Process Control Fundamentals

EI 8553- Process Control
UNIT-I
Define system.
A collection of objects or equipment arranged in a predetermined procedure to perform one
or more operation is called as system
Define process
It is a Physical or chemical change of matter or conversion of energy; (e.g., change in
pressure, temperature, speed, electrical potential,) carried out in a system as per a procedure
to achieve a predetermined result.
Define process control
It is the regulation or manipulation of variables influencing the conduct of a process in such
a way as to obtain a product of desired quality and quantity in an efficient manner
Why we need process control
 To ensure safety in the work environment.
 Operability: To ensure that particular flows and holdup are maintained at chosen values
within operating ranges.
 To control product quality, process energy consumption etc. Production rate
 To have pollution control and Environmental regulations
List the steps in process control
a)Measurement-means of sensor b) Comparison-means of comparator
c)Computation-means of controller d) Correction-means of final control element
Define mathematical modeling and mathematical model
A Procedure by which the physical system or a process is represented in terms of
mathematical equation is called as modeling of process
The mathematical equations that represent the process is called as mathematical model
Why you need mathematical model of a system
To analyse the system behavior for various test signals this is difficult in the real system.
To test and study the system characteristics for various environmental conditions this may
lead to hazardous condition if done with real time system.
List the various methods of modeling a system
A physical system can be represented in terms of
(i) Representation in differential equation
(ii)Representation in Laplace transformation as transfer functions
(iii) Representation as state space equation
List the assumptions done while modeling a thermal system
1. The system is thermally shielded against thermal losses such as conduction,
convection and radiation.
2. The contents of the tank are stirred well for uniform distribution of heat.
3. There is no heat generated or absorbed by the system on its own.
4. The temperature of tank content and outflow mass are considered to be same.
Write any two characteristics of first order process modeling
The first order process are characterized by :
1. Their capacity to store material, energy, or momentum
2. The resistance associated with the flow of mass, energy, or momentum in reaching the
capacity.
Thus the dynamic response of tanks that have the capacity to store liquids or gases can be
modeled as first order. The resistance is associated with pumps , valves, weirs and pipes
which are attached to the inflowing or outflowing liquids or gases.
What is meant by non-self regulation ?
Some process ( especially pure capacity process) may not have the tendency to adopt a
specific value of the controlled variable for nominal load with no control operation. Such a
process is known as ‘non-self-regulation’. If any small change in the flow rate of the inlet
stream will make the tank flood or drain in the case of a pure capacity process (example : a
tank with constant displacement pump at the outlet )
Define non-interacting system and give an example.
In the system shown below, tank1 feeds tank2 and thus its affects the dynamic behaviour of
tank2, whereas the reverse ( ie tank2 does not affect the dynamic behaviour of tank1 ) is not
true. Such system is characteristics of non-interacting capacities or non-interacting first
order systems in series.
Explain the term degree of freedom of a process

Mathematically , the number of degrees of freedom of a process is defined as
F =V – E
Where F= number of degree of freedom of a process
V = number of variables that describe the process
E = number of defining equations of the system or number of
independent
relationships that exist among the various variables
Discuss about Degrees of freedom
Degrees of freedom of a processing system are the independent variables that must be
specified in order to define the process completely.
Mathematically;
f =V −E
i.e., f =( number of variables )−(number of equations)

Case-I: If f = 0 the system have equal number of system equations and variables. The case
is said to be exactly specified and solution of E equations yields unique values for the V
variables
Case-II: If f > 0 the system have more variables than equations. Now the process is said to
be underspecified by f equations.
Case-III: If f < 0 the system have more equations than variables. Now the process is said to
be over specified by f equations and there will be no solution o the E equation.
Give the significance of degrees of freedom.
The desired control of process can be achieved only when all the degrees of freedom have
been specified.
Define interacting system and give an example.

In the system shown below, tank1 affects the dynamic behaviour of tank2, and vice versa,
because the flow rate Fl depends on the difference between liquid levels h 1 and h2. The
system represents interacting capacities or interacting first order systems in series.
A tank operating at 3 m head, 5 lpm outflow through a valve and the tank has a cross
sectional area of 2 square meter . Calculate the time constant?
The time constant τp = Resistance to flow X storage capacity
= h / F X storage capacity = 3m / 5 lpm X 2 m2
= 3 m / (0.005 m3 / min) X 2 m2 = 1200 min
The flow rate through an exist pipe Fo in m3 / sec is given by the relation Fo = 0.6 √h
where 'h' is the tank level in meter . Find the time constant ιp for the steady state levels
of 2 m and 5 m. Cross sectional area of the tank A is 2 m2 .
The time constant τp = 2A √hs / β for the relation Fo = β√h
For hs = 2 m τp = 2 x 2 x √2 / 0.6 = 9.43 sec
For hs = 5 m τp = 2 x 2 x √5 / 0.6 = 14.9 sec
Give the transfer function of two tank interacting liquid level system or parallel two
tank liquid level system
Give the transfer function of two tank non interacting liquid level system or series two
tank liquid level system
What do you meant by self regulating system and give one example
A system when disturbed from its normal working condition by some means and then attains
a steady state condition on its own in open loop condition is called as self regulating system.
Eg: simple liquid level system.
Define non self regulating system and give one example
A system when disturbed from its normal working condition by some means and then does
not attains a steady state condition on its own in open loop condition is called as non self
regulating system. Eg: liquid level system with constant discharge
Define transfer function of a system
It is the Laplace transformation of ratio between the system output with the system input at
zero initial conditions.
Define dead time or delay time
The time taken by the system to response for a change in its input is called as dead time or
delay time
What are the effects of dead time
The presence of dead time may cause the controller to take wrong decision and it may go to
its maximum output condition and results in affecting the stability of the system that may
cause very dangerous effects and bring unsafe condition to the system
GIVE REASONS FOR DEAD TIME IN A SYSTEM

The reason for dead time in a system can be any one as listed below
a. Due to some inherent characteristics of the system.
b. To reach the system if some input data has to travel a longer distance.
COMPARE SERVO AND REGULATORY SYSTEM
S.N SERVO SYSTEM REGULATORY SYSTEM
O
1 The system always tracks the The system always tracks the setpoint of
input changes of the process the process
2 Effect of disturbance will Effect of disturbance will be nullified by
influence the process output. the control action.
COMPARE CONTINUOUS AND BATCH PROCESS
S.N CONTINUOUS PROCESS BATCH PROCESS
O
1. The processes which should be The processes which can be carried out by
carried out without any interrupting the steps at various levels and
interruption is called as can be continued as per the convenience
continuous process are called as batch process
2. Stopping the process at Stopping the process at intermediate level
intermediate level affects the will not affect the quality of the process
quality of the product
3. Eg: extraction of petroleum Eg: Manufacturing of pen by combining
products from crude petroleum its various parts
COMPARISON INTERACTION AND NON-INTERACTING
S.N INTERACTING SYSTEM NON INTERACTING SYSTEM
O
1 Two or more system will be There will not be any physical connection
physically connected together between the system
2 Possibility of loading effect There will not be any loading effect
will be there between the system
What is pure capacity process? Give an example?
The process which is unable to regulate itself when a step change in input is given to the
system is called capacity process
Eg: Liquid level system with constant discharge
Continuous process:
The process in which the activities of the system are carried out continuously without having
any break in operation is termed as continuous process
The process should be carried out without any break in order to get product exactly.
Example: Production of petroleum products
Batch process:
In this method the sub products are produced at different time at different places and all the
sub products are gathered together to form the final product
Example: Production of pen
Self Regulation:
The process which gets deviates from normal state due to disturbance and return back to its
original state after some short duration is called as self regulation. The process having this
characteristic is called as self regulating process.
Servo operations:
If the process operations and output follows the input to the system and not any set point
value then the process is said to be in servo operation
Regulatory operations:
If the process operations are such that the output of the system will be tracking its target
value irrespective of the other disturbances and deviations associated with the process
UNIT-II
Explain the working of I To P converter or ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC actuator
 I to P convertor shown in above figure is arranged to convert and electrical signal

input to a proportional air pressure output.
 The input electric signal enters the voice-coil motor. The input coil is positioned in the
field of a permanent magnet and north and south poles of a magnet at its two ends.
 So when current flows through the coil, the coil affords a force proportional to the
magnitude of the input dc current.
 The force causes a deflection of the balance beam attached with feedback bellows to
cover the nozzle and results in an increase of output pressure.
 The output pressure acts on the feedback bellows to cause a torque on the balance
beam equal but opposite to that of the voice coil.
 The output pressure therefore is proportional to the input d-c current.
Define actuator(or) Give the role of actuator in a control valve

