings shown in Table D.1.
NOTE: The guidelines for compatible filler materials are provided in Table 3.
Titanium materials with similar chemical composition and mechanical properties may be added to the S or A groups that
are defined in Tables D.2–D.8.
Table D.1
Guidelines for Compatible Filler Materials
Base Material Group Filler Material Group
S-51 A-51B
S-52 A-51B
S-53 A-53B
S-54 A-53B
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37
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table D.2
Base Material Grouping S-51
Specification No. Title
MIL-T-9046 CP-1 (sheet, strip, and plate)
CP-2 (sheet, strip, and plate)
MIL-T-9047 CP-70 (bars and reforging stock)
MIL-T-81566 CP-1 (extruded bars and shapes)
CP-2 (extruded bars and shapes)
ASTM B265/ASME SB-265 Grade 1 (sheet, strip, and plate), UNS R50400
Grade 2 (sheet, strip, and plate)
ASTM B338/ASME SB-338 Grade 1 (tubing)
Grade 2 (tubing)
Grade 7 (tubing)
ASTM B348/ASME SB-348 Grade 1 (bars and billets)
Grade 2 (bars and billets)
Grade 7 (bars and billets)
ASTM B363/ASME SB-363 WPT 1 (fittings)
WPT 2 (fittings)
WPT 7 (fittings)
ASTM B381/ASME SB-381 Grade F-1 (forgings)
Grade F-2 (forgings)
AMS-4902 Commercially pure annealed 40 ksi [276 MPa] yield strength (sheet, strip, and plate)
AMS-4941 Annealed, 40 ksi [276 MPa] yield strength (welded tubing)
AMS-4942 Annealed, 40 ksi [276 MPa] yield strength (seamless tubing)
Table D.3
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MIL-T-9046 CP-1 (sheet, strip, and plate)
CP-2 (sheet, strip, and plate)
MIL-T-81566 CP-1 (extruded bars and shapes)
CP-2 (extruded bars and shapes)
ASTM B265/ASME SB-265 Grade 3 (sheet, strip, and plate)
ASTM B338/ASME SB-338 Grade 3 (tubing)
Grade 12 (tubing)
ASTM B363/ASME SB-363 WPT 3 (fitting)
ASTM B367/ASME SB-367 Grade C-2 (castings)
Grade C-3 (castings)
ASTM B381/ASME SB-381 Grade F-3 (forgings)
Grade F-12 (forgings)
ASTM B861/ASME SB-861 Grade 3 (seamless pipe)
Grade 12 (seamless pipe)
ASTM B862/ASME SB-862 Grade 3 (welded pipe)
Grade 12 (welded pipe)
38
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table D.4
MIL-A-46077 6Al-4V ELI
MIL-F-83142 Composition 6—6Al-4V

Composition 7—6Al-4V ELI
MIL-T-9046 AB-1 (sheet, strip, and plate)

AB-2 (sheet, strip, and plate)
MIL-T-9047 6Al-4V (bars and forgings), UNS R56400

6Al-4V ELI (bars and forgings), UNS R56401
MIL-T-81566 AB-1 (extruded bars and shapes)

