CHRISTIANS IN THE QUR'AN AND THE SUNNA ‘An assessment from the sources to hhelp define our relationship Ahmad von Denffer ‘The Islamic Foundation© The Islomic Foundation 1979/1399 AH. CONTENTS Reprinted 1982/1403 A.H Reprinted New Format 1987/1407 A. ISBN 0 86037 179 4 Introduction PART I: Stocktaking Eerly Encounters ‘The Encounter with Bokiro ‘The Encounter with Worege The Hijra to Abyssinic Published by: Messages to the Rulers ‘The Deputation from Najrén The Islomic Foundation oe ea ae 223 London Rood Leicester LE2 1ZE PART I Three Perspectives United Kingdom ‘The Theological Perspective ‘The Legel Perspective ‘The Societal Perspective Bibliography Abbreviations: EI Encyclopoedio of Islom Soe Disb Ie The Mite Eat And Ass: INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC PUBLISHING HOUSE. 095 ah SS Ah TAA Fa A Ho Afier Hijro ly ag Gl gh al egal pale Aiea aye lal NTU gad RYT ne A lA Not ae SEI Shorter Encyclopaedia of IslomINTRODUCTION The Aim This paper has but o single purpose: to help formu @ basis on which we as Muslims, foithful 10 the Qur'én ‘and the Sunne, can define our relationship with Christions Both the sources and the method of this paper are deter- mined by this gool. ‘The Sources It is obvious from the theme of this paper that the Qur'an cond the Sunna ore its twin sources. To assist understand- ing of the Qur'énic verses presented ond to place them into theit proper context, some reference is mode 10 the fofsr literature, though only to authors who ore said t0 belong 10 the ‘classical’ period.! As for the Sunne, the collections of ehedith hed to be supplemented by the rture, for two reasons: firstly, although @ hadith re~ ports onthe sunno, hadith and sunno ore two different matters! Secondly, it is the orrangement of various te- ports on the Prophet's" words and actions in the sito Titerture, which helps us to better understond the sunne smi, Mic: Shoes in Hod Mathedology and Literatefor out present purpose? Wherever the English translation of any quotation wos available, | have quoted from that published source, in order to make the task easier for he Feader not fomilior with Arabic. At times, however, | hod lzo to refer to untransloted books of edith ond tof The Method For the soke of defining out relationship with Christions, wwe consult the Qur'an ond the Sunna, In order to better understand. the Christion religious community, we shall ints, nanly in o theological perspective, © legal perspective and a societal perspective. ‘This. poper does not intend t0 give a picture of what the Qur'an soys about Jesus, his mother, birth, life, mission ond crucifixion. Also the Islamic refutation of the Christian concept of trinity will not be dwelt upon, since all these tre fomilir to both Muslims and Christians taking on inte CChristion Muslim relations. Rother this po enting the Prophet's approach to Christianity ond Christions. We shall thus try to recollect ond summarize the major encounters that the Prophet had with Christions. It is ebvious thot this method obliges us to keep close to our sources and to quote from them edequately, since So"sricee andor “atatsn ‘theo et everr mise, vwe need to collect and review our material, before we drow Conclusions from both the Quranic revelations related 10 these encounters ond the Prophet's actions or reactions to them, becring in mind that our relotionship with Chris» tions. involves the three perspectives mentioned above, ise. the theclegical, the legal ond the societal Finally, it should be noted that this poper is only o first step ond that | intend to come back to the issues raised herein ot some later stage, discussing the moterials presented ond the conclusions drawa in more deliPART |: STOCKTAKING Early Encounters Presumably there were many encounters between the Prophet and the early Muslims on the one hand ond Chris: tianity and Christions on the other, or of least there must certainly have been more encounters than our sources report. ‘A narration such os the following by ‘A’isha makes plain thot the eorly Muslims had some direct interrelation with Christions, ot least to the extent thot neighbourly ties were not ignored. The hediih is as Fallows: In is norrated about ‘A'isha thot she soid to "Ur wah: "My nephew! We (the members of the Pro- her's fanily) (spent our days thus) sometimes wwe sow three successive mocns (i.e. two months. elapsed) ond the oven wos not lighted in our houses.” (‘Urwah relates that he asked her.) How 4id you remain alive then?" 'A’isho replied: ‘Ne lived on dates ond water. Indeed there were 2 few Christion neighbours af the Prophet who hod some milk cattle, They (occesionolly) sent him milk os a gift ond he used to give some of it 10 us also.” (Bukhari ond Muslin). However, long before the hard yeors after the Hijro in Modine, Christians ployed some port in the life of the Prophet and the nescent Muslim community, and it is well known thot the siroditeroture refers in at least two in Stonces 10 whot one might call the ‘affimative’ role of Christions. towards the Prophet of Islom2‘The Encounter with Bakira ‘The meeting between the young Mubammod, when ac- ccompanying his uncle Abi TatTb on a trade journey to Syria, ‘ond the monk Bohira is mentioned in both Ibn Hishém's Sire rosul Allah and Ibn So'd's Tebogat.”The story itsell is well known and need not be repeated here! The accounts siven in cur sources differ considerably ond lin Hishon's report is much more elaborate. Common to both is the fol- lowing theme: the monk advises Abi Talib to toke special core of the young boy, since the Jews are jealous of him ‘ond might wish to couse him harm. European authors have cited the story about Bohira in connection with Sore 16: 103, to substontiate their view that Mohammad had been under Civistian influence from an early age, ond sometimes went fo the extent of ettributing to Bahra the role of Muhammad's feacher.