Yr 11 Review

Homologous series This series groups millions of different

molecules into families

Members of the same homologous series have

a similar structure
a pattern to their physical properties
similar chemical properties
the same general formula

Note Each member of a homologous series differs by a

CH unit from the previous member

Alkanes

homologous series of molecules that consist entirely of

carbon and hydrogen atoms

General formula CnH2nt2

only single bonds C C Saturated due to only

containing single bonds
Why are the carbon atoms in alkanes saturated 2

The carbon atoms in alkanes are saturated because

they cannot bend with any more atoms

when a molecule contains one double or triple

or more

bonds it is unsaturated as they have the

potential to
bond with more atoms

Naming simple alkanes

The suffin of alkanes are ane to indicate that the

carbon carbon bonds are single bonds
Examples of Alkanes

H
f f ti H H
H C H H C C H H C CC H
l
H
II
H H
f H ti
methane ethane propane

Isomers of alkanes
What are isomers molecules that have
isomers are
the same molecular formula but have a different
arrangement of carbon and hydrogen atoms

ath There are two types of structural isomers it can

have a chain arrangement or a branched arrangement
IT
H C H
ti H H H ti I T
H C C C C H H C C c H
H ti f t it ti ti
chain arrangement branched arrangement
Naming of simple structural isomers

Alkyl groups They are side chains

The prefix indicates the number of carbon atoms in the

side chain

The suffice is Yl

How to name branched alkanes

I Identify parent1 stem name by
finding the longest continuous
chain of carbon atoms

L Identify
any alley1 side chains by counting the number
 atom
n 1
3 Number the carbon atoms by starting with the end
of the chain closest to a side chain
4 Identify the number of the carbon atom to which an
amyl group is attached

5 Name the isomer

Functional Groups

Functional Group they are an atom or a group of atoms

that give a characteristic set of chemical properties
to a molecule containing these atoms
Organic molecules They are compounds containing carbon
atoms linked to each other and to other non metallic
atoms by covalent bonds

Bonding in Carbon Compounds

Carbon atoms contain 6 electrons CLelectrons in 1st shell

and 4 electrons in 2nd shell

Electronic configuration Is22522ph

4 valence electrons

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are formed solely from carbon and

hydrogen

Stability of Carbon Bonds With Other Elements

The covalent bonds between carbon and other atoms

each have a bond energy

Bond energy is a measure of bond strength and is the

 S1 C

Representing Organic Molecules

Molecular formulas They indicate the number and

type
of atoms of each element present in a molecule like
CzHg O and G H g 02 But there is no indication of how
the atoms are actually arranged

Structural Formulas They show the spatial location of

atoms relative to one another in a molecule as well
as the number and location of the covalent bonds

What is VSEPR theory Valence shell electron pair repulsio

theory tells us that these electron pairs repel each other
so the bonds are as far apart as possible at an angle
 1
Semistructural Formulas They indicate the connections in the
structure of a compound without showing the 3D
arrangement of atoms This can also be called condensed
formula

Isomers

Isomers They are molecules that contain the same

number and type of atoms but rearranged in different
ways
Chain isomers

This is an alkane with

no branches

From Heuane we can get

3 chain isomers

Position Isomers They occur when

can organic molecules
contain functional groups

Examples
H H H
H H H H
I l l l fl l l
l
o C C C C H H Cl Cl C
l
dl H
l l l l H H
H H H H H Hy
H
butan l ol butan 2 01
 It is important to remember that alkenes and alkynes
also contain functional groups C C or c

Examples
ft ti ti ti
H C C C d H H C c c
I
d H
l l l l l I
TH
H H H H H H H
but I ene but 2 ene

