Ppe Notes

CONTENTS
CHAPTER - 1 Page No.

I n tr o d u c tio n to th e S o u rc e s of E n e rg y -
R e s o u r c e s a n d P o w e r D e v e l o p m e n t in I n d i a
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Sources of Energy 1
1.3 W aterstored Energy 10
1.4 Nuclear Energy 10
1.5 Wind Energy 10
1.6 Solar Energy 10
1.7 Tidal Energy .11
1.8 Geothermal Energy 12
1.9 Thermoelectric Energy 13
1.10 Significance of Electrical Energy 13
1.11 Electrical Energy Generation 14
1.12 Calorific value of fuel 15
1.13 Resources and development of power in India 16

S team P o w e r P la n t
2.1 Introduction i 21
2.2 Power Plant 21
2.3 Steam Power Plants 21
2.4 Classification of Steam Power Plants 22
2.5 Layout of Steam Power Plant 22
2.6 Steam Power Plant Accessories 25
2.7 Rankine Cycle 29
2.8 Reheat cycle 31
*
2.9 Site selection of Thermal Power Station 31
2.10 Fuel and Ash handling equipment 32
2.11 Inplant Coal handling 34
2.12 Ash handling 42
2.13 Ash handling system 44
2.14 Types o f Ash handling 45
2.15 Steam Jet System 49

C o m b u stio n P rocess
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Selection of firing methods 53
3.3 Requirements of combustion equipment 53
3.4 Classification of combustion systems 54
3.5 Properties o f Coal 54
3.6 Fuel beds 55
3.7 Hand firing 56
3.8 Stoker firing 57
3.9 Pulverised fuel firing 66
3.10 Pulverised fuel handling system 68
3.11 Crushers 71
3.12 Pulverising mills 72
3.13 Pulverised coal burners 78
3.14 Dust collection 83
3.15 Draught 88
3.16 Mechanical draught 93
3.17 Cooling towers 98
3.18 Feed water treatment 102
ii
D ie s e l P o w e r P l a n t
4.1 Introduction 119
4.2 Field of use 119
4.3 Advantages & Disadvantages 120
4.4 Components o f Diesel Power Plants 121
4.5 Diesel engine types and Combustion process 129
4.6 Diesel pow er plant efficiency and Heat balance 131
4.7 Supercharging in diesel plants 134

G as tu rb in e P o w e r P la n ts

5.2 Principle and application of Gas turbine 137
5.3 Terminology in gas turbines 138
5.4 Applications and limitations 139
5.5 Types of Gas turbine plants 140
5.6 Analysis o f Gas turbine plant 143
5.7 Advantages of Gas turbine plants over diesel plants 145
5.8 Advantages p f Gas turbine plants over steam pow er plants 146
5.9 Methods to improve thermal efficiency 146
5.10 Com ponents o f Gas turbine plants 1.49
5.11 Gas turbine plants - fuels 152
5.12 Prospects o f gas turbine plants in India 153
5.13 Plant layout and site selection 153

D ire c t en e rg y co n v ersio n
6.1 Solar energy 157
iii
9 4 F is s io n reaction
9 5 Fusion reaction
167
9 6 Nuclear reactor
6.2 Fuel cells 169 9 7 C o m p o n e n t s o f N uclear reactor
6.3 Therm oelectric generation 171

9 .8 R e a c to r o p era tio n
6.4 Therm oionic conversion 172 Page No.
9 9 C h ain rea ctio n
6.5 MHD generation
Page No.
chapter - 10 221
CHAPTER - 7 Types of Nuclear reactors 221
H y d ro electric P o w e r 179
180 10.2 C la ssific a tio n o f reactors
7.2 Hydrology 180 10.3 P r e s s u r i s e d w a te r re a c to r (PWR) 225
181 10.4 B oiling w ater reactor (BWR)
7.3 Hydrological cycle 226
7.4 Stream flow m e a s u r e m e n t s 182 L iquid m etal reactor (SGR)
1 0 .5 228
183 10.6 F ast breeder reactor (FBR)
7.5 Hydrographs 229
7.6 Drainage a r e a characteristics 185 10.7 H o m o g e n e o u s aqueous reactor (HAR)
231
7.7 Storage and Pondage 186 10.8 Gas co o led re a c to r (GCR) 233
7.8 Darns and SpiUways 10.9 R a d io a c tiv e hazards and shielding 238
P age No.
10.10 R a d io a c tiv e w aste disposal 238
CHAPTER - 8 10.11 N uclear hazards - safety hazards
238
T y p es of H y d ro e le c tric P o w e r P la n ts 195 10.12 L o c a tio n o f nuclear plants
195 10.13 N uclear pow er stations in India Page No.
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Classification 198
8.3 Plant layout 199 CHAPTER - 11 \ 241

8.4 Prime movers of h y d r o p o w e i plant r p\ants 204 Power Plant Economics 241
, Arn ~nd thermal powei v
8.5 Comparison between hydro 11.1 Introduction 244
Page No.
11.2 Cost considerations 246
CH A PTER - 9
11.3 Load curves 248
N u c le a r E n e rg y 207 11.4 Load duration curve
9.1 Introduction 207 11.5 Important definitions
9.2 N uclear Energy 211
9.3 Fertile materials
iv
I 1.6 Factors effecting the typ e o f generation 254
11.7 Steps for re ducing p o w e r generation cost 254
11.8 E c o n o m ic aspects o f hy droelectric plants
255
Chapter - 1
11.9 E c o n o m ic aspects o f h y d ro a n d steam p o w e r plants
256
11.10 E xp ression for cost o f electrical eyiergy Introduction to the Sources of Energy -
256
C H A P T E R - 12 Resources and Pow er D e v elop m en t in India
Page No.
E fflu en ts
12.1 Introduction
261
INTRODUCTION
12.2 E nv iron m ental pollution
261 The past as well as p resent day civilization m an kind is closely related with energy, and it
12.3 M e th o d s to control pollutants i r o n i c a l i f we say we c an not separate energy from m ankind. A b u n d an t and cheap energy
262
n a decisive e le m en t in creation o f modern technological society. T he prim ary energy
12.4 Pollution due to thermal plants
2 64 ces providing, the m ajor fraction o f society's requirem ents have c h a n g e d drastically during
12.5 Pollution d u e to n uclear plants Inst century. H isto ric ally readily av ailable and e c o n o m ic a l e n e rg y are the basis for the
265
12.6 E m issio ns and their im pact :lopment of any countiy .
266
O B JE C T IV E Q U ESTIO N S In earlier days w o od is the only source o f heat energy {i.e. bu rn in g o f wood). The energ
269 mrning wood used to supply the heat energy for houses, factories and for boilers o f car.
A P P E N D IC E S m engine. By the mid o f nineteenth century coal ap peared on the scene as a new energ'/?
REFERENCES •ce. Coal is more e n e rg y -in te n siv e than wood and could be b e tter c on tro lled o ver longer
ods of time. T h erefore coal becam e the do m in a n t e nergy source by tw entieth century.
LATEST EXAMS QUESTION PAPERS WITH SOLUTIONS Q.1 to Q.48 Energy m eans prospect. For a nation to proper no doubt there is a need o f a bu nd an t
M AY - 2004 rgy. This in turn rises the stand ard o f living. P o w er is very essential next to fuel and food on
Q .l t o Q . 3 3
N O V E M B E R - 2003 ch the standard o f life d e pe n ds and its availability is an index o f c ou ntry's e c o n o m ic a l index.
Q .3 4 to Q .48
'Energy exists in va rio u s fo rm s such as electric, therm al, m ech a n ica l, light, m a g n etic
PREVIOUS EXAMS QUESTION PAPERS 1 to 17 tear and so la r e n e rg y " . T his e nerg y is used in different activities by m an k in d like dom estic,
ustiial, agricultural, c o m m e rc ia l and transportation, which leads to grow th o f civilization.
Among the different form o f energies, electrical energy is preferred as it is easily controllable,
luiion iree and it can be c o n v e rtib le into oth e r form o f ene rg y . So it is c alled as high
ue energy.
'-pi
itin >1C SUrv' va' industrial secto r and its d evelop m ent m ainly d e pe nd s on abun dant and
ti CS suPP*y o f electrical energy. India has m a de rapid p rog ress in p o w er produ ctio n after
provide Cê n^ CnCe ^ * 1en c o m Pare td a d v a n c e d countries we are still far below the requirem ent
'capita*5 a C*eCent stan<3ard o f living to the people. T he availability o f electrical energy and its
'lization011'811111^ ' 011 *S reSarded as an index o f nation al standard o f living in the present day
This intro du ctio n/discu ssion gives how im p ortant the e nergy is for a mankind.
VI
SOURCES O F EN ERG Y , „ne..oY w h ic h s ta te s th a t

T h e first law o f th e rm o d y n a m ic s is th e law o f c o n s e r v a tio r to f e n ^ ^ t£) a n o ther.
e ,gy can neither be
c re a te d n o r d e stro y e d , and ean b e c o n v e n e d
2 POWER PLANT ENG IN EE R IN G
Energy exists in various fo rm s e.g. mechanical energy, thermal energy, electrical ene rg y , nuclear
energy. ^
Pow er : Physical q ua ntity o f energy per unit time gives the pow er. P o w e r is prim arily
associated with m ec h a n ic al w ork and electrical energy. G enerally p o w e r can be defin ed as the
rate of flow o f energy.
P ow er p lan t : P ow er plant, is a unit built for p ro d u c tio n and d e liv e ry o f a flow of

mechanical and electrical energy.
OR
Power plant is an a sse m b ly o f the eq u ip m ent, p e rm anently located at se le c te d site which

receives the raw energy (raw m aterials like coal, w ater...) w ith ou t difficulty and can be processed
for electrical energy and can be supplied.
OR
Power plant is a m ach in e that p roduces and d elivers a flow o f m e c h a n ic al or electrical

energy e.g ., Internal co m b u stio n engine (I.C engine).
1.2.1 V ariou s so u r c e s o f en erg y

1. Fuels.
2. Energy stored in water.
3. N uclear energy.
4. Wind energy.
5. Solar energy.
6. Tidal energy.
7. G eo th erm al energy.
8. T h e rm o electric energy.
We can bro adly divide the energy sources into co m m e rc ia l and n on -com m er«ial. The
co m m e rc ia l s o u r c e s are a lso c a lle d as c o n v e n tio n a l s o u r c e s . T h e s e in c lu d e fo ssil fuels
{i.e. coal, oil, natural gas), h ydro pow e r and nuclear power.
The non co m m e rc ia l fuels include animal waste, wood and agricu ltural waste. All these
fuel are limited by the fear that will get exhausted after som e years. T his m ak e s m an y c ou ntries
to try other system s based on non-conventiOnal sources. T hese n o n -c o n v en tio n al sou rces co vers
solar, wind, sea and geo th erm al. A m o n g these, solar energy is a m ajor source. Its potential is
around 178 billion M W w hich is about 20 x 103 times the w orld's d em and . B ut so far it could
not be developed on large du e som e limitations like large area requirem ents.
Fuel
A fuel is a substan ce w hich gives heat energy on com b u stio n . T he m ain co m b ustib le
elements o f a fuel are c arbo n and hydrogen. T he presence o f su lp h u r is u n d e sira b le though it is
also a com bustible.
INTRODUCTION 3
A ccording to the o c c u rre n ce the fuels are classified as under
Fuels
Primary fuel Prepared fuel

e.g. : wood, peal, natural gas, e .g .: charcoal, coke, alcohol, coal gas,
petroleum, etc. producer gas, etc.
Primary fuels o c c u r directly in the nature. Prepared fuels are also called as derived fuels
and are prepared artificially.
D epending on the state in which a fuel is available, fuel are cla ssifie d as
Fuels (Based on stale)
I— *-------------------------------------------1— 1-------------------- 1
Solid fuels Liquid fuels Gaseous fuels
eg : wood, charcoal, eg : petroleum, kerosene, eg : natural gas, producer gas

anthracite, lignite, peat, etc. alcohol, etc.* coal gas, etc.
1.2.2 C oal
T he main c o n stitu e n ts o f coal are carbon, hydrogen, sulp hur, ox yg e n , nitrogen, moisture
and ash. S tarting form vegetation the coal has to pass through d iffe re n t stages like peat, lignite
and brown coals, b itu m in ou s, semi bitum inous, semi anthracite, anth racite, charcoal, coke and
briquettes.
Types o f Coal Characteristics
Wood
i
Peat —» li is the first stage. It contains huge moisture. It should be
dried before its use.
I
Lignites/Brown coals —» Woody and clay like appearance with high moisture, ash,
amorphous in character and fragile in nature.
i
Bituminous coal —» Contains high percentage of volatile matter.
i
4 POWER P LA N T E N G IN E E R IN G
Semi bituminous coal —> Burns with small amount smoke. It contains around 20% o f 1^
volatile matter.
i
Semi anthracite —> It has less fixed carbon percentage. It gives luminous flames.
i
Anthracite —> It is very hard coal and has shining lusture. It has high
percentage of carbon.
i
Charcoal —> It is obtained by destructive distillation of wood in which
volatile matter and water are removed.
i
Coke —> It is smokeless and clear fuel. It contains carbon, mineral
w a te r w ith 2% s u lp h u r a n d a lso h y d r o g e n , n i tr o g e n ,
phosphate in small quantities.
i
Briquettes This is compressed coke or fine coal.
The a ccum ulated v egetable u n de r the earth m illions o f y ears ag o w as su bjected to action
of pressure and heat. T his c ha n ge s the physical and chem ical pro perties o f m atter and it got
converted into coal.
Coal is the prim ary source o f energy in India, and C O A L IN D IA is the c o n tro llin g body
for the coal in dustry. P ow er secto r co n su m e s nearly 37% o f total coal pro d u c e d and rem aining
being used in o th e r industries like steel, cem ent, railw ays etc.
T ypes o f C oal ;
1. Peal
It- is first stage in fo rm a tio n o f coal from wood. It c o m p r is e s o f d e c a y e d v e g eta b le
matter m ain ly d e c o m p o s ed w a te r plants etc. T h e m o istu re c o n te n t is m o re an d sh o u ld be dried
before burning. It con tain 6 0 % C, 5.8% H, 33% O and Ash o f 1.2%. T h e c a lo rific value is
around 14200 kJ/kg.
2. L ig n ite / B row n C oal

It is in b row n c o lo u r and it burns with yellow flame with little sm o ke. T he calorific value
is around 2 0 ,0 0 0 kJ/kg. It also contains high m oisture c ontent. It has g ot 8% ash co ntent which
is undesirable.
IN T R O D U C T IO N 5
3. B itu m in o u s C oal
i It is soft w ith h uge a m o u n t o f volatile m atter a nd is w idely used as fuel. Its ca lo rific value
is approximately 3 1 2 0 0 kJ/kg.
4. S u b -B itu m in o u s C oal
It burns w ith small a m o u n t o f sm oke. It is b lack in c o lo r w ith 15 to 20% o f volatile matter.
The approxim ate calorific value is around 18200 kJ/kg.
5. A n th r a c ite C oal
It is hard in nature with shining b lack color. It is well k n o w n for its high percentage of
carbon consent. It burns w ith e ith e r short blue flam es or w itho ut flam es. It has got a calorific of
35480 kJ/kg and it is suitable for steam generation.
I f s c o m p o sitio n is C - 90% ; O - 2%; H - 3% ; A sh - 5% .
1.2.3 A n a ly sis o f C oal

For the p u rp o se o f analy sis o f coal there are tw o p o p u la r m e th o d s n am ely
(i) Prox im ate analysis
(ii) U ltim ate analysis
P ro x im a te a n a ly sis
In this the p ercen tage o f m oisture, volatile m atters, fixed c a rb o n and ash are determined.
But individual e le m e n ts are not d eterm in ed in this analysis.
E x : M oisture = 6.5% ; V olatile m atter = 5.5% ; Fixed c a rb o n = 22.5% .
T his p ro x im a te analysis is easily done and used for c o m m e rc ia l purposes only.
U ltim a te a n a ly sis
In ultimate analysis the p ercentage o f various elem ents are determ ined. This type o f analysis
is useful for c o m b u stio n calculations.
E x : C arbon = 89% ; H ydrog en = 3%; O x ygen = 4 % ; N itro gen = 1%; Sulphur = 1%;
and Ash = 2%.
Constituents Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulphur Nitrogen Ash

Percentage 50 - 95% 2 - 5.5% 2 - 40% 0.5 - 3% 0.5 - 7% 2 - 30%
C arbon
T he more the c arbo n in the coal, the m ore the heat value and h e nce the smaller the size of
combustion c h a m b e r required.
6 POWER PLANT ENG IN EE R IN G
H ydrogen
It exists in c o m b in atio n with O x ygen and is know n as in h eren t m o istu re . T h e m o istu re
will escape with the flue g ases c arrying away the heat o f the fuel, but free H y drog en if. any
present increases the heat value o f the fuel.
O xygen
A lw ays low percentage o f O , in the coal is desirable, because d u rin g c o m b u stio n with
it carries away heat o f the coal along the Hue gases.
N itr o g e n
It has no heat value hence its presence causes no loss o f heat o f the coal.
Su lp h u r
r
It adds no heat, it oc c u r in coals as pyrites - w hen coal is burnt SO^ em its and pollutes the
air. Also sulphur c auses corrosion to the m achinery.
Ash
It is a residue o f com b u stio n , it form s clincker. The tem p e ra tu re o f c lin c k e r form ation on
the grate is 1000 to 1500 °C. T h is tem perature also de p en ds on p ercentage o f ash content.
Im p o rta n t P ro p e rtie s of Coal

(i) A good coal shou ld contain less ash content.
(ii) It should have high calorific value.
(iii) It should have high grindability. Grindability index is the measure o f relative ease of
pulverising different types o f coal. It is an important property in pulverised coal plants.
(iv) It should contain small percen tage o f su lp hu r i.e., less than 1%.
(v) It should have high weatherability.
(vi) And should possess good b urning characteristics (such that c o m p le te co m b u stio n
takes place).
1.2.4 Liquid fuels

Petroleum is the c h ie f source o f liquid fuels. The p etroleum is obtained from w ells under
the earth's crust. We can su m m a rise liquid fuels as petro leu m and its d eriv ativ es. D erivativ es o f
petroleum such as kerosene oil, gasoline, residual oil can be obtained by fractional distillation o f
crude petroleum, at differen t tem perature. For e xam ple g aso line is o b tained b e tw een 30 °C to
200 °C, kerosene in b etw een 150 - 300 °C and diesel around 3 20 °C.
Fuel Calorific value in kJ/kg

Gasoline 47092.5
Kerosene 46464.5
Diesel 46046.0
Fuel oil 43325.0
In India the main sou rc e s o f petroleum are in A ssam and Gujarat. G enerally fuel oils are
Classified based on specific grav ity o f oil. T h e Sp. gravity o f oil when com p ared w ith w ater at
60 °F is expressed in de g re e s o f API. (A m erican Petro leu m Institute).
While burning o f fuel oil it is desirable that it should be finely automized so that oil and air can
mix properly. For proper pum ping o f oil and correct atomisation it is necessary that oil should have
low viscosity. For this purpose a heater coil is used in storage tank to maintain temperature of oil
around 55 °C. Generally commercial petroleum is a mixture o f various hydrocarbons.
The properties for g asoline and diesel are as follow s
^'''''-^Property
Sp. gravity Viscosity Cetane number
Fuel
Gasoline 0.76 0.72 (10°C) 18

0.55 (40"C)
Diesel 0.85 4.5 (10°C) 45 - 55

2.4 (40°C)
The co m p o sitio n o f few c o m m o n liquid fuels is given below . (In Wt. Percentag e)
Content or
,hue!, lenient.s Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur
Petrol 85.5 14.4 0.1
Kerosene 86.3 13.6 0.1
Diesel 86.3 12.8 0.9
1.2.5 Im p ortan t P r o p e r tie s o f L iq u id F uels

The ana lysis o f liquid fuels mainly based on the follo w ing pro perties
(i) C alorific value (ii) Viscosity

(iii) S pecific heat (iv) Specific gravity
(v) Flash point (vi) Pour point
(vii) Sulph ur content (viii) C arbo n residue
(ix) C etane / O c ta n e num ber
1.2.6 A d v a n ta g es o f L iq uid F u els o v er S o lid F u els
1. Liquid Fuels are easy to handle.

2. Liquid fuels require less space for storage.
3. C o m b u stio n o f liquid fuels is uniform.
8 POWER PLANT EN G IN EE R IN G
4. Liquid fuels can be fixed easily and desired tem perature [i.e., m a x im u m tem perature]
can attained in quick time. In contrast solid fuels c o ntaining h ig h e r p e rce n ta g e o f
m oisture burn with greater difficulty.
5. D isposal o f ash is a very big p roblem in solid fuels b ecau se solid fuels leave behind
large qu a ntity o f ash after burning. W here as Liquid fuels leave very little ash
alm ost negligible after burning.
6. C o n tinu ou s firing o f furnace is possible with liquid fuels.
1.2.7 D isa d v a n ta g es o f L iquid F uels

1. The liquid fuels are costly w hen c o m p ared with solid fuels.
2. Special type o f burners are required for b urning liquid fuels.
3. M ajor d isad v a n ta g e is d anger o f explosion.
4. Liquid fuels are not that m uch suitable in cold clim ates.
1.2.8 G aseous F uels

G aseous fuels m ainly d iv id e d into
Natural gas - eg : Natural gas
Prepared gas - eg : Coal gas. producers gas, blast furnace gas, w ater gas, etc.
(a) N a tu ra l gas
Genew*lly natu ral gas c o m e s out o f gas w ells and p e tro le u m w ells. T h e m a in c o n s titu e n ts
o f natural gas arc m e th a n e ( C l l 4) and E th an e (C 2H 6) a lo n g with o th e r h y d r o c a r b o n s (~ 5% )
it is used as a l t e r n a t i v e fuel fo r I.C e n g in e s . Its c a l o r i f i c v a lu e is a b o u t 52 5 k C a l / m 3
oi 2205 kJ/m 3.
(b) B last fu r n a c e gas

The blast furnace gas is obtained us a b y-product durin g the m a n u fa c tu re o f Pig iron. In
smelting operation where air is forced through the layer o f coke and iron ore. T h is gas con tains
28% CO (carbon m onoxide) approxim ately. It may be used directly or alo n g with richer gas in
engines. The calorific value is around 3820 k J/m 3.
(c) C oal g as
Coal gas is also by-product but this gas is obtained during d estru ctiv e distillation o f coal.
The main c onstituents o f coal gas are hydrogen, CO , nitrogen and h y d ro c a rb o n s. T he calorific
value is around 30400 kJ/kg.
(d) P ro d u c e r gas
W hen coke or coal is burnt in insufficient quantity o f air p ro d u c e r gas is p ro d u c e d i.e., this
gas is obtained with in c o m p le te com bu stion o f coke or coal. T he main c o n stitu e n ts are C O and
N around 20 and 607 re sp e c tiv e ly . Us calorific value is around 45 00 k J /m 3. It is used for firing
* open hearth furnaces.
(e) W ater g a s
W hen steam is passed o v e r red hot co k e w ater gas is produced. T his can be represented by
an equation;
C + H 20 CO + h 2
D uring this reaction w ater d e c o m p o se s form ing free H ydro g e n and ox ygen in steam reacts
with carbon form s c a r b o n m o n o x id e . ✓
1.2.9 A d v a n ta g es o f G a seo u s F u els

1. T e m p e ra tu re control is easier b ecause it is easy to control the length and nature of
flame.
2. A sh c o n te n t is alm o st 0% these gaseous fuel burn c o m p letely. It is economical
since th ere is no ash.
3. Sm all qu antity o f excess air is required to burn.
4. T h e s e g a seo u s fuels can be easily piped into the furnace.
5. N o soot and no sm o k e so less m aintenance.
6. E c o n o m y in fuel hence more efficienct furnace operation.
I Few im p o r ta n t p r o p e r tie s o f G a seo u s F uels

1. Specific gravity
2. C alorific value
3. D ensity and
4. D iffusivity
1.2.11 C o k in g and C a k in g
W hen the coal is heated in the absence o f air o r in an a tm o sp h e re having insufficient
amount o f oxygen, the volatile m atter is driven off leaving b e hind a resid ue o f carbon. This
residue is called Coke.
The residue may be o f small p ow der particles o r it m ay fuse into lum ps. T he formation of
coke represents an in term ediate stage in com bustion.
In b oilers furn ace so m e coals becom e plastic and form heavy lum ps or masses of coke.
This form ation o f lum ps o f coke is called C aking.
T he coal that show little or no burning action durin g c o m b u stio n , it is called free burning.
The caking properties and the nature o f the coke masses form e d indicate the performance of the
fuel in the furnace.
G enerally caking coals are burned on underfed stokers, having m o v in g ram s, w h ich helps
in breaking the m asses o f sem icok e that form ed on fuel bed. Free b u rn in g coals are burned on
travelling grates, w hich no agitation o f the fuel bed. Here agitation is avoided to pre v en t falling
of coal particles into the ash pit, w hich may reduce the co m b u stio n efficiency .
1.3 W ATER STO R ED ENERG Y

W hen w ater is stored at a particu lar place (elevation) it attains po tential e n e rg y by virtue
of the head created with respect to d atum level. Sim ilarly m o ving steam o f w a te r p o sse ss kinetic
energy.
The water e n ergy is co n v e rte d into m echanical en ergy with the help o f w ater turbine s and
this mechanical energy is used to drive an altern ator w hich co nv erts m ec h a n ic al e n e rg y into
electrical energy.
The pow er plants, uses this w'ater energy called H ydraulic p o w e r plants. If w a te r so u rc e is
in abundance then the w ater p o w e r is very cheap. T h o ug h initial inv estm ent (capital) is high the
operating costs are quite low w hen co m p a re d to other p o w e r plants. /
1.4 NUCLEAR ENERGY

Fission o f h eavier unstable atom s like U ranium (U 235), T h o riu m ( T h 232) liberate m assiv e
energy. One co m ple te fission o f 1 kg o f U 23S liberates e n ergy w hich is equal to the energy
obtained by burning 45 00 ton nes o f high grade coal. T he main advantage o f N u c lea r e n e rg y is
the availability o f raw source is indep end en t o f geo grap hical factors, and the draw ba c k s are
high capital, m aintenance costs and m ajor disadvantag es is radioactive w aste d i s p o s a l
The nuclear energy is used to raise steam with suitable arra ng e m ents in steam p o w e r plants.
1.5 W IN D E N E R G Y
Wind energy is the c h eap est source o f power. It is d esirab le to use this m etho d w here
wind flows for a c on sid erable length o f time. T he lim itations o f this w ind e nergy are
(a) V ariable output

(b) U ncertainty in wind and
(c) Pow er generated is very low.
Apart from these lim itations the main advantages are also present as
(a) No o perator is needed and

(b) Very low m a inten ance and alm ost nil repairs.
T he main application o f w ind energ y is in p um ping w a te r from d e e p wells. T h e e quipm e n t

altogether used to produce p o w er from wind e nergy is called w in d m ill.
1.6 SO L A R E N E R G Y
*
The sun is the prim ary source o f energy. T he sun rad iation s can be fo c u sse d o ver a small
area by means o f reflectors. The geographical locations in the world w here strong solar radiations
received are suitable to trap this energy. For ex am ple, India, since it lies in a tem pe ra tu re clim ate
of the region o f the w orld w here’ sun light is abundant for a m ajor part o f the year. T he m ajo r
disadvantages are
*■ (i) it cannot be used in cloudy days or at nights.
(ii) it is uneconomical and
(iii) it requires large area even for production o f small power.
Note : Reader may refer any text on "non conventional energy sources" for complete information.
Som e application o f Solar energy

(i) Solar water pumps
(ii) Solar water heater
(iii) Solar pow er plants
1.7 TID A L E N E R G Y
Tides contain large amount o f energy. Rise and fall o f tides creates water head which helps in
driving the turbine (water turbine). Water isstored during tide rise and w ater isdischarged during
fall. The available head is low so to increase the power generation the catchment area should be
increased.
The sketch 1.1 is s e lf d escriptive, how the p o w e r is g e n e ra te d using tidal energy.
Dam
The head developed is just about few meters. During high tide the water level on sea tide (high
tide) side is above the tidal basin and exactly opposite in low tide case, (refer to sketch) i.e., during
low tide the height o f the tide is lower than tidal basin. During this period water tend to flow out
driving the turbine unit. The turbine unit does not operate is the tide seal level is equal to basin level.
1.7.1 A dvantages
1. Power generation is rain independent.
, 2. No uncertainty in pow er development.
3. Power generation is free from pollution.
4. Undesirable wastes (like ash, gases) are not produced.
12 POWER P LA N T E N G IN E E R IN G
1.7.2 D isadvan tages

1. Since the tidal pow e r plants are located aw ay from load cen tres, tra n sm issio n cost is
high.
2. Capital cost is high when c o m p ared to steam po w e r plants and h y dro p o w e r plants.
1.8 GEOTHERM AL ENERGY

Earth has a m olten core. T his statem ent is suppo rted by V olcanos at m any p laces on the
earth. T he steam that c o m e s out o f the natural steam well (H ot spring s) isused for pow e r
generations. T his e nergy is term ed as g e o th e rm a l energy.
T here are tw o w ays in p o w e r production from g eo th erm al e nergy
1. Direct m ethod
2. Indirect m ethod
Fig. 1.2 Geothermal power plant
In direct system the hot g eotherm al w ater/steam is used to o perate the turbine d irectly as
shown in the sketch 1.2. In this a se p a ra to r is used to rem ove the m o isture and foreign particles.
I.
Fig. 1.3. Sketch Showing Indirect Method (Geothermal Power plant)

INTRODUCTION 13
The indirect m ethod is used w hen tem perature of geothermal source is not sufficient to
i drive the turbine. In this m ethod the hot ste am /w a te r is used to heal the secondary fluid with the
help of exchanger. T h e se co nd ary fluid like F re o n , iso -butane circulator in the closed cycle as
shown in the figure 1.3. T he main advan tage o f this m etho d is low temperature water/steam can
be used effectively.
1.9 T H E R M O E L E C T R IC E N E R G Y
This is based on "Seebeck E ffect". A cco rd in g to S e eb eck effect w hen the two ends of a
loop of two d issim ila r m etals are m aintained at different tem p e ratu res, an electrom otive force is
developed and the current flow s in loop. Fig. 1.4.
The effe c tiv en ess o f this p o w e r gen eration is increased by selecting suitable materials.
The main advantage o f this m ethod is very low initial cost and n e glig ib le m a inten ance cost.
The m ag nitu de o f e m f (E) prod uced by this process is pro portio nal to the temperature
difference betw een tw o jun ctio ns.
E oc (T h - T c)
E = « ( T h ~ T c)
Th - te m pe ra tu re o f hot ju n c tio n
Tc - tem p e ra tu re o f cold ju n c tio n
a - S e e b ec k coefficient
Heat Input by heat source

(Solar or any source)
LA H ot J u n c tio n
Electrodes
*
Cold junction
L
Load
Fig. 1.4 Therm oelectric generator
1.10 S IG N IF IC A N C E O F E L E C T R IC A L E N E R G Y
Energy exists in various form like m echanical e nergy, therm al energy heat energy, electrical
energy, light energy etc., one form o f energy can be co n v e rte d into a n o th e r by means o f suitable
arrangem ents. T h e survival o f industrial un dertaking s and o ur social structures mainly depends
on uninterrupted supply o f electrical energy at low cost. Infact the progress of a country is
m easured interm s o f p e rc a p ita c o nsu m ptio n o f electrical energy.
14 POWER P L A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
The electrical energy is preferred mainly due to the fo llow ing reaso n s
1. E asy co n v e rsio n s
Electrical e nergy is very c o n v e n ie n t form o f energy and it can be c o n v e rte d into other
forms o f energy easily.
Ex : If we w ant to co n v e rt electrical energy into heat e n ergy the only thing we need to do
is to pass the electrical cu rren t th rough a wire o f high resistance, (h ea ter). E lectrical e n ergy into
light energy [ e le c tric bulb]. Electric energy into m echan ical e nerg y [E le ctrica l m otor].
2. E a sily c o n tro lle d

Electrical en e rg y is easily c on trolled and can be regu lated to suit the r e q u ire m e n ts , for
example an electric m otor can be stated or stopped by a sim p le sw itch. In the sa m e w ay the
speed o f an electric m otor can be varied with sim ple arran gem ents.
3. E co n o m ica l
E lectrical e n e rg y is very c h e a p w he n c o m p a re to o th e r fo rm s o f e n e rg y . T h u s it is
economical to use this energy for dom estic, c o m m ercial and industrial purposes.
4. E asy tra n sp o rta tio n

This is one im portant factor in preferring electrical energy. It is easily tra n sp o rte d from
one place to another with the help o f conductors.
5. C lea n lin ess

The electrical e nergy is not associated with sm oke, ash, fum es o r any p o iso n o u s gases,
this shows the cleanliness and healthy co nditions o f this energy.
1.11 E L E C T R IC A L E N E R G Y G E N E R A T IO N (P R IN C IP L E )
"The c o n versio n o f d iffe re n t fo r m s o f en erg y into e le c tric a l e n e rg y is kno w n as g e n e ra tio n s
o f electrica l e n e rg y " .
Supply
Source o f ------ ► Prime . . A lternator/

energy ------ ► mover Generator
Fig. 1.5
Electric energy is nothing but a m a n ufactured c o m m o d ity , since it is p rod uced by using
various form s o f energy available in nature (raw materials). T h is p ro d u c e d electrical e n e rg y is
transmitted to the point o f use at the instant it is needed.
T he Fig 1.5 sh o w s an arrang em en t used for electrical p o w e r prod uction . T he various

forms o f e nergy (w ater energy, thermal energy, sun en erg y) available in nature is c o n n e c te d into
electrical e nergy by suitable arrangem ent.
The a rra n g e m en ts sh ow n in the sketch m ainly em p lo y s an alternato r (G e n e ra to r) coupled

to a prime mover. T h e prim e m o v e r is d riven by energy obtain ed from various s o u rc e s such as
water head, c o m b u stio n o f fuel, w ind force, etc.
For exam ple in hydroelectric pow er plants the pressure o f water is used to drive the water
turbine (where water energy is converted into mechanical energy) which is coupled to a generator or
an alternator (where mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy). The current flows from
the generator to the transformers where the voltage is stepped up to the requirements. Similarly other
forms o f energy can be converted into electrical energy by using suitable equipment.
1.12 C A L O R IF IC V A L L E O F F U E L
Calorific value or heating value is the basic thermal characteristics o f a fuel. See Appendix HI.
The calorific value is defined as the a m o u n t o f heat liberated w hen unit m ass or unit volume
(one kg o f solid or liquid fuel or one cubic metre o f ga se o u s fuel) o f fuel is com pletely burnt,
(complete ox id atio n) u n d e r stand ard conditions.
It is expressed in kJ/kg for solid or liquid fuel and kJ/m 3 for gaseous fuel. (M KS kCal/kg and
kC al/m 3 resp ectiv ely). G en e ra lly fuels co ntain H yd ro gen (H ), O x y g e n (O), C arbo n (C) and
Sulphur (S). The calorific value o f these fuels can be classified into
1. High calorific value (H C V ) or G ross calorific value

2. L o w e r calorific value (L C V ) or Net calorific value.
The hig her calorific value is the total am ou nt o f heat p ro du ced w hen unit q ua ntity of fuej^
is burnt co m pletely and the produ cts o f co m b u stio n have been cooled to ro o m tem perature. It is
indicated by co n sta n t - v o lu m e c a lo rim e te r in w hich the steam is c o n d e n s e d and the vapour is
recovered.
Several m ethods are there for finding calorific value o f fuel and on e a m o ng these methods
is D u lo n g 's F orm ula.
D ulong's Formula
D ulong's sug g e ste d a form ula based on chem ical c o m p o s itio n o f a fuel for calculation of
the calorific value. It is a pplicable for solid and liquid fuels.
O
HCV = — 3 3 8 0 0 C + 1440001 H - — ) + 9 2 7 0 S —
100 8 . kg
where C, H, O and S r e p r e s e n ts c a rb o n , h y d r o g e n , o x y g e n , s u lp h u r in p e r c e n ta g e s
respectively in 100 kg o f fuel.
L o w e r c a lo r ific va lu e is the a m o u n t o f heat lib e ra te d w h e n unit q u a n tity o f fuel is

com pletely burnt and the c o m b u stio n p ro du cts are not c o o le d to ro o m te m p e r a tu r e b ut are
allowed to escape.
It is o btained by sub stractin g heat carried by the pro du cts o f c o m b u stio n . (E specially
latent heat o f w ater vap ou r w hich is around 2465 kJ/kg or 5 8 8 .7 6 % kC al/kg for I kg o f fuel).
LCV is expressed interms o f HCV in the follow ing way.
L C V = (H .C .V - 2465 W )kJ/k g ..... SI
L C V = (H .C .V - 5 88.76 W ) k C a l/k g ..............MKS
where W is the a m o u n t o f w ater vapo ur formed by the c om bu stio n o f 1 kg o f fuel.
1.13 R E SO U R C E S A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O F P O W E R IN IN D IA
In the p re se n t day c iv iliz a tio n the a v a ila b ility o f e le c tric a l e n e r g y and its p e r c a p ita
consum ption is regarded as an index o f national stan dard o f living. T he f lo u rish in g p ow e r
generation industry reflects the prosperity o f the people o f the nation. T he lack o f p o w e r can
throttle the entire ec o no m ic activity and well being o f the country.
Next to food, po w er (fuel) is the most im portant item on w'hich national sta n d a rd o f life
depends. With an increase in pow er the production o f food also increases. T h e re fo re every care
should be taken to increase po w e r potential o f a nation.
As per the survey c o n d u cted in the y ear 1988-89 the C entral E lectricity A u th o rity o f
India,the energy c o n su m ptio n for different sectors is given as follows
Sector Domestic Commercial Agriculture Industries Miscellaneous
% Consumption 20 7.3 25 44 3.7
India is a largest dem o cratic republic country in the w orld, h av in g an are a o f 1.27 m illion
square miles, with population around lOOcrores. T he first hy dro-station w as s tarted at D arjeeling
in 1897 with 200 kW capacity.
In the early days most o f the electric supply facilities were privately o w n e d and catered to
the needs. T he m ajor o f the earlier pow e r stations com p rise d diesel g e n e ra tin g sets. T h e first
steam station w as started in 1899 at Calcutta, with 1000 kW capacity. See A p p e n d ix II.
Efforts for o rg a n iz in g the pow er supply industry in a rational m a n n e r began only after
. independence. P lanned p o w e r d e v e lo p m e n t in a system atic m an ner began in 195J with launching
of the First Five Y ear Plan (1951 - 1956). D uring this first plan the gen eraling capacity is
increased by 1 100 M W w h ich brings total capacity to 3400 M W. by the end o f the first plan. In
the same way by the end o f second plan the total capacity in c re a se d to 5700 MW. The third five
year plan was c h a ra c te r is e d by tw o sig n ific a n t d e v e lo p m e n ts , firstly the recognition o f the
important o f rural e lectrificatio n as a key factor in e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t and secondly the
importance o f in tercon necting the po w e r station so that d ifferent ca p a c ities could be pooled and
used to the best advantag e. T his netw ork divides the c ou ntry into five regions, and regional
electricity Boards are also established.
1. N orthern Region U.P, H aryana, Punjab, R ajasth an, H im achal Pradesh,

and J & K.
2. W estern R egion M.P, G ujarat, M a h a ra sh tra , G oa, Diu. Daman.
3. S outhern Region A.P, K arnataka, T .N . Po nd ich erry. Kerala.
4. Eastern Region Bihar, Orissa, W est Bengal.
5. N orth - E astern Region A ssam , M e ghalaya, M anipur, T ripu ra, Nagaland,