* Muslim scholars on the other hand hod long since. critically examined the woys of transmission, through which this episod into the sire. ShiblT sums up the evalue- tion ofthe ‘hed 30 He” iermore asta, pera, or doeshe mention the, nave of @novator who wes & to be certainly unauthentic.A The general notion underlying fa as se nel ny Satay Nebr, Volo terminlogy soployed by. he schol‘The function of the Bakiva seems to be at least of o twofold nature. Firstly, Mchom: ‘mod's quardion ond perhops his wider fomily needed to be made awore of the boy's future role, and his protection had to be ensured. Secondly, some sort of authentication of the future prophet's message is here given by a Chris- tion authority in religious matters. We could therefore agree with Christion writers who state that there was o link between Muhommad ond Christians or Christianity from his ‘early doys, although our understanding of this link would differ from theirs. For us, the episode of Babira contains nothing to indicate that the monk was the Prophet's teacher. It is rather that this episode lends support to the view that see sariar Cvistons understood the rle ond me ssoge of Nuhommod differently from their contemporaries cond the Christions of today. This view is also met with in the Qur'én, os explained below. The Encounter with Warage ‘The second episode in which 9 Christion plays an firmative’ part towerds the prophet of Islam also reveals this kind of sympathetic and knowing attitude towards the Prophet and his message. Once again a leamed Christian ognizes the prophet in Muhommod and gives some kind cf authentication on the basis of the previously-reveoled scriptures. We refer of course to the well-known episode when KhadTjo, the Prophet's wife, after Nubommad's return from Mount HirS in a. state. of bewilderment, consulted Warage ibn Nawfl, 0 relative of hers. This is whet Ibn So'd "sees fit 10 report Then she went to Warage ibn Nowfal, and it wos the first time thot she approached him, ond told hhim what the opostle of Allah (may Ailah bless hhim) hod conveyed to her: Thereupon Waraqa seid: ‘Verily, your uncle's son is truthful ond 2 verily this is the beginning of his prophethood; and thot the archangel (ef nus ol akber) visits him, So. tell him that he should not think but good about himself.* In anther version, also in the Woroqe's reply to KhodTia is os follows, ee Ifthe is tue, then he is the nomes os in the cose ‘of Moses. If| om alive when he is commizsioned (to prophethood), | shall support him, help him ‘ond believe in him. 10 In Ite Hisham the episode is again somavhot non elaborately desrbnd In vrtovs places 1 sao of Worona thot he hod adopted Chistiony, ‘and stoded ie sep. tues onl be ed thoughly mastered them" Three cleo o rood of @ nesting between Norge ond Mibemnod, wien the Prophet ifomme Worage about he: vision, ond Morag etfs thot Majora's te Prophet of hs peo faa ® The obvious question, as to why the Prophet of Islam would wad soni sortof conhrnation or authentication SF his fle by'o Chistian, ho eleady been dealt with by Sur eely scolar Sas thes up tne question and then cites rom Fos e-Bar Mos follows: Holig Ibo Hojo, while commenting on the first port of this hodith, hs relered to on objection foised by some cities: "Why should o prophet doubt his prophethoed?” ond ‘In case there is fo, ia, pai: 4such o doubt how con it be removed by on as- ‘surance from a Christian?” He has then quoted @ reply for: renowned muheddith: ‘Prophethood is @ great responsibility. One cannot bear its burden all at once. For this reason the Prophet was prepared for it through dreams. On the sud- en oppearence of the Angel, he was seized with fear, 0s was but notural for @ human being Hadrot Khadija alleyed his feor, and he gained confidence when he wos assured by Woroga. The actual words of the said muhoddih ore When he heord his (Waraqe's) words he became convinced of the uth and accepted it, The said muheddith adds: ‘The revelations were repectedly deleyed so that he might gradvally be prepared to endure the burden. Ut may well be thot this possage inthe original Urdu of Shibl expresses more clearly the reply to the second que Yion alse, nomely why it should bee Christin who would atfirm the Prophet's role. One of the most simple reasons certinly is that Woraqo, being 9 Chrstion end a leamed ne, represented the lolest of the scriptures revealed by Allah’ ond it is on the outhoity of this scripture thot he and also Bahiro end some others, as we shall see later, fecognize the prophet in Mchormed The Hijro to Abyssi While the two episodes discussed so far hove a direct, boring upon the Prophet himself, the Hijro 10 Abyssinio in the fifth yeor of prophethood involved a number of the “ smambers of the noscent Muslim community, which ot time consisted