Actuator is a part of control valve that automatically, opens or closes the valve to either a
fully or partially position according to the control signals given by the controller
Why you need actuator
Actuator is needed in order to exactly open or close the control valve according to the
control signal given to the control valve
What is the role of I TO P converter?
The I to P converter is an electro pneumatic actuator that converts the current signal in the
range of (4-20)mA into an equivalent pressure signal of (3-15)P.S.I
Give the classification of actuator
The actuator can be broadly classified into (i) hydraulic actuator, (ii)Electric actuator,
(iii)Electro-pneumatic actuator
List the various types of pneumatic actuator
There are five common methods of operation of pneumatic actuators as follows
1. spring actuator
2. spring actuator with positioner
3. spring less actuator
4. piston actuator
5. motor actuator
Define valve positioner
It is a feedback element that ensures the stem of the control valve moves to its exact position
for the control signal given to the valve also it corrects the stem movement if there is any
deviation from its actual position.
List the various types of valve positioner
(i) Deflection (or position) balance valve positioner
(ii)Force balance valve positioner.
List the necessary conditions in which the valve positioner to be installed
Below are several conditions when valve positioners’ should be used:
 high pressure across valve;
 control with wide throttling range;
 high-pressure applications with tight packing;
 valves handling sludge or solids in suspension;
List the jobs performed by valve positioner
1. It ensures the stem of the control valve moves to its exact position for the control signal
given to the valve also it corrects the stem movement if there is any deviation from its
actual position.
2. It amplifies the control signal of the range (3-15)P.S.I to the required level as per the
valve operating range.
Define control valve
Control valve is a valve with a pneumatic, hydraulic, electric or other externally powered
actuator that automatically, opens or closes the valve to either a fully or partially position
according to the control signals given by the controller.
Give the classification of control valve
List the factors that decides the position of stem in a control valve
 the effective area of the diaphragm;
 the pressure on the diaphragm;
 the force of the spring at the particular degree of compression;
 the pressure drop across the seats;
 the hysteresis due to guides and packing;
 the weight of moving parts.
Define Cv also give its relation with KV and Qn
It is defined as number of U.S gallons of water per minute at standard conditions of
temperature and pressure that will flow through wide open(fully open) valve when there is
pressure drop of 1 P.S.I across the valve
It is the measure of flow capacity of valve, Larger the flow larger the CV
Where Cv = 1.16 Kv
Cv = Qn x 0.0008
Define KV also give its relation with Cv and Qn
Kv value is the metric measure for the flow of a valve. It is defined as The volume flow in
cubic metres per hour of water at a temperature of between 5°C and 40°C with a pressure
drop across the valve of 1 bar.
Where Kv=0.86xCv
Kv = Qn / 1078
Define Qn also give its relation with KV and Cv
Qn value is used in pneumatics to define the flow of a valve; it is the volume of flow in liters
per minute of air at a temperature of 20°C, with an input pressure of 6 bar and a pressure
drop across the valve of 1 bar.
Where Qn = Kv x 1078
Qn = Cv X 1250
What do you meant by inherent characteristics or ideal characteristics of control
valve?
Characteristics of valve obtained at standard test condition for fractional change in flow rate
to the fractional change in stem position with flow pipe under constant differential pressure
at inlet and outlet of valve is defined as inherent characteristics.
What do you meant by installed characteristics or practical characteristics?
Characteristics of valve obtained for fractional change in flow rate to the fractional change in
stem position when the valve is installed in its actual working environment is defined as
installed characteristics or practical characteristics.
Why the installed characteristics differ from inherent characteristics
The installed characteristics are obtained from the valve when it is placed in the actual
working environment, which has pressure drop, varying flow characteristics due to various
factor associated with the environment in which the valve is connected hence the installed
characteristics differ from inherent characteristics.
What do you meant by air to open or fail to close valve
If the control valve opens for allowing flow through it when the control signal increases from
its minimum then the valve is called as air to open or fail to close valve
What do you meant by air to close or fail to open valve
If the control valve closes to restrict the flow through it when the control signal increases
from its minimum then the valve is called as air to close or fail to open valve.
Give reasons for occurrence of cavitations and flashing in control valve (OR) why
cavitations and flashing occurs in control valve
As the liquid passes the point of greatest restriction inside the control valve, its velocity
reaches a maximum and its pressure falls to a minimum. If the pressure falls below the
liquid’s vapor pressure, vapor bubbles form within the valve and now there arises two
conditions called as cavitations or flashing.
What do you meant by cavitations in control valve
Cavitations occurs in control valve when the inflow liquid pressure goes below the vapour
pressure of the liquid resulting in the formation of voids and cavities within the liquid
system; and then there will be a collapse or implosion of this cavities back into in all-liquid
state.
Give the conditions for cavitations in control valve
Cavitations in control valve occurs when
(i) The fluid at both the inlet and outlet must be in all-liquid condition.
(ii)The liquid must be sub cooled state at the inlet, because if the liquid will be in a
saturated state, then any pressure drop across the valve will cause the presence of
vapor downstream;
(iii) The valve outlet pressure must be either at or above the vapor pressure of the liquid.
List the effects of cavitations
Following are the effects of cavitations
1. Noise: At fully developed cavitations it sounds like a gravel passes through the valve;
2. Vibration: There occurs vibration depending on the mass of the system, how well the
system components are anchored, whether valve-mounted instruments are vibration-
sensitive.
3. Material Damage: Damage of valve plugs, development of eroded holes through the
valve body, damage of the guiding surfaces and valve plug seating surfaces, etc.
What do you meant by flashing?
Flashing occurs in control valve when the inflow liquid pressure goes below the vapour
pressure of the liquid resulting in the formation of voids and cavities within the liquid
system. If the pressure downstream of the valve continues to be in a value below the liquid’s
vapor pressure, the vapor bubbles persist in the liquid. This is called as flashing.
Give the conditions for flashing in control valve
Flashing in control valve occurs when
1. The fluid at the inlet must be in all-liquid condition, but some vapor must be present at
the valve outlet;
2. The fluid at the inlet may be in either a saturated or a sub cooled condition;
3. The valve outlet pressure must be either at or below the vapor pressure of the liquid.
List the effects of Flashing

1. Material damage is associated with the formation of sand-blasted surfaces;
2. Decreased efficiency, i.e., it reduces the ability of the valve to convert pressure drop
across the valve into mass flow rate.
How cavitations in control valve can be avoided

Cavitations in control valve can be avoided by following methods
1. Ensuring by suitable arrangements that the flow liquid pressure does not goes below
its vapour pressure value.
2. By connecting large volume tanks closer to the valves so that the there will not be
significant pressure changes in the liquid flowing through the valve
3. By following special design procedures for the inner flow areas of valve so that the
liquid entering the valve does not undergoes a sudden pressure loss but there will be a
gradual decrease in the liquid pressure.
How flashing in control valve can be avoided
Flashing in control valve can be avoided by following methods
1. Ensuring by suitable arrangements that the flow liquid pressure does not goes below
its vapour pressure value.
3. By following special design procedures for the inner flow areas of valve so that the
liquid entering the valve does not undergoes a sudden pressure loss but there will be a
gradual decrease in the liquid pressure.
Explain in detail about cavitations and flashing
As the liquid passes the point of greatest restriction inside the control valve, its velocity reaches a maximum
and its pressure falls to a minimum. If the pressure falls below the liquid’s vapor pressure, vapor bubbles
form within the valve and now there arises two conditions called as cavitations or flashing.
The pressure drop at which choked flow begins is called the terminal pressure drop.
CAVITATIONS:-Cavitations occurs in control valve when the inflow liquid pressure goes
below the vapour pressure of the liquid resulting in the formation of voids and cavities
within the liquid system; and then there will be a collapse or implosion of this cavities back
into in all-liquid state.
CAVITATIONS IN CONTROL VALVE OCCURS WHEN
(i)The fluid at both the inlet and outlet must be in all-liquid condition.
(ii)The liquid must be sub cooled state at the inlet, because if the liquid will be in a
saturated state, then any pressure drop across the valve will cause the presence of vapor
downstream;
(iii) The valve outlet pressure must be either at or above the vapor pressure of the liquid.
EFFECTS OF CAVITATIONS:-
1. Noise: At fully developed cavitations it sounds like a gravel passes through the valve;
2. Vibration: There occurs vibration depending on the mass of the system, how well the
system components are anchored, whether valve-mounted instruments are vibration-
sensitive.
3. Material Damage: Damage of valve plugs, development of eroded holes through the
valve body, damage of the guiding surfaces and valve plug seating surfaces, etc.
FLASHING:Flashing occurs in control valve when the inflow liquid pressure goes below
the vapour pressure of the liquid resulting in the formation of voids and cavities within the
liquid system. If the pressure downstream of the valve continues to be in a value below the
liquid’s vapor pressure, the vapor bubbles persist in the liquid. This is called as flashing.
FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVE OCCURS WHEN
1. The fluid at the inlet must be in all-liquid condition, but some vapor must be present at
the valve outlet;
2. The fluid at the inlet may be in either a saturated or a sub cooled condition;
3. The valve outlet pressure must be either at or below the vapor pressure of the liquid.
EFFECTS OF FLASHING
1. Material damage is associated with the formation of sand-blasted surfaces;
2. Decreased efficiency, i.e., it reduces the ability of the valve to convert pressure drop
across the valve into mass flow rate.
STEPS TO AVOID CAVITATIONS AND FLASHING
1. Ensuring by suitable arrangements that the flow liquid pressure does not goes below its
vapour pressure value.
3. By following special design procedures for the inner flow areas of valve so that the liquid
entering the valve does not undergoes a sudden pressure loss but there will be a gradual
decrease in the liquid pressure.
Discuss in detail about the points to be considered in selecting a control valve
Following are the points to be considered while selecting the control valve
1.Need for a control valve:Before going through the valve selection process, it should be
decided whether a control valve is really needed in the work place or not.
2.Process Data Collection:The anticipated values of flow rates, pressures, vapour pressure,
density of flowing medium, temperatures, viscosities etc must be identified considered in the
selection process.
3.Assigning valve pressure drop: The proper approach to the selection of valve pressure
drop is to first determine the total friction drop of the system at normal flow and assign 50%
of that to valve pressure drop and then to determine the resulting valve drop at minimum and
maximum flows and select a valve which can handle the required CV rangeability.
4.Control valve performance: the control valve performance inters of following factors
such as valve characteristics, control loop gain, process non linearity, valve rangeability and
control valve sizing should be considered.
5.Process applications considerations: The properties of the process liquid must be
fully considered. The factors such as high pressure service, high differential pressure
usage, vacuum service, high/low temperature service, cavitations and erosion,
flashing, viscous and slurry service leakage, noise, piping and installation, climatic
and atmospheric effect should be considered.
Define normal maximum flow rate
It is the maximum value of flow rate required to sustain the controlled variable under any
condition of process operation.
Define valve characteristic co-efficient (α)
Differential pressure with control valve wide open
α=
Differential pressure withcontrol valve closed
Define rangeablility of control valve.
Rangeability of a control valve is the ratio maximum controllable flow to minimum
controllable flow
Maximum controllable flow
R=
Minimum controllable flow
Define turndown of a control valve and give its relation with rangeability
Turndown of a control valve is the ratio of normal maximum flow to minimum controllable
flow
Normal maximum flow
T=
Minimum controllable flow
The relation between turndown and rageability of a control valve is given as
T ≅ 0.7 R
Compare inherent and installed characteristics
S.NO inherent characteristics installed characteristics
1 The flow-lift characteristics are The flow-lift characteristics are obtained for a
obtained for a valve at standard valve at installed conditions in its work
test conditions. environement
2 It is also called as ideal It is also called as practical characteristics.
characteristics
3 There will not be any external The valve is influenced by many disturbing
disturbance parameters acting parameters usually and also when obtaining the
on the valve while obtaining the characteristics.
characteristics
Compare electrical actuator and pneumatic actuator
S.No Electrical actuator Pneumatic actuator
1. It is an electrically operated It is an pneumatically operated device
device
2. Electrical coils or motors are Elastic membranes such as diaphragms, bellows
used to drive the control valve are used to drive the control valve
3 Rarely used type of actuators Generally preferred type of actuators
Explain the working of control valve
Control valve is a valve with a pneumatic, hydraulic, electric or other externally powered
actuator that automatically, opens or closes the valve to either a fully or partially position
according to the control signals given by the controller.
The major parts of control valve are
Actuator: The part of control valve which receives control signal to open or close the
control valve. Generally actuators are operated by pneumatic signal made up of elastic
diaphragms.
There are also electrical type actuators available with motors for same operation.
Stem: A long moving part of the control valve connected with the actuator at one end and
with valve plug at other end the stem is operated by the actuator to open and close the valve.
Plug: A specially designed mechanical part of control valve connected with one end of the
valve stem that closes and opens the flow path inside the control valve proportional to
control signal.
The shape of the plug determines the outflow rate of valve and the valves are classified
based on the plug shape generally.
Spring: It is connected with stem below the actuator in order to provide counter balancing
force for the deflection in actuator to move the stem to its exact position.
The spring also plays a main role in making the stem to return back to its original position
when the applied control signal is removed.
Input/output port: The part through which the valve is connected with other parts of the
flow line and through which the liquid enters and leaves the valve.
Working: The control valve actuator receives signal from controller and drives the stem
with plug to move, the stem is now moved to the exact new position with the help of counter
balance force offered by spring
The movement of stem and plug opens the flow path in the control valve and allows the
water to flow through the valve.
When the control signal to the valve is altered or removed the spring along with the actuator
reposition the plug connected with stem to establish the new flow rate through the valve.
Define equal percentage valve and give its applications
It is the most commonly used control valve, in this type of valve equal increments of valve
travel produce an equal percentage of flow through it.
Here the valve co-efficient characteristic function is given by f ( x )=α x−1
Applications: 1. Used in processes where large changes in pressure drop are expected
2. Used in process applications where small percentage of the total pressure drop is
permitted by the valve
Define linear valve and give its applications
In this type the valve travel and valve stroke are in direct proportion.
Here the valve co-efficient characteristic function is given by f(x)=x
Applications: 1. Used in systems where the pressure drop across the valve is expected to
remain fairly constant
Define quick opening valve
In this type of valve a large increase in flow can be observed with small changes in valve
stroke.
Applications: 1. Used for process where instant large flow is required.
2. Used for frequent on/off service
Compare single seated valve and double seated valve
S.N SINGLE SEATED VALVE DOUBLE SEATED VALVE
O
1. It has one plug These type has two plugs
2. Provides satisfactory shut off Provides tight shut off
What are the three different inherent characteristics of a control valve ?