A runachal Pradesh, and M izo ram .
As in all a d v a n c e d cou ntries in the w orld, the electricity has been the m ost preferred from
of energy in ou r c o un try also. T he d e m a n d for electricity is very high, h o w e v er a plan for
increasing the installed capacity to 38 000 M W has been draw n up at the end o f fifth plan taking
into account the availability o f financial and other resources. T o e m p h a siz e , the electricity must
be carried to every h o use and to every d e v elo p m e n t a'ctivity to m ake it c le a r to the people that
they are living in a w elfare state.
T he m ain reso urces o f electricity generation in India are h y d ro -p o w e r plants, Thermal

power plants, based on Coal and N u clear fuels. T he grow th in p o w e r g e nerating capacity has
to be ach iev e d by all th ree c o n v e n tio n a l so urces o f p o w e r i.e ., hyd e l, th e rm a l and atomic.
See A p p e n d ix I and //.
T h e p o w e r r e s o u r c e s o f the c o u n tr y are u n e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g the sta te s and

region s o f the c o u n tr y . T h e r e are se v e ra l sta te s w h ic h do n o t h a v e a n y m a jo r en e rg y resource
w ith in th e ir te r r ito r y . T h is m a k e s p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t e x t r e m e l y c o m p le x u n d e r present
c o n c e p t.
T he funds actually need ed as m uch more than the provided, th erefore serious shortages of
funds w ould result in c o n c e n tra tin g on the present concept.
Inspite o f the a c h ie v e m en ts m ade so far and future plans p rop ose d for p o w e r dev e lo p m e n t.
The country is likely to face p o w e r shortages. T h is is due to the fact that the d e v e lo p in g c ountries
often face the d ile m m a o f h aving an electric po w er d e m an d grow th rate m u ch h ig h e r on one
hand and lim itations in resou rces on the other. In sim ple the e n ergy crisis in o u r c ou ntry m ay be
described as a d ile m m a b etw een the need and the availability.
The Coal that available is generally o f p o o r q uality w ith very heavy ash co ntent. W ith the
establishment o f steel plants the dem and for coal w ent up w hile the production lag ged behind.
The coal plays a d o m in a tin g role in po w e r generation arou nd 6 5 % o f total installed ca p a c ity in
India is coal based.
T he k n o w n r e s o u r c e s o f c o a l are m a in ly lo c a te d in W e s t B e n g a l, B ih a r, M .P ., and
A.P., and this a c c o u n ts a r o u n d 8 1 0 0 0 m illio n tons a n d e s ti m a te d tha t th e s e r e s e r v e s m e e t the
de m a n d for a n o th e r 100 y e a rs. Oil an d n a tu ra l g a s re s o u r c e s a re s m a lle r in o u r c o u n tr y , the
oil re sourc e s in G u ja r a t and A ssa m are e s tim a te d to the a ro u n d 4 7 0 m illio n to n n e s an d na tu ra l
gas aro u n d 40 0 m illio n c u b ic m e te rs . T h e na tu ra l gas is c le a n e r a n d m o r e c o n v e n i e n t in
transport and use in a d d itio n has m a y m o re a d v a n ta g e s than coal a n d oil. T h e th e r m a l p la n t
using natural gas a fuel u tilis e s c o m b in e d c y c le (i.e. B r a y to n an d R a n k in e c y c le s ) g iv in g
better efficiency o f 4 5 % to 5 0% . T h e m a jo r set b a ck fo r this p o w e r p la n t is lim ite d a v a ila b ility
o f gas in India. T h u s p o w e r g e n e r a tio n s in In d ia by th e rm a l p o w e r p la n t is b a s e d on C o al,
Oil and N atural gas.
India has e n d e a v o u r s p o te n tia l for h y d ro -e le c tric p o w e r b e c a u se o f the e x is tin g high

mountain ranges and rivers. H y drop ow er is a com m ercial source o f energy w hich sup plies around
25% o f total electricity o f the world.
Total riverflow in India is about 16,75,000 million cubic m eters, o f w hich a b o u t l / 3 rd o f

this flow is used for po w e r generation. Indian rivers can be classified as rain-fed and as w ell as
snowfed. The H im alayan rivers are rain as well as sno w fed and have m in im u m variation in
discharge (Indus, Ganges and Bhram aputra). T he rainfed rivers discharge heavily during M onsoon
and almost dry-up in summer. A part from being perennial and ine x ha ustib le so u rc e o f energy,
Hydro power represents the c h eap er source o f energy in our the presen t installed c a p a c ity is
about 15000 MW.
A part fo r th e s e s o u r c e s (C o a l, O il, G as and W a te r) th e o t h e r s o u r c e s lik e N u c le a r

pow er, G e o th e rm a l p o w e r, W ind p o w e r, S o la r e n e rg y are very im p o r ta n t in p o w e r g e n e ra tio n .
T he e x istin g u r a n iu m U 238 re s o u rc e s (a v a ila b le in B ih ar, R a ja s th a n a n d T a m i l n a d u ) c a n y ield
10,000 M W o f p o w e r f o r a n o th e r 2 0 y e a r s . T h o r i u m is a n o t h e r n u c l e a r fu el a v a i l a b l e
in K erala.
The Solar e nergy can be collected by using flat plate collectors, can be used to generate
steam to run steam turbine and generate electric power. Electric p o w e r can be o b ta in e d directly
by using pho to -v oltaic cells.
INTRODUCTION 19
S u m m ary
T he E lectric p o w er c o n s u m p tio n has been g row ing at an alarming rate o f 12%. The
efficiency o f g eneration and transm ission o f electricity is very poor in India, and the demand of
this pow er is 10 tim es than the p resent installed capacity. The growth o f power generation is
India has been 10.5% in I plan, 4.9 % in II plan, 14.3% in I I I plan and 6.9% in IV plan. This data
shows the targets are not achiev ed due to lack o f utilization o f resources due to lack of funds.
The alternative m ethod s o f pro ducin g energy such as creatin g new thermal and hydel power
stations, with the use o f re n ew a b le sources o f energy such as w o od , biogas, solar, wind and
production o f nu clear energy.
Every step is ad opted for electrification o f rem ote villages, tow ns, etc., by proper utilization
of sources available in India.
R eview Q u estio n s
1. W hat are the a d v an tag es o f liquid fuels o ver the Solid fuels ?
2. C o m p a re the different energy sources used for the electrical p o w e r generation .
3. Write about different e nergy sources available in Nature.
4. Electrical energy is preferred o ver oth er form o f e nergy. W hy ?
5. W rite short n otes on electric p o w er generation.
6. D iscuss po w e r d e v e lo p m en t in India.
S elf - test
1. T he main sources o f energy [1

(a) Sun (b) W ood (c) Coal (d) Diesel
2. T he m ost p referred e nergy is []

c
(a) M echanical e n ergy (b) E lectrical e nerg y
(c) T h erm al energy (d) N u c le a r energy
3. The calorific value o f solid fuel is e xp ressed in []

(a) kJ/kg (b) k J /m 3 (c) kJ (d) N one
4. A lternator co nv e rts M
(a) M e c h an ic a l energy into Electrical energy
(b) Electrical e nergy into M echanical energy
(c) T h erm al e nerg y into Electrical energy
(d) W ater en ergy into Electrical energy
The basic unit o f e nergy is

(a) Joule (b) Watt (c) Joule - Sec (d) N o ne
6. The prim ary so urces o f the e nerg y are

(a) H ydrogen, O x y g e n and W ater (b) Coal, Oil and U ranium
(c) Wind, B io m ass and G eotherm al (d) N one
7-, The percentage o f o xy gen by w eight in atm o sph eric air is

(a) 18% (b) 77% (c) 23% (d) 80%
8. India’s largest therm al p o w e r station is located at

(a) Kota (b) C h a n d ra p u r (c) Sarmi (d) N eyveli
A nsw ers
1. a 2. b 3. a 4 .a 5.a 6. b 7. c 8. b
Chapter - 2
Steam Power Plant
2.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
In th is m o d e r n w o r l d the e l e c tr ic ity h a s b e c o m e a p a rt a n d p a r c e l o f o u r life. The
ev er in c r e a s i n g use o f e l e c t r i c i t y ( d o m e s ti c , c o m m e r c i a l , i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s ) n e c e ssita te s
to p r o d u c e b u lk e l e c t r i c i t y e c o n o m i c a l l y . T h is c a n be a c h i e v e d by u s in g p o w e r p la n ts or
e le c tric p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n s ta tio n s . T h e d e s ig n o f a p o w e r p la n t is b a s e d o n tw o im p o rta n t
fa c to rs,
(i) Selection o f site.

(ii) M a in t e n a n c e o f the p la n t, for p r o d u c tio n o f p o w e r c h e a p ly a n d c o n tin u o u s ly
(Bulk electric p o w e r is produced by special p o w er plants).
2.2 PO W ER PLANT
A p o w e r plant or g e n e ra tin g station essentially e m p lo y s a p rim e m o v e r co u p le d to an
generato r/alternato r for production o f power.
T he p rim e m o v e r ( T u r b in e ) c o n v e r ts e n e r g y fro m o th e r f o r m s into m e c h a n ic a l energy.

The g e n e r a to r /a l te r n a to r c o u p l e d w ith p r im e m o v e r c o n v e r ts this m e c h a n ic a l e n e r g y into
e le c tric al e n e r g y and it is tr a n s m itte d and d is tr ib u te d w ith h e lp o f c o n d u c tio n to various
sections.
B a se d on the fo rm o f e n e rg y c o n v e r te d into e le c tr ic a l e n e r g y , the p o w e r plants are

classified as
(i) Steam p o w e r plants.

(ii) H yd ro-electric po w e r plants.
(iii) Diesel p o w er plants.
(iv) N u cle a r po w e r stations.
2.3 ST E A M P O W E R P L A N T
A steam p o w e r plant co nverts the chem ical e nerg y o f the fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) or
Fissile fuels (U ra n iu m , T h o riu m ) into electrical energy. Fig. 2.1 sh o w s the basic principle of
power production in steam po w e r plant.
22 POWER PLANT E N G IN E E R IN G
Wutegua*
%
Chemical Energy Raising Steam in Boiler Electrical Energy
»
(Fuels) Expanding steam in the turbine
Fig. 2.1 Steam power plant - Basic principle
Stea m p o w e r p la n t b a s ic a lly w o rk s on the R an k in e cycle. S te a m is p r o d u c e d in the

boiler by utilising th e heat o f fu el c o m b u s tio n , th u s stea m is e x p a n d e d th r o u g h the s te a m
turbines. The steam turbine drives the ge ne ra to r which con ve rts m ec h a n ic al e n erg y o f the turbine
into electrical energy.
4 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F S T E A M P O W E R P L A N T
The steam p o w e r p la n ts m a y be c la ss ifie d as

(i) Central stations
(ii) Industrial p o w e r station
C entral S ta tio n s
The electrical energy av ailable from these station is m ean t for general sale to the cu sto m e rs
who wish to p u rchase it.
In d u stria l P o w er S ta tio n s
These p o w e r stations are run by a m an ufactu ring c o m p a n ie s for their o w n use and the
pow er produced is not for general sale.
»
2.5 ST E A M P O W E R P L A N T - L A Y O U T
The m odern steam p o w e r p la n t m a in ly d iv id e d into f o u r c ircu its.
(i) Coal and Ash circuit
(ii) Air and G as circuit
(iii) Feed w ater and Ste a m fl^w circuit
(iv) C ooling w ater circuit.
Fig. 2.2 sho w s general layout o f steam p o w e r plant.
STEAM PO W ER PLANT 23
Eihauft
Fig. 2.2 Steam Power Plant - Layout
The main c o m p o n e n ts o f steam p o w e r plant

1. Boiler 2. S u p erh e a te r 3. R e h e a te r
4. A ir-p re h e a ter 5. E c o n o m ise r 6. S te a m turbine
7. C ondenser 8. C o o lin g tow er 9. C irc ula ting water pump
10. B oiler feed pum p 11. G e n e ra to r 12. W a te r treatment section
13. C h im n e y and C on trol room.
24 POWER P L A N T E N G IN EE R IN G
Coal an d A sh circ u it
It co m p rises o f coal h and ling e q u ip m e n t and ash h and ling e q u ip m e n t. C oal is su pp lied to ~
the boiler from the storage point by coal ha n dling e q u ip m e n t and ste a m is g e n e rated in the boiler.
Ash resulting fro m the c o m b u s tio n o f co a l is r e m o v e d to th e ash sto ra g e y a rd th ro u g h ash
handling equipm ent.
A ir a n d G as circ u it
Air is blow n to the c o m b u stio n c h a m b e r by in du ce d d ra ug ht fan o r fo rced draugh t fan or
both. The dust present in the air it is re m o ve d by dust c a tching de v ic e or p re cipitator. T h e heat
in the exhaust gases is used to pre-heat the air. T h e dust in the e x h a u st gases is re m o v e d by
precipitator b efore letting off into th e atm osphere.
F e e d w a t e r a n d s t e a m flow c ir c u it
The high p ressu re steam p rod uced in the boiler is used to o p e ra te the turbine. T h e exh aust
s.eam is c o n d e n s e d in th e c o n d e n se r. T h e c o n d e n s a te is h e a te d in the fe e d h e a te r s u sin g
the steam trapped fro m different points o f turbine and finally the c o n d e n sa te is p u m p e d into
the boiler.
D uring this process a part of steam and w ater is lost by passing though d ifferent c om p one n ts
and this is co m p en sa te d by su p p ly in g ad ditional feed w'ater (m ake up water). T h is feed water
should he purified before supply to prev ent scaling o f the tubes o f the boiler.
C o o lin g w a t e r c i r c u i t
The cooling w ater supp ly to the c o nd cnser helps in m a in ta in in g a low p re ssu re in it. T he
water may be taken from an y source like river, lake or sam e w'ater m ay be c o o le d circulated
again. Based on these, this circuit is divided
(i) O pen system and

(ii) C losed system
O p e n S y s te m ,
W ater from any natural source (river, sea) is used to for c o n d e n sa tio n ,o f s te a m in this open
system. W ater from the upstre a m o f the river is taken and circu lated in the co n denser. The
heated water is let do w n into the stream o f river in this system .
C lo se d S y s te m
W hen enough quantity o f w ater is not available the same w ater will be used in the condenser.
The heated w ater from the c o n d e n se r is cooled by coolin g tow er or spray p o n d and recirculated.
Make up w ater is added periodically to co ver the w ater / steam loss.
ST E A M P O W E R PL AN T 25
2.6 S T E A M P O W E R P L A N T A C C E S S O R IE S
A ccessories are the a uxiliary plants required for steam boilers for their p ro p e r operation
and to increase the e ffic ie n cy o f th e plant.
(i) E c o n o m ise r
In an e c o n o m is e r the w aste heat o f flue gases is utilised for h ea tin g the feed w a te r. The
major heat loss in a steam b oiler is heat carried aw ay by the flue gases. U sin g econom iser fuel is
economised and c o n se q u e n tly steam rate is increased.
A d v a n ta g e s o f u sin g E co n o m iser
1. O v e ra ll e ffic ie n cy o f the plan t is increased.
2. In crease in e v a p o ra tiv e capacity.
3. B oiler life in creases as th erm al stresses are reduced.
D esig n r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r an E co n o m iser
(a) T h e m a x im u m po ssible heat tran sfer should take place.

(b) T h e heat tra n sfe r surface shou ld be m inim um .
(c) T h e re s ho uld b e m in im u m pressure losses.
E c o n o m ise rs are tw o types, Plain tube type and G illed tube type.
P la in tu b e ty p e e c o n o m ise rs are used in L a n c a sh ire b o ile rs w o rk in g u n d e r natural draft.

T h e tubes are generally cast iron made. T he co rro siv e action o f flue g a sse s can b e resisted best
w ith the cast iron tubes. T o in tensify heat transfer and to m in im iz e fou ling sm all diametered
steel tubes are used as e c o n o m ise r coils. C oils are a rranged p e rp e n d ic u la r (or parallel) to the
boiler front. T h e a rr a n g e m e n t o f e c o n o m ise r is sh ow n in fig.2.3 g iv e n below .
Water tubes
Fig. 2 3 Econom iser - arrangem ent

26 POWER PL AN T E N G IN E E R IN G
The tubes o f the e c o n o m is e r are o f sm ooth surfaced and finned. Fins in c re ase s the heat
transfer surface area. T h e e x te n d e d heating surfaces o f ec o n o m is e r is sh o w n in fig. 2.4 below . -
Fig. 2.4 Economiser with fins
(ii) A ir- P reh ea ter

It is also on e o f the b o ile r a c c e sso rie s u se d w ith the e c o n o m is e r . T h e flu e g a s e s p a ssin g
out o f the e c o n o m is e r is a lso at a h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re s than the a m b ie n t air. T h e r e f o r e the
gasses p assin g th ro u g h e c o n o m is e r is a llo w e d to pass th ro u g h a ir-p r e h e a te r s . T h e air after
preheating is su p p lie d to th e c o m b u s tio n c h a m b e r. T h e high te m p e r a tu re d air is a lw a y s re su lts
in b etter c om bustion .
A d van tages o f P r eh ea ter

1. B etter and im p ro v e d com bustion.
2. Low grade fuel can be used.
3. T h erm al efficiency increases.
4. S te a m generatio n cap acity increases.
5. Fuel saving.
T yp es o f A ir -P r e h e a ter s
There are th ree types o f air-preheaters, sh ow n in fig. 2.5 (a), (b), (c).
(a) T u b u la r type )
(b) R egenerativ e (R otary) and
(c) Plate type.
(a) T u b u la r
Flue gases pass th ro u g h tubes and air is a llo w e d to pass past the tubes. T u b e s are m a d e o f
cast iron in this tu b u la r type air-preheaters. W ith the e ntry o f rotary h e a te rs the d e m a n d for
tubular heaters falls b e c a u se o f its disadvantage o f large in size, a n d c le a n in g o f tu be s regularly.
(b) R e g en era tiv e (R o ta ry )

In this type o f p re h e a te r the h ea t transfer b e tw e e n hot g ases and co ld air is o f tw o stages.
In the first stage heat is pack e d from flue gases during heating period. W h e re as in cooling
period the heat is tran sferred to the air.
STEA M PO W ER PLANT 27
T h e tw o p a c k in g s a re r e q u ire d in a sta tio n a ry heater. In th is w a y th e ro to r m ade o f

corrug ated e le m e n ts transfers h eat from gas to the air. T h e ro to r w ou ld b e rotating about 3 rpm.
(c) P late typ e

N u m b e r o f leav es o f sheet m etal w e ld e d and a sse m b le d in a housing. A ir flows in the
hollow leaves an d gases outside. T his type o f preh eaters are costly.
(b) - (c)
Fig. 2.5 Types of air-preheaters
28 POWER PLAN T E N G IN E E R IN G
(iii) S u p erh ea ters

Heating satu rated s team c o m in g o ut o f b oiler abov e saturation te m p e ra tu re w ith little loss
in pressure. Here the m o istu re is totally rem oved. W ith sup e rh e a ting the cycle e ffic ie n cy raises
and avoids too m uch c o n d e n s a tio n in the last stages o f the turbine. T h e tube m aterials a re carbo n
steels (510°C) and C h r o m iu m -M o ly b d e n u m alloys (650°C). Superheaters are classified as radiant,
convection or c o m b in a tio n o f both.
C on vection typ e
As the nam e in dicate the e nergy transfer is by co nvection. T h is type o f su p e rh e a te rs are
located as overdeck, interdeck and interbank. If sup erheater is placed in the space o v e r w ater
tubes it is overd eck superheater. If it is placed inside o f tu b e d e c k this is called in te rde c k, in the
third case su perheater will be located b etw een the b ank s o f tubes (w ater tubes).
Steel tubes o f 2 0-3 0 m m internal d iam eters are used. F inn ed surface tubes c an b e u sed to
increase the h eat tran sfer rate. D iffe re n t steam m o tion s are sh o w n in fig. 2.6 below .
k £2Z // / / / s / / / / / , ' / / / / / / / z /Z 7
r\
W W \J
77777777777777 - 77777777777777- 777777777777777777 77777/ 7/ 77/ 7/ / / / / /
Fig. 2.6 Motion of steam and combustion products in convective superheater
R ad iant S u p erh ea ters

These su perheaters are g enerally located on the ro o f o f the furnace. In d ru m type boilers
this type o f su perheaters are used. D ue to low hy draulic resista n c e a n d low re sista n c e on gas
side the heat tran sfer rate w o u ld be gre a te r in radiant su per heaters.
C om bined typ e
In a com bined type super heaters the com bination o f both convectiv e and radiant superheater
is used. Control characteristics o f superheaters are draw n b e tw een te m p e ra tu re o f supe rhe a te d
steam and B oiler lad. T h e graph is as show n in fig. 2.7
Fig 2.7 LoAO

S T E A M P O W E R PLAN T 29
(iv) S o o t B lo w ers
So ot b lo w e rs are u se d to control the build up o f soot an d ash d ep osits that reduce the
efficiency o f the p la n t and creates corro sive surface. S o o t b lo w e rs im p ro v es heat tran sfer also.
D urin g low load o p e ratio n s so o t b lo w e rs are very m u c h essential.
S o o t b lo w ers c an b e classified as
(a) F ixe d positio n soot blow ers.
(b) R e tra c ta b le soot blow ers.
(c) E c o n o m is e r soot blow ers.
2.7 R A N K IN E C Y C L E 2
Fig. 2.8 Steam Power Plant working on Rankine Cycle
Fig. 2.9 Rankine Cycle - P-V diagram
1 -2 — C o n sta n t h ea t a d d itio n p ro cess.

2 -3 — R e v e rsib le a d ia b a tic exp a n sio n p r o c e s s in th e turbine.
3 -4 — C o n sta n t p re ssu re h e a t rem o va l fr o m the co n d en ser.
4 -1 — A re v e rsib le a d ia b a tic p u m p in g p ro c e ss.

30 POWER PL A N T E N G IN EE R IN G
Fig. 2.10 Rankine Cycle - T-S diagram
The point '4' represents the w ater at condenser pressure P 2 and co rrespo nding tem perature
T2. The process 4-5 represents adiabatic com pression o f water by the pum p from c o nd en ser pressure
to boiler pressure. D uring the process there is slight rise in tem perature. [(4 to 5) in fig. 2.9].
Heat is supplied to w ater at c onstant pressure during 5-1 process and 1-2 p ro c ess w here the w ater
converts into steam pro c ess 5-1 show s supply o f heat at c o n sta n t pre ssu re till the saturatio n
temperature o f w ater is re a c h e d c o rre sp on ding to b oiler pre ssu re P ,. D u e to th is in c re a se in
tem perature the increase in c o lu m n o f w ater is n e g ligible so 1 an d 5 are in sa m e po sitions.
1-2 shows the com plete conversion o f w ater into steam at co nstant pressure o f P r -Process 2-3
shows adiabatic expansion (fig. 2.8) or isentropic expansion (fig. 2.9). D u rin g this process external
work is developed and steam pressure falls from P, to P 2 and its tem perature is T 2.
T he process 3-4 represen ts ph a se c h a n g e i.e., latent he a t o f steam at c o n stan t p re s su re and

finally 4-5 rep resent an adiabatic com p re ssio n o f w a te r by the p u m p fro m P 2 to P } p re ssu re and
the cycle is repeated.
This analysis o f R a n k in e cycle is helpful to think o f the e ffic ie n cy as it d e p e n d s on the

average tem pe ra tu re at w h ich the heat is supplied, (T j) and the a v era g e te m p e ra tu re at which
heat is r e je c te d , ( T 2). A n y c h a n g e th a t i n c r e a s e in T , o r d e c r e a s e in T 2 i n c r e a s e s th e
system efficiency.
With no su p e rh e a t the area under a-5- l-2 -b -a represents the h eat tran sfe rred to the w o rking
fluid. Similarly fo r s u p erh e a t the area undeir a - 5 - l - 2 - 2 ’-c-a, re p re se n ts the same.
T he heat tra n sfe rre d fro m th e w o rk in g fluid is r e p r e s e n te d by th e a re a s a - 4 - 3 - b - a or

a -4 -3 !-c-a. Since the first law defines the w o rk done, as a d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n to c o rresp o n d in g
areas o f T-S diagram , this w ould be 4 -1 -5 -2 -3 -4 for the ca se o f no superheat.
Therefore the therm o d y n a m ic efficiency for the R a n k in e c ycle is giv en by
Network output
^ th Total heat input
area 4 - 1 - 5 - 2 - 3 - 4
area a - l - 5 - 2 - b - a
STEAM POWER PLAN T 31
T he R a n k in e c y c le has a low e r therm o dy nam ic efficiency than C arnot cycle op erating

Jbetween the sam e m a x im u m and m inim um temperatures. T he major reason for this is the practical
need to c o nd en se the m ixture o f w ater and steam into liquid before entering the pump. This
reduces the average tem p era ture o f the cycle and hence low ers the therm odynam ic efficiency.
2 .8 REHEAT CYCLE
In reh eat c ycle the steam is e x tracted from a suitable point from me turbine and is reheated
u tiliz in g the w a ste h eat a v aila b le from the flue gases o f the boiler as shown in the fig. 2.11.
T he re h e a tin g re su lts in in c re a se o f the dryn e ss fraction o f steam passing through the lo w er
stag es o f turbine. T h e r e h e a t c y c le re d u c e s the specific steam consum p tion , the size o f the
b o ile r and a u x ilia ries fo r the g iv e n outp ut. T h e m ajo r advantage o f reheatin g is, it increases
Fltrr our
the the rm a l e ffic ie n cy . /)\ /j\
Rr.'icjucr__
S u p e r I:cuter
iI
S '
•C J .
Turbine Turb ine
first sr.u£c iS C G T ii 3U5JJG
B o ile r O
e r a
Cor;don:ic
Feed Pump
Fig. 2.11 Reheat arrangement
2.9 SIT E SE L E C T IO N F O R T H E R M A L PO W ER STA TIO N
T he following factors must be considered while selecting the site for the thermal pow er station.
1. A vailab ility o f raw m aterial [ coal, oil, gas ]
Oil and gas resources in India are limited. Coal is the m ajor source o f fuel fo r therm al power
plants. Roughly 1000 M W station operating at 50% load factor requires 2 0 0 00 to nn es o f coal per
month. See A p p en d ix III for the coal properties. Hence a plant that needs a huge quantity of coal
should be located near to the coal mines but transmission distance o f p o w e r will be larger, which
can be com pensated w ith m in im u m coal transport charges. It is not po ssible to locate the plant near
*r»
the coal fields, it m ust be located near the railway station so that the coal can be directly unloaded
at the site o f the plant.
32 POWER PLANT E N G IN EE R IN G
2. A sh disp osal facilities

The coal used for pow er generation contains 20 to 40% o f ash. Therefore large quantities o f „
ash is produced which pollutes the atmosphere and causes injury to the hum an health. Hence large '
area must be provided for ash disposal. In recent years the ash from the pow er plants is used in many
industries like brick making.
I
3. S p a c e r e q u ir e m e n t s
T h e a v e ra g e land r e q u ir e m e n t is 3 to 5 acres per M W c a p a c ity w h ich in c lu d e s sp a c e for
coal storag e and ash d is p o sa l area. A p p r o x im a te ly the total a re a can be divided as 10% for
bu ilding s, 33% for co a l sto ra g e , 2 7% for c o o lin g to w e rs ( i f any), 7% for sw itch c o n tr o l and
re m a in in g 23 % is utilize d for o th e r jobs. F inally th e co st o f the land m ust be re a so n a b le .
4. N a t u r e o f la n d
The soil must posses good bearing capacity so that it can absorb the machine vibrations and the
dead load of the plant buildings.
5. A vailab ility o f w a t e r
Large qu antities o f w ater is required for the steam p o w e r plant m ainly fo r raising the
steam and for c o n d e n sin g the steam . If the river w ater is not a v a ila b le sam e w ater is used by
e m p lo y in g co olin g to w e r o r spraypond. H o w e ve r som e w a te r loss will be there that can be taken
care by m ake up water. 6 to 10 tonnes o f m ake up w ater per h o u r is requ ired for a 60 M W pow er
plant. In addition am ple w a ter is required for disposal o f ash and for drinking p u rp o se for staff
and workers. T h e re fo re the plan t m u st be located w h ere e n o u g h w a te r resources are available.
6. T r a n s p o r t facilities
A railway line must be very near to the pow er station for bringing heavy machinery of the
plant and coal. It is economical to locate the thermal power station very near to the coal points rather
than the load centres as the transport o f electricity energy is more economical.
7. A vailability o f la b o u r
As the labour is required during the construction o f the plant, cheap and enough labour must be
available near to site.
8. P u b lic p ro b le m
The site must be away from the towns and cities to avoid the problem s that occurs due to
smoke, fly ash and heat dissipated from the power plant.
2.10 F U E L A N D A S H H A N D L I N G E Q U I P M E N T
Coal is one o f the oldest fuel and still used throughout the world for pow er generators on
large scale. In view of the abnormal hike in the price o f oil, coal is being investigated for better
handling and burning methods.
In the same way as the awareness of clean environment has increased, atmospheric pollution is ^
prohibited. T he major emission from thermal power stations are flyash, carbonash (Cinder), so proper
ash handling equipm ent should be employed.
ST EA M P O W E R PLANT 33
2.10.1 O u t p l a n t C o a l H a n d lin g
R ise in c a p a c ity o f th e p lan t poses a p ro b lem in coal supply sy stem fro m the coal m ines to
the pow er statio n . M ain ly the su p p ly o f coal by sea, riv e r, rail or ro ad . T h e coal supply by road
is lim ited to sm all c a p a c ity p o w er p lan ts and it is not su ita b le fo r m odern large pow er plants.
1. P r e p a r a t i o n o f coal a t m in e
T he raw co al m ined fro m the coal m ine is not suitable for com bustion. It is cleared and
made into required size. T he m oisture is rem oved so that tran sp o rt ch arges can be reduced. The
preparation includes
(a) R em oval o f dirt by dry-cleaning or w et-cleaning.

(b) Coal drying
(c) Coal sizing and
(d) S ulphur rem oval
2. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b y sea o r r iv e r
If the pow er station is locatcd on the bank o f a river or on sea shore coal is supplied economically
by ships or boats. T he coal from the ships and boats is m echanically unloaded by using cranes at the
plant site. The unloaded coal can be sent to the storage yard or can be directly used in plant by means
o f conveyor system .
3. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n by rail
M ost o f the coal transportation is done by rail to Indian pow er plants as unfortunately river
transportation is not available. T his m ode o f transportation plays very im portant role for pow er station
w hich are located interior. A railw ay sliding line can be taken to the pow er station and coal is*Sither
delivered to the storage yard or near to the consum ption place.
4. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n by r o a d
For small capacity plants coal is supplied by road very effectively by lorries. The main advantage
o f this m ethod is the coal can be carried to storage yard or consum ption centre directly. The lorries
used for coal transport are self tripping, then containers have usually one o r tw o hydraulic cylinders
w hich are actuated by engine itself.
5. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b y r o p e w ays
T his is very good and efficient m ethod for transporting coal to the p ow er station particularly
when the distance betw een the m ine and plant is less than 10 km. T he m ain advantage o f this is the
coal is continuously supplied to the consum ption point. T he selection o f proper m ethod of coal supply
from m ines to pow er plants depends on the system capacity in tonnes per hour, location w ith respect
to rail or w ater available to the plant.
2.10.2 C oa l S to r a g e a t P la n t Site
-Coal, .storage is very im portant to run the plant continuously w ithout any shortage o f fuel during
the tim es o f strikes, failure in transportation and general coal shortages. Storing coal in large quantities
is undesirable because there is a risk o f spontaneous com bustion and deterioration losses due to
weathering which reduces heat value o f coal. A storage of 10% o f the annual consum ption is sufficient
in most o f the cases.
Generally the coal storages are divided into two groups nam ely
(a) Dead storage
(b) Live storage
The d ead storage supplies the coal when there is shortage o f coal due to m ine strike.
The live storage is the storage from which coal is withdrawn to supply c o m bustio n equipment
with little or no rehandling. T he capacity o f this live storage is small compared to dead storage. Coal
should be stored at a site located on solid ground, free from standing water, well drained and preferably
on high ground to avoid flooding. To reduce the oxidation and com bustion the coal is generally
stored by using any one o f the following methods.
2.10.3 S to cking in H e a p s
The stocking ground should be dry and level, preferably concrete floored area is used to prevent
the flow o f air from the bottom. The coal heaps is piled at a height o f 12 m. At the time o f storing
(in heaps) the coal should be compacted in layers o f 15 cm to 30 cm in thickness by using buldozers
or rubber, tired scrapers, this prevents the interior air circulation in a pile. A gentle slope should be
given to the top of pile so that the rain water may be drained off.
The heat o f oxidation can be reduced by allowing gentle air through the layers. The temperature
should be maintained below 70 ° (i.e ,., combustion temperature). Finally the pile is stored by means
of airtight packing. This can be done by using coating materials like fine coal dust, bituminous coating.
2.10.4 U n d e r w a t e r S to r a g e
Oxidation and spontaneous combustion can be completely eliminated by storing coal under
water. The dock basins can be used for storing the coal under water. T h e storage area should be free
from foreign matter such as wood, paper, waste oil etc., and site should be selected in such a way that
handling costs are minimum. The coal should be piled so that air may circulate freely, carrying away
the dissipated heat. Care should be taken that the site must be away from steam pipes, or any other
heated elements.
2.11 I N P L A N T C O A L H A N D L I N G
As the dem and for electric pow er is increasing the capacities o f the existing plants should be
increased which in turn increases the coal requirement on an average 5 million tonnes of coal per
hour is consumed for a 2000 M W pow er station. This need proper fuel handling equipment. In large
power plants it is not possible to handle large quantities o f coal manually, therefore mechanical
handling system must be used.
M echanical H andling is p referred o ver M anual H andling fo r the follow ing reasons
1. High reliability.
2. M inim um labour required.
3. Smooth and easy operation.
* ST E A M PO W ER PLANT 35
For large and m edium plants, it is economical.

Transport losses are minimum.
It is flexible and can adjusted according to the need.
The Flow Chart o f basic concepts in Coal Handling and Typical devices used for each
function is shown in below
Typical Typical
equipment . equipment
Can and
brge mover*
cat throwing
car shakers
unloaders
portable conveyors
lift trucks Cruihecrs, breakers
with scoop* aizOT, dryers
truck hoppers
feedctr*
Skip hoists bucket

elevators, belt
conveyor*, tripper*
Bull dozen magnetic seprailor,
scrapper flight conveyor*
carryall mass flow conveyors
bridge*, train way* •ticking conveyor*
chutes
drug rerapper*
erases and
buckets
conveyor *y*tem*
Bins, bunkers, ailas
Indicators
Alarms, vibrator*
gates, valves
Belt conveyors
*crew conveyors
flight conveyors
mobs flow conveyor*
bucket elevator*
gravity discharge
printed bucket Scales
tide car carries „ coal meters
chutes, lanieees Weighing and weigh lorries
Ufttrunck® measuring hoppers
monorails trtain way* samplers
Furnace firing I
Fig. 2.12 Flow Chart - Coal Handling Plant

36 PO W ER P L A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
It is n o t n ecessary to fo llo w th e c h a rt fo r all p lants. S om e in te rm e d ia te step s can be

elim in ated or re a rra n g e d as p er the req u irem en ts.
The in p lan t co al h an d lin g system is so d e sig n ed th at in p la n t tra n sp o rta tio n is m inim um .

Hence while d e sig n in g co al h a n d lin g p lan t the fo llo w in g p o in ts m u st b e co n sid e red .
1. M eth o d o f h a n d lin g sh o u ld be sim p le w ith m in im u m o p e ra tio n s.