of only 0 few outstandingly brove-hearted ond most loyal servonts of Allah. Again we shall not repeot all the details given elsewhere but ty to drow some con- clusions from the events ond how they have been pre- sented fo us. Iwas the Prophet himself, who advised some of his, followers to whom he could not afford protection from the increasing hostility end persecution by the Quraish, 10 migrate to Abyssinia, for Mubommad hed confidence in the ruler of that country. The reeson for the Hijre is given by bo. Hishdm in the following brief words: ‘Thereupon his componions went to Abyssinia, being sfroid of apostasy ond fleeing 10 God with their religion3> In other words, the Prophot and his early followers be- lieved thot in @ country ruled by o Christion, Muslims would be safe from persecution ond the danger of apostasy. In Tin So'd, whose report on the Hiire to Abyssinia is much shorter, the muhajirin confirm that in this Christian country they were allowed 0 practise their foith and live their lives in peace.l6 The Companions retuned 10 Makka, be: cause they had heard of some reconciliatin between Mubor- ‘mod ond the Quraish.” This, however, proved to be false ‘heft notions thie i ane I Mish, 9.146 va SS uy atetumout ond the persion of Muslims in Neko inrese Actning wo in Sethe cen Mee Abas as tok plce ond is tine he Gash sonic message oe Nes to ret the ‘tigen, na moving speech lor of the mobjiran Jofor 8 Abi Tally, enpened Yo the hing tnd he osanbled clergy whet he Prophet hod tage teste A pessage fom Sia Naryon wo then ele Yo Noses bythe Mostna,ond the Negus eterards sod Of © truth, this and what Jesus!” brought hove come from the some niche, 2° When lterwards the crucial question obovt Jesus on their ble in hin wor pt belo them, the usin wi ut hiding anything openly declred thet Jess nthe View and’ eceording 10 the Prophets tacking. wey ihe Servnt of God ond His opotler and His ape, and His word hich He cas in” Mary the Messed virgin To eh the Nap hinges fon te yond, bled ‘By God, ess, Son of ory dvs not end you hove soid by the length of tie slicks atest in his content i noteworthy thot the folowing verse fromthe Goren with drat bearing vpn aur thee wos revealed shen the Napesof Abysinio oer sent ole gaton tothe Prophet % You will find thot the people most violently hostile towards those who believe ore the Jews and those who associate (others with God); sahile you will find the mast affectionate among them towards those who believe are those who ‘soy: We ore Christions'. That is because some of them ore priests and monks; they do not ‘behave proudly. 2? The sentence, dhaliko bi-onne minhum gissTs7n0 wo ruhbenon, has been explained as follows: Ih has been said: This come down referring to the Negus ond his companions who sur- rendered (to Islam) with him.2 and the fallowing lines were edded in suppor: ‘This mesning is @ condensotion from the saying of Sod b. Jabir upon Tefstr ol-Tebori, Vol. 9 and ol-Durr ei Manthir, Vol. li, p.302. S0'id b. Jabir ond os-Sa'di ond others have sai: In was revealed about the delegation sent by the Negus to the Prophet to heor his word, ond 10 see his qualities, and when they sow him ond he feod the Qur'an’ to them, they surrendered (10 Ilan) ond wept and were humble. Then they, retumed to the Negus ond reported 10 him... 22. Sino $1 82 The Our: Bosie Teochng 12This verse, when seen in its historical context, does not seem to be meant os 0 general statement characterizing Christions os such as being nearest to Muslims. Rather, 5 the tofsir indicated, o very porticular group of Christions is hore referred fo, namely o delegotion sent by the Negus of Abyssinia, consisting of pethops only 12 persons, seven cof whom ore said to have been ruhbsn, ond five qisstsin?? It should also be token into account that Sore 3: 199% fol lowing the classical exegesis. connot be interpreted os ‘accepting a group of righteous believers among the Chris fians, who ore a party of hi ol-ktab, for although this verse is also said to refer to the delegation of the Negus, 27 iis clear thet they are mentioned here becouse, es the ‘exegete puts it: ‘they hod already believed.” 2%, 8 Messages to the Rulers While in Madina, the Prophet hed sent a numberof letters to the rulers of various tribes and nations. Although not all of them were addressed to Christions, three of the most prominent recipients were the Christian rlers of Byzantivm, Egypt ond Abyssinie. These messages were sent from Moding in 7 H., ie. after the treaty of Hudeibiya, together with ¢ similar letter to the wulet of Iren. The sahihoin Contein lengthy reports on the Prophet's message 10 Hiraql (Horeclivs), inviting him to accept Islam. ® There is on fomezing feature in this norrotion, namely thot the first rowi in the ‘an8d is Abo Sufyén, the well-known Mokkan Teader ond opponent of Muhammad who says that he was present at the coutt of Heraclius at the very time when Mchonmod's message was received. It is Abd Sufyan who, faccarding to his tepart, happens to be questioned by the fuler of Byzantivm, ond Yhrough whose mouth the message Of Islom is procloimed involuntarily it seens, for Abu Sufydn is of the time still Mubominad's enemy but is com- pelled 10 answer the questions put to him about Mohammad fond his message, Heraclivs then read the letter of the Prophet which, according 10 the sobitoin