The three different inherent characteristics of a control valve are
a. Decreasing sensitivity type
b. Linear type
c. Equal percentage type
What are the effects of oversizing and undersizing of a control valve. ?
Improper valve sizing is a mistake, both technically and economically. A valve that is too
small will not pass the maximum flow desired and the process will be starved. A valve that is
oversized will be unnecessarily expensive and the valve must operate at low lift and the
minimum controllable flow is too large. In addition , the lower part of the flow lift
characteristic is most likely to be non uniform in shape and it can lead to instability and other
problems.
When a valve is called as equal percentage valve and why ?
In a equal percentage valve , a given percentage change in valve stem position produces an
equivalent change in flow, that is, at equal percentage. The valve sensitivity ( ΔQ / ΔS)
increases with increasing flow rate. The valve sensitivity at any given flow rate is a constant
percentage of the given flow rate. Thus, the term equal percentage.
What are the various improvements in performance of a valve when using positioner. ?
a. Hysteresis is reduced and linearity is usually improved because the static operation is
governed by the feedback spring and input bellows.
b. The actuator can handle much higher static friction forces because of the amplifying pilot.
c. Variable thrust forces on the motor stem do not disturb the stem position to any great
extent.
d. Speed of response is generally improved because the pneumatic controller must only
supply sufficient air to fill the small input bellows rather than the large actuator chamber.
What is called ‘decreasing sensitive type ‘ characteristic of a control valve?
In decreasing sensitive type valve, a relatively small motion of valve stem results in
maximum possible flow rate through valve. Such a valve, for example, may allow 90 % of
maximum flow rate with only a 30 % travel of the stem. Such a valve is also called as quick
opening valve. The valve sensitivity ( ΔQ / ΔS) at any flow decreases with increasing flow.
What is called ‘linear type’ characteristic of a control valve ?
This type of valve, has a flow rate that varies linearly with the stem position. It represents the
ideal situation where the valve alone determines the pressure drop. The relationship is
expressed as
Q / Qmax = S / Smax
Where Q = Flow rate ( m3 / sec )
Qmax = Maximum flow rate ( m3 / sec )
S = Stem position ( m)
Smax = maximum stem position ( m )
The valve sensitivity ( ΔQ / ΔS) is more or less constant at any flow.
What are the different shapes of plugs used in a control valve and give its shape
The different shapes of plugs used in a control valve are
An equal percentage control valve has a rangeability of 32. If the maximum flow rate is
100 m3 / hr, find the flow at 2/3 rd and 4/5 th opening.
Minimum flow rate = maximum flow rate / rangeability = 100 / 32 = 3.125 m3 / hr
Then flow rate at 2/3 opening is Q = Qmin R( S/Smax ) = 3.125 X (32 ) (2/3) = 31.5 m3/hr
Then flow rate at 4/5 opening is Q = Qmin R( S/Smax ) = 3.125 X (32 ) (4/5) = 50 m3/hr
What is meant by control valve sizing ?
The proper selection of the size of a control valve for the given specific process parameters is
known as ‘Valve sizing ‘. Guidelines for sizing of control valve are
a. The valve shall be sized for normal maximum flow rate which is normally about 70 % of
the ultimate design capacity.
b. Most of the pressure drop of the system should be across the control valve. As a general
rule around 70 % of the system drop should be across the control valve.
c. When the pipeline is dimensioned with normal allowable velocities ( low pressure loss )
the control valve will be few sizes smaller than the pipeline. Only in the extreme case
where very high velocities have been used in the pipeline, the size of the control valve
will be same as that of the pipeline.
d. The final selection must be done such that the calculated Cv is attained at about 75 to 80
% of the full valve travel. In case of high pressure gases and steam where expansion take
place after the control valve, calculated Cv must be attained at about 50 to 60 % of the
valve travel.
Why the control valve is a non linear in characteristics?
The non linearity is normally caused due to :
a. The non linear spring response
b. Nonlinear effective area of the diaphragm as it deflects.
c. The changing thrust forces that act on the movement of the plug in the controlled fluid.
Differentiate between air-to-close and air-to-open control valve?
In the air-to-close valve , as the air pressure above diagram increases, the stem moves down
and consequently the plug restricts the flow through the orifice. In the air-to-open valve , as
the air pressure above diagram increases, the stem moves down and consequently the plug
allows the flow through the orifice.
What is the use of I/P converter ?
The current –to-pneumatic converter or I / P converter is an important element in the process
control. Often, when we want to use the low level electric current signal to do work, it is
much easier to let the work be done by a pneumatic signal. The I / P converter gives us linear
way of transulating 4 – 20 mA current into a 3 – 15 psi signal. The I/P converter uses
Flapper – nozzle system for this purpose.
Suppose a force of 600 N must be applied to open a valve using pneumatic diaphragm
actuator. Find the diaphragm area if a control gauge pressure of 0.7 kg/ cm2 must
provide this force.
We may calculate the area from the formula
Force = Pressure X Area
Area = Force / Pressure = 600 N / 0.7 Kg / cm2
= 600 N / 7 N / cm2 = 85.7 cm2
Or about 10.5 cm in diameter.
When should a positioner be fitted on a control valve.?
A positioner should be considered in the following circumstances
a. When accurate valve positioning is required.
b. To speed up the valve response.
c. To increase the pressure that a particular actuator and valve can close against ( to act
as an amplifier )
d. When friction in the valve ( especially the packing ) would cause unacceptable
hysteresis
e. To linearise a non-linear actuator.
f. Where varying differential pressures within the fluid would cause the plug position to
vary.
Give the classifications of Control Valve
C O N T R O L V A L V E C L A S S I F IC A T I O N S
B A S E D O N O P E R A T IO N B A S E D O N S E N S I T IV IT Y
B A SED O N N U M B ER O F P LU G S
A IR T O O P E N A IR T O C L O S E IN C R E A S I N G D E C R E A S IN G
S E N S IT IV IT Y S E N S I T IV IT Y
L IN E A R S IN G L E THREE
SEA TED SEATED
D O U B LE
B A SED O N V A LV E B O D Y SEATED
S L I D IN G DAM PERS/
STEM LO U V ER S
RO TARY
STEM
Control valve sizing Link

(https://www.google.co.in/search?dcr=0&source=hp&ei=ONouWuyoFMnFvQTGvb-
oCg&q=CONTROL+VALVE+SIZING+PROCEDURE&oq=CONTROL+VALVE+SI
ZING+PROCEDURE&gs_l=psy-
ab.3..0i22i30k1l7.1177.18783.0.18937.31.27.0.3.3.0.265.3473.0j21j1.22.0....0...1c.1.64.psy-
ab..6.25.3499.0..0j35i39k1j0i131k1j0i20i263k1.0.kGpqtx79cfQ)
Procedure
Step 1: Calculate Actual Pressure Drop
Step 2: Check for Choked Flow, Cavitation and Flashing
Step 3: Determine Specific Gravity
Step 4: Calculate Approximate Cv
Step 5: Select Approximate Body Size Based on Cv
Step 6: Calculate Valve Reynolds Number Rev and Reynolds Number Factor FR
Step 7: Recalculate Cv Using Reynolds Number Factor
Step 8: Calculate Piping Geometry Factor
Step 9: Calculate the Final Cv Using the value of FP, calculate the required
Step 10: Calculate Valve Exit Velocity
Step 11: Recalculate Cv If Body Size Changed
Step 12: Select Trim Number
UNIT-III Control Actions