2. N o d o u b le h a n d lin g sh o u ld be th ere in p lan t.
3. T h e h a n d lin g u n its sh o u ld be c e n tra lise d to m ake in sp e c tio n & m a in te n a n c e easy.
4. T h e w o rk in g p a rts m u st be en c lo se d to av o id co rro sio n and ero sio n .
5. It sh o u ld b e ab le to d e liv e r re q u ire d q u a n tity o f coal d u rin g p ea k hours.
1. C oal d e liv e r y r
The co al m ay b e d e liv e re d to p o w er statio n b y rail, ro ad o r sea, fro m the su p p ly point.
Plants situated n earb y sea m ay u se n a v ig a tio n fa c ilitie s and fo r the p la n ts w h ich ca n n o t m ak e use
o f navigatio n th e co al m ay b e su p p lie d by ro a d o r railw ay.
2. U n lo a d in g
T he kind o f u n lo a d in g e q u ip m e n t d ep en d s on h ow th e co al is re c e iv e d i.e., by ro ad , rail or
ship. If the coal is re c e iv e d (d e liv e re d ) by tru c k s th ere is no need o f u n lo a d in g e q u ip m e n t as the
truck m ay dum p th e co al to the sto ra g e . C oal is e a sily h an d led if the lift tru c k s w ith sco o p are
used. Fig 2.13.
Fig. 2.13 Lift truck w ith'scoop

.■ • ^
T h e tru c k s m ay d u m p th e coal d irectly in to th e u n lo ad in g h o p p ers w h ic h d e liv e rs th e coal
to hoists o r co n v e y o rs. T h e co al pile is sp read ed and c o m p re sse d in la y e rs by u sin g b u lld o ze rs.
3TEAM PO W ER PLAN T 37
F o r large p o w e r stations larg e quantities o f coal is required and it m a y b e tra n sp o rte d

Jftirough long d istances b y rail. T h e cars or w a g o n s o f 50 to 70 tonnes c ap acity w ith h o p p e r o f
flat b o tto m are used. In both the cases the gates in the floor or h opper are opened to u n lo a d the
coal onto conveyor.
S o m e o f q u ic k u n lo a d in g d e v ic e s are (a) C a r tow e rs (b) R otary car dum pers (c) C o a l

accelerators.
W h en coal is rec e iv ed fr o m sea the u n lo a d in g d ev ic e s are (a) Coal tow ers (b) Unloading
brid ges (c) S e lf un lo a d in g boats, (d) Portable c onveyors.
i*
3. C oal - p r ep a r a tio n
If the coal fro m the m in e b ro u g h t to the site is u n siz ed it m u st be m a d e into required size.
T h is can be d on e at the coal re c e iv in g po int o r at the po in t o f actual use.
T he co a l p re p a r a tio n p la n t in c lu d e s (a) cru sh e rs (b) siz e s (c) d r ie rs an d (d) magnetic

separators.
Bucket elevator
Fig. 2.14 Coal Preparation Plant
T h e coal is p re p a r e d to r e q u ir e d size by u sin g c r u sh e rs. T h e c a p a c ity o f the crushers

.mist be e n o u g h to s u p p ly siz e d coal at pe a k hours. A lon g w ith c r u s h e r s , sizers are used where
the oversized coal is s e p a ra te d a n d sen t b a c k for c ru sh in g .
38 POW ER PL AN T E N G IN E E R IN G
The iron particles are rem ov ed by using magnetic separator. T hese iron particles must be
removed other wise they m ay choke the burners and results in w ear o f handling equipment. The
separator is usually a m agnetized pulley over which the loaded coal belt runs. T h e iron particles cling
to the belt as it travels around the magnetised pulley, where as the coal falls o ff quickly. T h e iron
particles drop o ff into a reject chute as the belt leaves the pulley. T hus the iron particles are separated
by using magnetic separated quickly. T he arrangement is shown in the Fig. 2.14.
«
4. C oal tr a n sfe r - eq u ip m en t
C o a l t r a n s f e r in c l u d e s the c a r r y in g o f c o a l fr o m u n lo a d in g p o i n t to th e s t o / a g e y a rd .
It r e q u ir e e q u i p m e n t d e p e n d i n g on s ite lo c a tio n . G e n e r a lly th e f o l l o w i n g e q u i p m e n t is
used fo r c o a l transfer.
(i) Belt c onveyor
(ii) Bucket c o n v e y o r
(iii) Screw c o n v e y o r
(iv) G rab bu c ke t ele va tor
(v) Skip H oists and
(vi) Flight c onveyors.
(i) B elt co n v e y o r s
It consists o f an endless belt which carries coal and runs on pulleys or drums. It is very much
suitable for carrying large quantities o f coal over a large distance (~ 4 00 m). T he belt is supported
by idlers placed at regular distance. The thickness of the belt is generally 1.5 to 3.6 m w ith nylon
or rayon liners em bedded longitudinally, and these belts are m ake o f rubber, or canvas. T he belt
conveyors are successfully used as an inclination upto 20° to the horizontal. The speed o f the belt is
60 - 100 m/min and can carry 50 - 100 tonnes/ hr. Fig 2.15 (a) and (b).
Over cod . IdJcni

discharge ;
Fig. 2.15 (a) Belt conveyor
S T E A M PO W E R PLANT 39
A d v a n ta g e s
1. M o st e c o n o m ic a l m eth o d for m e d iu m an d large plants.
2. Rate o f coal transfer can be varied by j u s t v a rying the speed.
3. M in im u m m a in te n a n c e cost. ,
4. P o w e r c o n su m p tio n is very low.
5. C oal being tra nsfe rre d is projected.
D isa d v a n ta g e s
1. N o t su itab le for sh ort distance and gre a te r heights.
2. T h e inclin atio n is lim ited to 20 degrees only.
(ii) B ucket C onveyor

This conveyor is mainly used for vertical lifts. It consists o f buckets (made o f malleable iron,
Fig. 2.16 (a) Centrifugal Fig. 2 .1 6 (b ) Continuous
fixed to a chain w hich m oves over tw o w heels. Fig. 2.16(a). T he coal is lifted by the buckets from
the bottom and discharged at the top. The m axim um height o f the elev ato r is lim ited to 30 m and the
inclination is lim ited to 60°. T he speed o f this conveyor is around 75 m /m in. Sim ilarly another
model is continuous type bucket elevator runs at a speed o f 35 m /m in. R efer Fig. 2.16 (b).
(iii) S crew C o n v ey o r
It consists o f endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft. T he driving m echanism is converted to
one end of the shaft and the other end o f the shaft is supported in an enclosed ball bearing. The screw
transfers the coal from end to other end through the trough or housing w hile rotating.
Specifications o f screw c o n v e y o r
D iam eter o f the screw - 15 to 50 cm
S p ee d - 70tol20rpm
M a x im u m cap a c ity - 125 tonnes/hr.
Fig. 2.17 Screw Conveyor
A d v a n ta g es
1. It is c h eap in initial cost.
2. It requires m in im u m space.
3. It is sim ple and com pact.
4. It is dust p r o o f e q u ip m e n t
D isad vantages
1. Pow er c o n su m ptio n is c o n sid e ra b ly high.
2. The length o f shaft is lim ited to 30 m due to torsional strain on shaft.
3. The life o f the c o n v e y o r is co nsiderably short.
(iv) G rab B u ck et C on v ey o r
It is a form o f hoist w hich lifts and transfers the coal from one po in t to another. This
conveyor can be used with a crane as show n in the Fig. 2.18. A b u c k et o f size 2 to 3 m 3 can be
operated over a distance o f 60 m and carries nearly 100 ton nes o f coal per hour. U sin g o f this
c onveyor is ju stified only w hen other arra n ge m en ts are not possible. T h e m a in te n a n c e co st is
very less and its initial cost is high for this conveyor.
ST E A M P O W E R PL A N T 41
(v) S k ip H o ist
Skip hoist is the oldest and sim ple c o n v e y o r in tra n sfe rrin g the coal. It is used fo r high
lifts and h a n d lin g is n on -con tinu ous. T h is type o f c o n v e y o r is p a rtic u la rly used for ash handling.
T he a r ra n g e m en t is sh o w n in Fig. 2.19.
(vi) F lig h t C o n v ey o r
W hen a n u m b e r o f storage bins situated under the c o n v e y o r are to be filled, the flight
conveyor is g enerally used. In this c o n v e y o r the scrapers are m o u n te d on ch ain w hich will move
over the rollers. T h e se scrapers scrap the coal through the coal tro u g h an d disch arg es coal to
storage bins at the b o tto m o f the trough. T h e p o w e r c o n su m p tio n p e r unit m ass o f substance is
high for this con vey or. T h e a rra n g e m en t is sh o w n in Fig. 2^20.
Scrapper
Fig. 2. 20 Flight Conveyor or Scraper

42 POWER PL AN T E N G IN EE R IN G
A d v a n ta g e s
1. T h e sp eed o f the c o n v e y o r is reg u lated easily as p er the req u irem en ts.
2. It can tra n sfe r both co al and ash.
D is a d v a n ta g e s
1. P ow er c o n su m p tio n p er u n it is very high.
2. E x cessiv e w ear an d te a r due to sc ra p p in g action.
3. T he speed lim it is upto 30 m /m in.
5. Coal S to rag e
It is very e sse n tia l to sto re a d eq u ate am o u n t o f coal fo r ru n n in g a th erm al p o w er plant
without any d istu rb an ce. T h is sto rin g co n cep t is w ell d escrib ed in sectio n 2.10.2.
6. I n p la n t coal h a n d lin g
The equ ip m en t u sed fo r in p la n t h an d lin g are sam e as used fo r coal tra n sfe r it d eals w ith
coal handling betw een final sto rag e and the firin g eq u ip m ent. T h e p u lv erise d fuel firin g system
requires chutes, p u lv erised m ills, feed ers, w eig h in g eq u ip m e n t and m any others.
7. Coal w e ig h in g
The fuel cost b ein g m a jo r ru n n in g co st o f th e plan t, it is n ecessary to w eig h th e co al at the
unloading point in order to h av e an id ea o f the total q u an tity o f the co al. A lso it is n ec essary to
w eigh the coal before supp ly in g to b o ilers to know the p ro p er q u a n tity o f co al is bu rn ed . T here
are many m ethods o f w eighing the co al, nam ely
(i) W eigh bridge

(ii) B elt scale
(iii) W eigh lorry
(iv) A utom atic scale.
2.12. ASH H A N D L IN G
T he disposal o f ashes from a large cap acity p o w er p lan ts is o f im p o rta n c e since it am ounts
to 10 - 20% o f the coal fired. A 200 M W cap acity p o w e r p la n t u sing In d ia n co al p ro d u ces
approxim ately 6000 tonnes o f ash per annum . S in ce the ash is dusty and irrita tin g to h an d le,
su fficiently hot w hen it com es o u t o f the fu rn ace an d p roduces p o iso n o u s gases and co rro siv e
acids w hen m ixed w ith w ater, it beco m es n ecessary to rem o v e the ash es fro m the ash pits o f the
boiler and to d isch arg e at a su ffic ie n t distan ce from p o w er site.
T he ash h an d lin g is .very d iffic u lt and su fficien t atte n tio n sh o u ld g iv e n in d e sig n in g ash
S T E A M PO W ER P L A N T 43
handling equipm en t. T h e m a jo r difficulties en c o u n te re d in ash h a n d lin g are nam ely
1. T h e ash is du sty in nature, causing irritation.
2. Ash is very h o t and pro du ces poison ou s g ases and c o rro siv e acids w hen m ixed with
water.
3. It form s clink ers by fusing to gether into large lu m p s whifch m u st be broken before
being handled.
4. Ash is ab rasiv e and will w e a r out the c o n v e y o r parts in contact. Hence special
c o n v ey o rs are needed.
5. T he ash m ust be cooled b efore being carried by the c o n v e y o r/eq u ip m en t.
2.12.1 F o llo w in g o p e r a t i o n s in v o lv e d in a s h h a n d l i n g
1. R e m o v in g the ashes from the furnace ash hopper.
2. T ra n sfe rrin g the a sh es from fu rn a c e ash h o p p e r to a sto ra g e p o in t w ith the help of
c o n v e y o rs.
3. D isp osing the ashes from the storage.
4. Q u e n ch in g the ashes before handling.
2.12.2 A d v a n t a g e s in a s h q u e n c h i n g
1. It red uc e s the te m p e ra tu re o f ash, and it is e a sie r to h a n d le c o ld ashes than hot
ashes.
2. Q u e n c h in g re d uc e s corro sive action o f ash.
3. It re d uc e s the dust presen t in the ash.
4. Q u e n c h in g d isinte gra te large clinkers a n d re duc e s into m a n a g e a b le proportion.
2.12.3 R e q u i r e m e n t s o f a g o o d a s h h a n d l i n g p l a n t
1. T he p lan t sho uld have e n o u g h cap acity to h an d le larg e clinkers, soot and dust.
2. It m ust be able to hand le requisite quantity o f ash daily.
3. l l i e initial and m a in te n a n c e costs shou ld be m inim um .
4. T he p la n t sho uld run c o n tinu ously for a long tim e w ith o u t repair.
5. T h e plan t m ust have capacity to h andle ashes d u rin g flu ctu a tin g operation o f the
boiler.
6. T he plant should be able to hand le both w et & h o t ashes.
7. T h e p la n t m u st w o rk silently w ithout m aking m uch no ise o f the m ov in g parts.
8. T he p la n t sho u ld w ork effectively even the quality o f fuel ( c o a l ) is changed.
2.13 A SH H A N D L IN G S Y S T E M
T he general layo ut o f a m odern ash h an dlin g system is as sh o w n in fig. 2.21.
Flush with
Fig. 2 .21 General layout of ash - dust handling system
W ith the introd uctio n o f p ulverised fuel boilers the clea n in g o f gas before being disc h a rg ed
though the ch im n e y to e n v iro n m e n t has be c o m e essential. T h e d ischarge o f soot, grit, p articulates
carried by the gas create health harzards. Indian coal has 30 - 4 5 % ash, 3-4% sulphur. T h is ash
contains 60 - 65% silicon w ith abrasive property. H ence it is a m u st to clean th e gas stream
before being d isc h a rg e d to atm osphere.
A n y ash h a n d lin g s y s te m m u s t r e m o v e the a s h e s f r o m the f u r n a c e ash h o p p e r and

c o n v e y this ash to a s to r a g e p o in t w ith th e h e lp o f c o n v e y o r s a n d f in a lly it is d is p o s e d . Ash
is to be q u e n c h e d b e f o r e b e in g c o n v e y e d to th e su m p , it ha s m a n y a d v a n t a g e s d isc u sse d
u n d e r se c tio n 2 .1 2 .2 . F o r h a n d lin g ash w ith m in im u m c o st the r e q u i r e m e n t s a re disc u ss e d
u n d e r s e c tio n 2 .1 2 .3 .
S T E A M P O W E R PL AN T 45
2.14 T Y P E S O F H A N D L IN G
A sh h a n d lin g p r o c e s s is v ery im p o rta n t in ste a m p o w e r p lan ts b e c a u s e the ash is the
undesirable p rod uc t o f the c o m b u s tio n w h ich needs p ro p e r disposal. T h e m o d e r n ash h a n d lin g
sy stem s a re c la s s if ie d in to f o u r g r o u p s as sh o w n in tre e d ia g r a m ,
Ash Handling System
. I . ,
M echanical H ydraulic Pneum atic Steam je t

handling handling handling handling
2.14.1 M ech a n ica l h a n d lin g sy stem
Track
Fig. 2.22 M echanical Ash Handling System
F ig . 2 .2 2 s h o w s th e a r r a n g e m e n t o f m e c h a n i c a l h a n d l i n g s y s t e m . T h i s s y s te m is
g e n e ra lly u se d fo r low c a p a c i ty p o w e r p la n ts u s in g c o a l as fu e l. T h e h o t ash c o m i n g out o f
the b o ile r fu r n a c e u s m a d e to fall o v e r th e b e lt c o n v e y o r th r o u g h a w a t e r se a l. T h e coo led
ash is c a rrie d c o n tin u o u s ly to the d u m p in g site by m e a n s o f c o n v e y o r s . T h e m a x im u m capacity
o f this s y s te m is lim it e d to 5 to n n e s / h r a n d th is s y s te m h a s a life s p a n o f 5 - 10 years.
2.14.2 H y d ra u lic a sh h a n d lin g sy stem

T he h ydraulic ash h a n d lin g system carries ash alon g w ith the flow o f w a te r and finally
dumped in a sum p. T h is sy ste m is further divided into tw o types nam ely
1. L o w velocity system
2. High velocity system
2.14.2.1 L ow v e lo c ity sy stem

Fig 2.23 sho w s the a r ra n g e m en t for low velocity sy stem . In this low velocity system aslr»
from the furnace grate falls into w a te r flo w in g with a v elocity o f 3 to 5 m/s and carrie d to sump.
The ash floats on w ater, is separated o u t and co llected at the su m p and is d isp o se d by 'trucks.
The separated w a te r is recirculated. T h e capacity o f this sy ste m is 50 ton nes/h r an d distance
covered is 500 m. T h e low velocity system also called as low p re ssu re system .
Fig. 2.23 Low pressure (low velocity) system

/
2 .1 4 .2 .2 H igh v e lo c ity sy stem
The a r ra n g e m en t o f this sy stem is show n in fig. 2.24. In this h ig h velocity/high pressure
system the hoppers b e lo w the boilers are fitted with w ater no z z le s at the top and on the sides.
T h e top no zzle q u e n c h the ash w here as the side n o zz le p ro v id e th e re q u ire d driving force
to carry the ash. T he c o o le d ash w ith high velocity w ater is ca rried to the sum p through the
trough. T he w ater is again separated from ash and recirculated. T h e ash carry in g capacity is
around 120 ton n e s/h r and the d istan ce co v e re d is 1000 in. T he ash h a n d lin g capacity is further
increased by p u m p in g the ash and w ater slurry. T he m olten slag p ro d u c e d in the pu lverized fuel
system can be h a n d le d by this system. T he im p ortant feature o f this sy stem is the absence o f
w orking parts in co n tact w ith ash.
ST E A M P O W E R PL AN T 47
A d v a n ta g e s
1. It is cle a n , d u st free and to ta lly en closed.
2. It is su ita b le fo r larg e th erm al p lan ts due to its larg e carry in g cap acity.
3. It can be u sed to h an d le a stream o f m olten ash.
1. H igh p o w e r c o n su m p tio n .
2. T h e p u m p m u st be m ade o f sp ecial w ear resistin g m aterial.
Nozzle
High pressure W aterjet
water c
Ash
•E z z ©
W 7 //////////Z Z C
Nozzle
High pressure
Water
Nozzle
High pressure iff
w a te r------
>.v'- Cast iron wall
Trough carrying
’ water and ash
Main sump
■■*' '• - Settedash
■i.
Fig. 2.24 High pressure ash handling hydraulic system
2.14.3 P n e u m a t i c a s h h a n d l i n g s y s te m
T he arra n g e m en t o f th is sy stem is sh o w n in fig. 2.25 T h is sy stem h andles abrasive ash us
well as fly ash and so o t and is su ita b le for p lan ts w here fly ash soot are to be d isch arg ed through
considerable d ista n c e s fo r final d isp o sal. T h e ash and dust fro m all d isc h a rg e points are picked
up by a High v elo city air steam c re a ted by an ex h au st fa n lo ca ted a t the disch arg e end. The ash
collectecH n th crash h o p p e r is p assed th ro u g h the ash cru sh ers into the a ir stream . The separator
w orking on c y clo n e p rin c ip le rem o v es d u st and ash w hich pass out in to the ash hopper at the
bottom w hile clean air is d isc h a rg e d from the top.
The e xh au stor m ay b e o f m echanical or it may be s team j e t o r w a te r je t for its operation.

When m echanical e x h a u s to r is used it is necessary to use filters o r a irw a sh e rs b e fo re the a k
enters into the ex h a u sto r to en su re the clean air exhaust to atm osph ere.
T he ash carrying ca p a c ity o f this system varies from 5 to 30 to nn e s/hr. T h e steam jet
exhaust is c o m m o n ly used for sm all and m e d iu m sized plants w here as the m e c h a n ic a l exh au sto r
is preferred w here large quantities o f m aterial are to be conveyed.
Fig. 2.25 Pneum atic or vacuum extraction ash handling system
A d v a n ta g es
1. T h ere is no spillage and rehandling.
2. H igh flexibility i.e. can be used for plants o f v a c u u m capacities.
3. Dustless operation is possible because the m aterials are h andled totally in an enclosed
conduit.
4. T h e c o st o f plan t per ton o f ash disch a rg e d is less w hen c o m p a re to o th e r system s.
5. Since the material is co nv eyed in dry state, there is no fre e zin g .or stic k in g to the *
storage bin and the m aterial is disch arged freely u n d e r gravity.
ST E A M P O W E R PLAN T 49
D isad v an tag es
1. High w e a ro u t in the pipeline resulting high m a in te n a n c e cost.
2. N o ise pollutio n is m ore than other systems.
2.15 STEAM JE T SYSTEM

in this system , the steam from the b oiler is p a ss e d s u ffic ie n tly h ig h velocity through a pipe
and dry solid m aterials o f con sid e ra b le size are carried alon g w ith it.
In a high pressure steam je t system , a j e t o f high pressure steam is passed in the direction
of ash travel th rough the co nv e y in g pipe in w hich the ash fro m the b o ile r is fed. The ash is
deposited in the ash hopper. T his system can re m o v e ash th ro u g h a h o riz o n ta l distance o f 200 m
and through a vertical d istance o f 30 m. Its cap acity is 15 tonnes/hr.
j- , t
A d v a n ta g e s
1. Steam generated by boiler is used, therefore no au xiliary drive is required.
■yjl/
2. It requires less space.
' 3. Initial cost is less w hen co m p a re to o ther system.
4. T h e e q u ip m e n t can be fixed in any position.
1. T h e o p era tio n is noisy.
2. The cap acity o f this system is less so continuous operation o f the system is necessary.
Review Q u e s ti o n s
1. W rite ab ou t ash h and ling sy ste m in steam plants.

2. W hat do you m ean by out plan t - h an dlin g o f coal ?
3. W rite ab o u t d iffe re n t m e th o d s used for coal storage at steam p o w e r p la n t ? W hat is the
necessity o f coal storage ?
4. D iscuss ab ou t d iffe re n t e q u ip m e n t used for coal h a n d lin g in a ste a m plant.
5. D iscu ss diffe re n t e q u ip m e n t used for up loading coal at p la n t site.
6. W h at are the different types o f coal c onv ey ors ? Justify their u sag e at tha t stage.
7. W hat are the d iffe re n t m ethods used for coal w eig hing at p lan t site ?
8. Explain steam p o w e r plant w ith the help o f a neat sketch (layo ut).
9. Discuss various circu its in a steam plant.
10. W hat are the ad v a n ta g e s o f ash qu en c h in g ?
11. D iscuss the various steps in volved in ash handling.
12. WJiat are the re q u ire m e n ts for go od ash h and ling e q u ip m e n t ?
50 POWER PLAN T E N G IN EE R IN G
13. Give the general layout o f ash h a ndling and dust c ollection system.
14. W hat are th e re q u ire m e n ts o f steam p o w er plant design ?
15. What are the factors that are to be co nsid ered in site selection fo r s te am plan t ?
16. W rite ab ou t the classification o f steam p ow e r plant.
S elf - test
1. E co no m isers are u sed to heat []

(a) Feed w a te r (b) A ir (c) Stea m (d) fuel
s*
2.' The prim e m o v e r in s te a m p o w e r plant is []
(a) Pelton w heel (b) Francis turbine
(c) Steam turbine (d) W ate r turbine
3. Prime m o v e r con v e rts []

(a) M e ch an ical en ergy to electrical energy
(b) Electrical e n e rg y to m e chan ical energy
(c) T h e rm a l e n ergy into m echanical e nergy
(d) N one
4. The generator / a lternato r co nv erts []

(a) M e c hanical energy to electrical e nergy
(b) Electrical e n ergy to m e chan ical energy
(c) W a ter energy into therm al energy
(d) All o f the above.
5. If the electrical energy available from steam plant is m e a n t for general sale to the c u s to m e r
then it is ca lle d []
(a) C entral station (b) Industrial p o w e r station
(c) C o m m e rcia l plant (d) All o f the ab ove
6. T he m odern steam plant layout is divided into JJ

(a) F o u r circuits (b) T hree circuits
(c) Six circuits (d) T w o circuits
\><
1r If a steam plant uses w ater from river, sea it is called []
(a) O pen sy stem 1 (b) C losed sy stem
(c) Se m ic lo se d system (d) W a te r system
8. If a steam plant uses sam e w a te r by recirculation it is called []

(a) O p en system (b) C losed system
(c) R e c irc u latin g system (d) P um p sy stem
S T E A M PO W ER P L A N T 51
9. T h e e x p a n sio n o f steam in steam turbine is [J

(a) R eversib le ad iabatic expansion
(b) Irreversib le adiabatic expansion
(c) Isen tro pic p rocess
(d) Isotherm al pro c e ss
10. T h e rm a l efficien cy o f ran kine cycle is
Network output Mech. efficiency__

(a) (b)
Total heat input Isentropic efficiency
Heat Input
(c) (d) N o ne
Work Output
1 If steam plant is located on the bank o f a river, coal is su p p lied by [J

(a) T ra n sporta tion by sea (b) T ra n sp o rta tio n by rail
(c) T ra nspo rta tio n by ro ad (d) T ra n sp ortation by rope way
12. Coal storages are d ivided into []

(a) Dead s to rage and live storage (b) Stock and B uffer stock
(c) Live an d heap storage (d) N one
13. Coal can be w e ig h e d by

(a) W eig ht bridge (b) Belt scale
(c) W e ig h t lorry (d) All
14. Ash qu en c h in g results []

(a) D ustless ash (b) D usty ash
(c) Hot ash (d) N one
15. Low velocity and H igh velocity ash h an dling m etho ds c o m e s u nde r []
(a) M e c h a n ic a l h an d lin g (b) H y dra ulic h a n d lin g
(c) Pne um a tic h an dlin g (d) Ste a m je t en gine
16. , E c o n o m is e r is u se d to heat.
(a) Feed w ater (b) A ir (c) flue g ases (d) N one
17. T he function o f a c o n d e n s e r is to
(a) R e d u c e the ba c k pressu re at the steam turbine exhaust.
(b) Increase the back p re ssu re at the stream turbine e xhaust.
(c) M ake the stream pressure m ore than a tm osph eric pressure.
(d) None
18. S team p o w e r p la n t w o rk s on []
S'
(a) R ankine cycle (b) O tto cycle (c) B rayton cycle (d) Diesel Cycle
19. S team tu rb in e c o m m o n ly used in steam p o w e r statio n are []
(a) C o n d e n sin g type (b) N o n -C o n d en sin g type
(c) E v a p o ra tiv e ty p e (d) N o ne
20. T he co m m o n ly u sed steam p re ssu re in stre a m p o w er p lan ts is [J
20 k g /c m 2 (b) 40 k g /cm 2 (c) 80 k g /c m 2
1. a 2. c 3. c 4. a 5. a
6. a 7. a 8. b 9. a 10. a
11. a 12. a 13. d 14. a 15. b
16. a 17. a 18. a 19. a 20. d
Chapter - 3
C om bustion Process
T h e m ain so u rc e o f e n e rg y (heat) is the c o m b u stio n o f fuel. T h e p rim a ry fuels which are
burned to release heat and g e n e rate s team in boilers are the fossil fuels in the form o f a coal, fuel
oil and natural gas. T h e m eth od o f feeding fuel an d air to the f u rn a c e d e p e n d s on the physical
form o f the fuel. 'A f u rn a c e is a defined as a c o n fin e d space w h e re a fuel burns'. T h e combustible
elem ents in a fuel are C a rb o n , H yd ro gen , w ith sm all am oun t o f Su lp hur. T he control o f rate of
fuel and air supply to a furn a c e results in efficient release o f h e at e n e rg y on c o m b ustio n and
helps in e c o n o m ic a l w o rk in g o f po w e r plant.
S o lid fu e ls (c o a l, c o k e , e tc .) m e h a n d le d b y 's to k e r s '; i.e. s to k e r firin g m e th o d . A

sto k e r is a p o w e r o p e r a te d fuel f e e d in g m e c h a n is m a n d gra te . L i q u i d fuels are h a n d le d by
b u rn e rs, ( i n je c tio n m e th o d , e v a p o r a t io n m e th o d ). P u l v e r i z e d fi r in g m e th o d is used for
p u lv e rise d coal.
3.2 T H E S E L E C T IO N O F F IR IN G M E T H O D
T he selection o f firing m etho d e m p lo y e d for a p articular p o w e r plant m ainly depends on :
1. T h e c h a ra c teristic s o f the av ailable coal.

2. C ap a c ity o f the p o w e r plant.
3. : Load factor o f th e p o w e r plant.
4. T y p e o f lo ad fluctu atio n i.e. N ature o f fluctu atio n.
5. , E fficiency o f c o m b u stio n e q u ip m e n t available.
3.3 B A SIC R E Q U IR E M E N T S O F C O M B U S T IO N E Q U IP M E N T
1. A ir and fuel should m ix tho roughly in p ro p e r proportion.

2. Air and Fuel ratio m u st lead to c o m p le te c om bu stion .
3. It sh ould re sp o n d to the ch an g e in fuel feed rate.
4. C o ntin uou s ig nition o f fuel.
5. A de q ua te control ov er the en d prod ucts o f c o m b u stio n (i.e. ash in case o f coal fuel).
54 P O W E R P L A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
3.4 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F C O M B U ST IO N SY STEM S
The classification o f combustion systems used for coal b urning is sh o w n below
Solid Fuel Firing
Hand Pulverised Stoker

fired fuel fired feed
*>■ jf'
■■ 44?
Unit Central Overfeed Underfeed
System System Stokers Stokers
Chain Travelling Spreader Single Multi >

grate grate type retort retort
3.5 P R O P E R T IE S O F C O A L
The properties o f coal are well discussed in this chapter. Since these p roperties p lays a
very im portant role in c o m b ustion it is w orth for discussion.
The main properties o f coal are
(i) S w elling index
(ii) G rindability
(iii) W e athe rability . ’
(iv) S u lp hu r content
(v) H eating value and
(vi) Ash so ftening tem perature. > \
(i) S w ellin g in d ex : Som e types o f coal during and after release o f volatile m atter beco m e
soft and pasty form in g agg lo m era tes. T h ese are know n as 'caking coal'.
In stoker feed system the coal must not c a k e as it bu rns (i.e. tra v e llin g grate stoker).
Agglomeration is a disadvantage because it greatly disturbs the availability o f free air resulting
incomplete combustion, finally yielding low efficiency. Coal that does not cake is called [free burning
coal’. This coal break apart during combustion exposing large surface area to the air, enhancing the
efficiency o f combustion prone. Coke is produced from caking coal by heating in coke oven, during
this process the volatile matter is driven off. This coke is generally used in steel plants.
■ C O M B U S T IO N P R O C E S S 55
S w e l lin g in d e x is a q u a lit a tiv e e v a l u a tio n m e th o d , u s e d to d e te r m i n e th e e x te n t o f
- - c a k i n g o f a c o al. A fre e b u r n in g c o a l ha s a h ig h v a lu e o f s w e llin g in d e x , w h ic h in d ic a te s
that it slightly e x p a n d s in v o lu m e d u rin g c o m b u stio n . T h is s w e llin g in d e x is o f ten im po rtan ce
for p u lv e r is e d coal.
(ii) G rin d a b ility : It is one o f the im po rtan t p rop erties in se le c ting the coal. This property
is m easured by sta n d a rd grind ability index. T h e grin dab ility ind ex is in versely proportional to
the p o w e r req uired to g rind the coal to a specified particle size for burning.
(iii) W ea th e ra b ility : It is a m e a s u r e o f h o w w ell co al ca n b e s to r e d (h e a p s ) for long

tim e w ith o u t c r u m b lin g to p ie c e s . G e n e r a lly m o d e r n p o w e r p la n ts s to r e s c o a l s u p p ly o f 90
day s (3 m o n th s a p p r o x im a te ly ) in large,. T r a p e z o i d a l p ile. E v e r s in c e c r u m b lin g o f coal
d u e to c lim a tic c o n d iti o n m a y r e s u l t in s m a ll p a rtic le s o f c o a l w h ic h ca n b e c a r r ie d away by
w in d or rain.
(iv) S u lp h u r c o n t e n t : S u lp h u r in coal is c o m b u stib le an d g e n e ra te s h e a t by its oxidation

form ing S 0 2 is very essen tial during com b ustio n. It is a m a jo r so u rc e o f air pollution. Its
rem ov al is very essential.
(v) H ea tin g V a lu e /C a lo rific V alue : T h is property is o f f u n d a m e n ta l im p ortance. It is

the heat tra n sfe rre d w hen the p rod ucts o f c om plete c o m b u stio n o f sa m p le o f coal are cooled to
the initial tem p o f air and fuel. It is generally d eterm in ed by Bom b c alorim eter.
(vi) A sh so fte n in g te m p e ra tu re (a .s.t.) : T h e ash so ftening tem p is the te m p at w hich the

ash softens an d b e c o m e s plastic. T h is tem p is slightly less than m e ltin g te m p o f ash. This a.s.t.
is an im po rtan t factor in d e sig n in g a steam generator. Fo r a furnace that w o u ld disc ha rge ash in
solid form , a high a.s.t. is r eq u ire d o th e rw ise c lic k n ess w ould be form ed. It is difficult to remove
these click ness resulting inefficien t com bustion.
3.6 FUEL BEDS

O p tim u m d im en sio n s o f the furn ace facilitates to c o m p lete the b u rn in g process in a furnace.
The rate o f a chem ical reaction in this c om bustion process is greatly in flu e n c e d by the temperature,
concentration, distribution o f reactants and mechanical turbulence. T h e s e factors increases contact
between m olecules o f the reactants. H igher tem p increases the ve loc ity o f m o lec u la r movements,
resulting more frequent c o n ta c ts b etw een the m olecules.
B ased on the type o f c o m b u stio n e quipm e n t boilers m a y be c la s sifie d as solid fuel fired,
liquid fuel fired and g aseou s fuel fired. T he capacity o f the p lant, the ch aracteristics of the
available fuel, state o f fuel, load factor o f the plant, nature o f lo a d -flu c tu a tio n s, efficiency and
reliability o f v arious c o m b u s tio n e q u ip m e n t are the m ain factors w h ic h influ en ce the selection of
firing m ethods for a p artic u la r p ow e r plant.
In steam gen eratio n process, the burner system or furnace, p ro v id e controlled, efficient
c onversion o f the ch e m ic a l e nerg y o f fuel to he a t e n e rg y w h ich in turn is transferred to the heat
absorbing surfaces o f the steam generator.
T h e firing sy ste m in tro duc e the fuel and air fo r c o m b u stio n , m ix these reactants, ignite
the co m b u stib le m ix tu re an d distrib ute the flam e e n ve lop e and p ro du c ts o f com bustion.
Furnaces are b ro a d ly div id e d into tw o types :

(i) G rate -fired furn aces
(ii) Fla m e fu rnaces or cham ber-type
3.6.1 G r a te -fir ed fu rn a ce
T he fig >3.1 sho w s the schem atic grate - fired f u r n a c e in w h ic h fuel is b u rn e d in a bed.
Grate fired furnaces are suitable for b urning solid fuels like coal, w o o d c h ip s, etc.
Fuel g a s e s
Fuel b ed
G rate
Air
t
Fig. 3.1 Grate ftred furnace
Com bustion o f fine c a rb o n particles, volatile m atter, and c arbo n m o n o x id e takes place
above the fuel bed.
3.6.2 F lam e F u rn a ce o r C h a m b er typ e

The fig. 3.2 show s the c h a m b e r type o f furnace. T h is is m ainly used for firing p u lverized
coal, oil fuel and g aseo us fuel. T h e fuel alon g w ith air e n te r into the fu rn a c e c h a m b e r, w h ere
fuel burns g iving heat energy.
FUEL +
A IR M IX T U R E
Fig. 3.2 Flame Furnace or Chamber Type furnace
3.7 H A N D F IR IN G
T he h and firing sy ste m is th e sim plest m ethod o f fuel firing. T h e c o m b u s tio n efficiency is
very low, w hen c o m p a r e d to others. D ue to low er co m b u stio n e ffic ie n cy it c a n n o t be used in
C O M B U S T IO N P R O C E S S 57
modern p ow e r plants. T h e resp onse to the flu ctuating lo ads is very p o o r and draught control is
also difficult in the h and firing system.
3.8 ST O K E R F IR IN G
A s to k e r is a p o w e r o p e ra te d fu e l fe e d in g m ech a n ism a n d grate.
T h is m ethod o f firing is used for bu rning solid coal on a grate. S to k e r are classified as
follow s :
(i) O v e rfe e d stokers
(ii) U n derfeed Stokers
3.8.1 O verfeed S to k ers

In this case the coal is supplied on the top o f the g rate a b ov e the po in t o f air admission.
The m echan ism o f c o m b u stio n in o verfeed stoker is sho w n in fig. 3.3.
2
C o + o +N2+HgO
Fig. 3.3 Overfeed stoker mechanism
P r in c ip le / M ech a n ism
T h e m e c h a n ism o f co m b u stio n in o verfeed stoker is d isc u s se d b elo w :
In the o v e rfe e d m e c h a n is m a forced draft fan slightly p re ssu riz e s the atm osph e re air before
it enters un d e r the b o tto m o f the grate. T h e fuel bed rec e iv e s fresh coal (fuel) on top surface.
The ignition zone lies b e tw ee n green coal and in c a n d e sc e n t coke.
T he air gets h e a te d up as it flow s th ro u g h the grate o p e n in g s w h e re as the grate get cooled.
This warm air gets a d dition al heat e n ergy by furth er p a ssin g th ro u g h a la y e r o f hot ashes.
A m ixture o f in c a n d e sc e n t c o k e and ash e x ist in th e re g io n im m e d ia te ly a b o v e th e ashes,

coke content increasing in the u p w a rd direction. A s the air c o m e s in c o n ta c t w ith incandescent"*-
coke. The (oxygen) 0 2 o f a ir reacts w ith (carbo n) C o f th e c o k e to fo r m C 0 2. T h e rate o f
carbon-oxidation in this p a rt o f fuel b e d c o m p le te ly d e p e n d s o n the ra te o f a ir su pp ly . For
normal fuel bed o f 8 c m d e e p all fuel air reacts w ith in c a n d e s c e n t c o k e y ie ld in g C 0 2 , C O and
the free H y d ro g en (W a te r v a p o u r in a ir reacts w ith c arbo n g iv e s C O , C 0 2 & H 2). T h e C 0 2
formed furth er travel th ro u g h this in c a n d e sc e n t zo n e gets c o n v e rte d into CO . T h u s the gases
leaving the in ca n de sc e nt reg io n c o m p rise o f N 2, C 0 2, C O , H 2 and w a te r vapour.
T he top m ost la y e r Of the fuel bed is fo rm e d by fresh fuel u n d e rg o in g d istilla tio n o f its
volatile m atter (VM). T h e h e a t for distillations and eve n tu a l ig nition c o m e s fro m :
(i) In c a n d e sc en t c ok e by co nduction.
(ii) H igh te m p e ra tu re g a se s diffu sing th ro u g h the bed.
(iii) Flam es and h o t g ase s b y radiation.
(iv) H ot furnace walls.
T he ignition zone lies d irectly below the raw fuel u n d e rg o in g distillation.

The gases leaving the upper surface o f fuel bed com prise combustible volatile material (from
fresh fuel) N 2, C 0 2, CO , H 2 and H 20 . Additional secondary air needed for supply o f oxygen to
facilitate the burning o f combustible gases (V M + C O + H2) m ust be injected at a considerable speed
to create turbulence and to penetrate to all parts o f the area above the fuel bed. T his results in
complete combustion. If combustion is incomplete the burned gases m ay contain som e CO. During
incandescence the fuel loses its carbon by carbon-oxidation until only ash remains. T he primary air
feed cools the ash until it rests on a plane immediately adjacent to the grate.
3.8.2 U n d e r f e e d S t o k e r s (U n d e rfe ed Fuel Supply / U n d e rfe ed fuel bed s)

The m e c h a n ism o f co m b u stio n in u nde rfe ed sto k e r is sho w n in fig. 3.4.
Fig. 3.4 Underfeed stokers

In underfeed mechanism, primary air entering through the holes in the grate comes in contact
with raw coal i.e. green coal. Then it diffuses through the bed o f raw coal, and meets the volatile
material generated by the raw coal.
The heat for distillation com es by conduction from incandescent fuel bed which exists above
the raw coal. T h e air m ixes with volatile material and passes through the ignition zone and enters into
incandescent coke zone, where reactions similar to overfeed system takes place. The gases thus
produced then pass through a layer o f ash, and finally discharged to the furnace. If these gases still
contain any combustible matter, secondary air supplied for complete combustion.
The rising air cools the coal prior to ignition, so the rate o f air supply greatly influences the
ignition speed in this m echanism. s
For low rate o f air supply, the conduction heat flow from incandescent fuel bed in downward
is faster ihan heat removal by air. This pushes the ignition zone dow nw ards below the fuel bed
surface increasing the depth o f incandescent zone.
As the air flow rate increases it rem oves the heat from the fuel bed at high rate while
ignition zone raises n e v e r to fuel bed red ucin g the depth o f in c a n d e sc e n t zone. This a
canno t be seen in o v e rfe e d m e c h a n ism , as the air has to pass th roug h in c a n d esc e n t zone before
reaching the ignition zone.
T he underfeed m echanism is best suited for burning sem i-bituminous and bituminous coals.
3.8.3 D ifferent types o f O verfeed Stokers

These type of stokers are used for large capacity boiler installations w here the coal is burnt
without pulverization. They may be categorized as
(i) Travelling grate stoker
(a) Chain grate type
(b) Bar grate type
(ii) Spreader stoker
3.8.3.1 T ravellin g grate stok er

Based on grate construction details these are classified as
(a) Chain grate
(b) Bar grate type i.e. there two differ only in grate construction.
i
(a) C hain g ra te s to k e r : Fig. 3.5 shows a chain grate stoker.
A chain grate stoker consists o f an endless chain which forms a support for the fuel bed. The
chain surfacc is m ade of a series o f cast iron links connected by pins. T he chain travels over two
sprocket wheels are at the front and one at the rear o f furnace. T he front sprocket is connected to a
variable speed drive mechanism, (speed range 15 cm /m in to 50 cm/min).
T he coal is fed u n d e r gravity from the h o p p e r p laced in fron t o f the stoker. T he thickness
o f fuel on the grate is co ntrolled by hand adju stable gate as sho w n in figure. T he speed o f the
grate varies acc o rd in g to the rate at which the coal is fed to the furnace. T h e grate is prevented
from over heating by h a v in g sufficient quantity o f ash w hich form s a layer on the grate.
60 POWER P L A ^ T E N G IN EE R IN G
□ v e r fir e o r s e c o n d a ry a ir p a r t s
Fig. 3.5 Chain grate stoker
T he p rim a ry air r e q u ir e d f o r c o m b u s ti o n is a d m itte d th r o u g h th e a ir in le ts l o c a te d

below the grate. In s a m e w a y th e s e c o n d a r y a ir is s u p p lie d th r o u g h th e v e n t o f th e fu r n a c e
wall al?ove the grate, th is h e lp s in c re a tin g tu r b u le n c e r e q u i r e d fo r c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n in
the chariTber.
The air can be supplied to d ifferent section o f the grate by d iv id in g the air d uct u n de r the
stoker. Air dam pers are also u se d to sup ply air to various zones, at th e sa m e tim e the rate o f
burning is also controlled by these dam pers. T h e chain grate s to k e r can be used satisfactorily
with any type o f fuel except caking coals. T h e rate o f b u rn in g w ith this s to k e r is arou nd 20 0 to
300 kg/m2/hour when forced draught is used.
A dvantages
1. Simple in construction.
2. Low initial cost.
3. Self-cleaning stoker (low maintenance).
4. The rate o f heat release can be controlled ju s t by c o n tro llin g c h a in speed.
5. R a te 'o f heat release is high per unit volum e o f furnace.
D isa d v a n ta g es
1. C ann ot be used for high capacity boilers.
2. T e m p e ra tu re o f pre-heated air limited to 180 °C.
3. C lin ker troubles are very com m on.
4. Loss o f coal in the form o f five particles carried aw ay w ith the ash.
3.8 .3 .2 S p r e a d e r ty p e o r S p r in k le r S to k er
The e le m e n ts o f a sp re a d e r stok er fe e d in g coal on to a statio nary grate is sh o w in fig. 3.6.
T hese stokers use o v e rfe e d m echan ism .
Fig. 3.6 Spreader stoker
S p re a d e r S to k er m e c h a n ism involves th ro w in g (spreading) the coal un ifo rm ly on the grate.