Be careful to not Just draw the same molecule

from a different perspective

Example
H
I
O H
fl
H 0
I l l l
H 1C C H H C Cl H
12 12
H H H ti

these are the same

Hydrocarbons

Alkanes Saturated molecules single bonds

General formula CnHanth

each
successive

member
differs by
9
CH unit

What are the naming conventions for isomers

Place name of alkyl group behere parent moleculename
If there's more than I alhyl group list the groups in
alphabetical order
If theres more of the same alkyl groups use the prehines
di tri or tetra
number amyl groups to give the smallest possible number
no spaces in name
from
 dashes to
separate numbers from words

Example Question

l 2 3 4 s o 7

name 3,6 dimethyl octane

cyclohexane

It is a hydrocarbon that is used as a solvent

It is a cyclic molecule as it forms a

ring

The difference is there are 2 less hydrogen atoms so

H H
Alkenes Unsaturated hydrocarbons
General formula Cn Han
CIC carbon carbon double bond

Naming Alkenes

Use ending ene for parent name

Number the carbonatoms from the end of the chainclosest
to the double bond
Specify position of the double bond by the number of the
lowest carbon atom in the double bond
Insert the number into the name immediately before
ene
 Example Question

a 3
I 4 s

Name S methyl kept 2 ene

Alkynes o unsaturated molecule

General formula CnHan 2
carbon carbon triple bonds CEC
Naming Alkanes

Use ending yne for parent name

Number the carbonatoms from the end of the chainclosest
to the
triple bond
Specify position of the triple bond by the number of the
lowest carbon atom in the triple bond
Insert the number into the name immediately before
yne

Benzene unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon molecule

Functional Groups Part 1

Haloalhanes They are a homologous series derived

from alkanes in which one hydrogen atom is replaced with
a halogen atom

Group 17elements o 7 valence electrons

common halogen elements that form halofunctional

fluorine chlorine bromine and iodine
groups are
Naming Haloalhanes

what are the rules for naming Haloalkanes

Place the name of the specific halo functional group

at the start of the parent alkane's name

If positional isomers are possible use numbers to indicate

the carbon to which the halo functional group is
attached

Number the carbons of the parent chain beginning at the

end ch the first halo group or alkyl side chain

If theres more than one of the same type of halogen

atom use the prehu di tri or tetra

Note If one or more types of halo functional groups are

Alcohols o Alcohols contain a hydroul C OH functional
group

Types

of
Alcohols
Naming Alcohols Identify the parent name from the longer
carbon chain containing the hydronyl group

If position isomers number is inserted

are possible a
before the 01 to indicate the carbon to which the
hydronyl functional group is attached

Number the carbon chain commencing at theend closest

to the hydronyl group
Primary Amines homologous series
contains amino functional group
1 Nitrogen covalently bonded to 2 Hydrogenatoms

functional
group

Amines can be classified as primary secondary and

tertiary based on the number of alkyl groups
attached to the nitrogen atom

Naming amines the e at the end of the parent

alkane's name is replaced with the sulfiu amine

If positional isomers are possible a number is

inserted behere amine to indicate which carbon the
Incl nal gro ahed 0

Functional Groups Part 2

0
Aldehydes carbonyl functional CC
group
group always at the end of chain
functional
functional
group CHO
Ketones carbonyl functional group
carbonyl carbon attachedto othercarbonatoms
carbonyl group never at any ends
functional
group CO

Carboxylic Acids homologous series

carbonyl functional group
COOH
always located at one end of the chain
Naming carbonylic acids

Same rules with alkanes however e is replaced

with the suffice oio acid

Primary Amides carbonyl functional group attached to amino

functional
group
Amide functional group CON Ha
always located at one end of the chain
Esters carbonyl c acid alcohol ester
ester functional Coo
group

Naming Esters
suffice oate
IUPAC NOMENCLATURE

Naming organic molecules with functional groups and alkyl group

order
alkyl groups placed in alphabetical

Naming organic molecules with 2 functional groups

C
H
A
A
A
H
 Example Question

amine

6 S 4 3 2 I
0

name 6 chloroHenan I amine

Physical Properties of Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes and

