Lecture-4

INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

A system development process is a set of activities, methods, best practices, deliverables,

and automated tools that stakeholders (Chapter 1) use to develop and maintain
information systems and software.
The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a framework to assess the maturity level of an
organization’s information system development and management processes and products.
It consists of five levels of maturity as measured by a set of guidelines called the key
process areas.
– Level 1—Initial: System development projects follow no prescribed process.
– Level 2—Repeatable: Project management processes and practices are
established to track project costs, schedules, and functionality.
– Level 3—Defined: A standard system development process (sometimes called a
“methodology”) is purchased or developed, and integrated throughout the
information systems/services unit of the organization.
– Level 4—Managed: Measurable goals for quality and productivity are
established.
– Level 5—Optimizing: The standardized system development process is
continuously monitored and improved based on measures and data analysis
established in Level 4.

Life Cycle versus Methodology

A system life cycle divides the life of an information system into two stages, (1) systems
development and (2) systems operation and support.

A system development methodology is a very formal and precise system development

process that defines (as in CMM Level 3) a set of activities, methods, best practices,
deliverables, and automated tools that system developers and project managers are to use
to develop and maintain information systems and software

Systems development is the process of defining, designing, testing, and implementing a

new software application or program. It could include the internal development of
customized systems, the creation of database systems, or the acquisition of third-party-
developed software.
Principles of System Development
• Get the owners and users involved.
• Use a problem-solving approach.
 • Establish phases and activities.
• Establish standards.
• Justify systems as capital investments.
• Don’t be afraid to cancel or revise scope.
• Divide and conquer.
• Design systems for growth and change.
Following are some examples of how you, as a user, may participate in systems
development:
• You could easily find yourself in a meeting discussing the nature of problems with the
current system and how it can be improved.
• You may be required to provide systems analysts and designers with the
departmental objectives and requirements that the system must meet.
• You may often be involved in the approval of projects and budgets as a member of a
special steering committee.
• As the development of a new nears completion, you will probably help evaluate and
test it to ensure that it works as expected.
• You will have to help prepare of system some of the documentation that is
accumulated during the entire process of system development.
• You may attend briefings and training sessions to learn how the new system will
affect your job and what its new operating procedures will be.
• And last, but certainly not least, you will end up using the new system. This may
involve preparing data for input or using information produced by the system.
Project Identification and Initiation
• Problems are undesirable situations that prevent the organization from fully
achieving its purpose, goals, and/or objectives.
• Opportunities are chances to improve the organization even in the absence of
specific problems.
• Directives are new requirements that are imposed by management, government, or
some external influence/parties.
The PIECES Problem-Solving Framework
The PIECES framework is a problem-solving framework that is used for the identification of
problems within an existing information system. This framework provides a great starting
point for analysts to understand the problems faced by organizations.
 P the need to improve performance (throughput & response time)
I the need to improve information (and data)
E the need to improve economics, control costs, or increase profits
C the need to improve control or security
E the need to improve efficiency of people and processes
S the need to improve service to customers, suppliers, partners, employees, etc.

Cross life cycle activities are activities that overlap many or all phases of the methodology.
 Fact-finding
 Documentation and presentation
 Feasibility analysis
 Process and project management
 Fact-finding
Fact-finding- the formal process of using research, interviews, meetings,
questionnaires, sampling, and other techniques to collect information about system
problems, requirements, and preferences.
 Documentation and presentation
Documentation– the ongoing activity of recording facts and specifications for a
system for current and future reference.
Presentation– the ongoing activity of communicating findings, recommendations,
and documentation for review by interested users and mangers.
Repository– a database and/or file directory where system developers store all
documentation, knowledge, and artifacts for one or more information systems or
projects.
 Feasibility analysis
 Process and project management

Lecture-6 & 7
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

The software development life cycle (SDLC), also referred to as the application
development life-cycle, is a process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying
an information system. The systems development life cycle concept applies to a range of
hardware and software configurations, as a system can be composed of hardware only,
software only, or a combination of both. There are usually six stages in this cycle:

Phase 1: Analyze the current system :-

In the first phase of the SDLC, systems analysts conduct a preliminary analysis, determining
the organization’s objectives and the nature and scope of existing problems. They then
propose solutions in a report to management.
Purpose of Phase 1
The main objectives of phase 1 is to gain a clear understanding of the existing system and
its shortcomings, to identify existing problems, and to determine where improvements can
be made.
Before a company starts to analyze its current system in detail, a company steering
committee may request experts to report on a proposed new systems project. This report;
often called a feasibility study, can be considered part of the first phase of systems
development.
Phase 2: Define New Systems Requirements:-
In phase 2 of the SDLC, systems analyst defines the requirement of the new system in detail
and evaluates alternative solutions to problems.
In phase 2 the analyst focus attention on what they –and the user –want the new system to
do. But before designing the new system, the analysts have to define the requirements that
it must satisfy. And the requirements must be defined very carefully; otherwise the new
system might not end up doing what the users hope it will do.