T h e grate m ay be o f statio nary or m o v in g type, w ith air open in gs for a d m ittin g the air.
T h e selectio n o f coal size is very im p o rta n t for a sp re a d e r s to k e r and the coal size should
be in b e tw een 6 ^ c m j o 36 c m .
In the sp re a d e r sto ke r coal is fed from a ho p p e r to a n u m b e r o f fe e d e r - distributor unity,

each o f w hich has a re c ip ro c atin g feed p late that transports the coal from the hopper over a
spreader (ov e rthro w ro to r w ith c u rv e d blades) w h ic h d istributes (th ro w s) coal un ifo rm ly on the
grate. Prim ary air is fed u p w a rd thro ugh the grate from an air p le n u m b e lo w it. T h is is called
"undergrate air".
J
T h e finer coal particles arou nd 50 p ercent o f the in jected coal are sup p o rte d by the upward
air flow and are b urned w hile in suspension. T he larger coal particles fall to the grate and burn
in an relatively thin layer.
Secon dary air called ov erfire air is blow * into the fu rn ac e j u s t a b o v e the coal projective
forced - draft fans are used for both u ndergrate and o v e r fire air. T h e e q u ip m e n t has controlling
system to control flow air and coal feed to suit load d e m a n d on s te a m generator.
•--------------------------------- .----- _---- 't
T he p rob lem w ith station ary sp read er sto k er is the re m o v a l o f ash w hich was first done
manually by s top ping som e individual section o f grate w ith o u t e ffe c tin g other sections o f stoker.
The spreader stoker b ecam e w idely accep ted only after the introduction o f m o v in g grates (chain
grate) which renow n as com p letely .
The spreader sto k e r is m ostly used for steam c ap acities o f 9.5 to 5 0 kg/sec. It can burn a
wide variety o f coals from high rank b itum in ou s to ignite.
A d v a n ta g e s
1. A w ide variety o f coal can be burnt.
2. T h e d i c k e r i n g p ro b le m s can be red uced by s pread in g action.
3. H igh tem p p reh eated air can be used.
4. Volatile m atter is re m o v e d by b u rn in g coal is su spension .
5. G ood response to load fluctuation.
6. Low run ning cost.
1. Difficult to o perate with vary in g sizes o f coal w ith varying m o istu re content.
2. Fly ash is a m ajor problem .
3. Fuel loss due to suspension and e xch an t gases. (Fine coal particles are carried aw ay
by e x ch ant gases).
3.8.4 D iff e r e n t ty p e s o f u n d e r f e e d s to k e r s
The firing m echanism o f un de rfe e d stoker is show n in fig. 3.4. T h is u n d e rfe e d m e c h a n ism
is best situated for bitum ino us & semi bitum inous coals. In this un derfeed m e c h a n is m the fuel is
fed from und erneath the fire an d m o ves u pw ards_gtad u a lly . T h e air e n te rin g th ro u g h th e grate
opening comes in contact with raw fuel (green coal) and mixes with the volatile m a tte r released
from raw fuel and enters into the co m b u stio n chamber. T h e u nd erfe e d stokes are ca te g o riz ed
into two types, nam ely:
(i) S ingle retort stoker

(ii) M u lti-retort stoker
3.8.4.1 S ingle r e t o r t u n d e r f e e d s t o k e r
The arran gem ent o f single retort m ech an ism is show n in fig. 3.7 (a) a n d 3.7 (b).
The single reto rt stoker consists o f a trough shaped retort to w h ich the fuel (coal) is fed by
a reciprocating ram or screw conveyor. P ushers operating sim u lta n e o u sly w ith the m ain ram
push the coal lo ng itudinally into the retort and p revent all o f it fro m rising at front end. T h e air
is supplied th ro u g h th e b u y e rs p ro v id e d a lo n g the up p e r e d g e o f th e g r a te as sh o w n in the
fig. 3.7 (b). T h e ash an d c lin c k e rs are c o lle c te d on the ash p la te p r o v id e d w ith d u m p in g
arrangement.
Air from the tuy ers p enetrates the fuel bed m ixing th o ro ug hly with the e v o lv e d gases after
which the com b u stib le m ix tu re passes through incand escent zone and en ters the furnace region.
Due to this action this stoker can burn a w ide variety o f free b u rn in g coals.
C oal H o p p e r
Fig. 3.7 (a) Single Retort underfeed stoker
Fig. 3.7(b) Single retort stoker
T he capacity o f this sto k e r ranges from 100 to 2 0 0 0 k g o f c o a l $ b rn e d p e r hour. Even at

moderate c o m b u stio n rates, the c o m b u stio n o f high volatile c o a l is c o m p le te d w ith in a short
distance from fuel b e d surface. T h e c ap acity o f an u n d e r fe e d s to k e r c a n n o t be increased by
simply building a la rg e r single re to rt stoker. T he size o f the re to rt is lim ited by virtue o f inability
> of obtaining even air distrib u tio n from the sides o f the retorts. S o , g e n e rally m ulti-retp rt stokers
are used for increasingly the b u rn in g ca p a c ity o f the stoker.
3.8.4.2 M ultiple R etort u n d erfeed S to k er

Fig. 3.8 (a) and 3.8 (b) sho w n the essential ele m e n ts o f m ultiple -re to rt u n d e rfe e d stoker
mechanism. It consists o f a series o f alternate retorts and tuyers box for air supply. T h e retorts
are rectangular cross se c tio n troughs. U n d e r the coal h o p p e r at the end o f retorts, F e e d in g ram
reciprocate back and forth w ith the ra m in ou ter portion coal from h o p p e r falls into the space
vacated by ram. £>uring in w ard stroke the ram forces the co a l into the retort and the retort is
filled by raw coal to a lev el a b ove the tuyers.
Fig. 3.8 (a) M ultiretort underfeed stoker

A num ber o f secon dary or distribu ting ram s oscillating parallel to the retort axis controls
the height and profile o f the fuel bed. T h e se ram s slow ly m ove the e ntire fuel bed dow n the
■^length o f the stoker, and the length o f the stok er can be varied as per the requirem ents.
A t rear o f the stoker the partly burned fuel bed m o ves onto to an extension grate arranged
in sections, w hich also oscillate parallel to the fuel m o ve m e nt. T h e sharp slope o f the stoker
helps in m oving the fuel bed. T he fuel bed m o v e m e n t keeps it slightly agitated to breaking
clincker form ations. From the e x te n sio n grate section the ash m o v e into the ash dum ping plate
and by tilting the d u m p in g -p la te at long intervals d eposits the ash in the ash pit below.
The prim ary air is supplied to the fuel bed fro m the w in d box situ a ted belo w the stoker.
This air enter the fuel bed th rough the open in gs in the vertical sides o f tuyers. T h e fuel bed is
very thin on an e x ten sio n grate so the air must be supplied at low pressure. T h e air pressure
under the stok er is varied acco rd in g to load by m eans o f a d a m p e r control system .
T h e se sto ke rs e m p lo y e s forced dra ft for ra p id c o m b u s tio n and it is very necessary to

introduce o ver fire air w hen high volatile coals are used to p re v e n t sm oke fo rm ation s. T he rate
o f c o m b u s tio n c an b e c o n tr o lle d e ith e r by v a r y in g ra m s tr o k e or by c h a n g i n g the rate of
reciprocation.
T h e n u m b e r o f re to rts m ay vary from 2 to 20 w ith coal b u rn in g c a p a c ity o f 3000 to

2000 Kg/hr.
' ' A d v an tag es

1. High therm al efficiency w hen c o m p ared w ith chain grate stoker.
2. T he grate is se lf cleaning.
3. Part load e ffic ie n cy is high w ith m ultiple retort system.
4. High c o m b u stio n rate.
5. W id e variety o f co a ls can be used.
6. S u f fic ie n t a m o u n t o f coal a lw a y s rem ain on the gra te , a n d helps in continuous
c o m b u stio n du rin g the te m p o ra ry break dow n o f coal su p p ly .
7. S m o k e le ss o peration is po ssible even at very light load.
8. - Best suitable for non -clink erin g, high volatile and low ash co n te n t coals.
9. Coal is c o n tin u o u sly agitated by p ushe r plates p r e v e n tin g from clincker formation.
10. Retort, layers, grate bars are not subjected to high te m p as they rem ain in contact
with fresh g reen coal.
11. It can b e u se d w ith all re p a ra to ry furn a c e s b e c a u s e o f non e x p o s u r e o f stoker
m ec h a n ism to the furnace.
D isad v an tag es
1. Initial cost is high.
2. Large b uilding area is required.
3. C lin k e r trou bles are usually present.
4. Low g ra d e fu els with high ash content can not be b urnt econom ically.
3.9 P U L V E R IS E D F U E L F IR IN G
The com m ercial d e v e lo p m e n t o f m ethods for firing pulverised coal is a landm ark in the
history of steam generatio n (1920s). It m ade possible, the c o n d u ctio n o f large, efficient and
reliable steam g e nerations and p o w e r plants. Before being sup p lied to the b u rn e r m e c h a n ism if
coal were m ade fine enough, it w ould burn easily and efficiently as a gas. Fig. 3.9 sh ow s e lem ents
of pulverised coal firing system . In this system the coal is finely p o w d e re d w ith the help o f
grinding mill (crushes) and then projected into co m b u stio n c h a m b e r u sin g hot air c urre nt .
Fig. 3.9 Elements of pulverised coal system
T here are tw o req uirem ents w h ich are m ust for pulverised coal to b u rn succe ssfu lly in a
furnace.
(i) P resen ce o f large q uantities o f fine particles o f coal usually th at w o u ld pass e n oug h
a 200 - m esh, (0.074 m m ) to ensu re sp on ta n e o u s ig nition b e c a u s e o f then large
•surface to volum e ratio.
(ii) P re se n c e o f m in im u m q u a n tity o f c o a r s e r p a r tic le s to e n s u r e h ig h c o m b u s tio n
efficiency.
In other w o rds the efficiency o f the pulverised fuel firing system m ain ly d e p e n d s on the
fineness o f coal pow der. T h e fineness oil coal should he such that 80% o f coal w o u ld pass
through a 200 m esh (0.074 m m ) and 90 to 99% o f coal th ro ug h 50 m esh screen (0.297 mm).
In direct firing s ystem the dried, pulverised coal is transp orted to the b u rn e r by the prim ary
air and m ixed with the secondary air in the burner. T h e flow v elocity o f coal air m ix e d with the
secondary air in the burner. T he flow velocity o f coal air m ixture m ust be high en o u g h to keep
the fuel particles su sp e n d e d in air stream . T h e m inim um velocity for h orizontal b u rn er is 1.5 m/
s and for vertical bu rn e r 1 1 m/s.
T h e air in w h ic h the coal is su sp e n d e d is c a lle d p rim a ry air. T h e a d d itio n a l air required
is c a lle d p rim a ry air. T h e a d d itio n a l air r e q u ire d to m a in ta in air - to - fuel ratio to the required
level is called s e c o n d a ry air. T h is s e c o n d a ry air is a d d e d at the b u rn er, for c o m p le tin g the
c o m b u stio n .
Pulverised coal furnaces m ust w ith stand the high te m p e ra tu res and properly designed to
hold the volum e o f air fuel an d gases. M odern central station boiler fu rn a ce s have water cooled
w alls that form a part o f the s team generates and heat ab sorbing surfaces.
A d v a n ta g es
I. Any g rad e o f coal can be used efficiently b e c au se it is p o w d e re d before use.
2. , H ig h e r b o ile r efficiency due to c o m p lete c om bu stio n.
3. F lexible m eth o d and can re sp o n d well for sud den c h a rg e in d em and .
4. Fan p o w e r requ ired is low.
5. Free fro m clin k e r problem .
6. A ir p re h e a tin g upto 350 °C is po ssible that helps in rapid fla m e propagation.
7. T he fu rn ace has no m ov in g parts subjected to very high tem p eratu res.
8. Easily a n d effifciently operated results in m in im isin g labo ur cost.
9. Release large am o u n t o f heal, m a k in g "it po ssible to g en e rate about 2 x 105 Kg.
steam p e r h o u r in a boiler.
10. A bo iler unit can be stated rapidly from cold w h ic h is im p o rta n t du rin g emergency.
II. T h is system w o rks easily w ith or in c o m b in a tio n w ith gas and oil.
12. T he e xte rna l heating surfaces are the from fo uling and corrosion .
13. V o lu m e o f the f u rn a c e required is less.
14. N o m a jo r p ro b le m in ash handling.
1. A dditional in v e s tm e n t for coal preparation unit / plant.
2. Extra p o w e r is n ee d e d for pulverisin g coal.
3. M a in te n a n c e cost is m ore w hich depends on quality o f coal.
4. Due to very high te m p e ra tu re ,m a in te n a n c e o f f u rn a c e w alls is difficult
5. S p ecial e q u ip m e n t is requ ired to start the system .
6. Large q uantities o f fly ash, and rem o val o f fly ash is difficult.
7. D a n g e r o f e x p lo sio n s, as coal burns like a gas so ca re should be taken.
8. M ore sp ace is required.
9. A ir p ollu tion du e to em issio n o f fine particles o f grit and ash dust.
10. Skilled o perato rs are required, since there is d a n g e r o f ex plosion.
11. S toring o f p o w d e r coal is difficult especially from fine hazards.
68 POW ER P L A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
3.10.1 P u lverised F u el H a n d lin g

The Pulverised fuel hanging system are broadly categorized into tw o types namely
1. Unit System
2. Central sy ste m or Bin system.
Fig. 3.10 Pulverised Coal Handling Plant

Block diagram showing arrangement of required equipm ent
Fig. 3.10 show s a b lo c k dia g ra m o t the a rra n ge m ent o f d iffe re n t e q u ip m e n t that are used
in both the system. Each system (U nit or C Shtrol) consists o f crushes, m a gn etic separators,
dryers, storage bins, c o n v e y o rs and feeders.
In un it sy ste m e a c h b u r n e r o f the plant is C o n n e c te d to on e o r m o r ^ pulverised in the
central pu lv erising unit and then distrib uted to d ifferent burner.
The size o f the coal received from the mines may vary widely, it is necessary to make the coal
o f uniform size passing through the pulveriser, for fine grinding. T his can be done by passing the raw
coal though a primary crushes. T he undesirable iron particles present in the pulverised coal can be
removed by using magnetic separator. T h e general allowable coal size is approximately 30 mm.
Finally the clean pulverised coal is supplied to the furnace by using air currents.
3 .10.2 U n it S y stem s
T h e sche m a tic layo ut o f un it system is show n in the fig. 3.11. T h is is the sim plest system
in ha n dling p u lv e rise d coal. T h e u n it sy ste m is so called be c a u se ea c h b u rn e r or g rou p o f burners
and a p u lv erise r co n stitu te a unit.
C ru sh ed coal o r sized coal is fed to the p ulveriser at a variab le ra te d e p e n d in g upon the
combustion re q u ire m e n ts o f fu rnace, i.e. it varies w ith rate o f s te a m g e n e ra tio n in the boiler.
M ill Fan
P re h ea te d
i k air of fuel g a s
dor drying coal
Fig. 3.11 Unit System
T he coal is dried b e fo re fe e d in g to p u lv e rise r by passin g hot air (Preheated air) through

the feeder.; T h e p rim a ry air acts as tra nspo rt air w h ich c a rrie s coal to the b u rn e r through a
delivery pipe. T h e se c o n d a ry a ir is su p p lie d to the b u rn e r b e f o r e e n te r in g the fuel into the
c o m b u stio n c h a m b e r . T h is s e c o n d a r y air h e lp s in c o m p le tin g th e c o m b u s tio n p ro cess, by
maintaining, co rre c t air fuel ratio.
A d v a n ta g es
1. S im p le la y o u t and e asy operation.
2. It requ ires less space.
3. It is c h e a p e r w h e n c o m p a re d with central system.
4. Less m ain tenance.
5, Sim p le coal transpo rtation system.
6. D irect c on trol o f c o m b u stio n from the pu lv erise rs is possible.
7. B etter control o ver fuel feed rate.
D is a d v a n & g e s
1. Less flex ib le w h e n c o m p a re to central system .
2. T he m ill o p e r a te s a t v a r ia b le lo a d s as p e r the d e m a n d , w h i c h r e s u lts in po or
p e rfo rm a n c e o f a p u lv e ris e r (It is b e ca u se m o re p o w e r c o n su m p tio n p e r ton o f coal
at part load).
3. W ith the load factor in c o m m o n practice, the total capacity o f all th e m ills m u st be
h ig h e r than for the con trol system .
4. A n y fault in th e coal preparation unit m ay stop the entire steam g e n e ra tin g system.
5. E x c e ssiv e w e a r an d te ar o f the fan blad es as it h an dle s air and coal particles.
3.10.3 C en tra l S y ste m o r B in S y stem
Seco n d ary
Fig. 3.12 Central System

Fig. 3 .12 S h o w s th e s c h e m a t ic la y o u t o f c e n tra l or b in sy s te m . In th e c e n tra l sy ste m
large capacity p u lv e r is e s a re u se d to p re p a r e c o a l fo r all th e b u r n e r s . T h e co a l is d rie d by
using hot g ases and led to the p u lv e r is e s w ith h e lp o f fe e d e r.
The pulverised coal is transp orted to the central storage bin w ith the help o f air as shown
in the figure and the tran sp o rtin g air is vented o u t u sin g c y c lo n e separator. T he central system
practically em ploys all the e q u ip m e n t sim ilar to u n it sy ste m but o f la y er capacity in addition to
this it employs a central storage bin. T he bin m ay contain from 12 to 24 hours supply o f pulverised
coal. The pow dered coal is m e te re d (feeding) to the burn ers, by p u lv e ris e d fuel feeder according
to rate o f combustion.
A dvantages
1. M ore flexible b e c a u se the quantity o f fuel and air can be c o n tro lle d separately.
2. M ore reliable since failure o f coal preparation plant do es not im m ed iately affect the
operation, b ecause the plan t alw ays has som e fuel in reserve.
3. Burners can be o p erated irrespectiv e o f the coal preparation.
4. T he coal m a y be pu lv erise d at a constant rate in d e p e n d e n t o f load dem and, i.e.
most ec o nom ic a l pulverising rate can be adopted.
5. G ood control o v e r fineness o f the coal .
6. No prob lem o f e xc e ss iv e w e a r o f fan blades.
7. Less lab our is required.
8. Low p o w e r c o n s u m p tio n p er tonne o f coal handled.
D isad van tages

1. ’ High initial cost.
2. It requires large space area.
3. Possibility o f fire and e x plosion hazards.
4. \ Dries are necessary.
5. O peration and m aintenance costs are high w hen c o m p a re to unit system o f same
capacity.
6. ’ The p o w d ered coal in the storage m ay form c a k e s w h ic h is u ndesirable.
7. ' More n u m b e r o f auxiliaries.
8. More p o w e r c o n su m p tio n for auxiliaries and also e n h a n c e the m ainten ance costs.
3.11 C R U S H E R S
There are several types o f co m m e rc ia lly available coal cru sh es, few stand out for particular
uses. The crushers are used to pre p a re coal for pu lv e riz a tio n and the ring c ru sh e r or granulator
and the ham m er mill are m ostly preferred.
The fig. 3.13 (a) and 3.13 (b) show s ring - type coal c ru sh e r and h a m m e r mill type c rushers
respectively.
T h e coal is fed at the top and is crushed by the action o f rings that pivot o f f ce n te r on a
rotor or by sw in g in g h am m er, attached to it. T he size o f coal can be determ ine with the a d justable
screen bars, as sh o w n in the figure.
R ing crush es and h a m m e r nulls are used o ff on plant site. T h e y p roduce a large a m o u n t o f
fine coal for further pulverization.
Fig. 3.13 (a) Ring - type coal crusher
Fig. 3.13 (b) Hammer - mill coal crushes
3.12 P U L V E R IS IN G M IL L S
T h e m ain a d v an tag e of pulverise coal is that it results in e ffe c tiv e c o m b u stio n . T his is
due to the fact tha t sm all particle exposes m a x im u m area o f surface fo r c o m b u stio n . Fo r exam ple
small round particle o f 0.1 inch d ia m eter has 6 0 inch su rfa ce a rea p e r cu b ic inch. Sim ilarly ^
0.01 d ia m e te r p a r tic le has 6 0 0 in 2 cub ic inch.
Pulveriser is the m o st im p ortant part o f a pulverised coal sy stem . T h e re pulverisers are
C O M B U S T IO N PR O C E SS 73
— also called as g rin d in g mills. T h e p ulverisers are classified as follows.
Pulverisers or Grinding mill
Attrition mills Impact mills
Bowl Mills Ball and Race mill Ball m ills Hammer mills
3.12.1 B all an d R a ce M ill

T h e ball an d ra c e mill is a m e d iu m u nit w h ic h o p e ra te s on the p rin c ip le o f crushing
and attrition. P ulve risa tion takes pla c e b etw e e n tw o su rfaces, o n e rolling on top o f the other.
Fig. 3.14 show s a ball and race mill. T h e rolling elem ents m ay be balls o r ring sh a p e d rolls that
roll betw een tw o races, sim ila r to a ball bearing.
74 P O W E R P L A N T ENGINEERING
T h e b a l l s a re b e tw e e n a top s ta tio n a r y r a c e o r r in g a n d a r o t a t i n g b o t to m ra c e . T h i s
b o tto m r a c e is d r iv e n by the v e rtic a l s h a f t o f th e p u lv e r is e r . T h e b a lls in th is m ill h a s a '
d ia m e te r . V a r y in g b e tw e e n 17 and 76 in c h a n d c a p a c i t i e s b e t w e e n l lA to 2 0 to n n e s /h r .
T h e p r i m a r y a ir h e lp s in c irc u la tin g c o a l f e e d b e t w e e n th e g r i n d i n g e le m e n t s . W h e n th e
c o a l is fi n e e n o u g h it s u sp e n d s in air a n d is c a r r i e d to th e c la s s i f i e r . F o r e f f i c ie n t g r i n d i n g
the g r i n d i n g p re s s u re is v aried by e x te r n a lly a d ju s ta b le s p r in g s o n th e to p s ta t io n a r y rin g .
T h is m ill can h a nd le coals c o n ta in in g as m u c h as 2 0 % m o is tu r e . T h e s e p u lv e r is e r s h a v e
g r e a t e r w e a r c o m p a r e d to o t h e r p u l v e r i s e r s . It c o n s u m e s 14 k W h p e r t o n n e o f c o a l
p u l v e r is e d .
A d v a n ta g e s
1. Less sp ace re q u ir e d .
2. Low p o w e r c o n s u m p tio n p e r k W h p e r to n o f c o a l p u lv e r is e d .
3. Less W e ig h t.
4. Less in itia l c o st.
D isa d v a n ta g e s _ .
1. High w e a r c o m p a r e d to o th e r m ills.
2. D ue to h ig h p r e s s u r e le a k a g e o f fine c o a l th r o u g h the m ill c a sin g .
3 .1 2 .2 B ow l M ill
Fig. 3.15 s h o w s the a r r a n g e m e n t o f b o w l m ill. If c o n s i s t o f s t a t i o n a r y s p r i n g lo a d e d
ro llers an d a p o w e r d r iv e n r o t a t i n g b o w l in w h ic h p u l v e r i z a t i o n ta k e s p la c e . T h e c o a l get
p u lv e rise d w h e n th e c o a l p a s s e s b e t w e e n th e s id e s o f r o ta tin g b o w l a n d th e ro lle r.
In d u c e d d r a f t 'f a n d r a w s a s tr e a m o f p r e h e a te d p r im a r y a ir th o u g h th e m ill. T h is
p rim a ry air h e lp s in c a r r y i n g the p u lv e r is e d coal in to a s t a t i o n a r y c l a s s i f i e r at th e top o f
the p u lv e ris e r. T h e c o a r s e p a r t i c l e s i f an y are r e tu r n e d b a c k to th e b o w l by the c l a s s i f i e r
for f u rth e r g r in d in g . T h e p u l v e r i s e d c o a l w ith d e s ir e d f in e n e s s is c a r r i e d to th e b u r n e r
th r o u g h the fan.
A d v a n ta g e s
1. D e sire d fin e n e ss o f coal can be o b ta in e d by a d ju s tin g c la s s if ie r d u rin g
p u lv e r is a tio n .
2 T h e co a l le a k a g e fro m th e mill c a s in g is c o m p le te l y e lim in a te d . It is b e c a u s e ^

the m ill o p e r a te s u n d e r n e g a tiv e p re s s u re s .
COAL
Roller-mill or B o w l-m ill- Principle

Fig. 3.15 Bowl mill
3.12.3 B a ll m ill
T he fig. 3.16 sh ow s the a r ra n g e m en t o f ball mill. I f c o n s ist o f a large cylindrical drum
partly filled w ith steel balls o f different sizes. T he size o f th e steel balls lies in betw een 2.5 cm
to 5 cm in diam eter. T h e coal fed into the dru m m ix es w ith the steel balls and pulverization
takes places as a re su lt o f action b e tw e e n the b alls and the coal as th e d ru m rotates.
76 POWER P L A N T EN G IN EE R IN G
Fig. 3.16 Ball mill (Double classifier ball mill)
Also the ball mill consist o f coal feeder, pulv eriser, classifier and exhauster. T he coal to
the pulveriser w ith the help o f screw c o n v e y o r through the classifier. T h e p reheated air is allow ed
into the pu lv eriser as show n in the figure, this stream o f air p icku p the fine p o w d e re d coal and
pass though the classifier, if any coarse coal particles they are sep arated in the classifier. Finally
the fine coal is passed to the b u rn e r through the e x h a u st fan.
The b a ll m ill is ca p ab le o f p u lv e ris in g 10 tons o f coal p e r h o u r b y c o n s u m in g 20 to
25 kW h energy per tonne o f the coal. T he ou tp ut o f this mill is c o n tro lle d by the dam pers
present in the inlet o f an exh aust fan.
A d v a n ta g es ,
1. T he grinding elem ents (steel balls) are not seriously-affected by the foreign m aterial
in the coal.
2. S im p le system w ith sim ple operation.
3. L o w initial cost.
4. A nthracite and bitu m in ous coals can be pulverised su c c essfu lly b y this ball mill.
1. H igh o p e ra tin g cost.
2. M o re pow'er consum ptio n, com pared to other mills.
3.12.4 H am m er M ill
The H am m er m ill is also ca lle d as im p a ct mill. T h is is a high sp e ed p u lv e rise r and uses
j a m m e r beaters that r e v o lv e in a c h a m b e r e q u ip p e d w ith high w e a r re sis ta n t liner. Fig 3.17
shows hammer mill o f im p a c t mill w here all the grinding elem ents and prim ary air fan are mounted
on a single shaft.
Fig. 3.17 Hammer mill / Impact mill
In this mill pu lv erization takes p lace in tw o stages n a m e ly 'p r im a r y stage and final stage.
In the primary stage o f g rin d in g the coal is re d u c e d to fine gra n u les state b y im pact with a series
of hammers and in the final stage the pu lverisation is c o m p le te d by attrition. T h e finely pulverised
coal is carried with the a ir to the burners. T h e outpu t o f the p u lv e rise r is controlled by varying
the coal feed and the flo w o f p rim a ry air autom atic control a hand control. This mill is mostly
used with low rank coals with high m oistu re co ntent and use the flue gas for drying.
A d v a n ta g e s
1. R equires m in im u m floor area because the pulveriser fans are m o u n ted on a single
shaft.
,2 . T h e p u lv e rise r is directly c o n nected to m otor so it can o perates at high speed. .
1. Metal scrap present in the coal may cause da m ag e to the p ulveriser so care must be
taken.
N ote : A c la ssifie r re fe rre d abo ve is lo c a te d at the p u lv e r is e r exit. It u su a lly
w orks on cyclo n e p rin c ip le . The c la ssifie r se p a ra te s o v e r s iz e d co a l a n d
returns ba ck to the g rin d e r to g e t d e sire d fin e n e s s b y fu r th e r grin d in g .
3.13 P U L V E R IS E D C O A L B U R N E R S
In the last section w e had a su ffic ie n t d isc u ssio n a b o u t the p u lv e ris e d fuel and their
advantages. The effectiv e utilization o f pu lverized coal m ainly d e p e n d s on the ability o f the
burner in uniform m ixing o f coal and air and also creating turbu len ce w ith in the furnace. Prim ary
air is used to carry the coal to the furnace and secon dary air h elps in c re ating Turbulence and
completing the co m b u stio n pro cess by su pplying the required q u an tity o f oxygen. A typical
pulverised coal burner is sh o w n in the fig. 3.18 below .
Fig. 3.18 Pulverised coal burner

3.13.1 R eq uirem ents o f g o o d p u lv erised coal b u rn er
1. It should m ix the coal and air thorou gh ly and project the m ixture in the furnace
along w ith se co n d a ry air.
2. It s h o u ld con tro l the shape o f the fla m e and directio n o f travel. This can be done by
using (d a m p e rs) v an e s in seco nd ary air path.
3. It s h o u ld cre ate p ro p e r tu rb u la n c e and m a in ta in stable and uniform com bustion
th ro u g h o u t the o pe ra ting range.
4. T h e coal and air m ixture should m ove with a su ffic ie nt speed to avoid flash back
w ith the burner.
5. B u rn e rs s h o u ld be p ro v id e d w ith a d e q u a te p r o te c tio n a g a in s t o verh eatin g and
e xcessiv e ab rasiv e wear.
3 .1 3 .2 F a cto rs a ffe c tin g the p erfo rm a n ce o f p u lv erised fu el b u rn er

1. T h e ch aracteristics o f the fuel used.
2. D egree o f fineness o f the p ow dered coal.
3. Percentag e o f volatile m atter in the fuel.
>
4. B u rn e r geom etry.
5. M ix in g p la c e o f fuel and air.
6. P rop ortion o f p rim a ry and secondary air.
7. Fu rn a c e design.
8. N atu re o f load changes.
3.13.3 D iffe r e n t ty p es o f p u lv erised fu el b u rn ers

B ased on the rapidity o f b urning the coal and air m ixture in the furnace the burners are
m ainly classified into four types.
1 L o n g fla m e burners.
2. T u r b u le n t burners.
3. 1 T an gential burners.
4. C y c lo n e burners.
1. L o n g fla m e b u rn er
L ong flam e burners are also called as U -flam e bu rners o r s tre a m lin e d burners fig. 3.18
show s the sim ple a rran g e m en t o f this burner.
This figure shows the supply o f primary air and coal mixture in one stream, and also the supply
of secondary and. tertiary air. The tertiary air is supplied around the burner and this air forms an
envelops around the primary air and fuel and helps in better mixing. Stream flow of air fuel mixture
results in long flames in combustion cham ber without any turbulence hence the secondary air is
supplied at right angles to this flame which helps in better mixing and repaid combustion.
Fig. 3.19 Long flame burner
Long path provides m ore time to burn, hence the furnaces for low v olatile coal are equ ip ped
with this burners w hich gives long flam e path for slow er b u rn in g o f coal particles. Ig nition
temperature and the p ercentage a m atter are inversely related i.e. Ignition temp, increase w ith
decrease in volatile m atter, it sho w n in Fig. 3.20.
Fig. 3.20
2. T u r b u le n t b u rn ers
R efer fig. 3.21 turbu le nt burners on also called as sh o rt fla m e b u rn e rs.
PRIMARY AIR +
PULVERISED COAL
SECONDARY AIR
Fig. 3.21 Turbulent burner
U sually these b urn e rs are set into the furnace walls. T h e se b u r n e r s can fire horizontally
and som e tim es at so m e inc lin a tio n s with sm all adjustm ents. T h e a ir fu el m ix tu re along with hot
secondary air are a rra n g e d to pass throu gh the b u rn er in such w ay th a t there is good m ixing and
the m ixture is p ro je c te d in high ly tu rb ulent form into the fu rnace due to this tu rbulan ce intense
rapid c o m b u stio n c o m p le te s in a short distance.
C o m b u stio n rate is.very h ig h w hen c o m p a re d to o ther b u rn e rs. All m o d e rn plants employs

this type o f burner. H ig h volatile coals are g enerally p refe rred for this burner.
3. T a n g e n tia l b u rn ers
T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f ta n g e n tia l b u r n e r s is s h o w n in th e fig. 3 .2 2 th e b u r n e r are set in

ea c h o f the f o u r c o r n e r s o f c o m b u s t io n c h a m b e r ( f u r n a c e ) a n d d ir e c te d ta n g e n tia lly to an
im a g in a ry c ir c le at c e n tr e o f th e f u r n a c e . T h e s w i r lin g a c tio n p r o d u c e s e n o u g h tu rb u le n c e
re q u ir e d fo r ra p e d a n d c o m p l e te c o m b u s tio n in th e fu r n a c e . T h is c lim a te s th e n e c e ssity of
p r o d u c in g tu rb in e at the b u r n e r itse lf. R a t e o f h e a t g e n e r a t i o n is v e r y h i g h a n d is
a p p ro x im a tely 1.2 x 106 k c a l / m 3/hr.
Fig. 3.22 Tangential burner - arrangem ent
4. C y clo n e b u rn er »
T he pulverised coal burners have the follo w ing d isa d v a n ta g e s
1. This capital and run ning costs o f pu lv erized units are c o n sid e ra b le
2. A bout 70% o f the ash in coal, goes with exhaust gasses in the form offly a s h requiring
exp ensiv e d u st co lle c to rs in the gas circuit
To o v erco m e these d isa d v a n ta g e s c y clo ne bu rn e r c o ncept is used. In this c y c lo n e bu rn e rs

crushed coal particles (not pulverised) are burnt in vortex su spension . Fig. 3.23.
Fig. 3.23 Cyclone burner

T h e c y clon c b u rn e r is an h orizontal cylindrical dru m o f d ia m e te r b e tw ee n 2 to 4 meters

and 2.5 m in length sho w n in fig. 3.23. It is p rovided w ith w ater c o ole d arrang em en t. These
burners are externally a rra n g e d to boiler furnace, and have vents for p rim a ry air, c rushed coal
and secondary air. T he h o rizo ntal axis o f this bu rn e r is slightly d eflected to w a rd s the boiler.
T he c ru sh e d coal (6 m m d iam eter) from the feeder and the prim ary air enters with a vortex
motion at the ce n te r o f cyclone. H ot secondary air is used to c o m p lete the com bu stio n. Massive
heat liberation and the use o f pre h e a te d air cause very high te m p e ra tu re 2 0 0 0 ° C in the cyclone.
T he sup plied fuel is c o n su m e d quick ly and liberated ash form m olten film flowing over
the inner wall o f the c y lin d e r due to tilting. Inner walls are coated w ith ch ro m e ore. Finally
crushed coal bu rns in su spe nsion the h e av ie r pieces are drained o f f alo n g with m olten slag. The
high heat rate in the furnace m akes the unit m ore com pact.
Oil and gases fuel can be e ffectiv ely handling in this burner. Sin ce no need of pulverising
the crusher needs less pow er. T h e c y c lo n e furnace gives best results w ith low grade fuel and
high silica fuels and it is best suited for m ajority o f Indian coals,.
A d v a n ta g es
1. C ostly pu lv erisers are not req uired instead, sim p le coal c r u sh in g eq uipm ent can be
used.
2. By using fo rced draft fan it can be o perated with small qu a n titie s o f excess air.
3. C o m b u stio n rates can be controlled by a ltering (m anu al a d ju stm e n t) fuel feed and
a irflow sim u ltan eo usly . T he response in firing rate c h a n g e s is co m parable with
pulverised coal firing.
4. It can burn low grades o f coal effectively.
5. Slag recovery is around 80% and dust passing it to the stack i^ a ro u n d 10% hence
sim ple e q u ip m e n t is required for dust re m o va l from flue gases.
6. High tem p e ra tu re arc obtained.
7. Boiler fouling p ro b le m s can be reduced as all the in c o m b u stib le s are retained in the
c yclo ne burner.
8. \ B o iler e ffic ie n cy is increased.
3.14 D U ST C O L L E C T IO N
Any gas b o rn e m a tte r larger in size than one m icron (D ia m e te r) is classified as dust. When
such m atter e xceed s lOOp, in stack discharges’, it is called cin d e r in sm aller sizes it is called
flyash, very often flyash' m a y also refe r to gas borne, n o n -c o m b u s tib le particles and cinders to
charged and co k e particles and cinders.
Incomplete or arrested combustion of volatile components o f fuels produces smoke, comprising

small particles o f sizes less than 10 microns. W hen these particles agglomerates results soot formation.
The dust concentration in stacks and dusts can be found experimentally, and the dust count is expressed
interms;o f grains per cubic meter at a specific temperature and pressure.
The em ission from the p ow d er stations are objectionable if the content (dust count) exceeds
the limit o f 0.5 g ra m /m 3. It is because it has bad effects on the hu m an and anim al health as well as
on the crops. T he clean in g o f gas before discharge to the atm osp here has becom e very essential ~
with the introduction o f pulverised fuel boilers, it is because around 80% o f ash is carried with the
exhaust gases in a very fine form. A plant o f capacity 4 00 M W using pulverised Indian coal (~
40% ash) as a fuel discharges 500 tonnes o f ash per day with ex haust gases, so proper care must be
taken to rem ove all these particles before exhaust. T his exam ple is sufficient to justify the discussion
about the ill effects o f dust (flyash) and necessity to rem ove it.
3 .1 4 .1 D u st c o lle c to r s - C la ssific a tio n

D ust collecto rs are broadly c a teg orized into tw o groups
(i) M e c h an ic a l dust collectors and

(ii) E lectrical dust c ollectors
D ust collectors
M echanical Electrical
I
Electrostatic
W et type (scrubbcrs) precipitators
G ravitational C in d er C in d er C yclone separator P acked S pray C yclone

separator catch er vane fans or centrifugal type type
separator
3.1 4 .1 .1 M ech a n ica l d u st c o lle c to r s

G r a v ita tio n a l S e p a r a to r s
Basic p rin c ip le s used in sep a ra tin g dust particle u n d e r g rav ita tio n a l c o n c e p t is sho w n
fig. 24 (a), (b), (c).
Fig. 3.24 (a) Fig. 3 .2 4 (b )

Fig. 3 .2 4 (c )
Fig. 24 (a) S u d d e n d e c re a s e in velo city by in creasin g th e c ro ss se c tion o f the flow and

dust particles are a llo w e d to fall dow n.
Fig. 24 (b) A b ru p t c h a n g e in the direction o f flow resu lts in se p a ra tio n o f h e a v ie r particles

from the m ain flue gas stream an d a llow ed to settle dow n.
Fig. 24 (c) By K e ep in g baffles in gas stream, the la rg e r du st pa rtic le s m ay be removed.
C in d er C a tch er
T his m e th o d is m a in ly used w ith stoker firing system . T h e c in d e r c a tc h e r is used to remove
dust and c in ders from the gas. It consists o f a c h a m b e r in w h ic h a n u m b e r o f special shaped
baffles are fixed. D ust laden gas is m ade to strike these baffles that c h a n g e s its direction and
reduce its velocity. T h e se pa ra te d dust and c ind ers fall to the h o p p e r for its rem o val. The
efficiency o f c in d e r c a tc h e r lies in b etw een 60% to 75% . S im p le a rra n g e m e n t o f c in d e r catcher
is show n in fig. 3.25.
Fig. 3.25 Cinder C atcher

86 PO W ER P L A N T E N G IN EE R IN G
C in d er V a n e F an s
Fig. 3.26 sh o w s sim ple c in d e r vane fan system . It e m p lo y s an in d u c e d draft fan with an
a rrangem ent to w ith d ra w w hirling gas from the casing th rough small o pen in gs. T h is system is
used for a stoker fired furnace. T he dust laden gas fr o m the fu rn a c e enters the scroll ou tside and
changes its directio n sharply to enter the rotor. D u rin g this action the c e ntrifug al force carries
the dust particles alon g the edge o f the scroll. T h e c le an e d gas is sent back to fan inlet after
separation o f solid particles. T he efficiency o f this system is ab ou t 50% to 60%.
C yclon e sep a ra to r or C en trifu g a l sep a ra to r