AB-2 (extruded bars and shapes)
MIL-T-81915 6Al-4V (investment casting)
ASTM B265/ASME SB-265 Grade 5 (sheet, strip, and plate), UNS R56400
ASTM B348/ASME SB-348 Grade 5 (bars and billets), UNS R56400
ASTM B367/ASME SB-367 Grade C-5 (castings)
ASTM B381/ASME SB-381 Grade F-5 (forgings), UNS R56400
AMS-4905 6Al-4V beta annealed (plate), UNS R56400
AMS-4911 6Al-4V annealed (sheet, strip, and plate), UNS R56400
AMS-4920 6Al-4V alpha-beta or beta (forgings), UNS R56400
AMS-4930 6Al-4V ELI annealed (bars, wire, forgings, and rings)
AMS-4931 6Al-4V ELI duplex annealed, fracture toughness (bars, wire, forgings, and rings)
AMS-4934 6Al-4V solution heat treated and aged (rings), UNS R56400
AMS-4935 6Al-4V annealed beta (extrusions and flash welded rings)
AMS-4965 6Al-4V solution heat treated (bars, wire, forgings, and rings), UNS R56400
AMS-4967 6Al-4V annealed, heat treatable (bars, wire, forgings, and rings), UNS R56400
AMS-4993 6Al-4V sintered powder compacts, UNS R56400
BS 2TA11 Titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy, tensile strength 131 ksi to 168 ksi [900 MPa to 1160 MPa]
(bars and sections) limiting ruling section 6 in [150 mm]
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(forging stock) limiting ruling section 6 in [150 mm]
(forgings) limiting ruling section 6 in [150 mm]
BS TA56 Titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy, tensile strength 130 ksi to 167 ksi [895 MPa to 1150 MPa]
(forgings) maximum thickness 4 in [100 mm]
BS TA59 Titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy, tensile strength 133 ksi to 171 ksi [920 MPa to 1180 MPa]
(sheet and strip)
39
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Table D.5
Base Material Grouping S-54 (Suggested New S Cat.)
MIL-T- 9046 AB-3 (sheet, strip, and plate)
MIL-T- 9047 6Al-6V-2Sn (bars and billets), UNS R56620
MIL-T-81556 AB-3 (extruded bars and shapes)
MIL-F-83142 Composition 8-6Al-6V-2Sn (forgings)
AMS-4918 6Al-6V-2Sn annealed (sheet, strip, and plate)
AMS-4936 6Al-6V-2Sn beta extruded plus annealed, heat treatable (extrusions and flash welded rings), UNS R56620
AMS-4971 6Al-6V-2Sn annealed, heat treatable (bars, wire, forgings, and rings)
AMS-4978 6Al-6V-2Sn annealed (bars, wire, forgings, and rings), UNS R56620
AMS-4979 6Al-6V-2Sn solution and precipitation heat treated (bars, wire, forgings, and rings), UNS R56620
Table D.6
Filler Material Grouping A-51B
AWS A5.16 ERTi-1, UNS R50100
ERTi-2, UNS R50120
ERTi-7, UNS R52401
ERTi-11, UNS R52251
ERTi-16, UNS R52403
ERTi-17, UNS R52253
ERTi-26, UNS R52405
ERTi-27, UNS R52255
Table D.7
ERTi-12, UNS R53401
Table D.8
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40
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
Annex E (Informative)
Guidelines for the Preparation of Technical Inquiries
E1. Introduction
The American Welding Society (AWS) Board of Directors has adopted a policy whereby all official interpretations of
AWS standards are handled in a formal manner. Under this policy, all interpretations are made by the committee that is
responsible for the standard. Official communication concerning an interpretation is directed through the AWS staff
member who works with that committee. The policy requires that all requests for an interpretation be submitted in writ-
ing. Such requests will be handled as expeditiously as possible, but due to the complexity of the work and the procedures
that must be followed, some interpretations may require considerable time.
E.2 Procedure
All inquiries shall be directed to:
Managing Director
Technical Services Division
American Welding Society
8669 NW 36 St, # 130,
Miami, FL 33166
All inquiries shall contain the name, address, and affiliation of the inquirer, and they shall provide enough information
for the committee to understand the point of concern in the inquiry. When the point is not clearly defined, the inquiry
will be returned for clarification. For efficient handling, all inquiries should be typewritten and in the format specified
below.
E2.1 Scope. Each inquiry shall address one single provision of the standard unless the point of the inquiry involves two
or more interrelated provisions. The provision(s) shall be identified in the scope of the inquiry along with the edition of
the standard that contains the provision(s) the inquirer is addressing.
E2.2 Purpose of the Inquiry. The purpose of the inquiry shall be stated in this portion of the inquiry. The purpose can
be to obtain an interpretation of a standard’s requirement or to request the revision of a particular provision in the stan-
dard.
E2.3 Content of the Inquiry. The inquiry should be concise, yet complete, to enable the committee to understand the
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point of the inquiry. Sketches should be used whenever appropriate, and all paragraphs, figures, and tables (or annex)
that bear on the inquiry shall be cited. If the point of the inquiry is to obtain a revision of the standard, the inquiry shall
provide technical justification for that revision.
E2.4 Proposed Reply. The inquirer should, as a proposed reply, state an interpretation of the provision that is the point
of the inquiry or provide the wording for a proposed revision, if this is what the inquirer seeks.
41
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
E3. Interpretation of Provisions of the Standard

Interpretations of provisions of the standard are made by the relevant AWS technical committee. The secretary of the
committee refers all inquiries to the chair of the particular subcommittee that has jurisdiction over the portion of the stan-
dard addressed by the inquiry. The subcommittee reviews the inquiry and the proposed reply to determine what the
response to the inquiry should be. Following the subcommittee’s development of the response, the inquiry and the
response are presented to the entire committee for review and approval. Upon approval by the committee, the interpreta-
tion is an official interpretation of the Society, and the secretary transmits the response to the inquirer and to the Welding
Journal for publication.
E4. Publication of Interpretations

