Amino Acids

Amino acids are the monomers that make the thousands

of different proteins that are essential to life

Proteins are
organic biopolymers that have many important
functions in
living things These include enzymes that catalyse
specific biochemical reactions
hormones that control

biologicalprocesses
structural components in

cellmembranes muscles hair

feathers and Spider silk

transport of substances across

cell membranes or around the
body
antibodymolecules of the
immune system
 Plants can manufacture all of the Amino acids required
to make proteins

Structure of Amino Acids

Every Amino acid has an Amino functional lineup C NHa
and a carbonyl functional group C COOH and a hydrogen
atom attached to a central carbon called the a carbon
A k A alpha carbon
Examples of AminoAcids

amino tocarbonyl

General formula of Amino Acids HAN CHCR COOH

Amino acids like the one shown above are known as 2 amino
acids This is because the carbon atom of the carbonyl group
is numbered as the 1st carbon in the chain IUPAC
and the carbon atom adjacent to it numbered 2 in the chain
Amino
Properties of R groups in amino acids
The major difference between A amino acid and other is the
group of atoms that make up the side chain this side
chain is represented in the general structure as an R group

The side chain may be polar

non

polar
protondonors

proton acceplers

Essential And Non Essential Amino Acids

Body can synthesise 11120 amino acids required to makeproteins
9120 must be provided through the proteins we eat
These 9 are known as essential amino acids
A balanced Diet
 Vegetarians must ensure that their diets contain complementary

proteins Rather that eating plant protein from a single

source vegetarians should eat a variety of plant foods

The Acid Base Properties of Amino Acids

Amino acids contain

polar amino and carbonyl functional
o amino acids can form hydrogen bonds with water
groups
molecules and are soluble in water

In NHa group can act as a base accepting

solution the
a proton to become a NHz t and the COOH group
can act as an acid donating a proton to become a
COO group

As result an amino acid molecule in an

a aqueous solution
be in the form of t H N CHCRI COO as seen below
may

The relatively high melting

point of pure crystalline amino
acids is due to the Zwilterion
being present in the solid
state
Acid base properties
The dual acidic and basic nature of amino acids means
different chemical forms of an amino acid can be in
equilibrium in a The predominant form depends on
solution
the pH of the solution and the particular amino acid
concerned

pH S 7

The formation of proteins

Reactions of amino acids that produce larger molecules
called polypeptides and proteins are called Condensation
Polymerisation

The monomers that make a polymer by a condensation

polymerisation reaction have a pair of functional groups
that can react together When they react a new
functional group is produced that links the monomers
and at the same time a small molecule like water
is
 Insulin is a small protein that is made out of
51 amino acids it allows to
your body use glucose
from carbohydrates in
your hood for energy or future
use in
storage

Dipeptide condensation reaction can occur between a

molecule that contains a carbonyl group C COOH and a
molecule that contains an amino group C N Ha As
a result an Amide functional group C CONH is
formed From this reaction water can also be
produced as a by product as shown below

Because
I amino acids contain both an amino functional
and functional
group a carbonyl group they can
Undergo condensation reactions with each other
mail.EE
When two amino acids react an amide
group called a
peptide link is formed that links the molecules
together
 Molecules made from amino acids are often called

peptides o when 2 amino acids react with each

other they will form a Di peptide

each time different pair of aminoacids react in

a
this way there are 2 possible product molecules depending
on which ends of each molecule reacts with
each other

Polypeptides o
are polymers formed by condensation polymerisation
of amino acids
Naming Polypeptides

A polypeptide constructed from more than 50 amino acids is

what is usually called a protein

The hormone insulin is a

protein that regulates the
metabolism of sugars and fats in the human body

Insulin is one of the smallest proteins in the human body

that is made up at 2 tinted chains with a total of
51 amino acid residues
 hydrolysis is the reverse reaction to condensation