Controller
A device or program which operates automatically to regulate a controlled variable based on
the error input given to it
Define direct acting controller
For increase in error magnitude if the controller output increases then the controller is called
as direct acting controller
ma
u(t)
x U(0)
u(t) mi
n
- u(t +
Proporti e(t)
e onal ) e
band
0 0
Define reverse acting controller?
For increase in error magnitude if the controller output decreases instead of increase then the
controller is called as reverse acting controller.
m (t)
m a x m (t)
m in
m (t)
-e 0 +e0
-e (t) e (t)
What is meant by differential gap or neutral zone or dead zone or bandwidth in ON –
OFF controller?
It is the region above and below the set point of the controlled process variable in which the
controller does not response to any changes in the controlled process variable.
Discuss about merits of on-off controller
1. Design and implementation is very simple
2. Low cost
Give the draw backs of on-off controller
1. It will not give accurate control over the process.
2. It cannot be used in places where accurate control is needed since it has only two states.
Why differential controller cannot be used alone?
1. The differential controller will not produce any output for constant error and error signal
that changes at constant rate.
2. Also the differential controller response will not be in one to one correspondence for error
and it takes decision by comparing the previous state error value.
Why integral controller cannot be used alone?
The output of integral controller is based on summation of error for specified time, the
controller will not respond instantaneously for changes hence it cannot be used alone
Why derivative controller should not be used for noisy process
When used in process with harmonic noises the harmonic component of the noise signal that
are associated with the error will amplify the magnitude of the error signal.
Let the error signal associated with harmonic component can be given as
e h (t)=sin awt
d eh (t )
=a cos awt
dt
Here the error signal is amplified by ‘a’ times.
Give the mathematical equation of ON-OFF controller and PID controller
ON-OFF CONTROLLER
m (t) = 100; e(t)>0
= 0; e (t) ≤0
PID CONTROLLER
1 de (t)
{
m ( t )=K C e ( t ) +
Ti
∫ e ( t ) dt +T D
dt } + mo
What do you meant by bias of on-off controller

It is the output of PID controller in P-mode of operation when the magnitude of error is zero.
Generally bias value is kept at 50% value of the maximum controller output.
What will be the output of ‘D’ mode of control action for constant error
For constant error the controller will maintain its output in its previous state i.e., in the output
value when the error was changing.
Define integral time(Ti) and give its relation with integral gain(Ki)
Integral time (Ti) is defined as the number of times the proportional action is repeated in a
minute (Repeats per minute).
1
Where the relation can be given as K i=
T i; unit = sec-1
Define derivative time(Td) and give its relation with derivative gain
It is the time difference by which the derivative controller output leads the input when the
input changes linearly with time.
Where the relation can be given as Kd = Td; unit = secs
Define process variable
The physical quantities that is inherently present in the system, which can undergo a change
in its magnitude during any operation/process in the system.
Eg: pressure, temperature, flow, level etc.,
Define error
The amount of deviation of the process variable from its set point is called as error or
deviation
Mathematically; error=set point - present value
Define controlled variable
It is the process variable of interest in a system that should be kept at a predetermined value
or set point
Define manipulated variable
It is the process variable or quantity that should be adjusted in the system as per the
command of the controller in order to maintain the controlled variable at its set point
Define final control element
It is the hardware element that executes the command of the controller given for adjusting
the manipulated variable. Eg: control valve, thyristor power control unit, motor drive control
unit.
Define set point.

The value or the magnitude in which the controlled process variable should be maintained is
defined as set point.
Define disturbance of a process
It is the signal other than the reference input associated with the system or process which
tends to affect the value of the controlled variable.
Why proportional controller is called as a throttling controller or one to one controller
When the error increases the controller output increases and decreases when the error
decreases immediately hence it is called as throttling controller.
Why integral controller is called as reset controller
The controller resets the action of proportional controller for every integer multiples of Kc
hence called as reset controller.
Why derivative controller is called as rate controller
The controller action can be implemented in a process, whenever there is a change in the
rate of change of the error and cannot be used with the process having constant error or
constant slope error hence derivative controller is called as rate controller.
Mathematically prove why integral controller is called as reset controller
Mathematically the PI control action can be given as
TI
K
m ( t )= C ∫ e dt
TI 0
As shown above for every Ti the controller output is integral multiples of Kc hence the
integral controller is called as reset controller.
Explain in detail about ON-OFF CONTROLLER
It is a two state controller has its output as either ON state else OFF state that works
according to the equation mentioned below
m (t) = 100; e(t)>0
1 ; e (t) ≤0
The controller remains ON when the process variable under control is below the set point
and remains OFF when the process variable is above the set point as shown below
P .V
s .p
t
C O
O N 1 0 0 %
O F F 0 %
t
Disadvantages
The controller has a drawback that it switches at faster rate so more wear and tear occurs and
reduces the life time of the controller
Advantages
1. Cheaper in cost
2. Simpler in construction
On-off controller with neutral zone(OR) hysteresis effect in on-off controller
Since the on-off controller switches very fast the life time of the controller is small in order
to overcome this problem the zone called neutral zone is introduced in the control action of
the controller.
The working of the controller is as shown in the figure
Neutral zone:
 The zone above and below the set point value in which the on-off controller retaining its
previous state output even the magnitude of the error changes is called as neutral zone
 The value of the neutral zone will be a maximum ±5% of set point
 It is also called as dead band or neutral band or bandwidth or differential gap of the on-off
controller
Bandwidth:
 The total length of the neutral zone of the on-ff controller is called as bandwidth of the
on-off controller.
Hysteresis in on-off controller
co
100%
0%
x' error
 Hysteresis exists in on-off controller with neutral zone. Because the controller output
does not remains same for the particular magnitude of the error.
 The reason for hysteresis is the controller output is based not only upon the magnitude of
error but also position of error in the neutral zone.
Hence it can be observed for the same magnitude of error
 The controller may be found ON at certain points i.e., when the process variable move
towards the upper limit of the dead zone and
 The controller in OFF state at certain points i.e., when the process variable move towards
the lower limit of the dead zone. Hence we say there exist hysteresis in ON-OFF
controller
Advantages
1. Controller life time is increased due introduction of neutral zone
2. Cheaper in cost
3. Simpler in construction
Disadvantages
1. There is no accurate control over the process.
2. It makes the system response oscillatory
ON-OFF controller applications:
1. It is used in places where accurate control action is not required
Example: Temperature control in a home water heater
PROPOTIONAL CONTROLLER (Throttling Controller):
e (t) m (t)= K ce (t)
K C
 Proportional control is the primary alternative to on-off control
 Simplest and most commonly encountered of all continuous control modes.
 The controller produces an output signal, which is proportional to the error.
 The Greater the magnitude of the error, the larger is the corrective action applied by the
controller
 The gain of the controller is given as Kc
Output equation of P-controller can be given as
In Time domain
m ( t )=K C e ( t ) +m 0
In Laplace domain (Transfer function):

m(s)
=K C
e (s)
The controller can be electronically given as
Electronically the output equation is given as

V out =G P V e +V O
Where,
Vout = output voltage; Gain=GP = R2/R1; Vo=bias
Controller output for error signal

 The controller output has a linear relationship with the error given as input.
 The gain is often replaced with another parameter, called the proportional band, PB.
PROPORTIONAL BAND
• This is defined as the range over which the error must change in order to drive the
controller output over full range
• The PB is generally centered on the set point causing the output to be at 50% when the
set point and the process output are equal.
Relationship between Kc and PB : Kc X PB = 100 (OR) Kc X % PB = 1

 In the proportional control mode, the final control element is throttled to various
positions that are dependent on the process system conditions hence called as
throttling controller
 Use proportional only control in situations where high precision is not required.
Advantages
1. It is relatively simple and easy to design and tune
2. It provides good stability
3. It responds very rapidly
4. Dynamically it is relatively stable
Disadvantages
1. Overshoot
2. The controller will not eliminate the steady state error or offset(ess)
PURE INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (RESET CONTROLLER):
 This control action will cause the output signal to change according to the summation of
the input signal values sampled at regular intervals up to the present time.
 The controller output is a function of the duration of the error i.e., how long has the error
existed?
 The controller resets the action of proportional controller for every integer multiples of
Kc hence called as reset controller
 The controller gain is given by KI
 An integral controller will normally ensure zero SSE in a control system - for step
(constant) inputs.
 Pure integral mode cannot be used in real time and should be combined with proportional
mode.
The output equation of the controller can be given as
In time domain:
m ( t )=K I ∫ e (t)dt + mo
In Laplace domain the transfer function is given as
m(s) K I 1
G C ( S )= = =
e (s) S T i S
Where,
KI = controller gain = 1/Ti; Ti = Reset time; e(t) = error
INTEGRAL GAIN (KI): It is the gain of the integral controller expressed as KI = 1/Ti;
unit = sec-1
INTEGRAL TIME or RESET TIME (Ti): It is the time taken by the integral controller to
repeat the action of the proportional controller the integral, or reset time (T i), may be
expressed in terms of:
• Repeats Per Minute - How many times the proportional action is repeated each
minute.
• Minutes Per Repeat - How many minutes are required for1 repeat to occur.
Generally Ti is represented in terms of repeats per minute
For FAST RESET action the controller will have