Fig. 3.27 shows the principle o f cyclone dust collector. This system em ploys a dow nw ard flo w
vortex for dust laden gas and u pw ard flo w vortex for clean gas along the inner walls. The spiral flow
action is produced by fan like vanes placed in the annular space between the cone and connecting
tube. This system is extensively and effectively used for pulverised coal fuel system. Dust particles
are thrown to the walls by centrifugal force and they fall to the bottom for removal.
T hese separators m ay be used in single or any n u m b e r in parallel (m ulticyclone) depending

upon capacity o f the plant. T he efficiency o f this system is aro u n d 80% to 90%.
' C O M B U S T IO N P R O C E S S 87
3.1 4 .1 .2 E le c tr o sta tic P r e c ip ita to r (E S P )
Fig. 3.28 (a) and Fig. 3.28 (b) shows principle and arrangem ent o f E SP respectively. The other
name given for E SP is cottrell precipitators. It has two sets o f electrodes insulated from each other
(collection electrodes and discharge electrodes) maintaining an electrostatic field betw een them at
very high voltage. (30,000 V to 60,000 V) T he gas which is to be cleaned is made to pass between
these two sets o f electrodes.
The high voltage generates an unidirectional, non uniform electric field w hose magnitude is
greatest near discharge electrodes,. W hen voltage is high enough a blue luminous glow is produced
called corona. T his is an indication o f the generation o f negatively charged gas ions that travel
tow ards the grou nd ed collection electrodes due to strong electric field. T h e other electrode is
maintained at a negative potential o f 20,000 to 1 x 105 Volts. The collecting electrodes have a large
contact surface. A ccum ulated dust particles falls off the electrodes by shaking them using a cam
mechanism. The rem oved dust is collected in the dust hoppers. E S P is efficiently used with fine dust
gases, i.e. pulverised systems.
CyU'vlo'*
\ 'c'sf'K l
' f 88: j &*j-
* // cjj'b.
/ G)0>
I %
Cborj|o<J y .— ..
rv ic
TVw'mfomw
C h u 'O lrQ
Se-.tfon 1 S fy s 'o n
Fig. 3.28 (a) Com ponents of electrostatic precipitator
>
| Dust
Fig. 3.28 (b) General arrangement of Electrostatic Precipitator „ L',

A d v a n ta g e s w
1. ESP is m ore effective in rem o ving very4;rnall particles like sm o k e , and fly ash.
2. E fficiency o f E SP is around 9 9 % ^ ^ ^
3. T h e c o lle c te d ash can be rem o ved either dry or wet.
4. D ra u g h t loses are less.
1. D ue to high v oltage it increases initial cost.
2. R equired space is large.
3. D ue to high voltage sufficient protection is required.
4. R unning costs are con sid erab ly high.
3.15 DRAUGHT
3.15.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
In boilers to su p p o rt c o m bu stion process, it is necessary to supply re q u ire d q u a n tity o f air
and to rem ove the pro du cts o f com bustion. This can be done effectively by drought.
D efinition : D ra u ght is nothing but a small pressure difference w hich causes a flow o f
gas. This driving pressure is c aused by the d ifference in density b e tw een the cool o utside air and
hot air inside (flue gases).
A
The driving p re ssu re is giv en by
A P d = ( p a - p g)Hg
3.15.2 C la ssific a tio n o f D ra u g h t
D raught m ay be classified as
D ra u g h t
\
N a tu ra l A rtific ia l
I___
Steam Jet Mechanical
I____
Forced Induced Forced Induced Balanced

3.15.3 N a tu ra l D ra u g h t
N atu ral d ra u g h t sy ste m is also called as c h im n e y d ra u g h t, b e c a u s e natural drau gh t is
obtained by using c h im n e y fig. 3.29 show n schem atic a rra n g e m e n t o f c h im n e y draught.
Fig. 3.29 Sketch showing Natural draught phenom enon

>
A c h im n e y is a larg e vertical tu bu la r structure built e ith e r m a so n ry , co n cre te or steel.
M a in fu n c tio n s o f c h im n e y are
1. It p ro d u c e s r e q u ire d d ra u ght by w h ich the a ir and gas are fo rced throu gh the fuel
bed, b o ile r aux iliaries like e c o n o m is e r etc.
2. It d isc h a rg e the pro du cts o f co m b u stio n at very h ig h a ltitu des so that they will not
be o b je c tio n a b le and in ju rio us to the su rro u n d in g s.
T he d ra ug ht p ro d u c e d by the c h im n e y is due to the d if f e re n c e in de n sitie s o f cool air

ou tside and hot g ases in sid e the c him n ey .
Let P, be the p ressure acting on the grate level on c h im n e y side. It is giv en by
P 1 = Pa + P ^ H
Pa : A tm osp heric p re ssu re at chim n e y top.

pg : Density o f flue gas - k g /m 3
g : A cceleration due to grav ity - m /s2
H : H eig ht o f the c h im n e y - m
Let P 2 be the pressure acting on the grate level on the op en sid e. It is given by
P 2 = P a + Pa§H
p a : Density o f o u tside air (atm osph eric air)
Net pressure d ifference causin g d ra u gh t A P d is given by
A p d = P2 - P, since p a > pg.
= (Pa + p a gH ) - (Pa + Pg gH)
A Pd = (Pa - Pg) gH
This pressure d iffe re n c e A Pd causing air flow is called 'sta tic d raught'. A lw a y s d ra u gh t is
measured in mm o f w ater u sing 'w a ter m a n o m e te r'. *
3.15.4 C him ney D esign

M olecular volum es o f all the gases are the same.
C + 02 ) C02
1 vol. + 1 vol. --------- > 1 vol
T he above equation show s that one vo lu m e o f 0 2 from air is u sed fo r c o m b u s tio n of

carbon in the fuel produces one vo lu m e o f the gaseous pro duct o f co m b u s tio n , C O ,.
But the q u a n tity o f h y d ro g e n in liq u id a n d solid fuel is very less a n d e v e n N itr o g e n a n d

other relative c o n stitu e n ts do not p a rtic ip a te in c o m b u s tio n , so th e s te a m p r o d u c e d is very
small as c o m p a re d to other co nstitu e n ts. So, w e can a ss u m e for an a c c u ra te c o m b u s tio n the
volum e o f air req uired for co m b u stio n is a p p ro x im a te ly the sam e as the v o lu m e o f the p ro d u c ts
o f com b ustio n.
Let T„ - the m ean absolute tem perature o f c h im n e y g ases in ° K

Ta - the absolute tem perature o f ou tside air °K
m - m ass o f air in kg per kg o f fuel.
T he m ass o f the ch im n e y gas = (m + 1 ) kg per kg fuel.
At 2 7 3 °K o r 0°C the v o lu m e per kg o f flue g ases is a p p r o x im a te ly e q u a l to volum e

per kg o f air.
I
By the e qua tio n
PV = R T
w RT 287x273
V=— = = 0 .7 7 3 4 m ' / kg
P 1.01325x10s
T h e A P d, p r e s s u r e d iff e r e n c e p ro d u c e d b e in g very s m a ll ( m a x im u m A P d is around

20 mm o f w ater). F o r the p u rp o s e o f v o lu m e calculation at h ig h e r te m p e r a tu r e pressure is
co nsidered as c o n sta n t at fu rnace and chim n ey base.
Ta
V olum e p e r kg o f o u tsid e air at T a°K = 0.7734 x ——
k 273
3.15.4.1 C him n ey H eight

A ssu m in g that at sam e te m p e ra tu re and pressure the v o lu m e o f p r o d u c ts o f c om bustion is
equal to the vo lu m e o f air supplied.
Let Ta - A bsolute tem p erature o f air

T g - A v e ra g e tem perature o f ch im ney ga
ma - M ass o f air supplied per kg o f fuel.
and
at the sam e p ressure and tem perature
m a ss o f hot gasses _ m a + 1
m ass o f air mo
T he mass density o f air at atm o sph eric conditions is given by
P 1.01325 x l O 5 1
— = 353 — ■(1)
P“ RT. 287 T,
T he m ass de nsity o f hot gases
ma +
8 RT.B V\ m tt
a /J
1.01325 x 105 1 f n v f l
287 V m a J
m3 + 1
•(2)
X m„
Net pressure differen ce ca u sin g the flow through the c o m b u stio n c h a m b e r
AP = P 2 ! - P , = ( P a - P g)gH •(3)
Substituting (1) & (2) in (3)
f 1\
J ____ 1_ m a +l
AP = 353 gH •(4)
T. T„ V m a J
A ssum in g that the drau ght pressure AP is equ iv alent to H, m e te r height o f b urnt gasses
m „+l
AP = p g H , = 3 5 3 gH , .(5)
v m a y
From (4) & (5)
J ____ l_ +1 +l
353 gH = 353 gH,
T. X. v m a y V â y
/ .. \
353 g H 353 rT m a + l _ 353 f ma+ H
-------- g H
\ Tg ~ ^ â / Tg I m a J gH,
m.
H, = H -l .•(6)
v m a+ ly
The actual d ra u g h t available is alw ays less than that given by (6) due to losses at various
sections along the path o f the flue gases.
rna + l
h w = 353 H
V m a y
3.15.4.2 C h im n ey D ia m eter
C = ^ 2 g H , if pressure loss in the chim n ey is e q uiva le n t to hot ga s c o lu m n o f h 1 m eter
C = ^ ( H . - h ' J = 4 .4 3 ^ / h , - h 1 = K j H ,
K = 0.825 for brick chim ney
= 1.1 for steel chim ney

T h e m ass o f the flow in g gasses th rough cross section o f the c h im n e y is
m g = p gAC Kg/S
D --- 1.128
3 .16 M ech a n ica l D ra u g h t

T he natural d ra ug ht pro d u c e d by chim ney is affected by the a tm o sp h e ric conditions i.e.
pressure, tem p e ra ture and relative hum idity. C h im n e y is a tall stru c tu re w ith o u t any flexibility
this results in po or efficiency. But in m odern pow er plants very e ffic ie n t d ra ug ht system is
req uired w h ich is in d e p e n d e n t o f a tm o sp h e ric c o n d itio n s and also fle x ib le to take the load
fluctuations. G enerally aro un d 200 m m o f w ater o f drau gh t is req uired in m o d e rn p o w e r plant.
W hen the requ ired d ra u g h t is a b ov e 35 m m o f water, the artificial d ra ug ht p ro v e s econom ical.
T he artificial d ra u g h t is called as m e ch an ical draught and it is pro d u c e d by a fan. It may be
induced or forced or balan ced type.
3.16.1 F orced D ra u g h t S ystem

B lo w e r is a m ain c o m p o n e n t in forced d ra u g h t system . T h is b lo w e r is fixed at the base
o f the b o ile r (fu rn ace) and it fo rces the air to pass th ro u g h the fu rnace, e c o n o m is e r , air preheater
and to the stack. T he general a rra n g e m en t is show n in the fig. 3.30.
To exhaust
Stack or
Chimney
Blower
Grate
□: : r r i i
Econom iser
y
___f
n
Air preheater
Fig. 3.30 Forced Draught system

94 POWER PL AN T EN G IN EE R IN G
In this system the b lo w e r blow s the air into the furnace d e v e lo p in g high p ressu re g re a te r
than atm ospheric p ressure th ro u g h o u t the system . H en ce it is k no w n as p o sitiv e d ra u g h t sy ste m .
A chimney is also used in this system w hich discharge the gases at sufficient height p re v e n tin g
the atmospheric con ta m in a tio n . N o le a ka ge into the sy stem be c a u se o f po sitive pressure.
3.16.2 In d u ced D ra u g h t S y stem

T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f in d u c e d d r a u g h t is s h o w n in th e fig . 3 .3 1 . H e r e the b lo w e r is
pla c e d n e a r th e b a s e o f the c h im n e y . A s th e b lo w e r w o rk s it c r e a t e s lo w p r e s s u r e w h ic h is
well b e lo w the a tm o s p h e r ic p r e s s u r e . H e n c e it is c a lle d n e g a tiv e d r a u g h t s y s te m . D u e to
low p r e s s u r e th e a t m o s p h e r e a ir e n t e r s in to th e s y s t e m a n d f l o w s th r o u g h t h e fu r n a c e
econom iser an d air p re h e a te r.
I
T he draught p ro d u c e d is ind ep end en t o f atm osph eric c o n d itio n s therefo re the h e a t o f the
gases may be recovered in the ec on om ic and preheaters. In this sy ste m the function o f c h im n e y
is sim ilar to forced d ra ug ht type but the total d ra ug ht p ro d u c e d in in duced type is the su m o f the
draught produced by fan and the chim ney.
To exhaust
Fig. 3.31 Induced Draught system

F o rced D r a u g h t V s In d u c e d D ra u g h t (A d v a n ta g es / D isa d v a n ta g e s)
1. T h e fo r c e d d r a u g h t h a n d le s o nly a tm o s p h e r ic air. In i n d u c e d m e th o d the fan
h a n d le s a ir alo n g w ith fuel at e le v a te d te m p e ra tu re . D ue to large q u a n titie s o f air
to b e h a n d le d by in d u c e d fan its size is large and p o w e r r e q u ir e d is a lso m ore than
fo r c e d d r a u g h t fan.
2. D ue to elev a te d te m p e ra tu re s indu ced d ra u g h t n ee d s w a te r cooled bearings.
3. B e tte r and u n ifo rm distribu tion o f air in the fu rn ace an d fire bed as well. This
im pro ves the rate o f burning.
4. Since fo rc ed d ra u g h t system is a p ositive p re ssu re d ra u g h t the air cannot leak into
s y s te m . In in d u c e d s y s te m du e to n e g a tiv e p r e s s u r e s (le ss th an a tom ospheric
pressure) in side the furnace, the air leaks into the furnace.
5. In in d u c ed d rau g h t s y ste m when furn ace do ors are o p e n e d for firing, cold air rushes
into the fu rn a ce and dilutes the co m b u stio n p r o c ess and also re d u c e s the draught.
3 .1 6 .3 B a la n ced D r a u g h t
T he bala n c e d d ra u g h t is a co m b in a tio n o f both forced and in d u c e d d ra u g h t system s. It is
preferable as it o v e rc o m e s the d ifficulties o f individual system s. D u e to negative pressure inside
the furnace in ind uced system , du rin g firing or inspection, the c o ld air rush into the furnace
diluting the co m b u stio n process.
Fig. 3.32 (a) Balanced draught

Outlet pressure
of forced fan
Outlet pressur
Fig. 3.32 (b) Balanced draught - Pressure distribution graph
In forced d ra ug ht sy ste m due to positive pre ssu re inside the furnace, the hot and high
pressure gases rushes out and effects the com bustion.
These difficulties can be o v e rc o m ed by using both the sy stem s sim ultaneou sly . T h e forced
draught overcom es the fuel bed resistance and allow s sufficient air to the fuel bed for prop er and
complete com bustion. T h e induced drau gh t rem oves the g ases from the furn ace m aintaining low
pressure than the atm o sp h e ric pressure. T his show s that w ith the bala n c e d drau gh t there is no
danger o f leakage into the sytem due to negative pressure and no b lo w -o ff o f flam es (hot gases)
due to positive pressure d u rin g firing and inspection. Fig. 3.32 (a) and Fig. 3.32 (b) show s the
general arrang em en t o f ba la n c e d drau ght system and the pressure distribution in this system
respectively.
T he pressure o f air below the grate is above the a tm osp heric p ressu re and helps in u n iform
combustion. T h e p ressu re o f air above the grate is belo w the atm o sp h e ric p ressu re and helps to
remove exhaust gases in less time.
3.16.4 A d v a n ta g es o f m ech a n ica l d ra u g h t o v er n atu ral d ra u g h t

1. A vailable d ra u gh t is m o re and hence the rate o f c o m b u stio n is high.
2. Better m ixing o f air with fuel. T herefore q ua ntity o f air r e q u ire d for c o m b u stio n is
less.
3. Low grade fuels can be used effectively.
4. N a t u r a l d r a u g h t d e p e n d s on a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t o n s ( t e m p e r a t u r e ) w h e r e as
m echanical draug ht in independent o f a tm osp heric tem perature.
5. N o sm ok e form ation during c om bustion b ecause o f p ro p e r m ixing.
6. In natural d ra u g h t the h eigh t o f chim ney c an no t be altered but in m echanical draught -1

the c h im n e y he ight can be changed.
CO M BU STIO N PROCESS 97
' 7. In balanced d ra u g h t the therm al efficien cy can be in c re a se d b e c a u se the exhaust

gases can be c o o le d to the lo w est tem pe ra tu re b efo re e xhaust. T h is is not possible
^ in natural d ra u g h t be c a u se it m ainly d e p e n d s on a tm o sp h e ric co nditions.
8. T h e e ffic ie n cy o f m ech anical d rau g h t is arou nd 7% c o m p a re d to natural draught

w h ic h is a ro u n d 1%.
3.16.5 S tea m J e t D r a u g h t
It m ay be in d u c e d or forced draug ht d ep end in g u po n the lo c a tio n o f s team je t producing
the draught.
T he fig. 3.33 show s the in d u c e d c o n c e p t in steam je t d r a u g h t s y s te m . E xh au st steam
enters through the nozzle into sm o k e box creating draught. T he air is in d u c e d through the grate
into sm oke box. Fig. 3.34 sh o w s the c o n c e p t o f forced steam je t drau gh t sy ste m . It is adopted if
high-pressure steam is available.
T h e steam c o m in g out o f nozzle projects into d iffu se r pipe. T h e steam c o m e s out with
great velocity from nozzle an d drags the air along w ith it a llow ing fresh air to enter. T h e air and
steam mixture possesses high kinetic energy w hich get con v e rte d into pressure e nerg y and thus
the air is forced through coal bed and flow s to the chim ney.
jStack
Exhaust steam frfom

steam engine
Fig. 3.33 Induced Steam Jet Draught

Stsam
Fig. 3.34 Forced S team Je t Draught

3.17 C O O L IN G T O W E R S
3.17.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
A cooling to w e r coo ls w ater by c ontacting it with air and e v a p o ra tin g so m e o f the water.
The concept is to reject heat to am b ient air through direct c ontact w ith water, in w hich a co m bined
heat and man tran sfer p ro cess takes place. Several cooling tow ers in vo lv es one or m o re p ropeller
or centrifugal fans w hich m oves air vertically up or horizo ntally th ro ug h the tower.
A large surface area o f w ater is provided by spraying the w a te r th ro ug h nozzles o r splashing

the w ater dow n the to w er from one baffle to another. A co o lin g to w e r c o n fig u ra tio n used for
large capacity pow e r plant ap plications is the hyperbo lic shape, w hich re se m b le s a ch im n e y
50 to 100 m high in w hich the flow o f air takes place by natural conv ectio n.
T h e perform an ce o f co o lin g to w e rs is often expressed in term s o f ’range' and 'a p p ro a c h ’.

The range is the reduction in t e m peratu re of the w ater th rough the cooling"tovêr. T h e a p p ro ach
is the difference betw een the n e t-b u lb-tem perature o f the e ntering air and te m p e ratu re o f the
leaving air. The sm aller the approaclTthe m ore efficient the tower.
A cooling tow er is a m a ssiv e structure m ade o f w ood en steel, or c o n c re te structure inside

which there is an a rra n g e m en t o f baffles, perforated trays etc. T h is a rra n g e m e n t helps in uniform
distribution and b etter atom ization o f w ater in the tower. Hot w ater is fed to the tow er on the top
while air travels up from the bottom . D rift elim ination at the top are used to p revent the w ater
particles from going out o f the tower. D rift elim in a to r is o f sim ple c o n stru c tio n o f w here som e
blades are placed inclined to each oth er providing zig-zag path for air stream . M ake up w ater
must be added continuo usly to replace the lost w ater by e v ap oratio n. T o p re v en t corrosion,
algae grow th the should be treated before using.
3.17.2 C la s s if ic a tio n o f C o o lin g T o w e r s

Cooling tow'ers aio bro ad ly classified into two types based on the material used for the
construction and type o f draft induced.
3.17.2.1 N a t u r a l D r a f t C o o lin g T o w e r s
H y p e r b o lic C o o lin g to w e r s
T he general arrangem ent o f hyperbo lic coolin g to w er is sh ow n in fig. 3.35. It c o n stru c tio n
is sim ple with a height o f around 100 m and it has m inim u m d iam e te r o f 40 m a n d m a x im u m
diameter o f 80 m.
T he operation is sim ple sim ilar to natural draft co olin g tow ers. T h e to w e r co n sists of
smooth reinforced con crete shell (stack) which directed tow ards the vertical axis o f the tow er.
T he shape of the stack is c ircular in plan and hyperbolic in profile.
T he warm w ater w hen sprayed breaks and ex po se m a x im u m area for h e at transfer. T he

warm air m oves u p w a rd s leaving behind cool water for further use in pow e r plant. T he flow of
air is by c h im n e y actions, w hich driven by the density differen ce b e tw e e n a tm o sp h e re air and the
air inside the tow er w h ich is in hot condition. W hen c o m p are to m e c h a n ic al c o o lin g tow ers the
pressure head differen ce is small in hyperbolic coolin g tow er so the h eigh t o f h yp erbolic cooling
tower should be m ore to create necessary pressure head for flow.
C O M B U STIO N PR O CESS 99
Air out
Drift eliminations
Warm
water
Fig. 3.35 Hyperbolic Cooling Tower
A d v a n ta g es
1. N o auxiliary e q u ip m e n t like fans, so less p o w e r cost and also low operating and
m ain tenan ce costs.
2. It creates ow n draft due to ch im n e y effect, a ssuring effic ie nt o p e ra tio n even when

there is no wind.
3. C o o lin g ca p ac ity o f h yp erbo lic to w e r is quite c o m p a ra b le w ith that o f multicell

installatio n o f in d u c e d d ra ft tow ers.
4. L ittle e n la rg e d section at the top allow s w ater to fall o u t o f suspension.
1. 'H ig h initial cost.
2. I t m a i n l y d e p e n d s o n a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s i.e . t e m p e r a t u r e , ( D ry B ulb
T e m p e ra tu re ) hum id ity (R elative H um idity) etc.
A tm o sp h e r ic C o o lin g T o w ers (Natural D raft C o o lin g T o w e rs)

A tm o s p h e r ic c o o lin g to w e rs are also c a lle d as n a tu ra l dra ft c o o lin g to w er. A tm ospheric
coolin g to w e r m a y be o f w ith o u t p a c k in g typ e or w ith p a c k in g sh o w n in fig. 3.36 (a) and
Fig. 3.36 (b) r e s p e c tiv e ly .
A tm o sph eric co o lin g to w e rs have sides fitted w ith leaves as sh o w n in figure, for air flow.
The air enters th ro ug h the leav es sides and flow s across the se c tio n in transv erse direction. The
(yrculation o f air is in h orizon tal direction.
T hese are b e st s u ite d fo r p la c e s w h e re w ind v e lo c ity is c o n s ta n t. T h e c a p a c ity o f this

tower va rie s fr o m 5 0 to 100 litre s p e r m in u te p e r m 2 o f ba se a r e a d e p e n d i n g u p o n th e velocity
o f air.
Similarly in p a c k e d type tow e r som e packing bed s are a rran g e d inside w h ic h breaks the
water into sm all d ro p le ts e x p o sin g large surface area for heat tra n sfe r refer fig. 3.36 (b).
^ ^ ^ ItjM*"
tfSJStZR
■jN
vVi*rf*-
COT
^ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZA
Fig. 3.36 (a) Atmospheric cooling tower Fig. 3.36 (in) Atmospheric cooling tower
(without packing beds) (with packing beds)
3.17.2.2 M ech a n ica l D ra ft C o o lin g T o w ers

As the po w e r plant capacity in creases the quantity o f co o lin g w ater also increases. To
attain these req uirem ents m echanical draft cooling towers are used instead o f natural draft coo ling
towers. It is b e ca u se m echanical draft tow ers are o f high efficiency and occu py less space.
M echanical draft cooling tow ers em ploy s propeller fans to produ ce d ra u g h t o f air. These
are broadly catego rised into forced draft, induced draft and cross flow c o o lin g towers.
F orced D ra ft C o olin g T ow er
Sim ple a rra n g e m en t o f forced draft cooling tow e r is sho w n in fig. 3.37.
T h e in te rio r c o n s tru c tio n is sim ila r to that o f natural c o o lin g to w e r, but the sid es arc
closed c o m p le te ly (air and w ater tight structure) ex c e p t at the base w h e re fre sh a ir o p e n in g is
placed. A fan is lo c a te d at the base o f the to w e r and air is blow n by the fan up th ro ug h the
desc e n d in g water.
Drift elim ination is used at the top to prevent the w ater from e s ca p in g into atm osphere.
C ross flow C o o lin g T o w e r (In d u ced D ra ft)

T he arra ng em en t o f cross flow coolin g to w e r is sh ow n in fig. 3.39. It is also a type o f -
induced draft coo ling tower. In this to w er the ind uced fan separates the entire section o f cooling
tow er into two cells. T h e drift e lim ina tion in this to w e r drives the air to w a rd s outlet fan as
shown in the figure. S im ila r to the other tow ers the w a ter falls dow n the to w e r in the form of
small drops o ver packings.
Ill
Warm water In
Air In
&
' Z& 2Z. / / - : -C old w ater out
Fig. 3.39 Cross Flow Cooling Tower
3.1 8 FEED W A TER TR EA TM EN T

3.1 8 .1 In tro d u ctio n
N atural w ater can n o t be used for steam generation in the b o ile r b ecau se it co n ta in s solid,
liquid and gaseou s im purities. For steam gen eration these im p urities m ust be rem oved.
Fig. 3.40 Layout of water softening plant

C ross flo w C o o lin g T o w e r (In d u ced D ra ft)

T h e a r ra n g e m en t o f cross flow co olin g tow er is sh o w n in fig. 3.39. It is also a type of-*
induced draft co o lin g tow er. In this to w e r the in du ced fan separates the entire section o f cooling
tow er into tw o cells. T h e drift elim ination in this to w e r drives the air tow ards outlet fan as
show n in the figure. S im ila r to the o th e r to w ers the w a te r falls d ow n the to w e r in the form of
small drops o v e r packings.
Warm water In
Air in
Air In
\
Cold w ater out
Fig. 3.39 Cross Flow Cooling Tower
3 .18 FEED W A TER T R E A T M E N T

3.18.1 In tro d u ctio n
N atural w a te r c a n n o t be used for steam gen eration in the b o ile r b ecause it co n ta in s solid,
liquid and g aseous im purities. For steam generation these im p urities m ust be rem o ved.
Fig. 3.40 Layout of water softening plant

CO M BU STIO N PROCESS 103
For high pressure b oilers it is must to re m o v e these im p urities b e c a u s e once the water
C e n te rs the b oiler th e im p urities cause erosion an d corro sio n o f bo iler tubes, turb in e blades and
condenser tubes. S o m e tim es even they block the tubes and resu lts in failure o f bo iler due to
over heating (explosion).
T o c o m p e n s a te the loss o f w o rk in g fluid (during b lo w d o w n and le a k a g e s etc.) external

water is used called "m ake up" water. T h e loss m ay varies upto 5% .
D ifferen t types o f w a te r so fte n in g plants (m eth ods) are u sed for fe e d w ater treatm ent based
on availability, e c o n o m y and efficien cy o f the soften er in attaining this o bjective. General layout
of softening p la n t is sh o w n in fig. 3.40.
3.18.2 Im p u rities in w a ter

M ainly the im p u ritie s in the w a te r d e p e n d s on the so u rc e o f w a te r a v a ila b le like well
water, lake water, river water, m unicipal water. In selecting the type o f treatm ent the first step is
survey o f these so u rc e s o f water. T h e m ain im p urities presen t in feed w a te r are
1. U n d isso lv ed and su sp e n d e d solid m aterials.
2. D issolve d salts and m inerals.
3. D issolved gases.
V 4. O th er m aterials like oils, acids.
T u rb u d ity and S ed im en t
S odium and P otassium salts
C h lo rid e s
U n d isso lv ed and Iron
su sp en d ed solids
M an g an ese
S ilica
B iological grow th
C o lo u r
Im purities D isso lv ed sa lts and m inerals • C a lc iu m and M agnesium salts.
O x y g en ,
D isso lv ed gases. C a rb o n d io x id e .
H ,S , C H ,, N2> etc..
F ree m in eral acid

O th er m aterials
V. Oil
Im p u ritie s E x is te n c e a n d e f f e c t s
U ndissolved and T u rb u d ity & T h is includes m ud, sand etc. P a rtic le s, W hich se ttle dow n
S u sp en d ed m aterials S ed im en t rapidly. T hese can be rem o v ed by c o a g u la tio n and A ltera
tion. T h eir presence resu lts in hard sto n e y sc ale d ep o sits
on heating surface.
S odium & E xtrem ely so lu b le in w ater and form s d ep o sits at high

P o tassiu m salts con cen tratio n s. A ccelerates the co rro sio n due to alk alin e in nature.
C h lo rid e s A cce le rates the corrosive action in w ater.
Iron It is in the form o f ferrous b icarb o n ate. It form s ferric

h ydroxide w hen exposed to air resu lts in scale form ation
and also acce le rates co rro sio n s.
M a n g an ese acce le rates co rro siv e actio n sim ila r to iron.
S ilica It form s very hard scale in b o iler and tu rb in e deposits

w hich are highly o b jectio n ab le.
B io lo g ical T his includes diatons, m olds, algae e tc .. R e su lts in c o a t

g ro w th ing on heat ex ch an g e r and clog the flo w p assag es.
C o lo u r It is m ainly due to d ecaying veg etatio n . It ca u se s foam ing

in boilers. It c a n 'b e rem oved by c h lo rin a tio n .
D issolved salts & C alcium and T hese salts are in th e form o f b icarb o n ates, carb o n ates.
M in erals M ag n esiu m S ulphate and chlorides. T h e ir p resen c e is d eterm in ed by
S alts the h ardness o f w ater. S ec section.
D issolved gases O xygen It is co rro siv e to iron, zinc, brass etc. Its p resen c e is highly
o b jectio n alb le because it causes co rrosion and pittin g o f w ater
lines, b o ilers and heat ex ch an g e r. Its effe cts acce le rates at
high tem peratures.
C arbon It acce le rates the co rro siv e actio n o f oxygen.
h 2s , n , , c h 4... T hese g ases p resent in w ater in neg lig ib le percen tag es.
O ther M aterials ; M ineral acid E xists in th e form o f H2S 0 4, HC1, they cause the co rro sio n
and can be rem oved by sim ple n eu tralizatio n .
oil O il is m ainly d u e to lu b ricatio n resu lts in sludge, scaling,

and foam ing in boilers. It can be rem oved sim p ly by
using strain ers and baffle se p ara tio n .
3-18.3 H a rd n ess o f w ater

T he hardness o f w ater is m ainly due to the p resen ce o f c a lc iu m and m ag n e siu m salts.
T hey exists in the form o f carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, c h lo rid e s and nitrates. This
hardness is b ro a dly c a te g o riz e d into tw o types n am ely te m p o ra ry h a rd n e ss and p e rm a n e n t
h a rdness. T he tem p orary hardness is m ainly due to bicarbonates o f ca lc iu m and m agnesium and
can be re m o v e d by boiling. T he boiling co nverts the soluble b ic arb o n a te s into less soluble
carbonates w hich can be rem ov ed by b low dow n method.
T he p e rm a n e n t h ardness is m ainly due to the p resen ce o f ch lo rides, nitrates and sulphates.
They can n o t be r e m o v e d by sim ple boilin g pro cess as they form hard scales on boiling surface.
So, these are rem o v e d by using 'soda-ash' treatm ent and p h o sp h ate treatm ent.
3 .18.4 E ffects o f Im p u r itie s

T he m ain effects o f im purities are
1. Scale fo rm ation
2. C orro sio n
3. F o a m in g
4. C austic em b rittle m e n t
5. C arry o ver and prim ing
3 .1 8.4.1 S ca le fo rm a tio n
W hen feed w a te r c o n ta in in g im pu rities in d issolved and su s p e n d e d form, used for steam
generation it results in solid c o n c e n tra te in the re m ain in g w ater. It is d u e to e v ap ora tion o f water
(steam). The solubility o f salts like calcium sulphate decreases with tem perature so scale formation
tendency increases w ith increase in feed w ater tem perature.
F or e xa m p le C a S 0 4 has solubility o f 3200 p pm at 15°C and

55 p p m at 230°C.
T he bicarb o n a tes o f calcium and m a g ne siu m will be brok en d o w n at a tem perature of

100°C and form inso lu ble m o no ca rbo na te s alo ng w ith C O ,.
Heat
C a (HCOo) ■— » C a C O .I + C O , t + H , 0
3 100°C 2 2
(Sludge)
Heat
7
M S( H C 0 3)2 ■ ^ * M g C O a i+ C O ,! + H 20
i (Sludge)
The less so lu ble salts o f C a and M g will settle d ow n in the b o iler and can be removed
periodically' & C 0 2 is ca rrie d aw a y w ith steam. T h e scale fo rm a tio n is very severe in high
pressure boiler b ec a u se o f high te m p e ra tu re w hich increases the rate o f c h e m ic a l reaction. So
always high purity w ater is used for high p ressure boilers.
3.18.4.2 C orrosion
It is an eating aw ay pro ce ss o f a metal. It is the m ain re a so n for deterioration and failure
o f the equipment. T h e co rro siv e action is m ainly du e to low pH v alue o f water and acids. The
presence of ox ygen and C 0 2 also accelerates the c orrosive action. The q ua ntity o f 0 2 should not
exceed 0.5 cc per litre an d it varies w ith acidity o f the water.
106 POWER P L A N T EN G IN EE R IN G
T he 0 9 m ainly c o m e s from leakages, m ake up water, c o n d e n sa te etc. and the C O , comes

out directly from bic a rb on a te s.
On h eating the bica rb o n a te s with water, it form carbon ic acid lib e ratin g C 0 2. T h e carbonic
acid further reacts w ith m etals and results in new bicarbonates.
T h e effect o f C 0 2 is n e u tra liz e d by the addition o f NH-, or any n e u tra lisin g am ine to
water. T h e m ain effect o f C 0 2 is, it redu ces the pH value o f water.
T h e O , can be r e m o v e d by m ec h an ic al de a re a tio n w ith a gents like sod iu m sulphates,

h ydrazine and tanin.
T he c orrosion cau ses pitting and gro oving on metal su rfaces re d u c in g the strength of the
metal. G enerally by a p p ly in g pro tectiv e coating o f 'am ines' on m etal s u rfa ce the corrosion can
be prevented to the m a x im u m extent.
3 .1 8 .4 .3 P rim in g - F o a m in g - C a rry -o v er
'C arry o v e r (p rim in g or fo am ing ) is the passin g o f sm all w a ter p a rtic le s w ith steam as it
leaves the boiler. All these three term s are closely related. F o a m in g and p rim in g o f the boiler
w ater form s the carry over. In fo a m in g b ubb les form on the w a te r su rfa c e du e to the presence of
sodium alkalinity o r oil or c alc iu m phosphate. In prim ing it refers to v ig o ro u s and periodic
surging o f boiler w ater in th e boiler drum w hich throw s sm all w a te r p articles into leaving steam.
T his is m ainly due to im p ro p e r boiler design, im p ro p e r firing, o v e r loa d in g or load fluctuations.
T his carry ov er results in form ation o f de posits w hich re d u c e s the he a t tra n sfe r {i.e. in super
heater) and also on turbine blades.
P rev en tio n
1. M ake sure that bo iler w ater is free from soap, oil and o th e r su sp e n d ed impurities.
2. V alves sho uld not be o p e ne d suddenly.
3. P ro p e r w ater level sh ould be m aintained.
3 .1 8 .4 .4 C a u stic E m b r ittle m e n t
W hen a b o iler is subjected to a c om bina tio n o f stress and h ighly a lk alin e w ater som e inner
crystalline cracks may get induced into it.
"The ca u stic e m b rittle m e n t is the w eakening o f b o ile r ste e l as a re su lt o f in n e r crystalline
cracks."
W hen the feed w ater is rich in alkalinity (N aO H ) and silica, it w a s f o u n d that presence of
sodium hyd rox id e causes e m brittlem ent.
C a u ses fo r e m b rittlem en t
1. B o iler w a te r leakages th rough cracks.
2. Faulty riv etin g and im p ro per alignment.
The e m b rittle m e n t can be red uced to a m a x im u m ex te n t by re d u c in g the causticity i.e.
V reducing N aO H . T h is can be d on e by using phosphates. P h o sp h a te c on trols the pH value of
water so that any d e p o site d solid m aterial is a trisod iu m p h o sp h a te but not free NaO H . Even
NaOH concentratio n can be m ain tain ed within the lim its by using c h e m ic a ls like sulphate liquor,
and sodium - nitrate, to e lim in a te em b rittlem ent.
3.18.5 In tern a l B o ile r W a ter T r e a tm e n t (S ca le p rev en tio n )

W ater treatm ent with in the boiler during evaporation is usually k n o w n as internal treatment.
T h e internal treatm en t deals with adjusting b oiler w ater c h em ic a lly to prevent the ill effects
of im purities in water, (like scale form ation, co rro sion , e m b rittle m e n t etc.).
It em p lo ys a d d in g o f c h e m ic als to the b o ile r w ater either to p recip itate the im purities or to

convert into harm less salts. T he p recipitate form ed can be re m o v e d in the form o f sludge. The
amount o f additives (ch em icals) d e pe nd s on type o f w ater and o p e ra tin g cond itions.
Im p u rities (C o m p o u n d s) T reatin g C hem icals S lu d g e
C a(H C O ,) 1. N aO H C au stic S oda 1. CaCO-j - C a lc iu m C arbonate

C alcium B icarb o n ate 2. P hosphates 2. T ricalciu m P hosphate
C alcium S u lp h ate 1. N aOH - C au stic Soda 1. C a C O j - C a lc iu m C arbonate

2. P hosphates 2. T ricalciu m pho sp h ate
M agnesium S u lp h ate 1. N aO H - C au stic S oda 1. M ag n esiu m hydro x id e
The above table gives the data o f different types o f treating c h e m ic a ls used and various
sludges formed.
Soda A sh tr e a tm e n t
It is also called as so d iu m c a rb o n a te trea tm en t. This tre atm en t is used to re m o v e sulphate
hardness.
The added sodium c arb on ate, N a 2C 0 3 react with c alcium and m a g n e s iu m sulphates giving
Ca & Mg carbonates.
C a S 0 4 + N a2C 0 3 —> C a C 0 3 4, N a2 S 0 4 ......(1)

(In so lu b le )
Also N a 2C 0 3 reacts w ith w a te r at high te m p e r a tu r e & p re s s u r e to form caustic soda,

liberating C O 0.
Heat
N a 2C 0 3 + 2 H 20 >N aO H +H 20 + C O , f (2)
J08 POWER P L A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
The N aO H fo rm e d in eq. (2) reacts with soluble m ag n e siu m su lphate to form m a gn esium
hydroxide.
M g S 0 4 + 2NaOH -> M g (O H )2 J, + N a 2S 0 4 (3)
T h e main disadv antag e o f this treatm ent is C 0 2 fo rm ation , w hich d e c re a se s the pH value
(due to form ation o f carb on ic acid), b ecause low pH values accelerates co rro siv e action.
Generally it is used fo r low pressu re boilers and proves ec o n o m ic a l fo r w a te r o f high

hardness and high alkalinity.
B low dow n sy stem s

This is one of the internal boiler w ater treatm ent m ethod for scale prevention. All disso lv ed
and suspended solids in the bo iler w ater will rem ain in the tubes an d drum s as steam is g enerated.
(Due to evaporation). M a k e up w ater w ith im purities increase the solid c o n c e n tra tio n in the
boiler drum. The solids c a n n o t be allow ed b e yo nd certain limit. T he total dissolved solids will
produce foaming and carry o ver if allow ed to cross the high er limit.
W hen an internal m e th o d is used the salts fo rm ing scales are conv e rted into sludge. The
concentration and p re c ip ita te o f the salts in the boiler w a te r is r e m o v e d by b lo w in g -o ff the
concentrated boiling water. T he concentration is k ep t w ithin the safe limits by a dding fresh V
make up water. This process is called blow ing dow n and d isc h a rg e d w ater is ca lle d blow dow n.
The amount o f blo w d o w n being g ov erned by the a llow able solids concen tration and purity o f the
feed water. It is usually ex p resse d in percentage.
_ , Quantity of water blown from the vessel

% B lo w d o w n = — x 100
Quantity of feed water
This process is o f tw o types
(i) Interm ittent b lo w d o w n and

(ii) C o ntin uo us b lo w d o w n system
In term itten t B lo w d o w n
>
It is a periodic process carried out m anually. A special type o f b lo w o f f valve located at
the lowest point o f c irculation system (i.e. botto m level) is o pe n e d m a n u a lly and accumulated
sludge is rem oved. It is d one for ev ery 4 to 8 hours.
1. C o nsid e ra b le am oun t o f heat energy is carried aw ay with b lo w d o w n (i.e. heat loss).
2 Im p ro p e r h and ling results in prim ing, foam in g and carry over.
3. Irregular control over b oiler w ater concentration.
C O M B U S T IO N PR O C ESS 109
C o n tin u o u s B lo w d o w n sy stem s
T h is sy stem is g e n e ra lly a d o p ted to o v erco m e the d ra w b ac k s o f in te rm itten t process.
C o n tin u o u s b lo w d o w n p ro c e ss is ca te g o riz ed into tw o types nam ely