consisted of an invitation tg, Islom, concluded by the Qur'anic injunction of Sure 3: 64 29. Soh Must, Val My p49. Bubha gees the fll account we hey wha hove serdar fnte Hin a 9‘The emperor was inclined to make his people accept Islam, but. had to give in to some strong opposition.” ‘The head of the Copts in Egypt, a country under Byzon tium's dominion at that time, hod also received such o message from the Prophet. He however politely declined fo accept Islom ond sent some presents to the Prophet together with two women, one of them being Mériyah al- Qibryah, who loter gave birth to the Prophet's only son, who died at o very eorly age’? The Negus of Abyssinia had, ‘os reported in Ibn Hisham, embraced Islam ond sent o letter to the Prophet confirming this. In Ibn Sa'd it is said that the letter by which the Negus wos invited to become Muslim, ‘contained the verses of the Qur'éa’. 31. Sahih ol Buanst, Vol pl Ihe Miskin in moe dale and 52, Sew bn him, p83, bn 80, Vol BL Ibe Witney ods Bin Se Vall, 6.08, The Deputation from Nojran The incident of @ Christian deputation coming from Nojrin to Mading 10 the Prophet's mosque is perhaps the ‘most impressive ChristionMuslim encounter during the Propher's lifetime. 25 "The Prophet's componions who saw them thot day said thot they never sow their like in ony deputation that come afterwards.’ % We shall therefore give fo more detoiled account of this event. Nojrdn wos 0 big settlement to the south of Mokke, not far from Ma'rib in the Yemen. It must have been the centre of Central Arabian Christignity. Shibli quotes the Arab poet A'sha2” who mentions the Nojraa Ka'bo, which wos 0 Splendid church twilt by the Christian population of Nojran “A journey 10 the Nojren Ko'bo is a duty laid on thee so thot thou mayest whisper thy prayers ot its gotesin The story about the deputotion from Nojvaa is refered to by Bukhari in the following words: Narrated by Hodhoifa: ol-"Aqib ond Soiyid, the rulers of Nojran came to Alloh’s apostle with the intention of 35, Atay ts adoing 1'6n, One of them said to the other: “De not do (this Feo}, for by Allah, if he is @ prophet ond we do this Won,neither we nor our offspring after us will be ful." Then both of them said (to the Prophet): ive whatever you ask, but you should send a trustworthy ‘mon with us ond do not send any person with us but on honest man who is really trustworthy.” Then every one of the componions of the Apostle wished to be that oné ‘Then, the Prophet said: “Get up, 0 Abs “Uboide ibn ol- Jone When he got up, Allah's apostle soid: "This is the ust worthy man of this Muslim nation.’ ‘Consulting other collections of ahodith we find more detoils that help us to form © more complete picture of the matter. As reported in Tirmidhi's Jami’, « man nomed Mughi- 1a b. Shu'bo had been senf'by the Prophet to the people fm Wal Vc p70, (a), with the seal Td te Ny 3,0 (3 stn Sng ei ie 10S can Sah are io ‘trae wonaniars beeaen he 2 of Nojran, who asked him why the Muslims ond thus the Qur'an teferced 10 Mary, the mother of Jesus, os the sister of Hardin ond Moses. To this Mughira did not reply, and when he retumed to Madino, he inquired from the Prophet obout this matter. The expionotion given by the Prophet is of Se ara eee area some people ‘aise the objection that Muhammed, as put it, did not know the Christion ‘scriptures weil enough and therefore placed Mary and Moses in one ond the some generation! while the Prophet himself had cl 1400 years 090 replied to thot very same il sent ‘upon Sora 19: 28.4 The actual si10 literature provides us with further de: tails. Ibo Hisham explains that the deputation from Najran was mode up of 60 riders, 14 of them being noblemen. ‘The three prominent figures among them were ‘Abdul-Mosih, «political leader from Nojran, al-Ayhom, on administrator, and Abu Horitha b. ‘Algoma their bishop, scholar and re- Tigious leader. The latter is then described as know: ledgeoble Christian scholer, honoured ond paid by the 4 Lonment, Me, slam, Beliafe and Inetittion, London, Senn an ie se peta BGhristion kings of Byzantium. The bishop does in foct recognize the prophet in Mohammad but will not accept him ‘The following words ore attributed to him, explaining his refusal 10 accept Muhormad os Allah's proph The woy these people have trected us! They hove given us titles, paid us subsidies ond honoured us. But they are absolutely opposed to him, ond if | wore to accept him, thy would Yoke awoy from us oll that you see." While in Medina, the Christions from Nairin were mitted by the Prophet to use his mosque for their pro The time of their prayers having come, they stood and proyed in the opostle’s mosque, ond he soid thot they were to be left to do so. They prayed towards the East. bq Hishm then briefly exploins their religious doctrine, ‘summing up the arguments they had brought forward to sub- Stontiate their claim that God was three in one. Also the Prophet's reply to them is reported ond the revelation of ‘more thon eighty verses’ Sure Al ‘Imran, is placed this context. This event is also discussed briefly by Nis bri when introdveing his chapter an Soro Al ‘Imran. He soys: The Soyid and al-“Agib edéressed Allah's mes: senger and he said to them: ‘Surrender (to 13+ lam)'. They said: ‘We have olreody surrendered um before . He ssid. You ate lying. Your calling Aliah'¢ #09 keeps you frm Islam, your worship- ping the cross, and your eating pork.” They 2id: If Jesus is not Allah's son, who is then his father?', and they orgued about Jesus, so Allah's messenger said to them: Do you know that there is no child not resembling his father? They said: ‘Yes’. He said: ‘Do you not know that ‘our Lord is living ond does not die, and thot Jesus passed oway?'