Haloalkanes

Boiling points of alkanes boiling pointincreases as the size of

alkane molecule increases

alkane molecules are non polar

The only intermolecular forces of attraction between them

are weak dispersion forces

of the
overall forces of attraction between molecules also
increase

Why does the overall forces of

attraction increase
increased strength of temporary dipoles within the
molecules

Molecular shape also influences the strength of dispersion

forces and therefore boiling points

straight chain alhanes are able to fit together more

closely and tend to have higher boiling points than
their corresponding branched chain isomers which are
unable to come as closely together in a bulk substance
 butane has higher surface area and can fit more
a

closely together allowing more contact between the

molecules and forming stronger intermolecular bonds

Boiling points of alkenes alkynes and haloalkanes

non polar molecules alkenes and alkynes
weak dispersion forces
boiling points increase with molecular size as strength
of dispersion forces increase
 Haloalkanes contain bonds that are polar

They have weak dispersion forces

However they also have dipole dipole

attractions

A dipole dipole attractions are stronger than dispersion forces

the boiling points of haloalkanes are generally higher
than those of a thanes with similar carbon atoms

Solubility in water O non

polar molecules are insoluble in H2O
why water molecules are polar and held together by

strong hydrogen bonds the weak dispersion forces are not

strong enough to overcome the strong attraction between
water molecules so the 2 substances remain separate and
don't Miu

aoBotkzF
When two liquids don't min said to be
they are

immiscible

but with haloalkanes they are slightly more soluble

than hydrocarbons in water However the solubility is
still very low as the influence of the dipole dipole
 I n m
The influence at the halogen decreases as the lengthof the
carbon chain increases many haloalhanes are denser than
water and unlike the hydrocarbons these liquids
settle to form a layer on the bottom when added to
water

Solubility in
organic solvents
Alkanes min with other non polarliquids such as alkenes and

symmetrical haloachanes Why all have weak dispersion

forces and similar strength to the alkane alkane forces

of attraction o they are miscible

Physical properties of Alcohols carboxylic acids amines andamides

Boiling points

from this we can see that molecules that form hydrogen

bonds generally euhibit higher boiling points
Boiling points of alcohols a
Highboilingpant due to hydrogenbon

Boiling points of amines and amides

presence d highly polar nitrogen hydrogen bonds means there
is the ability to form hydrogen bonds

of carboxylic acids
Boiling points
two molecules of a carbonylic acid in the liquid state
can form dinners with 2 hydrogen bonds occur
between the molecules
 The diner produced is stable species that has a
molar mass that is double that of a single carboxylic
acid molecule

The increase in size that results from the formation

of the dimer increases the strength of the dispersion
forces between one dimer and its neighbours
carboxylic acids have higher boiling points compared
to alcohols
Effects of chain length on boiling points

solubility in water

small alcohols dissolve well water because hydrogen bonds

in

can form between the polar functional groups of the molecules

and adjacent water molecules The hydrogen bonds form
between the partially positive hydrogen atom of the
hydrouyl group and the bone pairs of an addacent water
molecule
 When amines interact with water molecules hydrogen
bonds can form between the bone pair electrons
of the nitrogen and the partial positive hydrogen
of an adjacent water molecule or between the
hydrogen of an amine group and an onygench an
adjacent water molecule

Small amide and

Bhakta
carbonyl c acid molecules are soluble
in water
Carboxylic acids hydrogen bonding between H2O GO
and OH a more soluble than alcohols in water
euplains why they are found frequently in solutions
 Solubility and chain length
The solubility of alcohols amines and carboxylic
acids in water decreases with increasing chain length
of the carbon chain

why The increase in the dispersion forces opposes the

tendency for the molecule to dissolve

Solubility in organic solvents

Alcohols become more soluble in organic solvents as

they get larger as organic solvents are non polar

However small alcohols like ethanol do not dissolve

well in
organic solvents as dispersion forces are
not strong
enough to disrupt hydrogen bonds
Physical properties at aldehydes ketones and esters
dipole dipole attractions