(i) N o n -fla sh system .
(ij) Flash sy stem .
A d v a n ta g e s
1. It w ill m ain tain re la tiv e ly c o n sta n t c o n ce n tra tio n .
2. N o d a n g e r o f in c re a sin g solid c o n te n t abo v e the d a n g e r lim it.
3. H eat is c a rrie d aw ay w ith b low dow n is rec o v ered by usin g heat exchanges. This
heat m ay be used in pre h eatin g feed w ater before e n te rin g into the boiler.
N o n -F la sh B lo w d o w n sy stem
T h e sch e m a tic arra n g e m en t o f non flash system is show n in fig. 3.41.
Feed water
1 To drain
Fig. 3.41 Non-flash blowdown system
condensate
- It is u sed fo r low c a p a c ity low p re ssu re b o ile rs

B lo w d o w n ra te s are low .
F lash S y stem
T he sch em atic a rra n g e m en t is sh o w n in the fig. 3.42.
T h e b lo w d o w n is firs t fla sh e d in the flash c h a m b er re su ltin g fla sh steam . T his flash steam
used in p re h e a tin g fe e d w ater v ery eco n o m ic ally . B ased on the c a p ac ity o f the boilers the
1 10 POW ER PLA N T E N G IN EE R IN G
num ber o f flash tan k s m ay be ad ded in series. T h e re m ain in g p o rtio n o f b lo w d o w n is cooled in

heat exch an g er by usin g cold w ater. T h is is very, e co n o m ical for high p re ssu re b o ilers.
Blow down
To drain
Fig. 3.42 Flash blowdown system
3.18.6 E xtern al W a ter T r e a tm e n t

E x te rn a l w a te r tre a tm e n t is m u st w h e n e v e r w a te r c o n ta in s c o n s id e ra b le q u a n tity o f
suspended and d isso lv ed so lid m aterial. T h e type o f tre a tm e n t m ain ly d e p en d s on w h eth er the
solid m aterial is in su sp en sio n sta te or d isso lv ed state and type o f d isso lv e d m aterial i.e. e ith e r
gases or solids).
Im purities T ypes T ype o f T reatm ent Equipm ent / Process
Suspended Solid M echanical tre a tm e n t Pressure filte rs , g ra v ity filte rs ,

1. S e d im e n ta tio n h o riz o n ta l filte rs , tu b u la r filte rs ,
2. F ilte ra tio n tu b u la r filte rs , c a trid g e ty p e filte rs .
\
Dissolved solids Chemical tre a tm e n t' 1. Hot-lim e soda process
1. Hot lime 2. Ion - exchange or zeo lite process.
2. Ion-exchange or 3. Demineralizing (Catexer-Anexer)
Zeolite process > 4. Evaporators
Dissolved gases Thermal Treatment Dearators
Treatment 1. Seam dearator
(100 to 110°C) 2. Forced d ra ft degasifiers
R em oval o f S u sp en d ed S o lid s
T he su sp en d ed so lid m a te ria ls are u su ally rem o v ed by m ec h a n ical m eth o d s like
1. S e d im e n ta tio n
2. F iltra tio n .
C O M B U ST IO N PRO CESS 111
S e d im e n ta tio n
In s e d im e n ta tio n p ro c e ss w a te r is a llo w e d to s ta n d -s till in big ta n k s o r w ate r is allow ed
"to How at a v ery low v e lo c ity . D u rin g th is p ro c e ss the so lid m a tte r se ttle s d o w n due to gravity
and it is re m o v e d e ith e r p e rio d ic a lly o r c o n tin u o u sly . T h e c le a n w a te r is c o lle c te d from the
tan k su rfa c e .
T h e settlin g p ro cess is ac c e lera te d by ad d in g co a g u la n t m a te ria ls like alum inium sulphate

or so d iu m a lu m in a te.
F iltr a tio n
T h is filte ra tio n p ro cess is ad o p ted w h en ev er the su sp en d ed so lid s ca n n o t be rem oved with
filtra tio n p ro cess. D iffe re n t ty p e s o f filte rs are used in this p ro c e ss to n am e a few like pressure
filters, g rav ity filte rs, h o riz o n ta l filte rs etc. P ressu re filters show in fig. 3.43 are g enerally used.
In th is m eth o d th e w ater is allo w ed to pass through a bed o f fiv e sa n d (~ 30 cm thick) and

then a lay er o f g rav el (~ 30 cm th ick ) re fe r fig u re. T h e deg ree o f filtra tio n m a in ly depends on
fitn ess o f filte ra tio n m ed ia. T h e su sp en d ed m a tter ad h eres to the filte r m a teria l leaving clear
w ater as it d ra in s from the b o tto m . T h e filte r beds are clean ed p e rio d ic a lly to rem ove the dirt
collected in the v oids ot filte r m aterial. In g rav ity filte r the w ater flo w s by g ra v ity and in the
case o f p ressu re filte rs w ater is fo rced th ro u g h the beds by m eans o f a pum p.
0 1
r
water
Filtered
water
out let
<g>
Backward
Filtered water supply
to waste
Fig. 3.43 P re ssu re filter

112 POW ER PL A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
R em o v a l o f D isso lv e d G a ses
T he p ro cess o f re m o v in g th e d isso lv e d g ases is know n as d e ae ra tio n . T h e w a te r g en erally
contains oxyg en , c a rb o n d io x id e , H 2S. T h is is a th erm al tre a tm e n t p ro ce ss, w h e re d e a e ra tin g
heaters are used. It is b a se d on th e p rin c ip le that th e gas a b so rb in g c a p a c ity o f w a te r d e cre ases
at higher te m p e ra tu res. T h e re m o v a l o f d isso lv e d g ases is a c c o m p lish e d by h e a tin g the w ater to
a tem perature o f 100 to 1 10°C w ith little ag itatio n . T h e re are d iffe re n t ty p e s o f d e a e ra to rs nam ely
steam d eaerato r, fo rc e d d ra ft d e g a sifie rs, c o k e tray aerato rs etc.
Fig. 3 .4 4 sh o w s tray type d eaerato r. T h e raw w ater to be d e a e ra te d is first p a sse d th ro u g h

the vent c o n d e n se r and la te r it is sp ra y e d u p w a rd s in a sp ray d istrib u te r.
Vent
Fig. 3.44 Tray type deaerator
T he sp ray ed w ater falls in the form o f u n ifo rm sh o w ers o v er an e n tire w id th o f h eating

trays and a ir se p a ra tin g trays and fin ally g ets c o llected in the sto rag e sp ace o f the d ea rato r. T he
steam en ters th e h e a lth zone th ro u g h a sid e n o zzle and fills the e n tire sp ace. T h e stea m m akes its
way d o w n w ard s th ro u g h the p erfo ratio n in the top p late o f tray c o m p a rtm e n t. D u rin g this pro cess
the steam c o n d e n se s in b etw een the spray and h eatin g trays. T h e re le a se d a ir and a p art o f the
steam is v ented o u t in th e v ent co n d en ser.
By this m eth o d the o x y g en co n ten t can be red uced b elo w 0.005 C O p er litre. F o r this
process steam fo r h e a tin g is o b tain ed from any source.
C O M B U ST IO N P R O C E SS 113
R em oval o f D isso lv e d S o lid s
The d isso lv ed so lid s are effe c tiv ely rem o v ed by c h em ical treatm ent. D ifferent ty p es o f
^ te m ic a l treatm en t p ro cess are
1. H ot - lim e so d a ash p rocess.
2. Ion e x c h a n g e p ro cess o r ze o lite pro cess.
s
H ot lim e [C a(O H )2] - Soda ash [N a2C 0 3] P ro cess
In this lim e-so d a so ften in g p ro cess calciu m h y d roxide (line, C a (O H 2] and sodium carbonate
(soda ash (N a2C 0 3] are the tre a tin g elem en ts. T h ese e lem en ts rea d ily re a c t w ith all types of
calcium and m ag n esiu m sa lts and rem o v e them by p re c ip ita tio n . T h is p ro cess is g en erally carried
out at a tem p o f 100° o f th e w ater. If this p ro cess takes p lace at lo w tem p , it is c alled cold-lim e
so ften in g pro cess.
T yp ical r e a c tio n s o f th is p ro cess

R em o v in g c a rb o n a te h ard n ess using lim e (C aC O H )2)
C a ( H C 0 3)2 + C a (O H )2 2 C a C 0 3 I + 2 H 20
M g ( H C 0 3)2 + 2 C a (O H )2 -> 2 C a(O H )2 _ » ‘2 C a C 0 3 4 ,M g (O H )2 + 2 H 20 (2)
R em oving su lp h a te h ard n ess using soda ash.
C a ( S 0 4) + N a 2C 0 3 -> C aC 03 J, + N a 2S 0 4 (3)
M gS04 + N a2C 0 3 -> M gC 03 | + N a2S 0 4 (4)
R em oval o f c h lo r id e h a rd n ess by sod a a n d lim e
C a C l2 + N a2C 03 C aC 03 I + 2N aC l (5)
M g C l2 ; + C a (O H )2 -> M g (O H )2 | + C aC I2 (6)
T he m ag n esiu m c a rb o n a te o b tain ed in e g .(4) again reacts w ith lim e C a (O H )2 and gives

m agnesium hydro x id e.
M g C 0 3 + C a (O H )2 -* N g (O H )2 J, + C a C 0 3 4 (7)
M ag n esiu m h y d ro x id e is a c o a g u la n t and h elp s in rap id p re c ip ita tio n . M g (O H )2 absorbs

the silica very effectiv ely .
E ven som e tim es c a u stic soda and triso d iu m p h o sp h a te, (N a 3P 0 4) is u sed along w ith soda
are line to so ften in g p ro cess.
R eaction
R em o v es o f c a rb o n a te h arn ess by c au stic soda
3 C a (H C 0 3)2 + 6 N aO H - » 3 C a C 0 3 1 + 3N a2C 0 3 + 6 H 2) 8
M g ( H C 0 3)2 + 4 N aO H -> M g (O H )2 J, + 2 N a 2C 0 3 + 2 H 20 - 9
R em oval o f su lp h ate h ard n ess by triso d iu m p h o sp h ate
3C aS04 + 2 N a 3P 0 4 C a 3( P 0 4)2 + 3 N a2S 0 4 - 10
3 M gS04 + 2 N a 3P 0 4 -> M g 3( P 0 4)2 + 3 N a2S 0 4 - 11
T he arrow p o in tin g d o w n w ard s show s th e p re c ip ita tio n , th a t can b e re m o v ed le av in g

clean w ater.
A d v a n ta g es
1. S ilica c o m p o u n d s are e ffe c tiv ely rem oved.
2. M ore co m p a c t eq u ip m en t.
1. T he so ftn ess p ro d u c e d by th is m ethod is n o t good as by z e o lite p ro cess.
2. M ain tain in g h o t p ro cess is very d iffic u lt (co n tro llin g ).
3. R em oval o f p re c ip ita te fo rm ed is very difficu lt.
Io n -ex ch a n g e or z e o lite p r o c e ss
T h ese are tw o ty p es o f z e o lite p ro cess are th ere
(i) S o d iu m zeo lite p ro cess
(ii) H y d ro g en ze o lite p ro cess
The im p u rities in w ater d isin te g ra te s fo rm in g p o sitiv e ly and n e g ativ e ly ch a rg e d ion. T he

positive p article is called as C ation and n eg a tiv e ion is called A nion.
S om e m a te ria ls h a v e th e ion e x c h a n g e a b ility h elp s in s tro n g re g e n e ra tiv e so lu tio n ,

called zeolite, e.g. so d iu m zeo lite N a2 (A l2S i20 2). T his can be w ritten as N aZ . Z is a sym bol
used for zeo lite.
S od iu m z e o lite P rocess
The zeo lites are solid m aterials w ith sandy tex ture and com plex chem ical structure. Z eolites
rem ove d iffe re n t io n s from th e w ater and replace them e q u ally w ith o th e r ions o f lik e charge.
Sodium z e o lite so ftn e r resem b les an o rd in ary p re ssu re fitte r. T h e so ftw a re co m p rises a
zeolite bed su p p o rte d by a la y e r o f grav el lyin g o v er w ater d istrib u tio n and c o lle c tio n systems-*,
fig. 3.45. S h o w s a ty p ical z e o lite softner.
C O M B U ST IO N PR O CESS 115
Raw water
Inlet
Meter
inlet
To waste
Fig. 3.45 Ion exchange system - Zeolite process
R aw w ater e n ters the zeo lite so ftn e r at the top and flow s d o w n w a rd s th ro u g h the bed. In
usual so d iu m zeo lite p ro cess th e sodium o f the so ftening bed re p la c e s the c a lc iu m and m agnesium
(C a and M g in d u ces h a rd n e ss). T h is resu lts in calciu m and m a g n e siu m z e o lite w hite sodium
form salts leav e w ith th e tre a te d w ater
C a ( H C 0 3)2 + N a 2Z C a2 + 2N aH C 03
C aS04 + N a 2Z C a2 + N a2S04
C a C l2 + N a2Z C a2 + 2N aC l
A fte r so m e tim e the w a te r so ften in g cap acity o f z e o lite bed g e t e x h a u ste d and hence it is
n ecessary to re a c tiv a te th e bed.
■T h e ze o lite is re a c tiv a te d b y b ack w ash in g m ethod. F irst the b a ck w ash in g should be done
by p assin g a stro ng w a te r c u rre n t o f w ater u p w ards. A m easu red q u a n tity o f suitable brine is
in jected into the s o ftn e r as sh o w n in the figure. T he co m m o n b rin g so lu tio n used fo r regeneration
are sodium c h lo rid e (N aC l) and c au stic soda (N aO H ).
The salts re a c ts w ith c a lc iu m and m ag n esiu m zeo lite fo rm in g so lu b le c h lo rid e s o f calcium

and m agnesium
C aZ + 2 N aC l ----------- > N a 2Z + C a C l2
C a lc iu m S odium S o d iu m C a lc iu m
z e o lite ch lo rid e zeo lite c h lo rid e
M gZ + 2NaCl N a 2Z M g C l2
M agnesium S odium S odium M a g n esiu m
zeo lite chloride zeo lite c h lo rid e
F ollow ing the reactio n s given ab ove the so d iu m salt (N aC l) re a c tiv a te s the z e o lite bed.
D em in era lisa tio n

D e m en e ra lizin g is also a ty p e o f w a te r tre a tm e n t w h ich u se s a se rie s o f c a tio n an d anion
exch an g ers. T h e m in e ra l c o n te n t o f th e ra w w a te r is e lim in a te d by th e re io n e x c h a n g e s. T h is
is the m ost e c o n o m ic a l an d d e sira b le m eth o d o f p ro d u c in g d is tille d w a te r re q u ire d fo r high
p ressu re b oilers.
Air out
Air blower
~ c— ^ Soft water
Fig. 3.46 Demineralizing Process
Fig. 3.46 show s a ty p ical arran g em en t o f d e m in eraliz in g p ro ce ss sh o w in g catio n , anion,

silica e x ch an g es, and d e g a ssifie r. R aw w ater en ters the h y d ro g en z e o lite ex c h a n g e r at the top
C O M B U S T IO N P R O C E S S Q
and then flo w s to the anion ex c h a n g e r and d e g a ssified and fin a lly passes through silicon ab so rb er
(silic o n e x c h a n g e s). T h e c a tio n s are p o sitiv e io n s o f su b sta n c e s lik e calciu m , m agnesium ,
hydro g en , so d iu m etc. and an io n s are n eg ativ e ions like b ic a rb o n a te s, carbonates, etc.
In catio n e x c h a n g e r h y d ro g e n g et ex ch an g ed w ith C a, M g and N a producing carbonic

acid, su lp h u ric acid and h y d ro c h lo ric acid.
In th e a n io n e x c h a n g e r th e p ro d u c e d H 2S 0 4, HC1 g e t a b s o r b e d p ro d u c in g neutral
w a te r fre e fro m d is s o lv e d s a lts . T h e C 0 2 in th e w a te r is re m o v e d in th e d eg a sifie r. Finally
w a te r is p a s se d th ro u g h s tro n g b a se - a n io n re s in to w e r ( s ilic a a b s o rb e r) w h ic h reduces silica
to 0.0 2 pp m .
l
1. E xplain w ith neat sk etch any th ree ty p es o f b u rn ers used in p u lv e rise d firin g systems.
2. C lassify the d u s t c o lle c to r w ith n eat sketches.
3. D raw a n eat sk etch o f c y clo n e b u rn e r and d esc rib e its w o rk in g . L ist o u t the outstanding
featu res co m p ared w ith o th e r b urners.
■V
4. D efin e co rro sio n . D iscu ss the im p o rtan ce o f pH v alu e in co rrosion.
5. W hat is a co o lin g to w er. D iscu ss re la tiv e a d v an ta g es and d isa d v a n ta g e s o f anyone

co o lin g to w er w ith sketch.
6. W hat are th e d iffe re n t ty p es o f tre a tm e n ts ad opted to rem o v e v a rio u s im purities in

w ater. D iscu ss th erm al treatm en t.
7. E xplain the w o rk in g o f a e le c tro sta tic p re c ip ita to r w ith a n e a t sk etch and list out out
stan d in g fe atu re s o v e r o th e r co llecto rs.
8. D efine d rau g h t. H ow d rau g h ts are c la ssifie d . E xplain w ith n e at sk etc h the balanced
. d rau g h t.
9. W rite n ote on b o ile r feed w ater treatm en t.
10. C o m p are fo rc e d d ra u g h t w ith in d u ced draught.
11. W ith n eat sk e tc h e x p la in w o rk in g o f ze o lite w ater so fte n in g p ro c ess.
12. D iscu ss u n it & c e n tra l p u lv e rise d fuel b u rn in g sy stem s.
13. D raw a lin e sk etch o f p n eu m atic ash h an d lin g system .
14. W ith the h elp o f n eat sk e tc h e s e x p la in o v e rfee d and u n d e rfe e d sto k e r firing. Discuss
re la tiv e m erits.
15. D iscu ss ab o u t tem p o rary and p e rm a n e n t h a rd n e ss o f w ater w ith reaction.

Self - test
1 T herm al e ffic ie n c y o f stream p o w er p lan t in

(a) 30% (b) 60% (c) 80% (d) 70%
2. T he h eig h t o f ch im n ey in a steam p o w er p lan t in go v ern ed by

(a) F lue gases q u a n tity (c) T h e d rau g h t to be pro d u ced .
(b) C on tro l o f p o llu tio n (d) N one
3. In bo iler the feed w ater tre a tm e n t is d o n e m ainly to rem o v e

(a) C o rro sio n (b) C arry over
(c) Scale fo rm atio n >■ (d) A ll o f the above
4. ,/£?xample for o v erfeed sto k e r is

(a) C hain g ra te (b) T ra v e llin g grate
(c) S p re a d e r (d) A ll o f the above
5. r The am ount o f a ir w h ich is su p p lied fo r co m p lete co m b u stio n is called

(a) Prim ary air (c) S eco n d ary air
(b) T ertiary air (d) N o ne
6. Belt co n v ey o r can be used to tra n sp o rt coal at in clin atio n upto

(a) 60° (b) 3 0 ° (c) 90° (d) 100°
A nsw ers
Chapter - 4
D iesel Pow er Plant
4.1 I N T R O D U C T IO N
D ue to e x c e lle n t q u a litie s in re sp e c t o f o p eratio n al ec o n o m y , a p p lic a tio n o f continuous or
peak so u rce o f e le c tric p o w e r h as ra ise d th e d e m a n d fo r d ie s e l e n g in e s by th e end o f the
nineteenth cen tu ry .
In H y d ro -e le c tro n ic or th erm al statio n s, stan d b y g e n e ra tin g p la n ts are very m uch essential

for startin g from co ld an d u n d er em erg en cy c o n d itio n s and as a su p p le m e n t d ie sel e le ctric plants
generally in the c a p a c ity ran g e o f 2 M W - 50 M W are used. M o reo v er they are used as central
pow er statio n s for sm all su p p ly a u th o ritie s and w orks. T he d em a n d fo r d iesel ele ctric p lan t is
because o f the d iffic u ltie s fa c e d in c o n stru c tio n o f new h y d ro p o w e r p la n ts, and e n larg em e n t of
an existin g h y d ro -p lan ts.
T hough the p o w er g e n e ra tio n c o st o f d iesel p lan ts is c o n sid e ra b ly h ig h , the pro cess o f

g eneration and piece o f e q u ip m e n t are reliab le. In the first co st the d ie se l p o w e r p lan ts are m ore
efficien t than any o th e r h eat en g in e s o f co m p arab le size and c h e a p in c o m p a riso n .
F o r sm all sc a le g e n e ra tio n d ie se l p la n ts are the b e st a lte rn a tiv e as th e y are the m ost

econom ical and fe a sib le p a rtic u la rly w hen th ere is no w ay fo r m ic ro -h y d ro plan ts, cheap fuels
are not av ailab le and lo ad fa c to rs are larg e.
4.2 T H E F IE L D S O F U S E
\
(a) A s p ea k lo a d p la n ts
D iesel p o w er p la n ts can be u sed in co m b in atio n w ith hy d ro o r th e rm a l p lan ts as peak load
units. T hey c in be e a sily sta rte d or sto p p ed at sh o rt notice to m e e t th e d em an d .
(b) A s M o b ile p la n ts
D iesel p lan ts m o u n ted on tra ile rs are used as tem p o ra ry o r em e rg e n c y m ean s, for pow er
supply to th e larg e e n g in e e rin g w orks.
(c) S ta n d b y u n its
F o r ex am p le, u n d e r c e rta in c o n d itio n s the av ailab le w a te r is in su ffic ie n t at hydro-stations
(due to low ra in fa ll etc .) u n til full w ater is a v ailab le diesel stan d b y u n its w ould take the loads for
po w er su p p ly in p arallel w ith h y d ro -p lan ts.
120 PO W ER PLA N T E N G IN E E R IN G
(d) E m erg en cy p la n t -«f

These are a n o th e r ty p e stan d b y units. E m ergency p lants w o u ld be p u t in to serv ice where
pow er in terru p tio n w ould cau se fin an cial or life lo sses, viz., O p era tio n T h e a tre s, key industrial
processes, tunnel lig h tin g etc.
(e) N u rsery sta tio n s

In the ab sen ce o f m ain g rid (p o w er su p p ly ) a diesel p lan t (n u rsery plan t) can be installed
to supply p ow er fo r a sm all tow n. T h e n u rsery p o w er station can be m o v ed to an o th er pow er
required area o n ce th e re sto ra tio n o f p o w er supply form m ain grid is done.
In certain c irc u m sta n c e s the sm all scale p o w er req u irem en ts w ill be th e re fo r exam ple
there m ay be, not e n o u g h lo ad s d u e to less d ev elo p ed o r u n d e v e lo p e d p la c e s o f the country
w here the m ain g rid c a n 't be e x ten d ed , in such areas also nursery p lan ts can be used.
(f) S ta r tin g sta tio n s

To start large sc a le steam p lan ts these startin g (D iesel) p lan ts can be used. T h ese starting
plants starts the a u x ilia rie s, th ese a u x ilia rie s inturn starts the steam p lants.
4.3 A D V A N T A G E S A N D D IS A D V A N T A G E S O F D IE S E L P O W E R P L A N T S
A d v a n ta g es
1. In the c a p a c ity ran g e o f 150 M W and above, diesel p o w er p lan ts are m o re efficient
than steam p lan ts.
2. T h e d iesel p o w e r p lan ts are c h eap er if th e cap acity is below 7 kW .
3. S tan d by lo sses are very less in th e se plants.
4. T h ey o ccu p y less sp ace as w ell as cap ital co st is also less.
5. T h e se p lan ts can sta rt th e ir serv ice q uickly.
6. A sh h an d lin g p ro b lem w o u ld not be present.
7. Fuel h an d lin g is e a sie r sm all sto rag e co m p ared to o th e r p la n ts w o u ld be enough.
8. T h e se plants can be lo cated very n ear to the load cen tres.
9. F or th e sam e c a p a c ity the co o lin g w ater req u ired and m akeup w a te r req u ired is very
m uch less.
10. T h e re w ill be no fire hazards.
11. M an p o w er re q u ire m e n t is also less.
12. L u b ricatio n sy stem is sim ple.
13. F o r th e sam e size, th erm o d y n am ic efficien cy o f diesel p o w e r p la n ts is m uch higher

than th erm al p o w er plant.
D IE S E L PO W ER PLA N T 121
1. T h e life e x p e c ta n c y o f d iesel p lan ts is c o n sid e ra b ly less th a n th erm al p lants i.e., life
o f d iesel p la n t is 2-5 y eas w h ere as steam p lan ts life ran g e s 2 5 -3 0 years.
2. C a p a c ity is lim ite d (H u g e c a p a c ities are not p o ssib le ).
3. F uel is co stly .
4. L u b ric a tio n c o st is high.
5. N o ise and V ib ratio n p ro b le m b ecau se o f re c ip ro c a tin g p arts.
6. H ig h m a in te n a n c e and re p a ir costs.
4.4 C O M P O N E N T S O F D IE S E L P O W E R P L A N T S
The Fig. 4.1 sh o w n b elo w e lu c id a te s th e p arts o f diesel p o w e r plant. T h e m ain com ponents
of a diesel p o w er p lan t are
1. T h e E ng in e
2. A ir S u c tio n S y stem
3. Fuel sy stem
\. E x h a u st sy stem
5. C o o lin g sy stem
6. L u b ric a tio n sy stem
7. E ng in e sta rtin g sy stem .
Fig. 4.1 Diesel Engine Power Plant - Schem atic arrangem ent
122 POWER PLANT EN G IN EER IN G
1. The E n g in e
The main c o m p o n e n t o f th e p o w er p la n t w here the p o w e r is p ro d u c ed . G en e ra lly the
engine is coupled d ire c tly to the g en erato r.
2. A ir S u c tio n S y ste m
Air filters, d u cts and su p e rc h a rg e rs c o m b in ed ly called as a ir in ta ke system . G en erally for
large scale d iesel p lan ts aro u n d 4 -8 m 3/kW o f air w o u ld be n eed ed p e r hour. A ir is draw n from
outside o f the en g in e and d e liv e re d to the in ta k e m an ifo ld th ro u g h a ir filters.
F ilters are tw o ty p e s (i) D ry ty p e (ii) O il b ath type. If su p e rc h a rg e rs are u sed they
increase the p ressure o f air su p p lie d to th e engine.
3. F u e l S y stem
T he fuel storage tank, fuel pu m p s, strain ers and h e ater are co m b in ed ly kno w n as fu e l
system . T o tran sfer fuel from d eliv ery p o in t to sto rag e tanks, fuel tra n sfe r p u m p s are used. Fuel
can be c le a n e d by u sin g S tra in e rs (F ilte rs ). D u rin g w in te r h e a te rs a re u se d to a v o id oil
condensation s.
T he fuel sto rag e system o f d iesel p lan t is show n in the Fig. 4.2.
A fter th e fuel is tra n sfe rre d to the d aily co n su m p tio n tan k lo c ate d ab ove the en g in e level,
fuel flow s to the in je c tio n p u m p by u sin g tra n sfe r pum p. A d eq u ate q u a n tity o f fuel is injected
into the cy lin d er. T h e b asic fuel in jectio n system s are as follow s
1. T h e d istrib u to r in je c tio n system
2. C o m m o n ra il in je c tio n system
3. T h e p u m p and p re ssu re o p erated nozzle system
D IE SEL PO W ER P L A N T 123
D istr ib u tio n In jectio n (U n it In je c to r S y stem )

T he distributor injection system is show n in the follow ing Fig. 4.3. H ere in this system w hole
process o f m etering tim ing and injection takes place in a pum p cum -atom izer unit, called unit injector.
P rim a ry
pump
Fig. 4.3 Distributor'System
C om m on rail in je c tio n sy stem

C om m on rail injectio n system is show n in the Fig. 4.4. In this m ethod m ulticylinder fuel
pum p is used to m aintain c o n stan t high pressure. T he fuel d ischarge line su p p lies fuel to all injector
valves o f the engine.
Fig. 4.4 Common rail injection system for a diesel engine

124 PO W ER PL A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
Pum p injector m ethod

The Fig. 4.5 show s pum p injector system . A s show n in th e fig u re th e n o z z le o f th e fuel
w ould be jo in e d to a se p a ra te in je c tio n p u m p . T h e fuel p u m p is c o n n e c te d to th e fu e l a to m is e r,
through se p a ra te p a ssag es. T h e in je c tio n tu n in g an d c h a rg e c o n tro l are h a n d le d by th e pum p
itself. U sually th e n o zzle v alv e se t at 135 to 1.70 k g /c m 2 p re ssu re (i.e ., at su ch p re ssu re o n ly ) the
nozzle valv e op en s. T h e fuel m o v es dow n th e n o z z le and w o u ld be in je c te d in to th e en g in e
cylinder in the form o f fin e sp ray o r in h ig h ly ato m ize d form .
T he fuel ch a rg e on c o n tro l in je c tio n sy stem is d o n e by p um p itse lf. T h e sp rin g lo a d ed

injection system sp ray s h ig h ly a to m iz e d form o f th e fuel.
Fig. 4.5 Pump injection system
4. E x h a u st Sy stem
T y p ical e x h a u st sy stem is sh o w n in th e Fig. 4.6. T he fu n c tio n o f th e e x h a u st sy stem is to
d ischarge flu e g a se s in to th e a tm o sp h e re . T h e sile n c e rs a n d c o n n e c tin g d u c ts a re th e m ain
constituen ts o f the ex h a u st sy stem . A m u ffle r w ill be p ro v id ed to the e x h a u st p ip e to red u c e the
pressure in th e ex h au st line. S in c e the e x h a u st g ases h av e very h ig h te m p e ra tu re s. T h e se gases
can be used to p re h e a t the o il an d a ir su p p lied to the engine.
Fig. 4.6 E xhaust System

D IE S E L PO W ER PL A N T 125
5- C o o n n g S y stem
C o o lin g sy ste m in c lu d e s c o o la n t p u m p s, spray p o n d s (c o o lin g to w ers) and co n n ectin g
‘'jSipe w ork. T h e very p u rp o se o f co o lin g sy stem is to keep the en g in e te m p eratu re w ithin safe
lim its by c a rry in g aw ay e x cess h eat u sin g flu id s. I f c o o lin g is n o t d o n e, high tem p eratu res may
d am age th e c y lin d e r lin ers, p isto n h ead s, p isto n rin g s and also the lu b ric atin g oil film . T he heat
carried aw ay by w a te rs w o u ld be co o le d in sp ray p o n d s. T h e p re fe ra b le tem p eratu re o f cooling
w ater is 70°C .
T h e scale fo rm a tio n m ay be th ere d u e to w a ter c irc u la tio n so to avoid this the makeup
w ater is g e n e ra lly tre a te d w ith zeo lite so ften er, lim e o r lim esoda.
D iffe re n t m e th o d s o f en g in e co o lin g are show n in Fig. 4.7 b elo w .
Cylinder
H i l l I I I Li
Pi*ton_
F in »
(a) Direct air cooling (b) Indirect system (natural circulation)
(c) Indirect cooling with (d) Non-circulating cooling system with water
forced circulation of water
V
Fig. 4.7 Different m ethods of engine cooling
6. L u b r ic a tio n Sy stem
The efficien cy o f d iesel en g in e d ep en d s larg ely on lu b ric a tin g sy stem . T h e fun ctio n s o f
lubrication are
1. T o re d u c e frictio n b etw een p arts o f relativ e m otion.

2. T o rem o v e h eat from c y lin d e r and bearings
3. T o seal the gap b etw een p isto n rin g s and c y lin d e r liner.
M ain parts o f an en g in e that req u ire lu b ric a tio n are
(i) Piston rings and c y lin d e r w all
(ii) M ain cra n k sh a ft "bearings
(iii) T im ing g ears

(iv) Big end b earin g s
(v) G udgeon pin and sm all end bearin g s
(vi) Cam S h aft and b earin g s
(vii) V alve m ech an ism etc.
Broadly lu b ricatio n sy stem can be c la ssifie d as

1. G ravity S ystem
2. M echanical S y stem and
3. F orced or P ressu re Feed S ystem .
In internal C o m b u stio n en g in es g en erally "wet su m p " and "dry su m p " lu b rica tin g sy stem s
are used. G en erally w et su m p sy stem is em p lo y ed fo r re la tiv e ly sm all en g in e s w here as dry
sump system is used in large statio n ary engines.
V arious ty p es o f w et sum p sy stem s are
(i) S plash and C irc u la tin g pu m p system

(ii) S plash and P re ssu re sy stem ‘
(iii) Force Feed system etc.
The S ch em atic d iagram o f w et suni]5 lu b ricatin g system is show n in Fig. 4.8 and 4.9.
T he B asic co m p o n e n ts o f w et su m p lu b ric a tin g sy stem s a re p u m p , stra in e r, b rea th er,

pressure reg u lato r and filters.
S ch em atic arran g em en ts o f dry su m p system is show n in the Fig. 4 .1 0 . P ressu re re lie f

valve and bypass o f oil p um p are show n in the Fig. 4.11.
Tapet and cam receive
oil thrown from connecting rod
Oil-pressure gage
Camshaft
n
5
( >-----------
Connecting rod „ . ,
/bearing Mam bearing
: ^ »
Main bearing
j
Header line
Oil strainer
Fig. 4.8 Wet lubrication sy stem s

POW ER PL A N T E N G IN EE R IN G
Pressure
regulator
To bearings^.
Breather
Wot lump
F ig. 4 .9 Wet sump lu b r ic a tin g system
Vent
Scavenging pump
Fig. 4.10 Dry sum p lubricating system

D IESEL PO W ER PLA N T 129
Fig. 4.11 Oil pump, pressure relief valve, and by-pass
7. E n g in e S ta r tin g S ystem
Y Since c o m p re ssio n p re ssu re are very high in diesel plan ts, the engine sta rtin g w ill be done
by external sy stem s only.
G eneral startin g m eth o d s are by using
(i) A u x iliary p etro l en g in es

(ii) E lectric m o to rs o r
(iii) C o m p re sse d air w ill be used in startin g diesel en g in es.
C o m p ressed a ir sy ste m is the m o st co m m o n in startin g diesel en g in e p o w er plants. High

pressure air (n o rm ally 2 0 tim es the am b ien t) is sent to the c y lin d e rs as air m otors to turn the
engine shaft. T h is c o m p re sse d a ir c au ses the C ran k S haft to ro tate as fuel is ad m itted into
rem aining c y lin d ers and en g in e starts.
In e le c tric a l s ta rtin g m e th o d a s to ra g e b a tte ry o f 12 to 36 v o lts is u se d to su p p ly pow er

to an e le c tr ic m o to r w h ic h is g e a r e d to th e fly w h e e l w ith a u to m a tic d is e n g a g e m e n t
a rran g em en t. A u x iliary p etro l en g in e s are an o th er m eans fo r sta rtin g diesel plants.
4.5 T Y P E S O F D IE S E L E N G IN E S A N D C O M B U S T IO N P R O C E S S
T here are only tw o b asic types o f d iesel e n g in es n am ely F o u r - stro k e and Two - stroke
diesel engines. In a fo u r stro k e cy cle en g in e the cy cle o f ev e n ts is ac co m p lish ed in four strokes
o f piston or tw o c o m p le te re v o lu tio n s o f en g in e cran k , w here as in tw o stro k e engine cycle of
V events takes place in tw o p isto n stro k e s o r in o ne en g in e rev o lu tio n . Fig. 4.12 shows cross-
sectional view o f an air cooled diesel engine w ith various parts.
POWER PL A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
Fig. 4.12 Air cooled Internal Combustion engine
P-V diagram of a fo u r-stro k e diese! en g in e show n in Fig. 4.13.

D IE S E L PO W ER P L A N T 131
T he fo llo w in g are th e fo u r stro k es tak in g place in one po w er cycle.

(i) S u c tio n : T h e p isto n m o v es on the path 'a' draw in g air into the c y lin d e r k eeping
e x h a u st v alv e u sed
(ii) C o m p r e s s io n : In ta k e v a lv e c lo se s and p isto n m o v e s u p w a rd on th e p a th 'b'
c o m p re ssin g th e a ir e v e n tu a lly ra isin g the p re ssu re aro u n d 40 atm (4 M pa) and
c o n se q u e n tly air te m p e ra tu re raises to 700 to 7 5 0 K.
(iii) P o w e r : B efo re th e m ax im u m co m p ressio n p oint, spray o f sm all droplets o f fuel is
in je c te d in to the c y lin d e r k eep in g both valv es c lo sed . F u e ls bu rn s rapidly thereby
in c re a sin g te m p e ra tu re and p ressu re, gas ex p an d s and push the piston back doing
ex te rn a l w ork.
(iv ) E x h a u s t : T h e m o v in g p isto n m oves the flue g ases o u t as the ex h au st valve opens
at th is m om ent.
In tw o stro k e d ie se l e n g in e s the abo v e fo u r p ro ce sse s are c a rrie d by only tw o strokes,
hence th ere are no v a lv e s in tw o stro k e en g in es o nly tw o ports are p ro v id e d to ca rry out the duty
o f valv es. Fig. 4 .1 4 sh o w s g e n e ra l P-V d iag ram for a tw o stro k e en g in e.
Volume
Fig. 4.14 P-V diagram of a two-stroke diesel cycle
G en erally tw o stro k e d iesel en g in e s are used req u ired p o w e r o u tp u t per unit engine weight
is m ore.
T he n a tu ra l sc a v e n g in g o f tw o stro k e en g in e is po o r b eca u se o f co n sid e ra b ly short period

for ex p u lsio n o f g ases. In o rd e r to o v erco m e this scav en g in g b lo w ers are pro v id ed w hich supplies
air around 1 atm to the en g in e.
4.6 D IE S E L P O W E R P L A N T E F F IC IE N C Y A N D H E A T B A L A N C E
T he d e te rm in a tio n o f the e n erg y p ro d u ced by the en g in e and h e at loss to the environm ent
is o f co n sid erab le im p o rta n c e for a d iesel en g in e plant.
T he in d icated horse p o w er o f a diesel en g in e is g en e ra lly co m p u ted by using indicator

diagram . In d icated d iag ram g iv es the m ag n itu d e o f the net w ork done by the system .
132 POW ER PL A N T E N G IN EE R IN G
The m ean e ffe c tiv e p re ssu re (P ) is c alcu lated by u sing sim p le fo rm u la.
p ,„
d
k : In d ic ato r sp rin g c o n sta n t
ad : In d ic ato r d iag ram area
ld : L ength o f a in d ic a to r d iag ram .
If A is the area o f th e p isto n used.