# They said: ‘Yes’. He oid: ‘Do you not know thot our Lord tokes core of everything, quords it and sustains They said: “Yes! He said: Does Jesus do ony of these things?’ They said: "No'. He s0id: ‘Our Lord formed Jesus in the womb, os he wished, and our Lord, he does not eat, nor drink ror talk?” They seid. Yes’. He seid: ‘Do you trot know thot Jesus’ mother cartied him, os ‘ony woman carries (@ child), then she gove birth fo him, as any woman gives birth to her child, then she fed him, as 0 child is fed, then he ote, drank, tolked?” They soid: "Yes He said: "How is it then as you claim?" Then %they were silent. Then Alloh the Mighty ond High sent down into his chest Sara Al ‘Imran, no less than eighty verses of Ibn Hisham cites @ considerable number of these verses and also exploins them. The whole sequence is closed wi the Qur'snie words: Then soy: Cone, let vs summon out sons ond your song, our wives ond your wives, ourselves tnd. yourselves, then let us" proy earnest Gnd Invoke God's use. upon the fie This is whot Nisa ‘soy about the verse Two Najrén monks come to Alloh’s messenger and he seid to them: ‘Surrender (to Islam)!” So they soid: "We have olready surrendered before.’ He said: "You ore lying, your bowing to the cross keeps you from Islam, and your words “Allah has taken oon" and your drinking wine." Then they s0id: "Whot do you say about Jesus?" He said: “Allah's messenger was silent ‘and the Qur'én come down. This (which) we re- cite unto thee is a revelation ond wise re- mminder!up to His words: (say, Come! We will summon our sons and your sons), ond the rest The Mande, p72. Sow 3: 6 fo Sane S58 of the verse, “ond Allah's messenger called both ‘of them for mutual invoking of curses, And he soid: And he came with Hosan and Husain ond Fatimoh, end his people and offspring (peace be on them). He said: And when the two come ‘out from him, one of them soid to his compo: to tibute,*" ond do not enter with nian: og him in cursing’, ond he agreed to. tribute He said: They etumed ond soid: “We agree to tribute and do not invoke curses with you *? ‘There is © similor occount added 10 this one, stoting that the two monks were ol Aqib ond ol Soyid, ond thot the Prophet olso took out Ali with him.®? “The Prophet, having received the revelation, summoned the deputation from Najran ond told them to begin the in vocation of curses, Here is where the obove mentioned hadith from Bukhori comes in. Ibn’ Hisham explains that there were certain financial matters in dispute mong the people from Nojran, ond they therefore wanted the Prophet Yo nominate a tustworthy person os arbitrator for them. Tin"Se'd's account this time differs very litle from that ‘of Ibn Hishim. According 10 the former, the Prophet hod ‘Sent @ writen message to Noiran before the orrival of the deputation, and it is pethops ot this time that ol-Mughira was sent and arrived ot Nojran. After the deputotion of fourteen hed performed their prayers in the Prophet's mosque they went before him. Muhammad, however, refused to talk to them. Upon "Umar's advice the Christians then chonged EL, Nevabon, p80, qsted witout sands SINS mb, StL See'sheeypp.l84end Butheir richly omomented dresses and ‘next morning they come in the dress of monks ond greeted him. He responded ond invited them to embrace Islan. They declined ond there ‘ensued a long discourse and arguments. He recited the Qur'an before them ond said 10 them: "if you contradict what | soy then come, we will curse each other” “The fest is os in Ibn Hisham ond Bukhari, although the reason fiven for their abstaining from mutvol cursing tioned in Tin So'd. He, however, gives some d the tecly between the Muslims ond the people of Najran thot resulted from their declining both Islam ond ’A fixed onaunt of garments or silver was 10 be handed over to the Muslims, ond some weopons provided for them in cose of a conflict w.th Yemen. The people of Nojran were placed under the protection of Allah and His Prophet ‘ond their souls, creed, lond, property ond churches were to be sofe. ‘No bishop will be displaced from his bishopric, no monk from his monastery, ond no testator (wagif) from the ‘property of his endowment.” 