Boiling points Aldehydes ketones and esters contain o_0

bond
permanent dipole forms dipole dipole attractions
with nearby molecules

Effect of chain length on boiling

point
chain 9 bp T as dispersion forces T
Solubility in water
aldehydes ketones and esters cannot
form hydrogen bonds with each other

but form between a pair of lone pair

can
electrons on the ouygen atom of a carbonyl
group and the partially positive hydrogen atoms
in water molecules makes them soluble in water

Solubility organic solvents

in
As the non polar hydrocarbon chain length of

aldehydes ketones and esters increases they become

more soluble in non polar solvents
Viscosities and flashpoints oforganic compounds

Note Physical Properties of Boiling point

organic compounds are
Solubility
Viscosity
flashpoint

Viscosity it is the resistance to pouring or flowing

Honey is not a pure substance 801 oh honey is made

upof glucose fructose and other sugars

The molecules of these compounds have

many hydronyl
groups
i molecules are held together with hydrogen
 d s y
Like boiling point viscosity increases as the force of altractio
between the molecules increase o as the chain length
of organic molecules increase strength of dispersion forces 9
as a result viscosity 9

t.IMThe
viscosity of motor engine oils enables them to protect
an
engine from near

high viscosity of oil cling to the metal which

makes it
prevents direct contact between metals and a reduces
Flashpoint is defined as the lowest temperature at
which a liquid forms a sufficient vapour to
ignite
when an ignition source is applied
Chemical Properties of alkanes haloalkanes andalkenes

Athanes combustion of alkanes in air

Burning of
hydrocarbon fuels in access ouygen results in a
complete combustion producing CO2 and H2O

CH4 cg 202cg CO2cop 1 LH20cg

2cgHisego t 2502cg lbCong t 18Ha0cg

Substitution reactions of alkanes

Occurs when atom or functionalgroup in
an a molecule
is replaced by another atom of
group

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that undergo

substitution reactions with halogens such as chlorine or
Bromine to produce halo alkanes

What conditions will the reaction occur Room temp

Daru
UV light

CH4cg t Clacg t CH Clog t HC1cg

Note This reaction can be continued

Substitution Reactions of Haloalkanes

Due to the large electronegativity difference between
chlorine and carbon the carbon chloride bond in a molecule
of chloromethane is polar
 The carbon atom in the bond carries a partial positive
charge and the more electronegative chlorine atom carries
a partial negative charge

As a the highly polarised bond between

consequence
carbon and chlorine the
partial positive charge on the
carbon atom can be attached by a negatively
charged species such as OH

The General Rule for this reaction is RCI ROH

It is also possible for haloalkanes to undergo substitution

reactions with water to form alcohols This reaction
is shower and requires a catalyst
 Ammonia also reacts with haloalhanes in substitutionreaction

produces amines as a result

The General Equation for this reaction is RCI RNHa

Reaction doesn't require a catalyst

Reactions of Alkenes

combustion in air Catty cogs 302cg 202cg thHa0cg

Addition Reactions of Athenes

During addition reactions

2 reactant molecules combine to form 1 product
molecule
C becomes C C

Unsaturated compound becomes saturated

atoms of the small molecule are added
across the double bond

Note There are 4 types of addition reactions of alkenes

Alkenes with
Hydrogen AdditionReaction
Alkenes react with hydrogen
gas the presence of a metal
in

catalyst such as nickel toLem alkanes This reaction is

known as the hydrogenation of ethere with hydrogen
gas
toproduce ethane

m.tt
iEiIAckualion
 g
Reaction of alkenes with halogens Addition Reaction

Halogen adds across the double bond of the molecule

Reaction proceeds at room temperature without a
catalyst

What can this reaction beusedfor Bromine is often used as

a test for the presence of a carbon carbon double
bond because the ease and speed it reacts with an
alkene orange colour of bromine dissapears when mind
with an alkene
Alkenes with Hydrogen Halides Addition Reaction
But 2 ene reacts with HCl a hydrogen halide in an
addition reaction
breaks

go
But I ene when reacting with HCl produces two products

O
o

Z O
C
Atheneswith Water Addition Reactions Hydrationreactions
forms alcohol
for reaction to procede catalyst HzPoy
300C
water is added across the double bond

steam 1g

Addition Polymerisation
Athenes can react with each other in addition reactions
This forms polymers many units