L is the stro k e len g th (o r c y lin d e r len g th )
n is no o f w o rk in g stro k e s/ sec (N /2 fo r F our S troke)
Then ’ndicated th e H o rse p o w er is
PmL A n
IH P ( in M K S ) = “5 ^ f 0r
1HP (in SI) = 100 x ? m x L x A x n kW .
The pow er th a t is a v a ila b le at C ran k S h aft is know n as B rake H orse P ow er (B H P) and it is

alw ays less than IHP.
2 tiN T u /
BHP = “ S T % e c SI units.
60
2 tiNT
(M K S)
4500
w h ere to rq u e, T is in N -m (SI) or
K g-m (M K S)
E ngine losses can be co m p u ted by F rictio n al H o rse P ow er

FH P = IH P -B H P
M echanical efficien cy
BHP
M echanical efficiency r]m =
IHP
In d icated T h erm al efficien cy
kW
In dicated efficien cy r). = —— —
1 w xC „
kW : In d icated p o w er
w : W eig h t o f fuel su p p lied in kg /sec T
C„ : C alo rific v alu e o f fuel in K J/kg
D IE S E L PO W ER PLA N T 133
B rak e T h e rm a l e ffic ie n cy
B rake pow er, kW

116 ~ ~ W x Cv
H eat B a la n ce
H eat B alan ce T e st in C l en g in e s in c lu d e s the volum e rate o f fu el can be m easured and
taken as co n su m p tio n in kg /s.
Let tim e fo r 2 0 C C o f fu el co n su m p tio n is t sec
20
F u el c o n su m p tio n p er sec =
t
_ 20 Specific gravity o f fuel

mf =
1000
H eat E n erg y o b ta in e d fro m fuel

m f- x C v k J/s or kW
H eat in u se fu l w o rk
B H P x 60 kW
H eat lo ss to co o lin g w ater

= m w x C w x AT
m w : M ass flo w ra te o f w a ter in kg/s
C vv : S p ecial h e a t o f w ate r
AT : T e m p e ra tu re rise in c o o lin g w ater
H eat lo^s to e x h a u st g ases
= m g Cg - r a)
M ass o f e x h a u st gas/sec
m g
Sp. h e a t o f g ases
C6
T e m p e ra tu re o f gases
Tg
Ta A m b ien t te m p eratu re
R em ain in g is u n a c c o u n te d and rad iatio n losses.
134 POWER PLAN T EN G IN EE R IN G
4.7 S U P E R C H A R G IN G IN D IE S E L P L A N T S
S uperch arg in g is used to p ro d u ce a g re a te r p o w er o u tp u t in diesel en g in es as w ell as in
other en g in e s a lso . S u p e rc h a rg in g can be e m p lo y e d in b o th tw o stro k e and fo u r stro k e
cycles.
If w e increase th e air c o n su m p tio n e ssen tially it p erm its g rea te r q u an tity o f fuel to be
added and resu lts in g re a te r p o te n tia l o utput.
T he air co n su m p tio n can be in c re a se d by
(i) In creasin g p isto n d isp lacem en ts

(ii) R unning the e n g in e at. high speeds
(iii) Increasin g the d en sity o f the charge.
If we in crease p iston d isp lacem en t n atu rally size and w eig h t o f the en g in e in crea se s and
results in co o lin g p ro b lem s etc. R u nning the en g in e at high speeds in creases fric tio n a l lo sses
and induces in e rtia stre sse s on en g in e, and also d eto n atio n and k n o cking dom in ates.
The last m ethod is g en erally em p lo y ed to in c re a se en g in e cap acity and is g e n e ra lly know n

as Supercharging. G re a te r the air su p p lied to the en g in e, g rea ter fuel can be in jecte d th ereb y
draw ing g reater en g in e pow er.
If we need to pu m p air into the cy lin d er, air at h ig h er p re ssu re s m ust be av ailab le. T he
apparatus w hich is used to in crease air (pressure) d ensity is kno w n as a S u p erch a rg er. It is
accom plished by m ean s o f p o s itiv e d isp la cem en t, ce n trifu g a l o r a x ia l flo w type c o m p resso rs.
M e rits o f S u p e r c h a r g in g [A d v a n ta g e s ]
(a) It p rovides b etter m ix in g o f the fuel w ith air. T he tu rb u len ce s e a t e d by su percharger,

en h an ces m ixing.
(b) T h e tem p eratu re w ithin the c y lin d e r raises as the te m p eratu re o f the ch arg e is raised
b ecau se o f co m p ressio n . It helps in b etter v a p o risa tio n o f the fuel.
(c) From overall en g in e ou tp u t, som e po w er is used to d riv e the su p erch a rg e r.
G enerally cen trifu g a l co m p resso rs are w id ely used as su p e rc h a rg e rs, w h ere the m ixture
enters the ro tatin g im p e lle r in d irectio n p arallel to the shaft, and leaves the im p e lle r rad ially and
passes thro u g h the d iffu ser. T h e im p eller ro tates in the h o u sin g w ith 15000 to 3 0 0 0 0 r.p.m .
Positive d isp la c e m e n t type co m p resso rs are fu rth e r c la ssified as R o ta ry and Screw type y.
as show n in fig. 4 .1 5 (a) and (b).
D IE SEL PO W ER PLA N T 135
(a) Rotary Blower
Fig. 4.15 Schem atic diagram of Positive displacem ent type of Com pressor
The m ale rotor w ith lobes, show n in the figure drives the fem ale ro to r in a stationary housing
in rotary C om pressors. At a certain point during com pression process the discharge port is uncov
ered and com pressed gas is discharged by further m eshing o f the lobe and gully. Screw com pressors
developed in 1930s. It is also sim ilar to rotary type as far as the rotation o f m ale and fem ale parts is
concerned .As the rotation is driving the air forw ard it also gets com pressed as air m oves in between
the junction area.
R eview Q u e stio n s
1. Sketch and explain the layout o f D iesel Engine Pow er Plant.
2. W hat are the m erits an d dem erits o f Diesel Pow er Plants ?
3. W hat is supercharging ? D iscuss briefly.
4. W hat are the advantages and lim itations o f supercharging ?
5. W hy supercharging is done in diesel pow er plants ? D iscuss the m ethods o f supercharging,
6. W hat are the cooling m ethods o f IC engine ?
7. W hat are the different cooling system s o f an IC engine ?
8. Explain the m ethods used in starting D iesel Engine.
S elf - test
it
1. High speed diesel engines w ork on []
(a) C arnot cycle (b) B rayton cycle
(c) D iesel cycle (d) D ual com bustion cycle
2. T he percentage heat loss to the cooling w ater in a diesel engine po w er plant []

(a) 25% (b) 30%
(c) 35% (d) 45%
3. M axim um tem perature in the IC engine cylinder is generally []

(a) 2000 - 2 5 0 0 °C (b) 1 5 0 0 -2 0 0 0 °C
(c) 3 0 0 0 - 3500 °C (d) 3500 - 40000 °C
4. In diesel engine po w er plant the com bustion v/oukl be []

(a) H om ogeneous (b) H etrogeneous
(c) L am inar (d) T urbulent
5. Pressure at the end o f com pression o f diesel engines are []

(a) 20 - 25 kg/cm 2 (b) 35 - 40 kg/cm 2
(c) 50 - 60 kg/cm 2 (d) . 7 0 - 80 k g /cm 2 -j
6. By this way the output o f diesel engine can im prove w ithout increasing the engine revolution
or size []
(a) Flyw heel size increase (b) Scavenging
(c) H eating the incom ing air (d) S upercharging
7. The cetane num bers o f diesel pow er plant []

(a) 1 0 -2 0 (b) 3 0 -6 0
(c) 7 0 - 80 (d) 9 0 -1 0 0
8. An engine indicator is used to determ ine []

(a) Speed (b) M ep & 1HP
(c) BHP (d) Tem perature
9. In diesel engine pow er plant the m otion o f the piston is converted into rotary by []
(a) G udgeon pin (b) C rank Shaft
(c) C onnecting rod (d) C rank web-
10. This type o f crank w ebs are provided to im port pow er | ]

(a) B alancing (b) Force
(c) Energy storage (d) L ong
A n sw ers l.d 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. b £
6. d 7. b 8. b 9. c 10. a
>
Chapter - 5
G as T u rb in e Pow er Plants
T he c o n cep t o f g as tu rb in e d ates b ack to 130 B C . B ut the gas tu rb in e fo r p o w er production
is know n from 1872. H o w ev er p ra c tic a l g as tu rb in e has n o t m a te ria lise d u n til 1935, w hich can
com pete w ith I.C en g in e s (R e c ip ro c a tin g ) and S team plants.
T he fu n d am en tal cy cle fo r g as tu rb in es w as g iven by J o u le , w hich c o m p rises four process

viz isentropic co m p re ssio n an d ise n tro p ic e x p a n sio n and re m a in in g tw o pro cess w ould takes
place at co n stan t p ressu re. T h e re fo re this cy cle is also know n as C o n sta n t p re ssu re cycle or
B rayton cycle.
R apid p ro g re ss h as b een m ad e in the fie ld o f p o w e r g e n e ra tio n usin g gas tu rb in es, the

efficiency is im p ro v ed at the sam e tim e cap ital c o st is red u ced .
The p ow er g e n e ra tio n by gas tu rb in e has p ro ved eco n o m ic al v is-a -v is steam and diesel
plants, because o f its low ca p ita l co st, re lia b ility and flex ib ility in its o p era tio n apart from its
ability o f qu ick startin g an d c a p a b ility o f u sin g w ide variety o f fu els (p o w d ered coal, residual oil
to natural gas).
Out o f its rem a rk a b le o p e ra tio n a l c h a ra c te ristic s gas tu rb in e , p o w e r p lan ts are universally

used as peak load, b ase load an d also as stan d by lim its.
In o u r co u n try we have an e x cellen t g as reserv es it is e stim a te d nearly 700 b illion cubic

m eters o f gas re se rv e s th e re fo re it w o u ld be very u seful if w e go fo r p o w e r g en eratio n by Gas
T u rb in e o n ,la rg e scale.
T h e D e lh i c o rp o ra tio n s ta rte d p ro d u c in g e le c tric ity fro m n a tu ra l g as is th e f irs t in our

c o u n try . A n o th e r 7 0 M W p la n t at N a m r u p in A ssam . S im ila rly U r a n p o w e r p la n t in
M a h a ra stra :
N ev e rth e le ss g as tu rb in e p lan ts in In d ia is still lim ite d to m e e t p e ak lo ad dem and and

em ergencies. T h e re is a need to em p lo y g as tu rb in e in larg e scale p o w e r p ro duction.
5.2 P R I N C I P L E A N D A P P L IC A T IO N O F G A S T U R B IN E S
P rin c ip le
It is a type o f in tern al c o m b u stio n en g in e w here w o rk in g fluid is air. A ir is com pressed
using com p resso r and h ig h p re ssu re air is sen t to co m b u stio n ch a m b e r w here the fuel is ignited
138 POW ER PLA N T EN G IN EE R IN G
and this high p ressu re gas is ex p an d ed in a turb in e and thus mechanic*, vvork is o b tain ed . F raction
of w ork o b tain ed at th e tu rb in e m ay be used in ru n n in g the co m p resso r. In F ig. 5.1 sch em atic
gas turbin e is show n.
Fuel
\ Combution chamber
- Turbine
Compressor '
'= 6
/ 1Air
Fig. 5.1 Schematic view of a Gas Turbine plant
A pplication
Gas Turbines find their applications in pow er generating units oil and gas industry and also in
aviation and marine propulsion.
5.3.1 G en eral te rm s in G a s T u r b in e a n d E n e rg y flow

General term s associated w ith Gas Turbines plants are sam e as that o f any therm odynam ic
cycles.
1. Pressure ratio : It is the ratio of pressures in Gas T urbine cycle. Ratio o f highest
pressure to the low est pressure.
Pmax
r = -------
Pnun.
C om pressor outlet is highest pressure where as com pressor inlet is the low est pressure.
2. A ir ratio : M ass o f air (in kg) entering the com pressor inlet per unit o f cycle output
in (kg/kW h).
3. Work ratio : It is the ratio o f neiw ork output to the total work developed by turbine.
4. Compressor efficiency : It is the ratio o f ideal work needed by com pressor to actual
work taken.
5. Thermal efficiency : Ratio of total energy input to the net work output.
6. Combustion efficiency : Actual energy released by one kg o f fuel to the ideal energy
that would be released in perfect combustion.
Engine Efficiency: It is the ratio ol actual work developed by the expansion o f hot gas
to the ideal work that would be developed.
GAS T U R B IN E POW ER PLAN TS 139
5.3.2 E nergy cy cle o f S im p le G as T u rb in e cycle

In E arlier section we have stu d ied the p rinciple o f G as T urbine and the idea o f working
m ethod. N ow w e w ill see the fu n d am en tal drive behind the gas turbine, i.e., how the energy
flow is tak in g p lace in a sim p le G as T u rb in e.
T h e a m b ie n t air b rin g s very less o r no en e rg y . D uring com p ressio n energy is added

co n sid erab ly .
In the c o m b u stio n c h a m b e r m ajo r energ y input is given by fuel burning (large calorific
values).
A nd fin ally fractio n o f energy is co n v erted into useful w o rk and m a jo r portion o f energy
leaves into the e x h a u st and en v iro n m en t.
(O nly 20 to 25% o f energy is converted into w ork) The Fig. 5.2 show s the energy flow diagram
o f a sim ple gas turbine unit and the rem aining energy is used 19run the com pressor (~ 70%).
Fig. 5.2 Energy flow diagram of Gas Turbine
5.4.1 A p plications o f G as T u rb in e P lants

1. To run g e n erato rs in su p p ly in g peak loads to d ie se l steam and hydroplants.
2. T hese plan ts w ork as co m b in atio n plants w ith c o n v e n tio n a l steam plants.
3. To supply m ech an ical drive for au x iliary.
140 POW ER PLA N T E N G IN EE R IN G
The a p p lic a tio n o f gas tu rb in e are ran g in g from or 1 M W to few h u n d red M ega W atts.
4
D ue toe th e ir low capital co sts and quick start up c ap ab ility th ese p lan ts are largely em ployed
though op eratin g co st is high
Gas T urbines are also w idely u sed in aircraft, je t and m arin e p ro p u lsio n units.
5.4.2 L im itation s o f G as T u r b in e P la n ts
1. T h ey are not s e lf startin g .
2. H igh ro to r speeds.
3. L ow e ffic ie n cy o f G as T u rb in e plants.
4. A t p art lo ad s e ffic ie n cy is very low .
3.5 T Y PE S O F G A S T U R B IN E P L A N T S
5.5.1 C la ssifica tio n s o f G as T u r b in e P la n ts
C la ssific a tio n o f G as T u rb in e s can be' d o n e on m any th in g s. B u t h o w e v e r th e c y cle

classification and c la ssific a tio n by fuel is note w orthy.
G as turbines can be c la ssifie d as

(i) O pen c y c le G as T u rb in e plants
(ii) C lo sed cy cle G as T u rb in e plants
(iii) S em i c lo se d cy cle G as T u rb in e plants
C lassificatio n based on co m b u stio n

(i) C o n tin u o u s co m b u stio n
(ii) In te rm itte n t co m b u stio n
5.5.2 O pen C ycle G as T u rb in e

O pen C ycle G as T u rb in e w o rk on the p rin cip le o f Jo u le (B ra yto n ) cy cle. A ir en ters the
com pressor at am bient co n d itio n s an d is co m p ressed to high p ressu res. T h is c o m p re ssio n follow s
isentropic (adiabatic) to curve on T -S d iagram , this high pressure air is sen t to com b u stio n cham ber
w here fuel is used to burn at h ig h tem p eratu res. T em p eratu res reac h es the m a x im u m at this
point and this high tem p eratu re and high p ressu red gas ex p an d ed in tu rb in e s th e re by p roducing
m echanical w orks at the loss o f the p ressu re and tem p eratu re. A fter ex p a n sio n in tu rb in e blades
the ex h au st is let into atm osphere, and the w o rk in g m edium m ust be re p la ce d co n tin u o u sly hence
the nam e open cy cle gas turbine.
T he S ch em atic arran g em en t is show n in Fig. 5.3 and T -S d iag ram is giv en in 5.4. P ow er
developed by the tu rb in e is p artly utilised in d riv in g the co m p resso r and o th e r accesso ries and
the rem ain in g is used in p o w er gen eratio n .
GAS T U R B IN E PO W ER PLAN TS 141
Fig. 5.4 P-V and T-S representation for open cycle gas turbine
A d v a n ta g es o f O p en C y cle G as T u rb in e P o w er P la n t
1. L.ow w eig h t and size. T he w eig h t in kg per kW d e v e lo p e d is less.

2. O pen cy cle p lan t o ccu p y c o m p a ra tiv e ly less space.
3. Any h y d ro carb o n fuel can be used in the co m b u stio n c h a m b e r o f G as T u rb in e plant.
4. O pen cy cle gas tu rb in e p o w er p lan t req u ires no c o o lin g w ater .
5. W arm up tim e is co n sid erab ly less.
1. Part load, e ffic ie n c y is low.

2. T h e sy stem is se n sitiv e to c o m p o n e n t e ffic ien cy .
3. T he e ffic ie n cy d ep en d s on am b ien t c o n d itio n s (p re ssu re and tem perature).
4. T he open cy cle g as tu rb in e p lan t h as high air rate th ere fo re loss o f heat to the exhaust
gases is very high and large d ia m e te r d u ct w ork is n ecessary.
5.5.3 C losed C ycle G as T u rb in e

T he main difference betw een open cycle and closed cycle gas turbine is w orking fluid (air) is
not letoul into the atm osphere but only confined to the plant. One m ore thing is the w orking fluid
(air) does not com e into contact w ith com bustion products. Instead o f letting the exhaust gas, it is
cooled in cooling tow ers (coolers) and supplied back to the com pressor. T he sam e w orking fluid
circulates over and over in the system . T h e Schem atic arrangem ent is show n in Fig. 5.5.
Combustion chambcr
Fig. 5.5 Closed Cycle gas turbine plant
A d v a n ta g es o f C losed cy cle G as T u rb in e p o w er p lan t
1. T he back p ressu re can be in creased due to the co n tro l on back p ressu re.
2. C lo sed cy cle avoids ero sio n o f tu rb in e blades due to the co n ta m in a te d gases and
fo u lin g o f c o m p re sso r b lad es due to dust.
GAS T U R B IN E PO W ER PLA N TS 143
3. F iltra tio n o f in c o m in g air, th e sev ere p ro b le m in op en c y c le p la n t is com pletely

e lim in a te d .
~W-
4. T h e d e n s ity o f w o rk in g m e d iu m can be m a in ta in e d h ig h by in c re a sin g in tern al
p re s su re ra n g e . T h e re fo re th e c o m p re sso r an d tu rb in e a re sm a lle r fo r th e ir rated
o u tp u t.
5. M a in te n a n c e c o st is low and re lia b ility is h ig h due to lo n g e r life.
1 A s th e in te rn a l p re ssu re is high the co m p o n en t d esig n re q u ire s h ig h q u ality m aterial

e v e n tu a lly th e c o s t o f th e p lan t in creases.
2. R e sp o n se to load v a ria tio n s is p o o r c o m p ared to op en c y c le p o w e r p lants.
3. H u g e a m o u n t o f co o lin g w ater re q u ire d , h en ce lo c a tio n co n d itio n s do es m atter in

the plant.
5.6 A N A L Y S IS O F G A S T U R B IN E P L A N T
» t
T he gas tu rb in e p la n t w o rk s on B ra y to n C ycle. T h e a n a ly sis o f c lo se d c y c le can be
ap p roxim ately u se d fo r clo se d c y c le also. T h e th e rm o d y n a m ic p ro cess o f a clo sed cy cle gas
^ plant are show n in th e Fig. 5.6 (a) and Fig. 5.6 (b) o n,T -S and P-V d ia g ra m s resp ectiv ely .
(a) T-S diagram (b) P-V diagram
Fig. 5.6 Representation of closed cycle gas turbine plant
For c a lc u la tio n s fo llo w in g a ssu m p tio n s are m ad e

1.. T he c o m p re ssio n an d e x p an sio n are ise n tro p ic p ro cess.
2. H eat and p re ssu re lo sses are n eg lected .
3. T he c o n sta n t sp e c ific h e a t w o rk in g flu id is assu red .
W ork d one by c o m p re sso r p er kg o f w o rk in g fluid

w c = C p (T - T t ) 2
W ork d e v e lo p e d by the turb in e
W , = C p (T - T 4) 3
N etw o rk availab le
w a =Wt-W c
3 4
= C p (T - T ) - C p (T - T 1) 2
H eat supplied p er kg o f w o rk in g flu id is
Qs = c p ( t 3- t 2)
T herm odynam ic e ffic ie n cy
^ = 3 4
C p(T - T ) - C p(T - T , ) 2
Qs ' 3
c p ( t - t 2)
3 4 2
(t - t ) - ( t - t,)
( t 3- t 2)
U sing gas law s
7~1
l2 _ h)y. Y
p,
S im ilarly,
Y -l
v Y -l
= M
vP4 y
S u b stitu tin g in eq u atio n (1)

Y -l
v R py
W ork d ev elo p ed by the tu rb in e av ailab le for p ow er g en eratio n
R (w o rk ratio )
3 , = Wt - W , { 2
(T - T , )
Wt W, 3
(T - T 4)
GAS T U R B IN E PO W ER P L A N T S 145
Y-I
•(3)
F rom eq u a tio n (3) m a x im u m p o ssib le p re ssu re ratio is
( R p )m ax •(4)
T o find th e p re ssu re ra tio w h ich g iv es m ax im u m a v a ila b le w ork per kg o f w orking fluid
W a = (W, - Wc)
3
= C p(T - T 4) - C p (T - T , ) 2
C T*i - C P T, •(5)
P 3 ! t- i
CL
1
1
dW„
W„ b eco m es m ax im u m w hen — ■- = 0 b etw een T . and T ,
a dR„ 1 3
, ,-ct-iy . v ti
dR„
C p T 3 - C p T3 ( R p) / t - C p T , ( r p) y + C T, = 0
S o lv in g th e ab o v e e q u atio n
f - nX(v-0
RP = •(6 )
6
S u b stitu tin g ( ) in (5) and so lv in g
1
= C p[T,+ T1- 2 # p i ]
A D V A N T A G E S O F G A S T U R B IN E P L A N T S O V E R D IE S E L P L A N T S
1. W o rk p ro d u c e d p e r kg o f air is m ore th an the d ie se l p lan t.
2. W eig h t to p o w e r ra tio is less fo r the G as T u rb in e p o w e r p la n ts (2.5 k g /hp o f diesel

w h ereas it is 0.15 k g /H p in G as T u rb in e).
146 POWER PLA N T E N G IN E E R IN G
3. R u n n in g sp e e d s are m o re co m p ard to th e d iesel plants.

(40 0 0 0 - 9 0 0 0 0 as co m p ared to 1000 - 2 0 00 rpm )
4. B a la n c in g p ro b lem is v an ish ed as no re c ip ro c atin g p arts.
5. M ech an ical e ffic ie n cy o f G as T u rb in e p lan ts ran g es 95% w h ere as d iese l p la n ts it is

h ardly 75% - 80% .
6. C o n tin u o u s p o w e r d e v e lo p in g to rq u e p ro b lem s are less in G as T u rb in e p lants.
7. L u b ricatio n an d ig n itio n sy stem s are m uch sim ple.
8. In sta lla tio n an d m a in te n a n c e c o sts are less.
9. S m o k eless c o m b u stio n c a n be a c h iev ed in G as T u rb in e p la n ts.
10. In d iv id u al p a rts can also b e tested fo r p e rfo rm a n ce in G as T u rb in e p lan ts w h ereas

it is n o t p o ssib le in d ie se l p lan ts.
11. P o o r q u a lity f u e ls c a n b e u se d in G as T u rb in e p la n ts b u t in d ie s e l h ig h q u a lity

fu el is a m u st.
5.8 A D V A N T A G E S O F G A S T U R B IN E P L A N T S O V E R S T E A M P O W E R P L A N T S
1. A sh h a n d lin g is o n e o f th e sev ere p ro b lem s in steam p o w er p la n ts is to ta lly rem o v ed

in G as T u rb in e p lan ts.
2. T h e e ffic ie n cy o f G as T u rb in e p lan t p ro v es to be m u ch h ig h e r c o m p ared to steam

plants. (A b o v e 1000°F)
3. T h e cu b ic c a p a c ity o f th e b u ild in g s re q u ire d fo r G as T u rb in e p la n t is a b o u t h a lf o f

the steam plan t.
4 T h e m a te r ia ls o n th e w e ig h t b a s is r e q u ir e d a ls o a b o u t h a lf as c o m p a re d to
steam plant.
5. T h e o pen cycle G as T u rb in e required^no co o lin g w ater w h e re as steam p la n t req u ire s

h uge am o u n t o f c o o lin g water,.
5.7 M E T H O D S T O IM P R O V E T H E R M A L E F F IC IE N C Y
In c re a sin g the therm al e ffic ie n cy ("Hth) in v o lv e s re d u c in g the a m o u n t o f fuel req u ired .
T his can be a c h ie v e d by p re h e a tin g o f w o rk in g flu id u sin g the e x h a u st g a s o f th e tu rb in e. T he
heat ex ch a n g e r R e g e n e ra to r {R egeneration) w hich is u sed to p re h e a t th e in c o m in g p ro c ess air
before it en te rs co m b u stio n c h am b er is th at one o f th e basic ty p e u se d in in c re a sin g th erm al
efficiency 'Hth -
A n o th e r m eth o d o f e fficien cy e n h an cin g is by re d u c in g co m p re ssio n w o rk n eed ed . U sing

the technique "in ter co o lin g " the w ork req u ired by c o m p re sso r can b e red u ced . (Isotherm al
compression is the m ost efficient way o f compression).
G A S T U R B IN E P O W E R PL A N T S • 147
In c o n tra st o f sim ila r te c h n iq u e th e o u tp u t o f the tu rb in e can also be in crease d by carry in g

out e x p an sio n in n u m b e r o f step s and re h e a tin g the gas b e tw ee n the ex p an d e rs. T h is pro cess is
fc/iown as "R eheating
5.9.1 R eg e n e r a tio n
T he m ain re a so n fo r low e ffic ie n c y in gas tu rb in e p la n ts is due to larg e heat loss to the
exhaust. U sin g th is h o t g as th e co m p re ssd air can b e p re h e a te d so th a t less h e a t supply can be
m ade in th e co m b u stio n ch a m b e r, in o th e r w ords w e are in c re a sin g th erm al efficie n cy o f the
system . Fig. 5.7 sh o w s S c h e m a tic d iag ram o f re g e n e ra tiv e a rran g e m en t.
Fig. 5.7 Schematic diagram of Regeneration
T h e p e rc e n ta g e re c o v e r o f h e a t is know n as its e ffe c tiv e n e ss. T he th e rm a l e fficien cy o f

gas turbirles w ith o u t h e a t re g e n e ra to r is u su a lly aro u n d 20 % w h ere as w ith re g e n e ra to r the
efficiency ra ise u p to 30% .
T he e ffe c tiv e n e ss o f re g e n e rato r
Actual heat transfer

Ideal heat transfer
The T-S d iag ram is sh o w n in the Fig. 5.8.
s >
Fip. 5.8 T-S diagram for Regeneration Cycle
t5 ~ t2
e -
T4 ' - T2'
e (T 4. - t 2.)= (T4, - t 6.) 5
= (T - T 2.)
T he en erg y req u ired from the fuel is to in crease the tem p e ra tu re from T to T 5 3
3
= m C p (T - T 5) o r ( T 3- T 5)
a ssu m in g m and C p co n sta n t
T herm al e ffic ie n cy T]* =

3
( t - t 5)
5.9.2 Interco o lin g
T o d ff'rease the c o m p re sso r w ork and th ereb y in cre asin g the netw o rk output.
Fig. 5.9 sh o w s S c h e m a tic d iag ram fo r in te rc o o lin g gas tu rb in e cycle. The c o o lin g o f
com pressed gas w ill be d o n e w hich red u ces the c o m p resso r w ork.
Fig. 5.9 Schematic diagram of intercooling

U sually tw o or three stag e in terco o lin g is used. By em p lo y in g m u ltista g e co m p ressio n
w ith in te r c o o lin g b e tw e e n c o m p r e s s io n p ro c e s s e s w e c a n m a k e it a p p r o a c h is o th e r m a l
com pression. T h e cy cle re p re se n ta tio n on T -S diag ram is show n in Fig. 5.10.
5 .9 .3 R eh ea tin g
It is a n o th e r w ay o f im p ro v in g the w ork o u tp u t o f th e cy cle. An in terco o lin g red u ces
c o m p resso r w o rk w h e re a s re h e a tin g im p ro v es th e tu rb in es p e rfo rm a n c e. T he gain in w ork ou tp u t
is b etter u n d e rsto o d as c o n s ta n t p ressu re lines d iv erg e on T -S d iag ra m as tem p eratu re increases.
In the Fig. 5.11 sh o w n b e lo w g iv es th e S c h e m a tic d ia g ra m o f re h e a t cy cle. W here as T-S
d iag ram is show n in Fig. 5.12.
Reheater
rC E E ]
HP LP
Turbine Turbine =(~ ) Generator
Exhaust
Fig. 5.11 Schem atic diagram of Reheating
Fig. 5.12. T-S diagram of Reheat cycle
R e h eatin g re q u ire s e x tra c o m b u sto rs w hich o b v io u sly in c rea se c o st o f e q u ip m e n t and also

fuel to re h e a t the gas. B u t "R eh ea tin g " is p ro p e rly u tilise d w hen it is u se d in c o m b in a tio n w ith
reg en era tio n and also in terco o lin g .
5.10 C O M P O N E N T S O F G A S T U R B IN E P L A N T S
1. C o m p re sso r
2. T u rb in e
3. C o m b u stio n c h a m b e r
4. H eat E xchanger
5.10.1 C om p resso r
D etailed a n a ly sis and d esig n o f c o m p re sso r o f a gas tu rb in e is beyond the scope o f thife
book. B ut the p rim ary re q u ire m e n t fo r a gas tu rb in e c o m p re sso r is the ability to han d le la rg e
volum e o f air at h ig h e st p o ssib le efficien cy .
G en erally fo llo w in g th ree ty p es o f c o m p resso rs are used
(a) P bîtive d isp la c e m e n t
(b> C en trifu g al and
(c) A xial c o m p re sso r
As the sp eed o f th e tu rb in e sh aft ran g es fro m ab o u t 6 0 0 rp m to 4 0,000 rpm only c e n trifu g a l
and axial c o m p resso rs are em p lo y ed .
T he cen trifu g a l c o m p re sso r c o m p rise s tw o m ajor p arts the im p eller (rotating c o m p o n e n t)
and the d iffuser. T h e d iffu se r tra n sfo rm th e k in etic en erg y o f th e w orking fluid into p re ssu re
energy in acco rd an ce w ith B e rn o u lli's p rin c ip le . T h e d iffu se r flow incurs .frictio n al lo sse s.
S chem atic d iagram o f rad ial b lad ed c e n trifu g a l c o m p re sso r is show n in Fig. 5.13.
Fig. 5.13 Centrifugal com pressor
In g en eral, the c e n trifu g a l c o m p re sso r is m ore ru g g ed , w ide sta b ility ra n g e , less ex p en siv e
relativ ely in te n siv e to su rface d e p o sits and attain s h ig h er p ressu re ra tio s as c o m p a re d to axial
co m presso rs.
T h e axial c o m p re sso rs have th e ad v an tag es due to th e ir a d a p ta b ility to m u ltista g in g , h i f i
flow rate c a p a b ilitie s an d re la tiv e ly sm all d iam eter. T h o u g h ax ial co m p re sso rs are se n sitiv e
changes in a ir flo w an d rpm .
A xial flow c o m p re sso rs c o n sists o f a series o f ro to r-sta to r stages. S e rie s o f blades on

rotor p rom otes ro tatio n by d ro p in p ressu re head and series o f statio n ary blad es w ill be th ere on
stator to en h an ce and m ain tain p re ssu re head. Fig. 5 .14 show s the a rra n g em en t o f stato r and
rotor in an axial co m p resso r.
Casing
Fig. 5.14 Rotor and Stator arrangem ent - axial flow com pressor
5.10.2 G a s T u r b in e
T he b asic re q u ire m e n ts o f a w ell d esigned gas tu rb in e are lig h t w e ig h t, high efficiency,
reliability and ab ility to o p erate at h ig h er tem p eratures. T he blad e m aterial d eterm in atio n depends
on the an aly sis o f c re e p and stre sse s both m echanical and th erm al. T h e se rv ic e life o f a turbine
depends on the tu rb in e in let tem p eratu re. T he hig h er the tem p e ra tu re th e lo w e r the life. The
cooling o f tu rb in e b lad es is also one o f the crucial factors o f the tu rb in e d esig n .
5.10.3 C o m b u s tio n c h a m b e r
T h e b a s y re q u ire m e n ts fo r a g o o d co m b u stio n c h am b er are
(a) L ow p ressu re loss
(b) H igh co m b u stio n e ffic ie n cy
(c) G ood flam e stab ility
(d) Low C a rb o n d e p o sitio n
(e) L ow w eig h t and
(f) R eliab ility and ad ap tab ility .
S in ce the v a ria b le s and o b je c tiv e s are sen sitiv e the d esig n o f c o m b u stio n ch a m b er should
be based on stric t a n a ly sis and e x p e rim e n ta l data.
T y p ic a l arra n g e m en t o f a c o m b u sto r is show n in Fig. 5.15.
J
Outer sheel
T Fuie
| line
Fig; 5.15 A rrangem ent of a com b u sto r
152 POWER PLA N T E N G IN E E R IN G
5.10.4 H eat E x ch a n g ers

The d esig n a sp e c ts o f h e a t e x c h a n g e rs fo r a gas tu rb in e p o w e r p la n t is b e y o n d th e sco p e o f
this book. In re g e n e ra tiv e a n d in te rc o o l G as T u rb in e p o w e r p la n ts w e u se h ig h e ffe c tiv en e ss
heat exchan g ers. G e n e ra lly S h e ll a n d T u b e ty p e h e a t e x c h a n g e s a re u se d . T o m in im is e th e
heat lo ss to e n v iro n m e n t lo w e s t p o s s ib le s u rfa c e a re a is e x p o s e d to a ir th e re b y e n h a n c in g
the e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f h eat e x c h a n g e r and also p o w er plant.
A u x ilia r ie s
A part fro h i m ain c o m p o n e n ts g as tu rb in e p o w e r p lan ts re q u ire ad d itio n a l e q u ip m e n t fo r
proper fu n ctio n in g viz. startin g m otor, lu b ricatin g oil pum p, fu el co n tro l system , m u fflers, co o lers,
air and gas d u cts etc.
S tartin g m o to r sta rts th e tu rb in e u sin g clu tch and ste p -u p g e ars. L u b ra ic a tin g o il p um p,
pum ps the lu b ricatin g oil th ro u g h o u t the p ro cess. M u fflers are used to red u ce the n o ise and send
the flue gases out. T h e d u c t sy ste m co n n e c ts the total o p e ra tin g cycle.
5.11 G A S T U R B IN E P L A N T F U E L S
W ide v ariety o f fu els are u sed in G as T u rb in e plan ts, e ith e r so lid , liq u id o r g aseo u s. T he
ideal fuel is n atu ral g as, b u t it is n o t a v a ila b le alw ay s. U se o f so lid fu e ls p re se n ts c o m p lic ate d
injection system , also so lid re sid u e (ash). G aseo u s fuels c reate p ro b le m s in h a n d lin g and sto rag e
on large scale. T h is se rio u sly re stric ts us to d ep en d g re atly on liq u id fuels.
C o m m ercially th e re are th ree ty p es o f fuels
S. No. Fuel C onstituents

1. Benzol B enzene & Toulene
2. A lcohol Petroleum and O xygen atom s
3. R efined petrol Petrol (kerosene or diesel)
Present day G as tu rb in e s o p e ra te s on p e tro le u m based fu els viz. K ero sen e o r g aso lin e
(petrol) o r b len d o f there tw o.
Som e im p o rta n t q u a litie s re q u ire d fo r a good fuel o f G as T u rb in e p la n ts are
1. V o la tility : T h is is an im p o rtan t q u a lity in startin g the c o m b u stio n at any ad verse

co n d itio n s.
2. E n e r g y ( C a lo r ific v a lu e ) : T h e h e a tin g v a lu e o f a fu e l a t lo w s p e c if ic fu el
c o n su m p tio n a b ility to g en e ra te high p o w er.
3. C o m b u stio n p r o d u c ts : T h e fu el sh o u ld have m in im u m te n d e n cy o f so lid fo rm atio n

a fte r c o m b u stio n o th erw ise the d ep o sits m ay ev en b re ak o ff and m ay d am ag e the
a e ro fo il d e sig n o f tu rb in e blades.
G AS T U R B IN E PO W ER -PL A N T S 153
4. L u b ric a tin g p ro p e r tie s : In m in im isin g fric tio n a l lo sses lu b ric a tin g p ro p e rtie s o f
fuel p la y s v ital role.
5. Im p u ritie s : T h e co m b u stio n p ro d u c ts sh o u ld n o t re su lt in su lp h u r p ro d u cts, since

s u lp h u r d ire c tly a tta c k s fu el sy stem p arts. S im ila rly any im p u ritie s w ill lim it the
u tility o f fu el.
5 .12 P R O S P E C T S O F G A S T U R B IN E P L A N T S IN IN D IA
T h e a p p lic a tio n o f G as T u rb in e p lan ts are fo re se en in the fo llo w in g field s in India.
(a) P e a k lo a d G as T u rb in e p o w er plants
(b) B a se lo a d G as T u rb in e p o w e r plants
(c) C o g e n e ra tio n G as T u rb in e p la n ts, etc.,
(a) P ea k lo a d G as T u r b in e p o w er p la n ts
T h ese are th e m o st sim p le gas tu rb in e p lan ts, b ecau se o f s h o rte r g e sta tio n p e rio d , low cost
o f in sta lla tio n an d te rse startin g . T h o u g h th e ir th erm al e ffic ie n c y is less. T h e se p ia n ts w ould
com e in serv ice w hen m ain g rid fails an d they can achieve fu ll lo a d w ith in 15.m in u tes. L iquid
fuels are u sed in p eak lo ad G as T u rb in e p lan ts.
(b) B a se lo a d G a s T u r b in e p la n ts
T h ere is lot o f sco p e fo r sim p le gas tu rb in e s as base lo ad p o w er p la n ts in o u r co u n try . For
ex a m p le p o w e r p la n t in U lan G as T u rb in e p o w e r p la n t (M S E B ) u n d e r M a h a ra s h tra S tate
E lectricity B o ard is o f 672 M W cap acity .
In d ian gas re se rv e s h av e in c re a se d fiv e fo ld s d u rin g the la st ten y e a rs. T o u tilise these
natural gas re se rv e s, p ip e lin e n etw o rk s in te rc o n n e c tin g th e p ro d u c tio n and co n su m p tio n points
is planned and its first p h ase H B J p ip elin e w hich jo in s H a zira (G u ja ra t) and B a b ra la (U P), of
capacity 1600 M W .
(c) G e n e r a tio n g a s tu r b in e p la n ts
T he ap p lic a tio n s o f th ese p lan ts are in p ro cess in d u strie s viz. F e rtiliz e rs, P etrochem icals
and P aper in d u strie s etc.
A ctu ally w h ere larg e q u a n tity o f steam and au x iliary p o w e r is re q u ire d th e se plants are
suitable. F o r e x a m p le h e a tin g re q u ire m e n ts, re frig e ratio n s & a ir c o n d itio n p la n ts and plastic
industries.
C o g en eratio n plants are larg ely co n cen trated in U SA . In In d ia o n ly G u jara t and M aharashtra
only have p la n ts c a p a c ity o f a b o u t 2 0 0 0 M W .
5.13 P L A N T L A Y O U T A N D S IT E S E L E C T IO N
5.13.1 P la n t la y o u t
G en eral la y o u t o f th e sy ste m is show n in F ig . 5 .1 6 b elo w .
U su ally fuel (o il) sto ra g e tan k s are arran g ed o u tsid e b u t a d jo in in g tu rb in e house.