5 in So'd furthermore adds thot ol-Soyyid ond al~'Agib alter © short stay in Nojrén returned to Madina to embrace Tslom. The treaty betwaen the Muslims. and the people of Nojron wos upheld by "wh porties till the deoth of the Prophet, and then confirmed by Abi Bokr. In the time of “Umar the people of Najran storted charging interest, which, ‘eccording 10 Ibn So'd, gave ‘Umar the right to expel them from their land, giving them e letter of protection which So ihe se aig. 2 stoted thot, no Muslin will harm thn, honouring, what the post ond lea Abo" Bakr Nod waitin fr hems Sone of then Totersetled in lrg under Tovourable cicumslences. ‘The Expedition to Tobuk Before ending out review, we should perhops toke notice of Sara 9: 29 ond consider the context in which it was re: vealed. The verse is as follows: Fight egainst such of those who have been given the Scripture as believe not in Allah nor the last doy, and forbid not what Alloh hath forbidden by His messenger, ond follow not the religion of truth, until they pay the tribute readily, being. brought low. 3° ‘The MuAhtoser tofsir Ibn Kathir says obout this verse: “The motter of fighting aginst the oh! el-kitab hod first been sent down efter the matters of the ‘mushrikon had been settled, and mankind entered Allah's religion in troops and it hed been es tablished in the Arab peninsula. Allah and His messenger ordered fighting the people of the two scriptures, the Jews ond the Christions, tnd that was in the year 9. Therefore Alloh’s messenger prepored for fighting Rum ond cal Ted the people for this and made it plain to them. 2He sent tothe Arb tribes round Modine ond tethered obut 2000 troops ond same people sP oine end its suvounding mvnatigin ond cihers styed behind, ond this wes In a dought Yeor, he period of ordty ond best, on Allah's Issenge at intending fap Yo Syria" ight Rom: Then he reached TotokQnd halted there, Sroving for ebet want dos. Then he reuest fa Alleh'sgurdonce aout retsming Yo Modine tnd he rotomed because of the clycstances Sd the ‘wookness ofthe peopl. 1 Mihi, p62 1 ond tbe Sed Vole 30 PART JI: THREE PERSPECTIVES Human existence, it hos been rightly suggested, is pos: sible only within the fold of society, and living together in society means to mest set standords ond to observe ‘ccepted patterns ond rules, resulting in the limitation of individvel liberty. The stondords, potters. ond rules in society are determined by the prevailing lows (and vice verse), ond behind those lows there is the ideology, leaving its. imprint on both low and society We shall now draw some conclusions from the moterial presented in our review, ond it is due to this understonding of society, low ond ideology thot we intend to discuss matters in three perspectives, namely the theological (ideo he legal (low-) perspective ond the I (society:) perspective. Since Muslims consciously fssert thot both their law and their society are derived fom ond function according to. theit belief-system (their ideology), we ore justified in first looking into the theo- logical perspective. Secondly, we shell then group together both the legal and the societal perspectives, since they care closely interreloted and both bear the imprint of the belief-systom.! The Theological Perspective In is clear from the verses of the Qur'én already discus tion's belief deviates from that of the 3Muslim on ot least two importont issues. Firstly, the ob jection is raised by the Qur’8n that Christions have brokon the principle of towhrd ond attributed a son to Allah, the only God.? The other point is thot Christians would not fecept enother prophet after Jesus, who according to their Understanding hos brought the ‘history of salvation’ to an tend, ond thus they reject Muhammed as Allah's prophet. Iris also obvious that eccording to Islamic standards both tare on alteration of the original Christian teachings, since ‘we found thot @ considerable number of early Christians fuhered to whot Mubommad tought about, Jesus,? ond also ‘expected 0 prophet fo come ofter Jesus.* The Qur én soy ‘ery plainly that those Christions who ottribute 0 son to Allgh, hove become, k4f5r? On the other hand some verses, ‘such 08 Sore 2: 62°here dealt with in ploce of some others Of similor content, seem to suggest that oll believers may Took forward to the Day of Judgement without feor ond ore thus somehow justified. However o closer look into the mnatter forces vs. 10 differentiate, ond in Tobor's tofsir Such @ differentiation is already made within the first few lines of commentory on this verse: 2 “Concerning (those who believe) they are those who see Allah's: messenger as trustworthy in whot he hos brought to them of Alloh’s truth. Their belief init is their believing consent to what hos been laid down alzeody by thot what has preceded of this our scripture of revelation.’ ? Tabor ‘han continues with detailed etymological information on the ‘Jews, ‘Christians’ ond "Sobeans’.® The sentence, sman amano billahi wo'l-youni'I-ikhiri wo ‘amile salihen falohum ojruhum ‘indo robbibim, is explained os follows "Abu Jo'for soys of the meaning of the words “who believes in Allah and the Last Day" those who see Allah fs tue and accept the waking after death on the day of resurrection (and do right), ond obey Allch, (their reward is with their Lord)? The words “their reward is with their Lord" moon: for them reward for their righteous deeds from their Lord." After replying to the question where the verse under discussion actually ends, Tabor, for the sake of clarification takes up another reloted issue, nomely “In has beon asked: how does the believer believe? We 33have said 40 this: The meoning of belief here is not the one involved in changing from one religion to another, as for example of @ ‘Jew or Christion chonging to belief.