1. High Gain (Large Repeats/Min., Small Min. /Repeat)
2. Fast Return to Set point
3. Possible of cycling
For SLOW RESET action the controller will have
1. Low Gain (Small Repeats/Min., Large Min. /Repeats)
2. Slow Return to Set point
3. Stable Loop
The response of the controller for error input can be given as
Advantages:
Eliminate the proportional offset over time.
Disadvantages:
1. Integral control changes the order of the system, so a second order system becomes a
third order system when you use an integral controller.
2. Integral control produces a slower system because of the pole(s) constrained to the right of
the rightmost pole in the system.
3. Adding integral control to a system may sacrifice speed of response, and even stability, for
the sake of zero SSE.
4. Integral wind-up
5. P+I give rise to a higher maximum deviation, a longer response time and a longer period
of oscillation than with proportional action alone.
INTEGRAL WIND-UP
 Since the integral function is accumulating proportional offset over time, the accumulated
value will tend to increase as long as the offset is positive (above set point) and decrease
when the offset is negative (below set point).
 If the equipment controlled by the control loop does not have the “muscle” to eventually
force the offset to be negative, the controller will simply keep accumulating positive
offset, resulting in a huge accumulated value.
 This will drive the output of the control loop to its maximum value and it will remain
there until conditions change to the point where the system can recover and force the
offset to be negative and the negative offset has been big enough and lasted long enough
to bring the accumulated positive value back down.
 This is generally called as integral windup
PURE DERIVATIVE CONTROL (RATE CONTROLLER (OR) PRE-ACT
CONTROLLER)
 In derivative action, the controller output is proportional to the rate of change of the
measurement or error; it does not know what the set point actually is, hence it is called as
rate controller.
 The controller first compares the current PV with the (previous) last value of the PV. If
there is a change in the slope of the PV, the controller determines what its output would
be at a future point in time and immediately increases /decreases the output by that
amount.
 Generally used in large process where a step change in the input of the process is not
significant
 The controller gain is given by Kd = Td; Unit=Seconds
 Pure derivative mode cannot be used in real time and must be combined with proportional
mode
In time domain:
de (t)
m ( t )= +mo
dt
In Laplace domain the transfer function is given as

m(s)
G C ( S )= =K D S
e (s)
Where, KD = controller gain = TD; TD = Derivative time;
e(t) = error
Output of controller
• The derivative action is used wherever there is a change in the rate of change of the
error since the controller will not response to constant input or input changing at a
constant rate
Derivative mode output for constant change in error input
Derivative mode output for random rate of change in input

When Td is Large (Minutes) the controller has
1.High Gain
2.Large Output Change
3.Possible Cycling
When Td is Small (Minutes) the controller has
1.Low Gain
2.Small Output Change
3.Stable Loop
Advantages
1. Derivative action prove to be beneficial in situations where systems experience
significant deviations in the process parameter
2. A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the
system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.
Disadvantages
1. It cannot eliminate the offset although somehow it makes it smaller.
2. The error could be huge, but if it were unchanging, the controller would not give any
output. Thus although it is theoretically possible, it is practically impossible
3. The derivative term won't help anything unless the error (or) process variable is
changing.
4. Amplifies harmonic noises
5. Not suitable for speedy process
6. Not suitable for harmonic(noisy) process
P + I CONTROLLER
• The mode is a combination of P and I control modes
• Generally integral mode can be used along with the P mode only
• Proportional plus reset control eliminates any offset error that would occur with
proportional control only
In time domain:
1
{
m ( t )=K C e ( t ) +
Ti∫ }
e ( t ) dt +mo
In Laplace domain
m(s ) 1
Gc ( s )= =K C [1+ ]
e (s ) TiS
Where,
1/Ti= Integral gain(KI); Ti = Reset time; KC= Proprotional gain; mo = Bias;
e(t) = error
The response of the controller for error input can be given as

ADVANTAGES
It eliminates the offset
DISADVANTAGES
1. it gives rise to a higher maximum deviation
2. A longer response time
3. A longer period of oscillation
4. Reset windup is an inherent disadvantage of proportional plus reset controllers that are
subject to large error signals.
P + D CONTROL
 The controller is a combination of P and D mode control
 Generally derivative controller is used along with P mode only
 Derivative action is added to a controller to make it respond to the rate of change of
the error signal.
 Proportional plus rate control does not eliminate offset error.
 Proportional plus rate control increases system stability.
 The controller senses the rate of rise or fall of system process variable and
automatically adjusts the proportional band to minimize overshoot or undershoot.
In time domain:
de(t )
{
m ( t )=K C e ( t ) +T D
dt } +mo
In Laplace domain
m(s )
Gc ( s )= =K C [1+T d S]
e (s )
Where,
Td= derivative time or derivative gain (KD); KC= Proportional gain; mo = Bias;
e(t) = error
The response of the controller can be given as
ADVANTAGES
1. Due to derivative action a lead term is introduced in the loop this compensate
the lag in the process loop
2. P+D mode eliminates excessive oscillations
3. Offset is not eliminated
DISADVANTAGES
1. It can not eliminate the offset but makes it smaller
PROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL + DERIVATIVE ACTION(PID MODE ACTION)

 Existence of integral controller eliminates offset
 Oscillation time is reduced due to I, D modes
 Deviation is reduced due to I, D modes
 Wide proportional band eliminate oscillations in the process
 Long time delays in the process is recovered by derivative action
 The proportional action responds to the error amplitude.
 The integral action eliminates the offset error.
 The derivative action provides additional stability to the process.
 PID controllers can be used to control most processes, even those that are difficult
to control.
 The derivative action senses the rate of rise or fall of system process variable and
automatically adjusts the proportional band to minimize overshoot or undershoot.
In time domain:
1 de (t)
{
m ( t )=K C e ( t ) +
Ti
∫ e ( t ) dt +T D
dt } + mo
In Laplace domain
m(s) 1
G C ( s )= =K C [1+ +T D S ]
e (s) Ti S
Where,
KC= Proportional gain
1/Ti= Integral gain(KI); Ti = Reset time;
Td= derivative time or derivative gain (KD)
mo = Bias;
e(t) = error

Advantages
1. It is composed of advantages of all the three modes.
2. Eliminates offset
Disadvantages:
1. There is no significant disadvantage for this mode but the controller gain should be
selected properly in order to get the desired response in minimum time
GIVE THE POSITION AND VELOCITY FORM OF PID CONTROLLER
POSITION FORM:
VELOCITY FORM:
Define the term process lag

A process load change or transient causes a change in the controlled variable. The process
control loop responds to assure, some finite time later, that the variable returns to set point
value. Part of this time is consumed by the process itself and is called the ‘process lag’.
Define the term process load
It is possible to identify a set values for the process parameters that results in the controlled
variable having the set point value. ‘Process Load’ refers to this set of parameters excluding
the controlling the controlled variable. When all parameters have their nominal values, we
speak of ‘nominal load’ on the system. Whenever the parameters change from the nominal
values, we say that a process load change has occurred. The controlling variable is adjusted
to compensate for this load change and its effect on the dynamic variable to bring it back to
the set point.
Define the term control lag
The control system also has a lag associated with its operation that must be compared with
the process lag. When a controlled variable experience a sudden change, the process control
loop reacts by outputting a command to the final control element to adopt the new value to
compensate for the detected change. Control lag refers to the time for the control loop to
make necessary adjustments to the final control element .
What is called neutral zone ?
In any practical implementation of two position controller , there is an overlap as e p increases
through zero or decreases through zero. In this span, no change in controller output occurs.
We see that until an increasing error changes by Δep above zero, the controller output will
not change state. In decreasing, it must fall Δe p bellow zero before the controller changes to
the 0% rating. The range 2Δep , which is referred to as the neutral zone or differential gap, is
often purposely designed above certain minimum quantity to prevent excessive cycling.
What is called an ' offset ' in a proportional controller ?
Whenever a change in load occurs, the proportional control mode produces a permanent
‘residual error’ in the operating point of the controlled variable which is referred to as
‘offset’. It can be minimized by a larger constant K p, which also reduces the proportional
band.
How is offset eliminated with help of integral control mode ?
The reason proportional control must result in an offset is because it disregards the past
history of error leaving the accumulated effect of past errors uncorrected. The integral mode,
on the other hand , continuously looks at the total past history of error by continuously
integrating the area under the error curve and eliminates the offset by forcing the addition
( or removal ) of mass or energy , which should have been added ( or removed ) in the past.
Mention any two drawbacks of a derivative control action
The two drawbacks of a derivative control mode are
1. If the error is zero, the control mode provides no output.
2. If the error is constant in time, the mode provides no output.
Write the transfer functions of P , PI , PD and PID controllers.
The transfer function of ‘P’ controller : p = Kp ep + po
The transfer function of ‘PI’ controller : p = Kp ep + Kp Ki ∫ ep dt + po
The transfer function of ‘PD’ controller : p = Kp ep + Kp Kd dep/dt + po
The transfer function of ‘PID’ controller : p = Kp ep + Kp Ki ∫ ep dt + Kp Kd dep/dt +
po
A velocity control system has a range of 220 to 460 mm/s. If the setpoint is 320 mm/s
and the measured value is 315 mm/s. calculate the error as percentage of span ?
The percent error is given as ep = ( r – b ) / ( bmax – bmin ) X 100
Given r = 320 mm/s bmin = 220 mm/s bmax = 460 mm/s
ep = ( 320 – 315 ) / ( 460 – 220 ) X 100 = 2.08 %
For a proportional controller , the controlled variable is a process temperature with
range of 50 to 250 ° C and a setpoint of 150 ° C. Under normal conditions, the setpoint
is maintained with an output of 50 %. Find the proportional offset that results from a
load change which requires a 55 % output if the proportional gain is (a) 0.7 and (b) 2.0
The proportional controller can be mathematically expressed as
P = Kp ep + po
(a ) With nominal condition po = 50 % and the new value of controller output P = 55
%
and proportional gain = 0.7
ep = ( P – po ) / Kp = (55 – 50 ) / 0.7 = 7.14 %
The offset error is 7.14 %
(a) For the proportional gain = 2.0
ep = ( P – po ) / Kp = (55 – 50 ) / 2 = 2.5 %
The offset error is 2.5 %
A PI controller is reverse acting with PB=20 and repeats per min = 12. Find ( a) the
proportional gain , (b) the integral gain , (c) the time that the controller output will
reach 0 % after a constant error of 1.5% starts. The controller output when the error
occurred was 75 %.
(a) Proportional gain = 100 % / 20 % = 5
(b) Integral gain = 1 / 12 = 0.0833
(c) P = Kp ep + Kp Ki ∫ ep dt + po
0 = 5 X 1.5 + 5 X 0.0833 ∫ 1.5 dt + 75 t = 132 sec
UNIT-IV
Define evaluation criteria (2 marks)
The performance of the process for the implemented control action or the strategy and
parameter values of the controller is analysed to verify the proper selection and
implementation of the controller by evaluating certain process parameters is termed as
evaluation criteria
List the various methods of evaluation criteria (2 marks)
E V A L U A T IO N C R IT E R IA
S T E A D Y S T A T E P E R F O R M A N C E C R IT E R IA D Y N A M IC R E S P O N S E P E R F O R M A N C E C R IT E R IA
S IM P L E P E R F O R M A N C E C R IT E R IA T IM E IN T E G R A L P E R F O R M A N C E C R IT E R IA
IN T E G R A L S Q U A R E E R R O R IN T E G R A L O F T IM E W E IG H T E D
C R IT E R IO N ( IS E ) A B S O L U T E E R R O R ( IT A E )
IN T E G R A L O F A B S O L U T E V A L U E O F
E R R O R C R IT E R IO N ( IA E )
Give the role of evaluation criteria (2 marks)
i. Evaluation criteria plays a vital role in anlaysing the behavior of process for a particular set
of controller gains (KP, KI , KD)
ii. It helps to select proper controller gain values (KP, KI , KD) for a process so that optimum
control can be implemented for the process.
DISCUSS IN DETAIL ABOUT EVALUATION CRITERIA
The performance of the process for the implemented control action or the strategy and
parameter values of the controller is analysed to verify the proper selection and
implementation of the controller by evaluating certain process parameters is termed as
evaluation criteria
Evaluation criteria can be broadly classified into two types as
1. Steady state performance criteria
2. Dynamic response performance criteria
1.Steady state performance criteria: Here the error in the process is accounted, according
to the criteria the steady state error eSS of the process should be zero, for the implemented
control action and controller parameters.
2.Dynamic response performance criteria: This criteria is carried out in two different
ways as described follows
(i)Simple performance criteria:
 few parameters of the process is considered and only approximate
 The parameters considered are as follows
i. Overshoot, ii. Rise time, iii. Settling time, iv. Decay ratio, v. Frequency of oscillation
in transient
 All the above parameter should posses’ minimum value including the decay ratio value to
be ¼ for considering the controller and its parameter to best selection
 Also referred as isolated characteristics anlaysis
(ii)Time-Integral performance criteria:
 The entire response of the process from time, t=0 is considered for analyzing the
controller characteristics
 Give accurate analysis of the controller
 The performance is analysed in the following three ways
(a)Integral of the square error (ISE):
x
ISE=∫ e 2 ( t ) dt
0
 Used in system where we want strongly suppress large error, because the errors are
squared and thus contribute more to the value of the integral.
 It should not be used for analyzing process with small magnitude of errors.
(b)Integral of the absolute value of the error (IAE):
x
IAE=∫ |e (t)|dt
0
Used to suppress small errors, squaring of errors makes them smaller for smaller magnitude,
like 0.01
(c)Integral of the time weighted absolute error (ITAE):
x
ITAE=∫ t |e (t)|dt
0
 Used to suppress error that persist for long time, since the presence of the time ‘t’ in equation
multiplies the smaller magnitude error and makes it significant
 The above time integral criteria’s is considered for analysis based upon the characteristics of
the system, level of accuracy required.
 Each criterion is gives to a different controller design with different system output.
 The system output for the controller designed based on ISE will not be same with the
controller designed with IAE and also with ITAE.
How would you select the most appropriate out of the three time integral criteria ISE,
IAE and ITAE for a particular application ?
 To suppress errors that persist for long times, the ITAE criterion will tune the
controllers better because the presence of large t amplifies the effect of even
small errors in the value of the integral.
 If we want to strongly suppress large errors, ISE is better than IAE because the
errors are squared and thus contribute more to the value of the integral.
 For the suppression of small errors, IAE is better than ISE because when we
square small numbers ( smaller than one ) they become even smaller.