Primary and Secondary Structures of proteins

Proteinsdiffer from each other in the number type

and sequence of their constituent amino acids

Primary Structure of proteins

the number type and sequenceof the amino acid units in a
protein is called the protein's Primary structure

all141114111111
Secondary Structures at Proteins

coiling and pleating of of

protein molecule
sections a

produce a secondary level of structure in a protein

Hydrogen bonds between

the polar
Nth group in one peptide link and
the polar G 0 group in another
peptide link can hem at regular
intervals
 This the molecule coils into
creates regions where a

spiral shape called an a heliu as well as the

sections line up parallel to each other forming a
p pleated sheet

These highly ordered segements stabilised

metathesis

by
hydrogen bonds are referred to as the secondary
structure of protein

A helices keratin is protein found in the fibres of

a
wool and hair
The helical structure of keratin results fromthe
Howl hydrogen bonding between peptide links in the
polypeptide chain

Hydrogen bond comes fromthe attraction between the

partial dSue charge on the H ol the NH group in
a partial C we charge on the
peptide link with the
O of the GO group of a peptide link 4 amino
acid Units along the chain

This produces
this shape
B pleated sheets a
Hydrogen bonds canalso form between
peptide links to produce regions where2
or more parts of the polypeptide chains line

up parallel to each other

Stable protein structure

N C C N C C N CC

this chain allows forthe

hydrogen bends to
foam at regular
 Silk is a protein with a B pleated sheet structure
its polypeptide chain usually contains the amino
acids glycine alanine and serine

Notice that
every 2nd R group is H
Tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins

Overall Shape of a Protein a 3D shapeis called thetertiary

structure
A tertiary structure is the result
of the 3D folding of the
secondary structures
Theprotein can twist back
over itself to create a unique
shape which is responsible for
the protein's function

The side chains CR of the amino acid units making

groups
up the polypeptide chain influences the overall 3D shape
of the molecule
 These side chains can contain polar functional groups

Also some amino acids have hydrophobicChonpolar

chains which tend to fold towards the interior of
protein molecules away from contact with water
molecules

Bonding in the tertiary structure of proteins

Quaternary structure
complen functional unit which is composedch more

than 2 or more polypeptide chains

Haemoglobin is a protein with a quartenay structure

Haemoglobinthe onygen transporting protein

Red blood cells are manufactured by the bone marrow at

a rare d about L million persecond

Iron in the harem group can bond to one ouygen molecule

so each haemoglobin molecule is able to carry 4 Ouyen
molecules

Proteins that function in water such as haemoglobin tend

hydrophobic
 y

least euposed to water molecules

The polar R groups are hydrophilic and are therefore

located near the outer surface

Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are present in meat Ash dairy products eggs
all fried foods

Triglycerides

Fats is a name given to describe a large number of

organic compounds belonging to an even larger classof
biological molecules called lipids

Fats and oils are the bestknown types of lipids

Fats and oils contain large non polar molecules such as

triglycerides

Fats and oils have very similar chemical structures and are
mahkota

distinguished by their physical state at room temperature At

room temperature feats are solids and oils are liquids
 Being non polar triglycerides are unable to form hydrogen
bonds with water fats are insoluble in water and
oils are immiscible with water

General structure of a fatty acid and glycerol

made by the condensation reactions betweena
Tryglycerides are

glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules

Glycerol C propane I 2,3 triol is a

very small molecule with
3 hydrouyl functional groups

Fatty acids have a carbonyl functional group attached to a

long unbranched hydrocarbon chain which makes up the
bulk of the molecule Usually f LO carbons
Condensation reactions to form triglycerides
Condensation reaction can occur between a molecule that
contains a carbonyl group C COOH and a molecule that
contains a hydronyl group C OH An ester functional group
C COO is formed as a result linking both molecules A
molecule of water is also produced

Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty acids

Fats are classified on the basis of the structural features
of the hydrocarbon chains at their fatty acid components
 Saturated Fatty acids have hydrocarbon chains that
contain only single carboncarbon bonds Stearic acid Chound
in meats has a semistructural formula of CHICHI16COOH
and a molecular formula of CpHsgCOOH Saturated fatty
acids have the general formula on Hartl COOH