Purpose of Phase 2
In the second phase of the SDLC, the analyst defines the requirements for the new
system in enough detail so both computer professionals and users know exactly what the
new system is going to do and how the system is going to do it.
Requirements That Affect Software
Requirements That Affect Hardware
Evaluating Alternative Solutions
Systems Requirements Report
The output requirements fall into three general categories.
• Hardware output (printed reports, special forms, and so on)
• Softcopy output (displayed on video screen)
• Computer-usable output (a computer file created during processing for output in one
system that is also used as input to another system-for example, a file produced by
the payroll by system that is later used in the general ledger system).
To define the requirements for hardcopy and softcopy outputs, the analyst meets with each
user who will be using each type of output to carefully identify:
• The purpose of the output
• The element of information it will contain
• How each element will be used
• How often and how fast the output will need to be produced
Phase 3: Design the new system
In phase 3 of the SDLC, systems analyst and designers do the actual design work, often
using computer-aided systems engineering tools to speed up the design process.
Purpose of phase 3
Phase 3 involves two main objectives:
(1) to design the new system and
(2) to establish a sound framework of controls within the new system should operate.
Tools used are, among others, data flow diagrams, systems flowcharts, program flowcharts
(used by programmers writing software programs), structured design and programming,
and prototyping.
Computer aided systems engineering (CASE) tools
-Project dictionary organization.
-Among other outputs, CASE tools can generate:
-Designing New Systems Controls and Security Functions
Phase 4: Develop the new System and Have Users Test it:-
In the fourth phase of the SDLC, hardware and software are obtained, and the new system
is tested.
Purpose of phase 4
During Phase 4, four major activities occur:
Acquire software
Acquire hardware
Train the users
Test the new system
Phase 5: Implement the New system:-
In the fifth phase of the SDLC, final operating documentation and procedures are created,
files are converted, and the new system is used. Conversion to the new system may
proceed in four ways: direct, parallel, phased, or pilot.
Purpose of Phase 5
The implementation phase, which gets the new system up and running, involves
creating the final operating documentation and procedures, converting files, and using the
new system.
Phase 6: Post implementation Evaluation and Maintenance (Support) :-
The last phase of the SDLC consists of keeping the system running through system audits
and periodic evaluations. When the time and money spent on maintaining and updating a
system reach a critical point, its time to start planning a new systems development life
cycle.
Purpose of Phase 6
After a new system has been in operation for several months and any necessary
systems maintenance has been done, a formal evaluation –called a post implementation
evaluation –of the new system takes place. This evaluation determines either that the new
system is meeting its objectives or that certain things need to be done so that it will meet
these objectives.

Information Gathering
Information Gathering is the act of gathering different kinds of information against the
targeted system. The analyst can use a number of techniques, including:

o Conducting interviews:
o Reviewing policies and procedures:
o Collecting sample forms, documents, memos, reports, and so on:
o Observing operations and office environment:
o Using questionnaires to conduct surveys:

Analyzing information
After the analyst has gathered information about the current system, he or she must
analyze the facts to identify problems –including their causes and effects-and
opportunities for improvement. Just a few of the things that the analyst determine
are:

o Minimum, average, and maximum levels of activity: For example, when do most
sales orders come in?
o Relative importance of the various activities: This means prioritizing the activities.
o Redundancy of procedures: For examples, are two users entering the same sales
order data at different times?
o Usually labor-intensive and/or tedious activities: These are manual activities that
could be computerized, like filling our forms to record sales data.
o Activities that require extensive (complex and /or repetitive) mathematical
computation: An example is updating customer charge account balances and interest
charges.
o Procedures that have become obsolete: Perhaps your company the requirements
have changed, rendering the old procedures useless.

Modeling tools
o Data flow diagrams show the flow of data through a system and diagram the
processes that charges data into information. They focus on where data originates,
 where and how it’s processed, and where it goes. Data flow diagrams can be used for
clarification in any phase of the systems development life cycle. To give you an
example of how data flow symbols are used
o System flowcharts focus not only on data flow but on all aspects of a system. They
use their own special set of ANSI symbols:
o Connectivity diagrams are used to map network connections of people, data, and
activities at various locations. These diagrams are used as the basis for designing the
network and communications systems.
o Grid charts show the relationship between data on input documents and data on
output documents
o Decision tables show the rules that apply when certain conditions occur
o Prototyping is another tool used by system analyst to help them analyze a system
and start building, a new one. A prototype is essentially a small working model of the
system or some aspect of it. The prototype can be set up during this phase, or a later
phase, and then modified and improved during subsequent phases.