DEFINE TUNING OF CONTROLLERS(2 mark)
The method by which the exact magnitude of controller gain parameters Kp, KI, KD of the
PID controllers are obtained is called as tuning of controllers.
The tuning is generally carried out by considering the process environment in which the
controller is to be installed
GIVE THE BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF TUNING METHODS(2 mark)
1. open loop tuning
2. Closed loop tuning
OPEN LOOP TUNING: In this method the process control loop is opened and the loop
characteristics are studied to determine the parameters of the PID controller.
eg: Cohen-Coon tuning method
CLOSED LOOP TUNING: In this method process characteristics are studied with the
process control loop in closed condition and the loop to determine the parameters of the PID
controller.eg: Ziegler Nichols(Z-N) tuning method, Damped oscillation method or ¼ decay
ratio method
LIST THE VARIOUS TUNING METHOD FOR HIGHER ORDER SYSTEM(2 mark)
1. Ziegler-Nichols tuning method
2. ¼ decay ratio method
3. Damped oscillations method
4. Coohen-coon tuning method
EXPLAIN THE ZIEGLER NICHOLS (Z-N) CONTINUOUS CYCLE TUNING

METHOD (or) EXPLAIN ZIEGLER NICHOLS (Z-N) CONTROLLER TUNING
METHOD IN TIME DOMAIN
P -m o d e
S .P PID
FINA L
+- C O NTR O LLER
C O NTR O L PRO C ESS
ELEM ENT
P .V K C
T X
The output under continuous oscillations will be as given below

 This tuning method is one of the closed loop tuning methods
 In this method the controller is kept in only proportional mode
 The proportional gain (KC) of the controller is adjusted i.e., increased from its minimum
value till the process produces continuous cycle oscillation of equal magnitude in its
output as shown in the above figure
 The process is now said to be in marginally stable and there should not be further tuning
 Now at this point the magnitude of the controller gain is noted as ultimate gain (K U) and
time period for one cycle of oscillation as (PU)
 From the values of ultimate gain and period the parameter for various modes of controller
action can be obtained using the formulae’s as shown in the table below
Ti TD
KC
(min) (min)
Proportional KU/2 ------ ------
Proportional-integral KU/2.2 PU/1.2 ------
Proportional-integral-derivative KU/1.7 PU/2 PU/8
Limitations
1. The method is totally unsafe since the gain of the system is increased till marginally
stable condition
2. By means of increasing the controller gain; in this process if the gain is slightly
increased further the system will go to unstable condition which is very dangerous in
the real time environment.
EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF COHEN-COON METHOD OR PROCESS
REACTION CURVE METHOD OF CONTROLLER TUNING
METHOD-I: TANGENTIAL SLOPE METHOD
O /P s te p I /P
FINA L
+- PID C O NTR O L PR O C ESS
ELEM ENT
TX
The output will be as given below
O U T P U T
T A N G E N T
B
S L O P E = S
td
T IM E
 This method is a open loop tuning method
 The control loop of the system is opened between the controller and the final control
element
 Now the process is subjected to a step change in its input through the region at which
the loop is opened
 The output is obtained from the other end of the loop breaking point which resembles
like the English alphabet ’S’ called as S Shape curve or sigmoidal curve
 Draw a tangent with maximum point of inflection on the S-shape curve as shown in
the figure
 The point at which the tangent cuts the x-axis or time axis denotes the value of dead
time, td
 From the maximum value of the output(B) and slope of the curve(S) the time
constant(τ) can be calculated as τ =B/ S
 The system gain is calculated as
output at steady stae B
K= =
input at steady state A
K e−t S
d
 Now the system is modeled as G PRC ( s )=

τS+1
Now from the above values the controller settings for the various control mode is calculated
as mentioned below
1 τ t
P mode K C= ( )
K td
1+ d
3τ
------------ ------------
1 τ t 30+ 3t d /τ
K t ( 12 τ )
d
P+I mode K = 0.9+ T i=t d ------------
C
d
9+ 20 t d /τ
P+I+D 1 τ 4 t 32+6 t d /τ 4
K t (3 4τ )
K = d
+ T i=t d T D =t d
mode C
d
13+ 8t d /τ 11+ 2t d / τ
Merits:
The controller tuning method does not take the process to unstable condition.
Demerits:
The control loop has to be opened for performing the tuning.
METHOD-II: TWO POINT METHOD
O /P s te p I /P
FINA L
+- PID C O NTR O L PR O C ESS
The
ELEM ENT output
will be
as
given
TX below
 This method is a open loop tuning method

 The control loop of the system is opened between the controller and the final control
element
 Now the process is subjected to a step change in its input through the region at which
the loop is opened
 The output is obtained from the other end of the loop breaking point which resembles
like the English alphabet ’S’ called as S Shape curve
 from the system response the system is modeled as first order with dead time as
follows
 time values for 28.3% and 63.2% of the final value of the response is calculated as t 1
and t2 respectively
 The system gain is calculated as
change ∈output
K=
change∈input
the time constant(τ) is calculated as τ = 1.5(t2 – t1)
The dead time (td) of the system is calculated as td = t2 – τ
K e−t S
d
Now the system is modeled as G PRC ( s )=

τS+1
Now from the above values the controller settings for the various control mode is calculated
as mentioned below
1 τ t
P mode K C= ( )
K td
1+ d
3τ
------------ ------------
1 τ t 30+ 3t d /τ
K t ( 12 τ )
d
P+I mode K = 0.9+ T i=t d ------------
C
d
9+ 20 t d /τ
P+I+D 1 τ 4 t 32+6 t d /τ 4
K t (3 4τ )
K = d
+ T i=t d T D =t d
mode C
d
13+ 8t d /τ 11+ 2t d / τ
Merits:
The controller tuning method does not take the process to unstable condition.
Demerits:
The control loop has to be opened for performing the tuning.
List the drawback of Ziegler Nichols closed loop tuning method(2 mark)
1. The method is totally unsafe since the gain of the system is increased till marginally
stable condition
2. By means of increasing the controller gain; in this process if the gain is slightly increased
further the system will go to unstable condition which is very dangerous in the real time
environment.
What is the need for tuning of controller? (2 mark)
The proper working and performance of the controller depends upon its gain parameters,
hence tuning of controllers is necessary to find the exact magnitudes of controller gains
EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF DAMPED OSCILLATION METHOD OR ¼ DECAY

RATIO METHOD OF CONTROLLER TUNING
P -m o d e
S .P FINA L
+- C O NTR O LLER C O NTR O L PRO C ESS
ELEM ENT
P .V K C
T X
The output will be as given below