('Thar is why it hos teen sid already: those of the people of the scripture with belief in Jesus and what he brought? are obedient with it, until they perceive Muhammad, believe in him and hold him os truthful. It hos been said of those who believe in Jesus ond what he brought: when they perceive Mubom- trad, they believe in Muhammad ond what he brought!" How: fever, the meaning of belief here is the believer's stounch: ness in his belief and his firm adherence to it. AS far as the beliof of the Jews, Christians end Sobeans is concerned, i meons accepting Muhammad and what he brought os truth {ul!4Who of thom believes in Mohammad, in whot he brought, in the Last Day, and does not move away from it ond does rot change i, until he dies, for him there is recompense of his deeds and reward with his Lord. Fy For further illustration we include here just one of mony norrations added by TaborT to support his view: “Salman al-Farsi'® asked the Prophet about those Christions and that it is about their deeds. The Prophet said: "They do not die in Islam.” Then Salman seid: “So there is in justice done to. them on earth”, and he mentioned th striving. Then this verse wos reveoled, ond the Prophet called Salman and seid: "This verse has been revealed because of your companions”. Then the Prophet said “The one who dies in the foith of Jesus, dies in Islem, until he hos heard of me, and he is sound. And the one saho heord of me this very day ond does nat believe in me, he has lreody perished.” * We would therefore conclude that in the theological perspective, our view of Christions hos tobe thot those who fttribute © son to Allah or soy thot Alloh is Jesus, the ‘son of Mory, ore disbelievers and will be losers in the Hereafter, This also opplies to those who reject Muhammad ‘5 Allah's. prophet 35The Legol Perspective Although Christians brecking the principle of towhid and rejecting the prophethood of Muhammad are to be considered 1 disbelievers from the theological perspective, the Qur'an rules thot other laws should apply to them in this world than to the mushrikin, since Christions belong to the ob! f-ktab, It should be noted thot from the legal perspective there is nothing to erhence the position of Christians over the position of ather ab! a/-kitab, such as Jews and Sebeons, ‘ond all regulations that opply to the letter ore also valid for the former. various belief-systoms could be conceived os legitimately, co-existing, the question here is bout the possible co existence of vorious criteria of @ moral and legal nature. This second question is answered positively by the Qur'an in contrast to the question related to various beliefs. Soro 5: 48 explains the actual existence of vorious religious groups, momely those with o scripture of revelations as something willed by Allah, and as'a reason ‘to vie one 10 ‘nother with good works’. It is said expressly in this verse: To each we have pointed out @ divine low and 0 traced out way.” Tabori firstly expleins the meaning of some words Mond then introduces two different views on fishin. o'aln® rminkum. hile the, question discussed obove wos whether two, “Then the exegites are of different opinions about the meaning of this verse. Some of them soy: It meons the ctherents of various communities;" i.e. Allah hes set up for each community a law and a woy."2After giving o num- ber of narrations in support of this view, Tabor continues: “Others soy: No, it means the communin?8f Muhammad. They say that the meaning of the sentence wos: We hove lveody made the book, which we sent down upon Out Pro. t Mohonmod, O mankind, for everyone of You, e. who fnters Islom end confesses abou Maonmad; He is prophet, as 0 law and woy.’™ Tabor then summorizes ‘iXeeording 10 my view the frst of the two explanations is carect, the exploration giving the mecning for oll ple of the religious commmnitis2® communities #we Fore sat up.a law ane woy. We soy thot the frst is cight Becouse of the words of Alich, we’ lou. shav Toj'elohum dnmoton wehidetan? Ifthe words Tikulia fala minkom id refered to Neomimod's community ~ ond they ore one Single community" the words we lov sho'e lojo'alotum nmoton wthideton would not hove been given, bt Allsh ios given then and made them one siegle comunity. The imeoning ts Therefore clear. However, the meoning of whot the message from Allch to His prophet Mobommad brings is ts follows” Allch mentions whot hes boon prescribed fo the people of Iselin the Torah, ond what deeds were Tehed, Sinn ReReeee 7loid upon them. Then He mentions thot He mode ise b. Moryor follow the steps of the prophets before him.ond seat the Inj! upon him and he ordered him who followed him to do the works prescribed therein. Then He mentions. ‘our Prophet Muhammad and says of him thot the book come ‘upon him in truth, 0 the books before, ond he ordered the deeds mentioned therein. The judgement of whot has been sent down upon him is different from the other books, and He explains thot He hos elready set up for Mubommad ond his community 0 different law than thot of the previous prophets and conmunities, and that his religion and theie feligion ore one with regard to towid of Allah, and observ ing whot He ordered and prohibited. And they ore different with regard to that which hos been prescribed for each of them and his community, ond what has been made legal ond prohibited for them. 28 | is thus clear thot, seen from the legel perspective, Christions ore entitled to have their own prescriptions ‘This view is further supported by the Prophet's practice of following the ah! ei-kiteh in such matters that ore not prohibited for Muslims by Allah ond not specifically regu- fated for them