Monounsaturated
Fatty Acids contain 1 carbon carbon
double bond in their hydrocarbon chain Oleic acid found
in vegetable oils has a semistructural hermila of
Hz CHI CH CH CHA COOH and a molecular formula of
CiaHz COOH Monounsaturated fatty acids have a general
formula at CnHan i COOH
 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids contain more than 1
carbon carbon double bond in their hydrocarbon
chain Fish and vegetable oils are euampies sunflower oil has
a good Soane oh Lineoic acid which has a semistructural

formula of CH CCHala CH CHCHACH CHCCHz COOH and

has a molecular female at ChHz COOH

Saturated fats are made made fromsaturated fatty acids

UMormmainmaa

only and they are generally unseactice and exist as wauy

solids at room temperature Usually in animal fats
Melting Points of Fats and Oils
Fats melting point oils melting point
Fats are solid at room temperature
The different melting points of triglycerides can be euplained
in terms of the length and degree of saturation of their

fatty acid hydrocarbon chains

The table below shows how the hydrocarbon chain

as
increases in length the meeting point of a fatty acid
increases This is due to the increasing strength of dispersion

force between fatty acid molecules as molecular mass

increases The fatty acid chain can pack closely and so
the intermolecular forces become
stronger

However the table below shows that when the number of

carbon_carbon double bonds increase the melting point of
the fatty acid decreases Why Fatty acid chains are
unable to line up and pack closely as the intermolecular
dispersion forces are much weaker than those formed
between saturated fatty and chains
 Carbohydrates
made from earthen hydrogen and onygen
General formula GeCHAO y
Glucose is a carbohydrate CGH 06 and is formed through
a

photosynthesis

sht
602cg t 6h20 a CbHia06 cant 602cg

photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction

Monosaccharides

smallest carbohydrate
white sweet tasting solids
Highly soluble in water dueto a no oh hydnouyl groups
fructose glucose and
galactose are the most common monosaccharides

These monosaccharides all have the same molecular formulaof

CbHk06 meaning they are isomers
 The structures of the monosaccharides lookvery similar the
slight variations in the structure lead to significant
differences in their functions in living organisms

When these are 4 different groups around a carbon

atom the molecule has a chiral centre

Disaccharides

They are a carbohydrates

Reaction between 2 monosaccharide molecules as a Condensation
Reaction and water is formed as a byproduct
The two monosaccharides are joined by ouygen atom
an

this connection is called an ether think glycosidic link

Matose is added to food as a sweetener and used to make beer

sugar and found in sugar beet and sugar cane
Sucrose is table
Sweetness

Aspartame is an artificial sweetener which contains about the

same amount of energy as an equal mass of sucrose however
it can be used in much smaller quantities than sugar because
it is nearly 100 times sweeter than sucrose Neofame
is another artificial sweetener it is over so times sweeter than
aspartame
Polysaccharides
A condensation reaction between monosaccharides can
continue to form a polysaccharide
Polysaccharides are generally insoluble in water and
have no taste
Starch glucogen and cellulose are polysaccharides

Glycogen and cellulose are polymers of the monomer

glucose How due to the structure of glucose there are

2 forms of glucose a glucose and B glucose orientationof

the hydrough group is different in both forms
Starch
Plants are able to produce and polymerase A glucose molecules

to form starch
Polymerisation is a condensation reaction forming ether lines between
each glucose molecule
If starch forms a linear polymer it is known as amylose

A second form of starch amylopectin can form if some of

the X glucose molecules undergo condensation reactions between
hydronyl groups at different positions aroundthe glucore
ring in this way
occaisonal branches occur in the structure
 Amylose and amylopectin have different solubilities
in water the long molecules of
amylose coil into a
spiral like helices and pack together tightly with many
OH groups inside the helices and away from contact
with water which is why amyhere is largely insoluble in
cold water Whereas amylopectin the branching of its molecules
restricts the coiling of the polymer leaving many more OH groups
euposed so that it dissolves in water

Cellulose
Main structural material in plants
very large straight chain polymer formed fromthe polymerisation
of B glucose
the glucose and starch chain loon similar however there is
a different arrangement of glucose units

Starch

cellulose

The alternating nature of the CHAOH group in cellulose

allows for good alignment of hydnouyl groups between
 ng gen g
between molecules resulting in a strong material
that gives the plant support and rigidity