 This method is a closed loop tuning method and practiced in industries generally.
 The controller is turned into proportional only mode of control action
 The gain of the controller is increased from its minimum value till in the response the
1
amplitude of 2nd peak will be 1/4th the amplitude of the 1st peak i.e., B= 4 A
 Now the magnitude of the controller gain is noted as ultimate gain (K U) and time period
for one cycle of oscillation as (PU)
 Now the controller parameter for various control action is as follows
Ti TD
KC
(min) (min)
Proportional KU ------ ------
Proportional-integral KU PU/6 ------
Proportional-integral-derivative KU PU/6 PU/1.5
Merits
1. The method is carried out in closed loop manner hence it is possible to obtain the
controller parameter with good accuracy.
2. The method is safe to be carried out in closed loop condition.
Demerits
1. If the tuning is not carried out properly, and the loop is operated at high values of
proportional gain there may possibility for the system to go to unstable condition.
EXPLAIN THE PROCEDURE FOR ZIEGLER-NICHOLS (Z-N) CONTROLLER
TUNING IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN METHOD.
The Z-N closed loop tuning method in frequency domain can be explained as follows
Let the closed loop transfer function of the process be
K (τ S+1) S
G ( S )= e−t d
( τ 1 S +1 ) ( τ 2 S+1)
Let us replace S→jω
Therefore
K (τ jω+1) jω
G ( jω )= e−t d
( τ 1 jω+1 ) ( τ 2 jω+ 1)
The system is said to be marginally stable when Amplitude Ratio (A.R) = 1; i.e., when ϕ = 180°
At ϕ=-180°; Let ω = ωCO
Now the amplitude ratio (A.R) of the above transfer function can be given as
K √ (τ jω CO )2 +12
A . R= 2 2 2 2
( √( τ 1 jω CO ) +1 ) ( √(τ 2 jω CO ) + 1 )
At phase cross over frequency the system’s phase equation can be given as
τ ω CO τ ω τ ω 180
−180=tan −1 ( 1 ) ( )
−tan−1 1 CO −tan−1 2 CO −t d ( ωCO ) ×
1 1 π ( )
The value of ωCO can be found from the phase plot corresponding to the bode diagram of the
system; G(S) as given below
o
-1 8 0
co 
Now with the value of ωCO from the phase plot the value of amplitude ratio is calculated and
Now the ultimate gain can be given as
1
KU=
A. R
The ultimate period is calculated as follows
Here ω CO =2 π f o
Substituting fo = 1/Pu; where PU = ultimate period
Therefore
2π 2π
ω CO = ⟹ PU=
PU ωCO
From the values of Ku and PU the controller settings for various modes of PID controller can
be given as
Ti TD
KC
(min) (min)
Proportional KU/2 ------ ------
Proportional-integral KU/2.2 PU/1.2 ------
Proportional-integral-derivative KU/1.7 PU/2 PU/8
COMPARE CLOSED LOOP TUNING AND OPEN LOOP TUNING(2 mark)

S.N OPEN LOOP TUNING CLOSED LOOP TUNING
O
1 The tuning procedure is carried out The tuning is carried out by operating the
by opening the closed loop control loop in the closed loop condition itself
condition of the control loop
There is no possibility for unstable Improper tuning of controller may lead the
2
operating condition process to unstable condition
3 Eg: Cohen-coon tuning Eg: Ziegler-Nichols tuning
COMPARE Z-N AND COHEN COON TUNING(2 mark)
S.N ZIEGLER NICHOLS(Z-N) TUNING COHEN-COON(C-C) TUNING
O
The tuning is carried out in closed loop The tuning is carried out in open loop
1
condition condition
Improper tuning of controller may lead There is no possibility for unstable
2
the process to unstable condition operating condition
Tuning parameters are obtained by Tuning parameters are obtained from the
3 operating the process at marginally process reaction curve or ‘S’ shaped
stable condition. curve of the system
COMPARE Z-N AND DAMPED OSCILLATION METHOD(2 mark)
S.N ZIEGLER NICHOLS(Z-N) DAMPED OSCILLATION METHOD
O TUNING
The tuning is carried out in closed loop The tuning is carried out in closed loop
1
condition condition
Improper tuning of controller may lead possibility for unstable operating
2
the process to unstable condition condition are very less
Tuning parameters are obtained by Tuning parameters are obtained from the
3 operating the process at marginally process when the magnitude of second
stable condition. peak is 1/4th of first peak
Commonly not preferred in industries Commonly preferred tuning method in
4
industries
In what way damped oscillation method is safer or preferable than Ziegler-Nichols
method. (2 mark)
In damped oscillation method the process is not operated in the marginally stable condition
hence the method is most preferable than Ziegler-Nichols method.
DEFINE FEED FORWARD CONTROLLER

It is an anticipatory controller which measures the disturbance directly, anticipates its effect
on the process output and eliminates the impact of the disturbance on the process through its
control action on the manipulated variable
GIVE THE DRAWBACKS OF FEED FORWARD CONTROLLER
1. The controller should have knowledge about all the disturbances acting on the process.
2. The controller does not have any action over the disturbances that act on the process after
the control action.
3. Measuring all the disturbances and implementing the control increases the complexity of
the control loop and increases the total cost of the control mechanism
GIVE THE CONDITION FOR CONTROLLER EQUATION TO ELIMINATE THE
EFFECT OF DISTURBANCE ON THE PROCESS
The closed loop equation of feed forward control system is given as
To eliminate the effect of disturbance we have to make
The resulting controller equation to eliminate disturbance is given by
EXPLAIN THE FEED FORWARD CONTROLLER IN DETAIL (OR) EXPLAIN

THE WORKING OF ANTICIPATORY CONTROLLER IN DETAIL with an example
It is an anticipatory controller which measures the disturbance directly, anticipates its effect
on the process output and eliminates the impact of the disturbance on the process through its
control action on the manipulated variable.
Example: Drum level control
In the above example the drum water level control is done not by placing level sensor inside
the drum but the disturbance parameters such as feed water inflow rate and steam outflow
rate are measured and based on the impact of these parameters in drum level the feed
forward controller adjust the feed water inflow rate to maintain the drum level in the set
point.
The detailed generalized control system block diagram can be given as
From the above figure the overall system equation can be given as
---- (1)
In order to eliminate the effect of disturbance (i. e ., d́ =0) the equation for controller can be
derived from the above equation (1) as follows
To eliminate the effect of disturbance the term

------ (2)
Here GP, Gf, Gm, Gd are unalterable hence the effect of disturbance can be made zero only if
---------- (3)
Now to make the system to track the set point [i. e ., ý ( S )= ý SP ( S ) ¿ the term
-------- (4)
Substituting the controller equation (3) in equation (4) we get
Here GP, Gf, Gc, Gd, Gm are unalterable hence the set point tracking can be achieved only if
Thus the control loop shown in above figure eliminates the effect of disturbance with the
help of controller and set point tracking is achieved by means of GSP(S) in the block diagram.
Merits
1. Acts before the effect of a disturbance has been felt by the system.
2. It is good for slow system
3. It does not introduce instability in the closed loop response
Demerits
1. The controller should have knowledge about the process and disturbances acting on the
process.
2. The controller does not have any action over the disturbances that act on the process after
the control action.
3. Measuring all the disturbances and implementing the control increases the complexity of
the control loop and increases the total cost of the control mechanism.
4. There is no control action with unmeasured disturbances.
1. Hold the ratio of purge stream to the recycle stream constant

2. Keep the ratio of fuel-air in a burner at its optimum value.
3. To maintain constant ratio between the feed flow rate and steam in reboiler.
EXPLAIN THE FEED FORWARD PLUS FEEDBACK CONTROL SCHEME IN

DETAIL WITH AN EXAMPLE
 The above diagram is an example of feed forward + feedback control scheme. In this
system the tank content should be maintained at a constant temperature by adjusting the
steam flow rate (heat input)
 The feedback loop measures the tank content temperature and generates its control signal
through its controller GC1 to adjust the steam flow rate.
 The feed forward loop measures the temperature of tank inflow (disturbance) and
generates its control action through its controller GC2 to adjust the steam flow rate.
 The steam flow rate is adjusted according to the summation of the two control signals.
The control system block diagram in general can be given by
Where the system output is given by the equation

The feed forward loop parameters are given by
The closed loop stability is given by the feedback components as below
Compare feed forward and feedback control