Emperical formula is the same for the monomer and

Reactions of Alcohols

Combustion ofAlcohols
Alcohols readily burn in air to form CO2 and H2O as product

Oxidation of Alcohols
Alcohols can be onidised by strong inorganic ouidising agents
such as acidic solutions of potassiumdichromate Kaczor
and potassium permanganate CK Mn04 The product of this
reaction depends on the type of alcohol primary secondary
and tertiary
10 Primary where the OH is bonded to a
Alcohols is
carbon that is only attached to one alkyl group
primary alcohols aldehydes arbonylic acid

If the desired product is

madthE

an aldehyde rather
than a carbonytic acid lower temp and reaction lines
 Higher temperatures and
longer reaction times favour
the formation of the carbonylie
acid over the aldehyde

20 Secondary Alcohols have an OH bonded to a carbon

atom attached to 2 alkyl groups
t
Secondary alcohols ketones

aaoooooqosog
Ht MnOa

30Tertiary Alcohols have OH bonded to a carbon atom

attached to 3 alkyl groups
tertiary alcohols t no reaction

why doesn't it reactR the carbon attached to the

hydronyl group p doesn't have a C H
f o
H
R
bond to break o onidation cannot occur at the carbon
Summary

Reactions of carbonyl c Acids

Ionisation of carboxylic acids in water

ionises to a small extent
forms hydronium ions
Reversible process
CarbonylicAcids with Alcohol condensation reaction
CarboxylicAcid Alcohol Ester
A k A esterification reaction
catalyst sulfuric acid
As well as ester water is also a product

Hydrolysis of Esters
The condensation reaction between carboxylic acids and
alcohols is a reversible reaction
The reverse reaction is called the hydrolysis of esters
 T o
0
add ons 5

NaOHcag is a catalyst to this reaction

Reactions of Carbonylic acids toform Amides condensation Reaction

Primary amides CRCONHa can be made with the reaction
between carbouylic acid t ammonia
Water molecule is eliminated during the reaction

Secondary amides CRCONHR

Reaction Pathways

Simple Reaction Pathways

More Complen Reaction Pathways

prepare her a
How to prepare the ingredients to
condensation reaction between prepanoic acid and ethanol

Carbonylicacid
I Alcohol

Making Ethanol
Can be synthesised from ethene in two
ways
Done in one step
by the direct addition reaction with water

or
Two steps make chloroethane then ethanol
Making Propanoic acid

Making Ethyl Propanoate

now having synthesised ethanol and propanoic acid we

can make ethyl propaneate

This is done
using a condensationreaction

Summary of Pathway

caepio
Summary of Reaction Pathways
Other Considerations in Devising A Synthesis

Yield and the Chemical Industry

Yield
The theoretical yield is the mass of a product that
can be formed if all reactants react to produce products

according to the reaction equation

oT The theoretical
miEEf

yield assumes 100.1 conversion of reactants

What can influence the yield
Less
yield if reaction reaches equilibrium rather than continuing
to completion

less yield is slow reaction rate

Loss of reactants during tranfers betweenreaction vessels

will result in less yield

Percentage Yield

compares actual yield to theoretical yield

It is a measure of ethaenay of a process

Percentage yield actual yield 0

theoreticalyield

Example Question

CHzCHzCHz0H Ht 072 o CH CH COOH

nC t too
1 33m01 MC 11 1.33 74 98.42
percentage yield gsgs.ie
zx1UO
55.9 1
Percentage Yields in Multistep Syntheses
percentage yield is reduced at each step