either. There are two abodith commonly ‘quoted in support of this prectice by the Prophet: Norrated Ibn ‘Abbas: ‘The Prophet used 10 copy the 8 people of the scriptures in matters in which there wos no ‘order from Allch. The people of the scriptures used to let biz hong down, while the pagans used t0 part thei So the Prophet let his hair hong down first, but later he ported it." The other hodith is os follows: ‘lin ‘Abbas said thot when God's messenger fasted on the day of shir’ ‘ond commanded that it should be observed as a fost, he wos id thot it was o doy held in honour by Jews and Christions, and said: "If ! om spored till next yeor, | shall fast on the inthe "732 The positive approach that Muslims have towards Chris: tions in the legal perspective stems from the fact that cht eI-kitab"differ from the other disbelievers in that they hhave © common stock of legal prescriptions with Muslims, Tim however also clearly defined between the vorious communities, as shown in Tobori's commentary above. Nevertheless in the legol (ond in the societal) perspective Muslims ond Christions {os oh! ol-bito) are close enough to each other to ellow Muslim men to morry Christian women, and to shore the Ghistion’s. food in 0 for as it is good. 2The Societal Perspective Having noted that Muslims referring to the Qur'an ond the Sunna would hove to see Christians as disbelievers from the theological viewpoint, but os different from other dis- believers in the legal perspective, it should not su Us that in the societal context a twofold approach to Chris- tions needs 10 be adopted. Following the rules laid down in the Qur'an ond the Sunne, Christions due to their dis- belief need to be called to Islom, ond that is. what the Prophet did in various ways during his lifetime.» Even in the case of individuals, the Prophet entered into diologue with the aim of presenting the truth to the misguided n the ether hond, Christians being oh o/-4itab may not hovassed or molested fr ining nesting: Iie ou het the Gur'an wars ogoinst taking Jews or Christons os friends but thot does not meon they should be molested or harmed becouse of their being nonMuslins. It ts elso true thatthe Qur'én nd the Prophet called for war ogeinst the oh ef-tirb and agoinst the Christions in portculor>® However, this occurred only offer the message sent by the Prophet had not been properly responded fo, ond the set potter forthe Yomination of © wor with al olkiabvand thos wrth Christians, is coming to terms ox indicated In Sire 3.29, ond as proctised in the Prophets liftine with the Christions fom Noir, who prefered to submit, “The ather side ofthe Muslim opprooch towards Chris- ins, opar from calling them 10 Islam, would then be test described os accepting then to be o group of people with their own ideos and ways ~ this provided they ere tot poring ony danger fo the Muslins. Where they prasent € danger, they have tobe fought. The reason for fighting them Is only this harmfulness, not their lows ond not even because thelr beliefs ore different from those of the Mus- Tims, foros Allah goys inthe Quran: “There ix no compul sion in religion: a“Asgal ‘Azomi, MM. ol-Bothaa Gate, H. Guilloume, A. Honbat, Abimod bn Hishaen laying, T.B. Ahmed, K. ‘Ahson, MM khan, MM. Moinul Hog, S. BIBLIOGRAPHY Fath of-B5r, Vol. XI, Beirut ad. (repr): Srudies in Hadith Methodelogy and Litera tare, Indionapelis, 1977. Sohih ot-ukbsri,9 Vols. in 3, Bairur n.d. rebe.). For trons), see Khon, HM. The Qur'6 2.05 Exegenss, London, 1976. The Life of Mehormed, Landen, 1955 Mos 8 Vols. Beirut ad. fpr). Sire Rosi! Attah, 4 Vols., Coit, nud. For ons se Guillaume, A See Soba AlsobagBr olskubes, 9 Vols, C For tonal. see Moinol Hoa,'S. 12, nd The Quen: Bosie Teachings, Leicester, 1979. Sebth o!-Butkart, 9 Vols., Madina, md. Ibn Sa'd's Kitdb of-Teboadt ai-kebs, 2 Vol Karachi, 1967 (enly 2 Vols, translate Sehih Mesiim, 8 Vals. ia 4, Beirut, nd. For hronsl. see Siddigh, AH. 2 Nebr Nomani, MM. Pickohol, Que'se Robson, 3. al Sebini alSolame Shit A. Sida, AW ai Toor al-Tibezi eb Tin ol-Toqibi A Lirerary History of the Arabs, Combri- doe, 1969 Asbab ai-nuait, Coiro, 1968. The Meoning and Messoze of the Tradi tions, Val. 1, Lucknow, 1975. Sea Picitholl, M ts 4 Vols, Lahore, 1964, ukhszyor Tafsir Fin Koths, 3 Volt, Dames exe, 1976. ALNasith wo Monadth, Cairo, 1967. Surat obiNebi, 2 Vols, Kerochi, 1970. 1h Mostia, AVols., Lohove, 1976 fa ‘Yolste of: TobacT, W Vols., Coir, 1963. Mashkat 21 Megodth, 3 Yals., Domescus 1962. For trons). see Rebson, 3. Aisfani” ai-fobih, § Vols., Coira,nd. nam o!-Fobor, Mubiroger aun Tote 2Vols., Cote, 1971.ISLAMIC FOUNDATION PUBLICATIONS ON STUDIES IN CHRISTIAN-MUSLIM RELATIONS ‘Study Papers = Indone Survey at Chistan Churches an Misont = Indonees How Musi ae made Chistone = Gyan Maton amarg Muara Bangasess — A Survey fn of Baniosean ~ The Potts Rae of Misont {a Hoy Mays input of ame Stadion = Ghetan Pecan inindoneia~ A View of Chviatan usin Raatone ‘Siuation Ropers The Flo Evngeaton Scam in West Aca = Indonens Govrmers Oates Mason ane Sineequent Developments ~ cvetan Manca te Gl Reon Ghana Case Cae Study of © = Guistn Mason mn Patten — A Savoy Docoments = cwitinn anon nd inom De'wah — Conterence ‘Prceednge of 1976 Chambery Oatpue [hiatal A Serie of Boprapien =A Seto nd Anette ograohy of Gena and ~ A Stet and Anette tsogaahy of Chiston Litera