S.N FEED FORWARD CONTROLLER FEEDBACK CONTROLLER
O
1 Acts before the effect of a disturbance It waits until the effect of the
has been felt by the system disturbances has been felt by the
system, before control action is taken
2 It is good for slow process and process It is unsatisfactory for slow processes
with dead time and process with dead time
3 It does not introduce instability in the It may create instability in the closed
closed loop response loop response
4 Requires identification of all possible It does not requires identification of all
disturbances and their direct possible disturbances and their direct
measurement measurement
5 Sensitive to process parameter Insensitive to parameter changes
variations
6 Requires good knowledge of the Insensitive to modeling errors
process model
What is the advantage or reason of having feedforward control along with feedback
control
The advantage or reason of having feedforward control along with feedforward control can
be as follows
(i) The impact of unmeasured disturbances can be accounted by feedback mechanism
and the required corrective action will be implemented
(ii) The system response will be better when it is associated with feedback control.
List some advantages of feed forward controller
1. Acts before the effect of a disturbance has been felt by the system.
2. It is good for slow system
3. It does not introduce instability in the closed loop response
Define cascade control
The control strategy in which there exist a inner or secondary control loop that controls a fast
changing secondary variable of the main process by having main controller output as its set
point in order to fasten the slow behavior of process variable controlled by the main loop to
maintain it at the user defined set point.
Where the cascade control should be implemented
The cascade control should be implemented for the processes that has
(i) Process variable to be controlled has slow response for changes
(ii) The system with large dead time or lag time.
What is the condition for selection of primary and secondary process in cascade
control?
In cascade control the primary loop should control a slow process variable and the secondary
loop should control a process variable that changes faster in the same process than the
primary variable.
List the draw backs of cascade control
The draw backs of cascade control system are
1. It increases the overall cost of the control system
2. It increases the complexity of the control loop
Define primary control loop or master control loop or outer control loop of cascade
control
The loop that receives the user defined set point and controls the main process variable by
suitable measurement devices is called primary of master or outer control loop
Define secondary control loop or slave control loop or inner control loop of cascade
control
The loop that receives primary controller output as its set point, measures and through final
control element controls a fast changing secondary variable than the primary variable in
order to maintain the primary process variable at its set point.
Define primary variable of cascade control loop
The main process variable which behaves slowly by nature and to maintained at the user
defined set point by means of master or primary controller
Define secondary variable of cascade control loop
The inner loop of slave loop process variable that changes faster than the slowly changing
primary loop variable is called as secondary variable.
Define primary or master controller
The controller that receives user defined set point and controls the process variable of
interest is termed as primary controller.
Define secondary controller
The controller that receives set point from the primary controller, measures and through final
control element controls a secondary process variable associated with the main process is
called secondary process
List the merits of cascade control
1. It helps to track the slow process variable at a faster rate than the conventional controller.
2. Faster control action for changes can be implemented than in the conventional control
scheme
List the tuning procedure for cascade control loop
The following steps should be followed while tuning a cascade control scheme
1. First the secondary controller settings should be found using any of the tuning method
2. Second the bode plot of open loop transfer function of primary loop with secondary loop
in the closed condition is drawn and crossover frequency is calculated
3. From the calculated values of cross over frequency the controller settings of primary
controller can be obtained using any one frequency tuning method.
List the control action preferred for primary and secondary controller in cascade
control scheme
Primary loop: P+I control Secondary loop: P control
Explain cascade control scheme in detail with an example
The control strategy in which there exist a inner or secondary control loop that controls a fast
changing secondary variable of the main process by having main controller output as its set
point in order to fasten the slow behavior of process variable controlled by the main loop to
maintain it at the user defined set point.
Example
Fig.(a):conventional scheme Fig.
Explanation:
In fig(a):conventional scheme: The temperature inside the reactor to be maintained at a set
point is measured, compared and the required corrective action is implemented by adjusting
coolant flow rate using control valve. The main drawback is the reactor temperature changes
to new value before the control action taken reflects on the system because of the slow
response in the coolant flow rate.
In fig(b):cascade scheme: The Primary controller in order to maintain the reactor
temperature, measures the reactor temperature and give its control signal, this control signal
is transferred to the secondary control loop as set point, where the coolant temperature, a fast
changing variable than the reactor temperature is considered as secondary variable and
measured, the resulting control action from the secondary controller adjusts the coolant flow
rate through control valve.
The block diagram of fig(b) can be given as
From the block diagram
Primary loop: The loop that receives the user defined set point and controls the main
process variable by suitable measurement devices is called primary of master or outer control
loop
Secondary loop: The loop that receives primary controller output as its set point, measures
and through final control element controls a fast changing secondary variable than the
primary variable in order to maintain the primary process variable at its set point.
The open loop transfer function of secondary loop is given by
Now the stability of the secondary loop can be given by
The open loop transfer function of primary loop is given by
Now the stability of the secondary loop can be given by
Merits of cascade control

1. It helps to track the slow process variable at a faster rate than the conventional controller.
2. Faster control action for changes can be implemented than in the conventional control
scheme
Demerits of cascade control
The draw backs of cascade control system are
1. It increases the overall cost of the control system
2. It increases the complexity of the control loop
List some area of application for cascade control
Heat exchangers, distillation columns, Furnaces etc.,
Compare cascade and conventional control scheme
S.N CASCADE CONTROL CONVENTIONAL CONTROL
O
1 It is used for process with slow It is used for process with normal
response behaviour
2 It has two closed loop viz., primary or It has only one closed loop
master loop and secondary or slave
loop
3 It has two measurement and one It has one measurement and one
manipulated variable manipulated variable
4 Due to two loops the hardware There exist no such complexity
complexity of loop increases
5 Increases overall cost of the control Can be implemented at reasonable cost
system comparatively
6 Provides good control over slow and Provides a compromising response
process with dead time when comparatively
compared with conventional control
Why feedforward control is preferred along with feedback control ?

Feedforward control suffers from following inherent weakness as listed below.
a. It requires the identification of all possible disturbances and their direct measurements,
sometimes that may not be possible for many process
b. Any changes in the parameters of a process cannot be compensated by a feedforward
controller because their impact cannot be detected.
c. Feedforward control requires a very good model for the process, which is not possible
for many systems in industry.
On the other hand , feedback control is rather insensitive to all three of these drawbacks and
hence feedforward controller is used along with feedback controller.
Explain the purpose of cascade control scheme.
Many process are controlled by regulating the flow of a heating medium such as gas, oil,
steam or fuel for supply heat to process. Variations in flow not dictated by the controller are
caused by changes in pressure differential at the valve, which in turn, result from changes in
pressure of supply , changes in downstream pressure, and so on. These changes are difficult
to counteract since they must carry through the process before they are detected in the
controller. Supply changes sometimes occur suddenly or over a wide range, and deviation
may become excessive before a new balance of conditions can be established. Such a
conditions are normally overcome by a scheme called ‘cascade control’.
What are the main advantages of cascade control ?
The advantages of cascade control are
a. Disturbance affecting the secondary variable can be corrected by the secondary
controller before a pronounced influence is felt by the primary variable.
b. Closing the control loop around the secondary part of the process reduces the
phase lag seen by the primary controller, resulting in increased speed of response.
What are the inherent weakness of the feedforward control ?
Feedforward control suffers from following inherent weakness as listed below.
a. It requires the identification of all possible disturbances and their direct measurements,
sometimes that may not be possible for many process
b. Any changes in the parameters of a process cannot be compensated by a feedforward
controller because their impact cannot be detected.
c. Feedforward control requires a very good model for the process, which is not possible for
many systems in industry.
UNIT V – Model Based Control
Explain in details about dead time compensation or smith predictor algorithm for
deadtime compensation
The effect of dead time in a system is removed by using smith predictor algorithm.
Let the process with dead time (td) is given by
S
G P (S)=G ( S ) e−t d
The closed loop block diagram of the system is given by
The open loop response to a change in the set-point is equal to

ý ( S )=G C ( s ) [ G ( S ) e−t S ] ý sp (s) _ _ _ (1)
d
We need a open loop response given by

ý ¿ ( S )=G C ( s ) G(s ) ý sp(s)_ _ _(2)
Hence by smith-predictor algorithm we add a feedback path ý ' ( S ) given by
ý ' ( S )=(1−e−t S)G C ( s ) G( s) ý sp (s )_ _ _ (3)
d
Now as per the smith predictor algorithm the modified closed loop system diagram can be
given as follows
From the above diagram the resulting feedback loop is given as additive of two components
i.e., ý ¿ ( S )= ý ' ( S ) + ý ( S )_ _ _ _ _ _(4)
Substituting equation (1) and equation (3) in equation (4)
ý ¿ ( S )= ( 1−e−t S ) GC ( s ) G ( s ) ý sp ( s ) +GC ( s ) G ( S ) e−t S ý sp (s)

d d
ý ¿ ( S )=G C ( s ) G ( s ) ý sp ( s )−G C ( s ) G ( s ) ý sp ( s ) e−t S +G C ( s ) G ( S ) e−t S ý sp (s)

d d
∴ ý ¿ ( S )=G C ( s ) G(s) ý sp (s )
Thus as per the smith predictor algorithm the effect of dead time is removed by introducing
the term ý ' ( S ).

Process Control Fundamentals

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Process Control Fundamentals

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EI 8553- Process Control

Explain the term degree of freedom of a process

i.e., f =( number of variables )−(number of equations)

Define interacting system and give an example.

GIVE REASONS FOR DEAD TIME IN A SYSTEM

Explain the working of I To P converter or ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC actuator

 I to P convertor shown in above figure is arranged to convert and electrical signal

Define actuator(or) Give the role of actuator in a control valve

List the effects of Flashing

How cavitations in control valve can be avoided

What are the three different inherent characteristics of a control valve ?

Control valve sizing Link

Step 1: Calculate Actual Pressure Drop

Step 2: Check for Choked Flow, Cavitation and Flashing

Step 3: Determine Specific Gravity

Step 4: Calculate Approximate Cv

Step 5: Select Approximate Body Size Based on Cv

Step 7: Recalculate Cv Using Reynolds Number Factor

Step 8: Calculate Piping Geometry Factor

Step 10: Calculate Valve Exit Velocity

Step 11: Recalculate Cv If Body Size Changed

Step 12: Select Trim Number

UNIT-III Control Actions

What do you meant by bias of on-off controller

Define set point.

In Laplace domain (Transfer function):

Electronically the output equation is given as

Controller output for error signal

Relationship between Kc and PB : Kc X PB = 100 (OR) Kc X % PB = 1

The controller can be electronically given as

For FAST RESET action the controller will have

In Laplace domain the transfer function is given as

The controller can be electronically given as

Derivative mode output for random rate of change in input

The response of the controller for error input can be given as

The response of the controller can be given as

PROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL + DERIVATIVE ACTION(PID MODE ACTION)

The controller can be electronically given as

Define the term process lag

EXPLAIN THE ZIEGLER NICHOLS (Z-N) CONTINUOUS CYCLE TUNING

The output under continuous oscillations will be as given below

METHOD-I: TANGENTIAL SLOPE METHOD

 Now the system is modeled as G PRC ( s )=

 This method is a open loop tuning method

the time constant(τ) is calculated as τ = 1.5(t2 – t1)

The dead time (td) of the system is calculated as td = t2 – τ

Now the system is modeled as G PRC ( s )=

EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF DAMPED OSCILLATION METHOD OR ¼ DECAY

The output will be as given below

COMPARE CLOSED LOOP TUNING AND OPEN LOOP TUNING(2 mark)

DEFINE FEED FORWARD CONTROLLER

The resulting controller equation to eliminate disturbance is given by

EXPLAIN THE FEED FORWARD CONTROLLER IN DETAIL (OR) EXPLAIN

To eliminate the effect of disturbance the term

1. Hold the ratio of purge stream to the recycle stream constant

EXPLAIN THE FEED FORWARD PLUS FEEDBACK CONTROL SCHEME IN

The control system block diagram in general can be given by

Where the system output is given by the equation

The closed loop stability is given by the feedback components as below

Compare feed forward and feedback control

Fig.(a):conventional scheme Fig.

The open loop transfer function of secondary loop is given by