All official interpretations will appear in the Welding Journal and will be posted on the AWS web site.
E5. Telephone Inquiries

Telephone inquiries to AWS Headquarters concerning AWS standards should be limited to questions of a general nature
or to matters directly related to the use of the standard. The AWS Board of Directors’ policy requires that all AWS staff
members respond to a telephone request for an official interpretation of any AWS standard with the information that
such an interpretation can
be obtained only through a written request. Headquarters staff cannot provide consulting services. However, the staff can
refer a caller to any of those consultants whose names are on file at AWS Headquarters.
E6. AWS Technical Committees

The activities of AWS technical committees regarding interpretations are limited strictly to the interpretation of provi-
sions of standards prepared by the committees or to consideration of revisions to existing provisions on the basis of new
data or technology. Neither AWS staff nor the committees are in a position to offer interpretive or consulting services on
(1) specific engineering problems, (2) requirements of standards applied to fabrications outside the scope of the docu-
ment, or (3) points not specifically covered by the standard. In such cases, the inquirer should seek assistance from a
competent engineer experienced in the particular field of interest.
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42
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
List of AWS Documents on Joining Metals and Alloys
Designation Title
G2.1M/G2.1 Guide for the Joining of Wrought Nickel-Based Alloys
G2.3M/G2.3 Guide for the Joining of Wrought Solid Solution Austenitic Stainless Steels
G2.4/G2.4M Guide for the Fusion Welding of Titanium and Titanium Alloys
G2.5/G2.5M Guide for the Fusion Welding of Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys
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43
AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2014
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44
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Guide for the

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Statement on the Use of American Welding Society Standards

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AWS G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys

Advisors to the G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys

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1. General Requirements .........................................................................................................................................1

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Guide for the Fusion Welding of

3. Terms and Definitions

Copyright American Welding Society

Figure 1—Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure

Figure 2—Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Structure

Figure 3—Interstitial Elements

Figure 4—Substitutional Elements

Photograph courtesy of MC Consulting

Figure 5—Titanium Surface Oxide Formed by Heating in Air

5. Arc Welding Processes

Photograph courtesy of CK Worldwide, Incorporated

Figure 6—Large-Diameter Gas Cup and Lens for Titanium Welding

Figure 7—Tungsten Electrode Tip Shape

Copyright American Welding Society

Photograph courtesy of CK Worldwide, Incorporated

Figure 8—Collapsible Plastic Chamber Purged with Argon

Figure 9 —Typical Trailing Shield Design

Photograph courtesy of San Diego Welding and Forming, Inc.

Figure 10—Examples of Backup Shields for Manual GTAW

10. Welding Technique

11. In-Process Weld Quality Tests

SILVER LIGHT STRAW DARK STRAW PURPLE

BLUE YELLOW GREY WHITE BRUSHED

Figure 11—Color Sequence in Titanium

Note: Percentages indicate air in the argon torch gas.

Figure 12—Contamination of Tungsten Electrode from Air Entrainment

12. Nondestructive Test

13. Repair of Defects

1 R50250 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 — — —

2 R50400 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — —

3 R50550 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.35 — — —

4 R50700 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.50 0.40 — — —

5 R56400 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.40 0.20 5.5–6.75 3.5–4.5 —

6 R54520 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.50 0.20 4.0–6.0 — 2.0–3.0 Sn

7 R52400 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.12–0.25 Pd

9 R56320 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.25 0.15 2.5–3.5 2.0–30 —

11 R52250 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 — — 0.12–0.25 Pd

12 R53400 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.2–0.4 Mo

13 R53413 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.10 — — 0.04–0.06 Ru

14 R53414 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.15 — — 0.04–0.06 Ru

15 R53415 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.04–0.06 Ru

16 R52252 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 — — 0.04–0.08 Pd

17 R52402 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 — — 0.04–0.08 Pd

18 R56322 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.25 0.15 2.5–3.5 2.0–3.0 0.04–0.08 Pd

19 R58640 0.03 0.05 0.020 0.30 0.12 3.0–4.0 7.5–8.5 3.5–4.5 Mo

Table A.1a (Continued)

20 R58645 0.03 0.05 0.020 0.30 0.12 3.0–4.0 7.5–8.5 0.04–0.08 Pd

21 R58210 0.03 0.05 0.015 0.40 0.17 2.5–3.5 — 14.0–16.0 Mo

23 R56407 0.03 0.08 0.0125 0.25 0.13 5.5–6.5 3.5–4.5 —