Example Question

x 100 43.24
Foto x x
f
Atom Economy

minimise energy consumption waste and impact on the

environment
How to work out Atom Economy

Atom economy molar mass oh desired product 100

molar mass of all reactants

Atom economy massoh desired product 100

mass of all reactants

Example Question

Atomeconomy 121 121 12 t 71 126.90447 100 55.25

308

Infrared Spectroscopy

Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter

All types of spectroscopy use electromagnetic radiation
to give information about materials found around
you
Electromagnetic radiation interacts with atoms and
molecules
 The nature of this interaction depends upon the
energy of the radiation with this we can learn about the
structure

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into different

regions of radiation with different frequencies wavelengths
and energies

Atoms and molecules have different types of energies

Principles of IR spectroscopy
IR spectroscopy used to analyse solids liquids and gases

IR spectroscopy can give us information about the

functional groups present in an organic molecule

IR light has a lower energy and a longer wavelength

than visible and ultraviolet light

The
energy from IR light is not enough to very high
energy levels but it is enough to change the vibration
of the bonds in molecules
 IR spectroscopy euploits the ability of molecules to bend and
stretch
Interpretation of Infrared Spectra Features
The frequency of the electromagnetic radiation in IR
spectroscopy is expressed in wave numbers cm This unit
is the number of per centimetre
waves and is inversely
proportional to wavelength

mkhh.BY

Absorption bands 1400cm are used to identify functional

groups because this region coincides with the energy associated
with the characteristic stretching vibrations of the atoms in these

groups
Absorption bands 41400cm is known as the fingerprint
region
Interpretation of Infrared spectra

IR spectroscopy can be useful for distinguishing

between very similar compounds

For euample the molecules propanoic acid and

consider
methyl ethanoate Which are isomers with the molecular
formula C Ho 02
 Example Question
Hbo

C H bond and C O bond

I I
cH
I CHzCOCHz

o_O
Iso
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Powerful technique to determine structure of compleu

molecules

Used to distinguish between atoms in a molecule

In combination with IR spectroscopy and other techniques

NMR enables us to determine the enact structure of
a molecule

Principles of NMR Spectroscopy

NMR spectroscopy uses electromagneticradiation in the radio
frequencyrange This energy of radio waves is too low to cause
electronic vibrational or rotational transitions

In order to react with radio waves the nuclei of the atoms

must have a property called Nuclear spin meaning onlynuclei
that have an odd number of protons and or neutrons such
T
as H B C and P have nuclear spin
odd no at
nuclear particles
causes nuclei to
behave like bar
 The difference in energy between the higher and
lower energy spon States depends on the type of
nucleus and the chemical environment surrounding
the nucleus

The most common form of NMR spectroscopy is based on

the hydrogen I C H nucleus This is called Proton NMR It
can give information about the structure at any molecule
containing hydrogen atoms

Another common form of spectroscopy is called carbon B

NMR spectroscopy enames the C nucleus and is
useful in investigating the carbon atoms inside organic
molecules

Hydrogen and Carbon Chemical Environments

A chemical environment is made up of the atoms and
electrons that surround a specific atom
 Big p
Ethane the sin hydrogenatoms in ethane are in the same
environment because each is a part of a Ctb group Similarly
the two carbon atoms are also in the same environment As a
result ethane only has one signal in its proton NMR and one

in its carbon NMR

Propanehas two different hydrogen and carbon environments

The sin hydrogen atoms in the Ctb groups are all in
the same environment each being part of three hydrogens
on a carbon attached to CHI group The two hydrogen
a

atoms in CHA make up the second environment which is

different from each of the hydrogenatoms in the CHG groups
on the ends Similarly carbons in the CHz group are similar
Carbon in the centre occupies
and occupy 1 environment
a different environment so Proton and carbon NMR show
two signals each
 has 3 different hydrogen environments and 4
Butanone

carbon environments The hydrogen atoms in the two Ctb

groups at either end of the molecule are not similar
One group is bonded directly to the carbonyl
group
while the other is bonded to the CHA group proton
NMR spectrum contains 3 signals

The carbon NMR spectrum of butanone contains

4 different signals

Note molecules that contain symmetry

Bhatta
have fewer
different chemical environment than molecules that do
not have symmetry

Chemical shifts
Nuclei emit different frequencies ofradioenergy when
analysed in different spectrometers

To ensure that chemists share results obtained

can

using different euperimental conditions the signals emitted

by nuclei are compared with the signal from a reference
compound tetramethylsilane TMS
 The difference in energy needed to change spin state
in a sample is compared to the energy needed
to change spin States in TMS This energy difference is
called the chemical shift measured in ppm chemical
shift of TMS 0 8 used as a symbol for chemical Shift

TMS is inert and can be added to a sample without

causing a chemical reaction CForms Single peak

Magnetic freed euperienced by the nucleus is not the same as

the applied enternal magnetic field Electrons around each
nucleus have spin and so have an associated magnetic
field that shields the nucleus from the applied magnetic
field This is called Nuclear shielding this alteets the
amount of energy needed for the nucleus to change
its spin

Proton NMR spectroscopy

Used to identify different hydrogen atoms in a molecule
NO oh signals in a proton NMR spectrum is the same
as the no of different hydrogen environments

NOTE Hydrogen atoms that are in the same chemical

environment are said to be equivalent Equivalent
o
 g

Mmmm
identical

I signal

Another Example

t
identical
2 ratioof hydrogen
s atoms
 Signal splitting

399399ftpeans

adf.FI3peans

This is an euample of high res NMR spectra

split into line patterns due to
some signals are
neighbouring photons The number of lines in a signal is
related to the number of protons connected to adjacent
atoms by the relationship of ntl
n no oh protons that are equivalent to
each other in neighouring environments but not
equivalent to the photons giving rise to the signal
This is called the ntl rule

maathai
An environment can be neighbouring if it is up to 3
bonds away from the hydrogen atom in question
 The splitting pattern gives important information about
which environments caused by hydrogen atoms
are

close to one another in a molecule

H atom with gives 1 line signal singlet
no neighbours
CH group splits signal from protons attached to adjacent
atoms into 2 lines doublet
Cha group splits the signal from protons attached to
adjacent atoms to 3 lines triplet
CH
group splits the signal from protons attached
to adtaeent atoms into 4 lines quartet

If the
Hahaha

equivalent chemical
neighbouring protons are in an
environment they will not cause splitting of the signal
and NOT COUNTED AS NEIGHBOURS

Note
Katakana

signal produced by the hydrogen atom in thehydrous

group of
alcohols is not usually split by hydrogen
atoms attached to a neighbouring carbon atom
AND DOES NOT COUNT AS A NEIGHBOUR the
Signal from a hydnouyl group is usually a singlet
Interpretation of Proton NMR Spectra

Whatinfo does proton NMR

give us
Structure of molecule
number of signals that show no oh diff protonenvironment
relative peak area which helps to determine no of protons

IhaS about aims

methatmudesina
chemical shifts of signals helps identify chemical
environment where protons are located

with these we can determine an overall structure

of a molecule
 Example Question

chemical
shift peak Splitting Relative Peak
4 doublet 2
5 8 triplet 1
I L maybe CH and Cha bond
41 17
a
g f d 1,1 2 trichloromethane
ti 17
BC NMR spectroscopy
Carbon 13 is naturally occuring isotope of carbon
which has a nuclear spin abundance of the carbon 13
isotope is only 1 It

Due to the low abundance of carbon 13 atoms any

particular carbon B atom is unlikely to be adjacent

to another carbon B atom

ii Carbon B NMR spectra doesn't display thesplitting

and all the peaks in a spectrum appear as single
lines for each different carbon environment

Note Peak areas in a carbon NMR spectrum are not

 p h n ro

Example

proton carbon i3
NMR NMR
J