154 POW ER PLA N T E N G IN E E R IN G
T here m ay b e aro u n d 20% lo ss in the to tal p o w er d ev elo p ed due to d u c t sy stem . H ence

proper layo u t o f th e p la n t is h ig h ly im p o rtan t.
Fig. 5.16. Gas turbine power plant - Layout
5.13.2 Site S electio n
T he fo llo w in g facto rs p lay an im p o rtan t role in gas tu rb in e p la n t's site selection.
1. S ince p o w er tra n sm issio n in v o lv es m o re lo sses the p la n t sh o u ld alw ay s be lo c ated

n earest to the load cen tre.
2. Fuel sh o u ld b e e a sily a v a ila b le and ch eap at the lo catio n .
3. B ecause o f n o isy o p e ra tio n G as T u rb in e p lan ts are alw ay s p re fe rre d to lo cate aw ay

fro m b u sin ess cen tres.
4. A v ailab ility o f labour.
5. L and should be ch eap and b earin g cap acity sh o u ld be high.
6. T ra n sp o rta tio n easy locations, are better.
R eview Q u e s tio n s
1. W ith a neat sk etch ex p lain the w o rk in g o f O pen C ycle G as T u rb in e.
2. W hat are the d ifferen t m eth o d s used to im prove the e ffic ie n cy o f G as T u rb in e Plant ?
E xplain one o f such m eth o d s w ith a neat sketch.
3. D iscuss ab o u t the fu els o f G as T u rb in e P o w er P lants. W hat are the m ost su itab le fu els for
gas tu rb in e plants in Ind ia ? E xplain.
-J
4. W hat do y o u r u n d e rsta n d by clo sed C y cle G as T u rb in e P lant ? W h a t are the ad v an tag es o f
O pen C y cle G as T u rb in e s o v er C lo sed C y cle Plants.
G AS T U R B IN E POWER PLANTS 155
5. D escribe the w o rk in g o f clo sed C y cle G as T u rbine Plani. List out its advantages over
* O pen C y cle P lants.
6. W hat are the d iffe re n t ty p es o f fuels used in G as T u rb in e P lan ts ?
7. Sketch o u t G as T u rb in e P o w er P lan t (open cycle / clo sed c y cle ) and ex p la in the functioning
o f each co m p o n en t.
S e lf te s t
1. T h e air - fu el ra tio by w eig h t req u ired by gas tu rb in e is []

(a) 30 : 1 (b) 60 : 1
(b) 90 : 1 (d) N one
2. G as tu rb in e w o rk s on [1
(a) B ray to n c y c le (b) R ankine cycle
(c) O tto c y c le (d) C arnot cycle
r 3. T h e air - fuel ra tio used in gas tu rb in es , []

(a) 15 : 1 (b) 50 : 1
(c) 100 : 1 (d) N one
4. W o rk in g fluid o f a gas tu rb in e is []
(a) P etrol (b) D iesel
(c) W a te r (d) A ir
5. T h e e ffic ie n cy o f an open c y c le gas tu rb in e w ith re g e n e rato r, in te rc o o le r and reheater is

ab o u t []
(a) 59% (b) 29%
(c) 39% (d) 49%
6. P ow er d ev elo p ed in gas tu rb in e is p artly u tilised to run []

(a) C o n d e n se r (b) H eat e x c h a n g e r
(c) C o m p re sso r (d) N one
7. T h e te m p e ra tu re o f th e c o m p ressed g as at the gas tu rb in e in le t []

(a) 9 0 0 °C (b) 715°C
(c) 12 00 °C (d) 1000°C
8. In open cy cle g as tu rb in e p la n t m axim um te m p eratu re is at the o u tle t o f []

(a) C o n d e n se r (b) C o m p re sso r
(c) C o m b u stio n c h a m b e r (d) T u rb in e
9. R e g en erato r u sed in gas tu rb in e s h av e an e ffic ien cy o f []

(a) 45% (b) 75%
(c) 95% (d) 105%
10. In clo sed cy cle gas tu rb in e the e x h a u st g ases are allow ed []

(a) into the atm osh p ere
(b) into co o lin g to w er
(c) into the c o m p resso r
(d) none
A n sw ers
1. b 2. a 3. c 4. d 5. b
6. c 7. b 8. c 9. b 10. c
Chapter - 6
D irect Energy Conversion
6.1 SO LA R EN ER G Y
6.1.1 I n tr o d u c tio n
E very c o u n try d raw s its en erg y from variety o f so u rces. S o lar e n erg y is a very large,
inexhaustible source o f energy. T he po w er from the sun intercep ted by the earth is approxim ately
11
1.8 x 1 0 M W . T he so lar energy has been identified as one o f the p rom ising alternative energy
sources for the future. E nergy can be con v erted directly or in directly into pow er. M any devices
that have been in use or a long tim e are those that accept en ergy as h eat and pro d u ce m echanical
w ork, further transform ed into electrical pow er. D irect energy con v ersio n devices convert naturally
available energy into electrical p ow er w ithout an interm ediate con v ersio n into m echanical work.
T herm o electric co n v ersio n , th erm o io n ic conversion, p h otovoltpic cells, fuel cells are few to name
under direct energy conversio n .
S o la r E n e rg y r e a c h e s th e e a rth as e le c tro m a g n e tic r a d ia tio n in w a v e le n g th ban d of

0.3 to 3 jx. In th e sp ecified b and sp ectru m the sp ectral in ten sity re ac h e s its m axim um at 0.5 ,u.
T h e ra d ia tio n th a t w e receiv e fro m sun is c la ssifie d as,
(i) B eam ra d ia tio n and

(ii) D iffu se rad iatio n
B eam R ad iatio n is the S o la r R ad iatio n rec eiv ed w ith o u t any c h a n g e in direction.
D iffu se R ad iatio n is the so la r rad iatio n rece iv ed a fte r its d ire c tio n has been changed by
the earth's, a tm o sp h eric re fle c tio n and scatterin g .
T h o u g h it is d irect or d iffu se d as a w hole the earth re ce iv e s 1 0 u M W o f energy in a day.

It is free o f c o st but the m ain o b sta c le s in u tilisin g this are
(i) T h is e n erg y is not a v a ila b le co n stan tly th erefo re sto ra g e is n eeded to sustain in the
n ig h t tim es, m o reo v er this need is in ev ita b le w hen th e lo cal w h eth er show s no sun.
(ii) S ince this fo rm o f en erg y is d iffu sed it is re q u ire d to c o lle c t and con serv e energy
o v er w ide ra n g e o f area. O b v io u sly th e se re q u ire m e n ts d riv e s the capital cost
c o n sid e ra b ly high. O n p ar it has som e ad v an ta g e s like
(a) It is e c o -frie n d ly and
(b) T h is e n erg y v an ish es ex tra c tio n and tra n sp o rta tio n .
T o study so la r en erg y in d etail we need to know som e o f the term s asso ciated w ith it
6.1.2 S o la r E n e rg y - T e rm in o lo g y
Z e n ith A n g le : Z en ith angle is the angle b etw een the S u n 's rays and vertical line at the
c e n tre o f earth.
A z im u th A n g le : It is the ang le m easu red from north d irectio n to the p ro jection o f sun's
ray s in th e h o rizo n tal plane.
S o la r A ltitu d e : A n g le b etw een th e beam o f the Sun and the h o rizo n tal.
S o la r C o n s ta n t. Energy received from Sun per unit tim e on a unit surface area perpendicular
to the radiation o f the sun. It is equivalent to 1353 W /m 2.
6.1.3 S o la r E n e rg y U tiliz a tio n
B ased on usag e S o la r en erg y can be c la ssifie d as

(i) H elio th erm al
(ii) H e lio e le c trica l
(iii) H elio ch em ical
In H eliotherm al p ro cess th e in cid en t rad iatio n is ab so rb ed and tu rn ed into heat, w hich

inturn may be used fo r any m ech an ical p urpose.
In H elio electrical th e ra d ia tio n en erg y receiv ed is c o n v e rte d in to e le ctrical en ergy by u sing

photovoltaic cells.
In H e lio ch em ical th e e n e rg y a b so rb e d by ra d ia tio n is re c e iv e d it is u sed in c h e m ic a l

processes. T he b and lim it is g en erally 0.3 to 1 m . F or ex am p le natu ral p h o to sy n th e sis w h ich
utilities this b and energy.
6.1.4 S o la r P o w e r G e n e r a tio n
H e lio th e rm a l
It is one o f the p rin cip le fo rm s o f energ y in to w hich so lar en erg y can be c o n v erted .
T here are som e d irect h eatin g ap p licatio n s like, d rying, w ater h eatin g , co o k in g , d istillatio n ,
house heatin g etc. N ot ju s t h eatin g but so la r .refrigeration can also be d o n e, in the c o u n trie s like
Saudi A rabia, D u b ai, Iran etc. (freezin g o f w ater). D esaltatio n o f sea w a ter is a lso c arrie d out
with so lar tech n o lo g y . W e w ill d iscu ss o n e or tw o in the p resen t C h ap ter.
S o la r w a te r h e a te r s
In c o u n tr ie s lik e J a p a n , E u ro p e an d th e N o rth A fric a th o u s a n d s o f d o m e s tic s o la r
w ater h e a te rs a re u s e d . A p p ro x im a te ly th e y h e a t u p to 30 to 50 g a l o f w a te r on e v e ry c le a r
sky day. (1 g a l = 4 .6 6 6 litr e s ) . A sim p le th e rm o s y p h o n ty p e s o la r w a te r h e a te r is sh o w n
in Fig. 6.1.
D IR EC T EN ER G Y C O N V ER SIO N 159
*■ To hot water llna
Fig. 6.1 Thermosyphon soiar water heater
H ouse heaters
In certain low tem perature areas solar energy can "be used to heat the ro o f o f a m oderate house.
In Fig. 6.2, ro o f solar-still is show n w hich can be em ployed in room heating.
A ctually the m ain disadvantage o f room heaters o f solar type is the high expenditure incurred
in installing. T he general technique is the w ater heated during day (sunny) is used to heat the room
during night tim e. But the heat storage is a great problem . Salts can be used to store the heat but if
salts are varied for g reater heat storage capacity several other problem s are evolving.
I
Fig. 6.2 Roof type so lar h eate r
Solar C ooking
G enerally tw o techniques are follow ed in solar cooking, ^
(i) A sun-follow ing boiler type device is used with parabolic reflector (m etallic) and a grid
in focal area w here cooking pots are placed.
(ii) C ooker w ith insulated box w ith glass covers open and pointing to the sun, totally oven
type cooker.
H elioelectrical
O ut o f tw o principal form s o f en erg ies the heat and electricity , electric en erg y is the m ost
im portant form o f energy. C onv ersio n o f solar energ y into electrical e n erg y can be c arried out in
two ways
(i) D irect conversion
(ii) Indirect pow er generation
(i) D irect C onversion System

Solar energy w ould be directly converted into electricity using d irect conversion devices know n
as photovoltaic cells.
Since these cells create (produce) low voltages and currents they are com bined as m odules and
panels and by arraying them specific pow er requirem ents, can be m et.
Photovoltaic (PV ) cells are m ade o f sem iconducting elem ents as they could produce electricity
when light strikes their surface (process o f absorption). Energy in the form o f photon is absorbed and
energy in the form o f free electrons is generated.
T hese Photovoltaic cells operate at room tem peratures. T he efficiency o f P hotovoltaic cells
theoretically is 25% if tem perature is raised by few degree centigrade the efficiency falls hyperbolically.
W hen photon strikes the cell it w ill free an electron by transform ing certain energy to that
electron know n as gap energy.
M aterials used for P hoto v o ltaic cells are Silicon, C adm ium Su lp h id e C d 2S and G allium
Arsenide etc.
B asic P hoto V oltaic system o f pow er generation

In fig. 6.3 show s the general arrangem ent o f photovoltaic cells in pow er production.
FotV)
feeder
Array of solar cell
Diode
Storage
battery
Fig. 6.3 Photovoltaic system integrated with grid

D IR E C T E N E R G Y C O N V E R S IO N 161
A rray o f c e lls : S o la r c e lls are arra n g e d in the arrays, e ith e r in series o r in p arallel.
* D iode : T o let the array g e n e ra te d p o w er only to w ard s battery or grid depending on the
requirem ent.
B attery : u sed to sto re th e p o w er o f g en erated by Photovoltaic cells.
In v e rte r/C o n v e rte r : T h is co n v e rts b attery v o ltag e into A .C w h ich can be integrated with
the u tility grid by m a tc h in g p h ase and freq u en cy o f the req u irem en t.
A d v a n ta g es a n d D isa d v a n ta g e s o f P h o to -V o lta ic (P V ) en erg y co n v er sio n

A d v a n ta g e s
1. In S a te llite s an d S p ace p ro b es these are in re g u la r use b ecau se o f th eir ability to
fu n ctio n u n atten d ed .
2. M o v in g p arts are ab se n t and hence they are p re ferred w here e ffic ie n cy is secondary.
3. T h e re is no m a in te n a n c e co st w hen c o m p ared to o th e r sy stem s.
4. L ong life an d R eliab le.
5. S im p le w ay to in c re a se cap acity by m ere in te g ratio n .
6. F ast to resp o n d in ra d ia tio n changes.
7. E asy to m ak e and in stall.
8. P o w er d istrib u tio n by w ire w ould be rem oved b ecau se d e c e n tra liz a tio n is no big deal.
9. S un tra c k in g re su lts in larg e scale p ow er p ro d u ctio n u n in te rru p te d ly .
1. T he p rin c ip a l d isa d v a n ta g e s is h ig h cost.
2. N ot su ita b le fo r all co n d itio n s.
3. P o w e r sto ra g e is a m ajo r problem .
(ii) In d irect G e n e r a tio n : (S o la r T h erm al P ow er G e n e r a tio n )

It is also know n as T h erm al E lectric C onversion. P ow er c y cles are e m p lo y ed in this system.
They are c la ssifie d as low , m e d iu m and high tem p era tu re cy cles.
>
In low and m ed iu m tem p eratu re ranges, R ankine C ycle is used w h ereas for high tem perature
range B rayton and S tirlin g c y c le s are used.
(a) L ow tem p e r a tu r e S y stem

Low tem perature system em ploys flat plate collectors fo r trapping the solar energy. The
tem perature o f the w orking fluid can be raised to 100°C. T he low tem perature system is generally
'V
used for w ater heating, space heating, space cooling and drying. E ven LTS is em ployed in power
production. T ypical low tem perature system using flat plate collectors is show n in fig. 6.4.
162 POW ER PLA N T E N G IN E E R IN G
T he sun e n erg y is c o lle c te d by w a te r (p rim ary flu id ) flo w in g th ro u g h th e arrays o f flat

plate collecto rs. T h e hot w ater aro u n d 100°C is allo w ed to pass th ro u g h the b u tan e boiler, B utane
haing low b o ilin g p o in t is u sed as se c o n d ary fluid. (A ny o rg a n ic flu id e x a m p le m e th y lch lo rid e
and to ulen e and re p re se n ts like R l l , R113. an d R 1 1 4 can be u sed as se c o n d a ry flu id ). T he
butane vapours p ro d u ced in b u ta n e b o ile r leav es at high p re ssu re and e x e c u te s a re g u la r ran k in e
cycle by flo w in g th ro u g h a p rim e m o v er, c o n d e n se r an d liq u id pum p.
It h a s b een n o tic e d th a t th e o v e ra ll e ffic ie n c y o f the sy ste m is v e ry lo w b e c a u se th e
tem peratu re d ifferen ce b etw een th e v a p o u r and the co n d en sed liq u id lea v in g th e c o n d e n se r is
very sm all. T he flat p la te c o lle c to rs h av e e ffic ie n cy aro u n d 25% an d o v e ra ll e ffic ie n c y o f the
plant is aro u n d 2 to 3% . F lat p la te c o lle c to rs are very co stly h e n ce so la rp o n d s h a v e b e en in use
instead o f flat plate c o lle c to rs in p o w er p ro d u ctio n .
Cold brine
Fig. 6.5 Flow diagram of solar pond electric power plant
The w o rk in g fluid (B utane etc.) is v ap o rised by pum ping pond h o t w ater into the ev ap o rato r. v
The vapour flo w s in to tu rb in e u n d er high p ressu re and ex p an d s d o in g e x te rn a l w o rk the sh a ft is
connected to g en erato r.
D IR E C T E N E R G Y C O N V E R SIO N 163
(b) M ed iu m T e m p e r a tu r e S y stem s
M edium te m p e ra tu re sy stem em p lo y s p arab o lic c o lle cto rs. A te m p eratu re o f 400°C can
be ob tain ed by this line fo cu sin g p arab o lic c o lle c to r tech n o lo g y . M T S is used fo r process heating,
refrig e ratio n , v a p o u r en g in es and co o k in g . T h e sch e m atic d iag ram o f M TS is show n in fig. . . 66
First co m m ercial p la n t o f this type w ith c a p a c ity 14 M W w as se t up in 1984 in C alifornia.
In M TS the cylinderical parabolic collectors em ploys absorber tubes m ade o f steel and has a
specially developed surface. It is surrounded by a glass cover w ith a vaccuum . T he collectors heat a
synthetic oil to a tem perature o f 400°C w ith a collection efficiency o f 0.7 fo r beam radiation. The
hot synthetic oil is used for generating superheated high pressure steam w hich executes a Rankine
cycle w ith an efficiency around 35%. This plant generally produces electricity for about hours a 8
day. 55 m diam eter reflector collectors giving about 1 M W at M ount L ouis plant.
Hot fluid
Pump
Fig. 6.6
(c) H igh T e m p e r a tu r e S ystem

If th,e w o rk in g flu id is s u p p lie d to tu rb in e is a t h ig h te m p e r a tu r e s o b v io u s ly p ow er
g e n e ra tio n w o u ld be h ig h e r. T h is c a n b e a c h ie v e d by p la c in g h e a t c o lle c to r s in am p le
su n sh in e .
B asically tw o a rra n g e m en ts are follow ed
1. S o la r T o w ers.
2. S o lar F arm s.
1. S o la r T o w ers - C en tra l R eceiv er S ystem

P arab o lo id al dish co n cep t and cen tral re c e iv e r c o n c ep t are the tw o co n cep ts used in high
tem p eratu re sy stem . In p a ra b o lo d id a l dish c o n c ep t the c o n c e n tra to r track s the sun by rotating
about tw o axes and sun rays are fo cused to a point. F luid flo w in g th ro u g h a rec e iv e r at (he focus
point gets h eated up and this heat is used to d rive the p o w er cy cle.
In this p ro cess th e in c o m in g so la r ra d ia tio n is. fo c u sse d to a c e n tra l re c e iv e r (B o iler on a

tall tow er) h a v in g th o u s a n d s o f re fle c to rs. T h e se re fle c to rs a re ste e ra b le in tw o d ire c tio n s --*•
(heliostats). S ch em atic d ia g ra m is show n in fig. 6.7 below . T h ese m irro rs in sta lle d on the
ground are used to re fle c t th e d ire c t beam rad iatio n into a b so rb e r (o r B o iler) m o u n ted on to p o f
a tow er. T he h o t w o rk in g flu id is u sed to d riv e the tu rb in e and h en c e p o w e r is p ro d u ced .
Inbdonl
so la r « r .e r g y
Fig. 6.7 Schem atic of a Central Tower receiver associated with a

field of flat m irror and a gas turbine
2. S o la r F a rm s - D istr ib u te d C o llecto r S ystem

It c o n s is ts o f w h o le fie ld c o v e re d w ith p a ra b o lic th ro u g h c o n c e n tr a to rs o r so m e o th e r
su ch d e v ic e to fo c u s to ta l s u n lig h t o n to c e n tra l p ip e s u rro u n d e d b y an e v a c u a te d q u a rtz
en v elo p . T h e flu id w h ic h is flo w in g th ro u g h p ip e s is s to re d in m o lte n e u te c tic sa lt a n d u se d
in p ro d u c in g ste a m w h ic h can g e n e ra te p o w e r. B a sic c o n s tr a in t is th e e n e rg y lo ss in the
tra n sm issio n o f h o t flu id
>
6.1.5 S o la r E n erg y C o llecto r

T he b ase c la ssific a tio n o f e n erg y co lle c to rs is as fo llo w s
(i) F lat T y p e (N on co n cen tratin g ).
(ii) F o c u ssin g T y p e (C o n cen tratin g )
(i) F la t p la te C o llecto rs
U sually th e se a re u se d in low te m p eratu re ranges. T he su rfac e is m a d e tra n sp a re n t to
im prove absorption o f so la r radiation. T hey are generally m ade in re c ta n g u la r dim en sio n s. T ypical
D IR EC T E N E R G Y C O N V E R S IO N 165
cross sectio n al view is g iv en in fig. 6.8 b elow .

Fluid passes s
Diffuse
radiation Absorber plate
Beam la
radiation
u ia u u J l |
Transparent
oover
Thermal Insulation
L L ^ '
n
Casing
Fig. 6.8 Flat plate collector
C oated plates ( C opper, Alum inium , Steel etc.) are used to im prove absorption levels. Sim ilarly
the energy loss due to em ission o f radiation is also reduced by coatings viz.. B lack chrome.
In th is ta sk tra n s p a re n t c o v e rs p la y s a v ita l ro le w h ic h d e c re a se th e h e a t loss w ithout

h in d erin g in c o m in g ra d ia tio n . F o r su ch d e a ls g la sse s are re m a rk a b le .
S o la r pon d
It is m a ss o f sh a llo w w a te r a b o u t 1 m etre d eep . S o m e o f s o la r ra d ia tio n e n te rin g the
pond's su rfa c e is a b so rb e d at th e b la c k b o tto m . U sin g h e a t e x c h a n g e r th e p o n d w a te r h eat is
used for th e p o w e r g e n e ra tio n . A fla t p la te o f sam e su rfa c e are a w o u ld b e c o stin g ten tim es as
m uch as p o n d b u t e ffic ie n c y ra is e s tw o tim es.
(ii) F o c u ssin g T y p e C o llecto rs

F o cu ssin g ty p e c o lle c to rs are tw o ty p es, lin e fo cu ssin g ty p e and p o in t fo cu ssin g type.
L in e F o c u ssin g T y p e
In a fig. 6.9 g iv en b elo w sh o w s cro ss section o f p ara b o lic th ro u g h c o lle cto r.
Fig. 6.9 Parabolic trough collector

The re fle c tin g ra d ia tio n is co n c e n tra ted at th e fo cas o f the p a ra o o la at the fo cu ssed line
and pipes w ith a b so rb e r c o a tin g are used. In fig. 6 .1 0 show n below ty p ic a l cy lin d ric a l parabolic
system is show n.
Fig. 6.10 Cylinderical parabolic collector
Since the e lev atio n o f the sun is alw ay s c h an g in g this m eth o d o f sy stem is ge'nerally used
in large situations.
P oin t F o cu ssin g typ e

A dish norm ally 6.5 m to 4 m are used. T h e re flec ted lig h t at the fo cus w here ab so rb e r is
placed helps in risin g th e te m p e ra tu re o f th e fluid. T h is ty p e o f p a ra b o lo id is also kno w n as
heliostat if the re fle c tio n is fo c u sse d to a c e n tra lise d a b so rb er (B o iler).
Zirco n iu m - C o p p er alloy is g en erally u sed to ab so rb er and c o a te d w ith b la ck c ro m e . T he

dish can be tu rn ed au to m a tic a lly ab o u t tw o axes.
The sch em atic d iag ram s are show n in fig. 6.11 and fig. 6.1 2 g iv en below .
Fig. 6.12 Distributed (Heliostat) point focus system
6.1.6 In str u m e n ta tio n o f S o la r R a d ia tio n

Tw o b asic ty p e s o f in stru m e n ts are u sed in so la r ra d ia tio n m easu rem en t.
1. P y ro h e lio m e te rs
D irect s o la r ra d ia tio n in te n sity can be m easu red w ith th is, w h ich co n v erts rad ia tio n into
heat and uses th e rm o e le c tric d ev ice to in d ic a te as sig n als in v isu al m eters.
^ 2. P y ra n o m e te r
T otal h e m isp h e ric a l irra d ia tio n is m easu red , u sing p y ran o m eter.
6.2 FUEL C ELLS

The "fuel c e ll" is an e le c tro c h em ic a l d ev ice in w h ich e le c tric al e n e rg y is g e n e rate d by
chem ical re a c tio n . T h e b a sic d iffe re n c e b etw een sto rag e b a tte ry ,o r p rim ary cell and fuel cell is
electrode and e le c tro ly te are in v arian t. W h en cell o p erates the fuel is o x id iz e d and chem ical
reaction p ro v id e s th e e n e rg y w h ich can be c o n v e rte d in to e lec tric ity .
G ro v e d e m o n stra te d the first fuel cell in 1839 usin g P latin u m e le c tro d e s.
T he fig. 6.13 given below show s a general sim plified version o f H ydrogen or H ydrocarbon
fuel cell.
Fuel (Hydrigen/
Hydrocarbon) Load Oxident
(air or O,)
Anode
Electrolyte
Fig. 6.13 Hydrogen fuel cell

168 POWER PL A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
T he fuel is su p p lie d to ano d e w h ere it is o x id ized th ereb y fre e in g e le c tro n s, w h ich flo w in
the circuit, an d th o se H y d ro g e n ions w h ich p ass th ro u g h the e le c tro ly te to th e c ath o d e w h ere,,
they com bine w ith o x y g e n an d e lectro n s to form w ater. E le c tro d e s fo r th is ty p e o f cell are
usually p o ro u s im p re g n a te d w ith a cataly st. In liq u id e le c tro ly te a d e lic a te b a la n c e is ac h iev ed
in w hich su rface ten sio n and d e n sity o f the liq u id m ust be co n sid e re d .
Fuel cells are c la ssifie d as
(i) H igh co st fu e ls {e.g. H y d ro g en )

(ii) In te rm e d ia te c o st fu els {e.g. A lco h o l)
(iii) Low c o st fu e ls {e.g. H y d ro carb o n s)
6.2.1 H y d ro g en -O x y g en C ell
In a fig. 6 .1 4 g iv en b elo w ty p ical H y d ro g en , O x y g en fuel cell is show n.
Loadl
Anode Cathode
Hydrogen
>■ — m---- :----------- K - ......... ^ Qrygan
s
Blectrolyta
KOH+Kp
;T V
Fig. 6.14 Hydrogen - Oxygen fuel cell
T he m id d le space w ill be fille d w ith P o tassiu m H y d ro x id e (K O H ). C are sh o u ld be taken

to m inim ise leak ag e o f K O H into o u te r cham b ers.
T he ch em ical reactio n s are as
H, 2H ^ + 2e“
/ 20 2 + H 20 + 2e" -r -2 OH~
H ydrogen and H y d ro x y l ions co m b in e in the e le c tro ly te to p ro d u c e w ater.
H + + O H - _> H 20
T he w ater fo rm ed w ill be taken o ff th e cham ber.
The H y d ro g en fu el c e lls a re tw o typ es
1. L o w te m p e ra tu re cell
T he e le c tro ly te te m p e ra tu re is 90 °C and o p erates at 4 atm p ressu re.
D IR EC T E N E R G Y C O N V E R S IO N 169
2. H igh p ressu re C ell

In th e se c e lls the tem p eratu re w ill be upto 300°C and p re ssu re around 45 atm s. Prim arily
these c e lls are used to p ro d u ce v o ltag es from 100V to 1000V by a rra n g in g them in series since
the co st is very high th e ir u sage is lim ited to space ap p lic atio n s.
A d v a n ta g e s
1. C o n v e rsio n e ffic ie n cy is very high (a p p ro x im ately 70% ).
2. T ra n sm issio n o f p o w er is not re q u ire d b ec au se th ey can b e in sta lle d near the usage.
3. N o p o llu tio n e ith e r noise o r p o iso n o u s e fflu e n ts.
4. S p ace re q u ire m e n ts are less.
5. N o c o o lin g w ater re q u ire d on large scale.
6. T h ey can sta rt in less tim e.
1. C ap ital c o st is very high
2. S erv ice life is c o n sid erab ly low .
V
6.3 T H E R M O E L E C T R IC G E N E R A T IO N
T h erm o electric g en eratio n is based on the p h en o m en o n d isc o v e re d by "seebeck" in 1821.
A cco rd in g to seeb eck c u rre n t can be p ro d u ced in a clo sed c irc u it o f tw o d issim ila r m etals
if the tw o ju n c tio n s are m ain tain ed at d iffe re n t te m p e ra tu res b u t th e th e rm a l e fficie n cie s o f this
system is very less (1 to 3 p ercen t).
T he c rite rio n fo r e v a lu a tin g m aterial c h a ra c te ristic s fo r th e rm o e le c tric p ow er generation

2
is ( ) fig u re o f m erit m easu red in p er d eg re e cen tigrade.
a : S eeb eck c o e ffic ie n t

p : E le ctrical re sistiv ity
K : T h e rm a l co n d u c tiv ity .
J
T he m ost u n fo rtu n a te th in g is m a te ria ls o f low e le c tric a l re s is tiv ity and have high therm al
co n d u c tiv ity . S o m e e n c o u ra g in g re su lts are o b ta in ed fro m c e ra m ic ty p e m a te ria ls generally
m ade o f sem i c o n d u c to rs d o p e d w ith c o n d u c tiv ity in c re a sin g m a te ria ls. T h e se m ate ria ls are
also know n as m ix e d -v a le n c e m a te ria ls, viz. M a n g a n e se , iron, c o b a lt & n ic k e l treate d with
O xygen, S e le n iu m etc.
U sing this tech n iq u e th erm al efficien cy can be boosted to 20% . S om e typical sem iconductor
th e rm o e le c tric m a te ria ls are A n tim o n y , G e rm a n iu m , A r s e n ic , B ism u th , A llo y s o f lead, Zinc
M anga n ese, C obalt and S ilicon.
B asic P rin cip le

S eeb eck e ffe c t is d e p e n d e n t on th e m aterial o f the g e n e ra to r and the tw o tem peratures. -V
T his is le a st d e p e n d e n t o n th e g eo m e tric arra n g e m en t o f the sy stem . See c h a p te r 1, section 1.9.
A sim p le a rra n g e m e n t is sh o w n in the fig . 6.15 b elo w
Qfa
Fig. 6.15 Elements of therm oelectric generator
T he a n aly sis can be d o n e by a ssu m in g seeb eck c o e ffic ie n t in d e p e n d e n t o f tem p eratu re.
dE
=a
dT
dE
— is th e seeb eck c o e fficien t.
T he h e a t c o n d u c te d is su m o f th e h eat c o n d u c ted in each leg
Q k = Q kA = Q kB
Qk = k ( T h - T c) > .(!= ! , ( E ]
'A \ ^
T h e h e a t lo ss fo r th e g e n e ra to r is th e su m o f I2R lo ss fo r each e le m en t.
I2R = I 2 e ' l +(£*

a Ja U ,b
P o w er o u tp u t o f g e n e ra to r
P = IA V
V : V o ltag e a cro ss g e n e ra to r term in als
V oltag e w ith n o e le c tric a l c u rre n t flo w is
* E ~ ( T h - T c)
E = a ( T h - T c)
C o n sid e rin g in te rn a l v o lta g e loss
A V = a (T h - T c) - Irc
Irc : In tern a l v o lta g e lo ss
N ow P = I a 2
(T h - T c) - I r c
By arran g in g th e se th e rm o c o u p le s in se rie s the h ig h er v o lta g e s can be o b tain ed .
6.4 T H E R M O IO N IC C O N V E R S IO N
Sch licter proposed in 1915 theory o f therm oionic pow er generation. O riginally T.A. Edison
was the m an behind the principle w hich proposed that m etals at elevated tem peratures em it electrons.
F u n d a m en ta l o p e r a tin g p r in c ip le
T h erm o io n ic g e n e ra to r in c lu d e s h eated m etal .electrode (th e e m itte r) to e m it electrons.
A second e le c tro d e , (w h ich is at low te m p e ra tu re) c o lle cto r, is u se d to c o lle c t the electrons.
From this c o lle c to r e le c tro n s flow to an e x tern al c irc u it, thus d e liv e rin g e le c tric a l energy.
H eating the c a th o d e im p a rts su ffic ie n t en ergy to som e o f th e e le c tro n s to lift them over a
barrier know n as w o rk fu n c tio n b a rrie r. In fig. 6 .1 6 show n b e lo w sim p le th e rm o io n ic convertor
is shown.
Fig. 6.16 Elements of thermionic generator

The curren t density (e m itte r) is g iv en by R ich ard so n - D u sh m an e q u atio n
2
J s = A T e- ^ /kT^
Js : T h e satu rated cu rre n t d en sity in A m p ere per
c e n tim e tre square.
Ts : S urface te m p e ra tu re in kelvin
A : R ich ard so n c o n stan t
| 120x104
<J) : W ork fu n ctio n ( e V / )

' /e le c tro n >
K : B oltzm an co st. ( b ,6 x 10"5e'/
Som e m easu red th e rm o io n ic co n stan ts are listed below
S u rface A x ltr 4 <t> M elting

m aterial 2
(A /m - K 2) tem p era tu re (K )
C esium (Cs) 162 1.812 3 02.12

T ungsten (W ) 60 4.521 3 6 4 2.98
T horiu m (Th) 60 3.3 4 9 . 2 1 1 8 .0 8
M olybdenum (M o) 55 4.2 1 0 2893
By co n sid erin g sp a c e ch arg e R ic h a rd D u sh m a n eq u atio n is m od ified

j _ ^T 2 e -(<t>e+<t>m)/kT
}
A p p lic a tio n s
1
() T h erm o to n ic c o n v e rto rs are used m ainly in M ilitary and S p ace a p p lica tio n s w here
lig h tw eig h t an d e ffic ie n cy are need ed m oderately.
(ii) T h e rm o io n ic co n v erto rs are also used in n u clea r re ac to rs fo r "topping".
M a jo r d isa d v a n ta g e o f T h erm o io n ic C o n v erter is to w ith sta n d co rro sio n .
6.5 M A G N E T O H Y D R O D Y N A M IC (M H D ) G E N E R A T IO N
6.5.1 P rin cip le
C harge is induced in a solid conductor, w hen it is p u shed through a m agnetic field. Sim ilarly
if an ionized gas is p assed th ro u g h m agnetic field som e e le ctro n s in the io n ize d gas are directed
to one o f the tw o e le c tro d e s w h ich inturn co n n ected to ex tern al e le c tric al circu it.
In the F ig. 6.17 g iv en below the p rin cip le is show n.
-ve electrode
© -» e>^ O '*
© —> © ->
© ->
I W W W W W X W V W W N W s W W V K VN
+ve electrode
External loarl
Fig. 6.17 Charge separation in an ionized gas
T h is is th e b a sic p rin c ip le o f M H D co n v ersion. T h e e le m e n ts o f M H D p la n t is show n in

F ig. 6.18 g iv en below
Fig. 6.18 Elements of a MHD plant
T he g as e x p e rie n c es b re a k in g fo rce ju s t as re ta rd in g fo rc e o f tu rb in e b lad ers. T he ionized

gas is also c alled as "seed" in M H D term in o lo g y .
The e m f in d u ced is d ire c tly d ep en d s on th e velo city o f h ig h tem p e ra tu re (~3000°C )fluid
and m agnetic field stren g th
E= V x B
E : In d u ce d e m f in c irc u it
*
V : V elo city
B : M ag n etic field stren g th
T his is a lso k n o w n as H a ll e ffe c t.

T he p o w e r o u tp u t p e r u n it v o lu m e
t "
22
P = crn V B k (1 - k )
a.pc E le c tric a l c o n d u c tiv ity o f io n iz ed gas
f closed circuit voltage '

L o ad fa c to r
^ open circuit voltage
6 .5 .2 M H D C la ssific a tio n
B ro ad ly M H D sy ste m s are c la ssifie d as
MHD
Open Cycle Closed Cycle

Systems System s
Seeded Inert gas Liquid Metal

System System
6.5.2.1 O p en C y cle M a g n e to h y d r o d y n a m ic S y stem

T h e sc h e m a tic a rra n g e m e n t is sh o w n in Fig. 6.1 9 below .
Fig. 6.19 Schem atic of an open cycle MHD generator
T he fu el u sed in th is p la n t is-coal, o il o r n atu ral gas. T h e oil fu el m ay p a ss th ro u g h oil tank

and coal th ro u g h coal g a sific a tio n p lan t. G en erally used io n ized flu id s are C esium and Potassium .
T he seed is g en erally P o ta ssiu m C arbonate. T h is can be io n iz ed at very h ig h te m p era tu res i.e.,
around 26 0 0 °C. H en ce th e p reh eated c o m p re sse d air (1 0 0 0 °C ) is sen t to bu rn the coal in
co m b u stio n c h a m b e r o r O x y g en can be used to en h an ce the c o m b u stio n . If th e gas te m p eratu re _
falls near 1900 °C th e io n iz a tio n o f P o ta ssiu m is in su ffic ie n t to p ro d u ce e le c tric ch arg e. A round
25% to 35% o f h e a t w ou ld b e c o n v e rte d in to ele c tric ity .
D IR E C T E N E R G Y CONVERSION 175
6.S .2.2 C lo sed C y cle M H D

T h e re are tw o b a sic ty p e s o f c lo se d cy cle M H D S.
F ir st typ e
By io n iz in g seed m a te ria l e le c tric al c o n d u c tiv ity is o b ta in e d in w o rk in g fluid.
S eco n d typ e
L iq u id m etal c o n d u c t th e e le c tric ity . C h em ically in e rt g as is the c a rrie r and Helium or
A rg o n w ith C esiu m acts as w o rk in g o f fluid.
(a) L iq u id m eta l sy stem

T h e b a sic a d v a n ta g e o f c lo se d c y c le liq u id m etal sy stem is h ig h e le c tric a l conductivity.
B u t h o w e v e r h ig h v e lo c itie s c a n n o t b e a c h ie v e d as th e y c a n n o t b e ex p anded as gas.
H ence m a x im u m th e rm a l e ff ic ie n c y is le ss. A sim p le c lo s e d c y c le liq u id m e ta l MHD cycle
is sh o w n in F ig . 6 .2 0 .
Conricraer
Feed water
Fig. 6.20 Closed cycle MHD generator using liquid metal as w orking fluid
T h e w o rk in g flu id is p a sse d th ro u g h n o zzle and high d ire c te d v e lo c ity o f conductor is

p rovid ed by c a rrie r gas. A fte r p a ssin g th ro u g h g e n e ra to r the liq u id m e tal and carrier gas are
separated . T h e re m a in in g h e a t o f gas is tra n sfe rred to w ater in h e a t e x c h a n g e r to produce steam
w hich o p erate the tu rb in e.
T h u s fin a lly c a rrie r g as is c o o led , c o m p ressed and re fo rm e d to c o m b u stio n cham ber for
reh eatin g and m ixed w ith liq u id m etal (re c o v e red ) u su ally w o rk in g flu id tem p eratu re is 800 °C.
T he liq u id m etal c o m in g out w ith h ig h v elo city is p assed th ro u g h M H D g e n e rato r and (D.C)
pow er is p ro d u ced .
(b) S eed ed in e r t g a s sy stem

H ere the to tal sy ste m w o rk s in th re e lo o p s, b u t in te r lo ck in g . T h e y are
1. E x te rn a l h e a tin g loop.
2. M HD Loop,
3. S team lo o p ,
In extern al h eatin g lo o p , the h eat is p ro d u ced by b u rn in g co al gas in c o m b u sto r. T h is h eat

is transferred to c a rrie r g as o f M H D lo o p . H ere c a rrie r gases are A rg o n o r H elium . A fte r passin g
through air p re h e a te r (h e a t reco v er) th ese g asses are d isch arg ed to atm o sp h e re. T h e p ro b lem o f
flashy extractio n d oes not arise b e c a u se co m b u stio n system is sep a rated fro m w o rk in g fluid.
The cycle is show n in F ig. 6.21 g iv e n belo w .
Air
Generate!
Fig. 6.21 A closed cycle MHD system
M HD loop is the c e n te r lo o p w h ere th e actu al po w er o u tp u t (D C ) is o b tain e d . T he/ hot

Argon gas, seed ed w ith C esium is p assed through M H D g en era to r at high sp eed . U sin g inV erter
the D.C pow ers is o b tain ed an d is c o n v e rte d into A .C pow er.
In steam loop the re c o v e rin g h eat o f w orking fluid is carrie d o u t and h e n ce this isX :onverted
into electricity.
T he w orking flu id is retu rn ed back to p rim ary h eat e x ch an g e r p assin g th ro u g h c o m p re sso r
and intercooler. T h e w o rk in g flu id m u st be clean (pure).
A d v a n ta g e s o f M H D
1. P o w er g en eratio n is large.
2. E fficien cy (co n v ersio n ) is co n sid erab ly high, (m ore than 40% ).
3. A b ility to start q uickly.
4. M o re reliab le becau se no m atin g parts.
5. S ize o f the p lan t is sm aller than co n v en tio n al fo ssil plan ts.
6. It is ap p lic a b le to peak po w er g en eratio n s and also e m e rg en c y se rv ic e.
4
7. F u el u tiliz a tio n is b e tte r in these plants.
*1. W ith a n eat sk etch ex p lain d irect cy cle o f M H D .
2. D iscuss ab o u t th e rm o e le c tric e ffe c t w ith n eat sketch. M ake o u t re la tiv e m erits and dem erits
o f th e rm o e le c tric effect.
3. D efine w o rk fu n c tio n . W ith neat sk etch d iscu ss th e rm o io n ic e m issio n .
4. C la ssify so la r p o w e r p lan ts b ased on tem p eratu re. D iscu ss any one w ith n eat sketch.
5. W rite about
(a) F lat p la te c o lle c to rs
(b) P arab o lic c o lle c to r
(c) S o lar plant
(d) Fuel cells
(e) P elton effect
6. D iscu ss re la tiv e m erits an d d em erits o f M H D .
S e lf - test
1. T h e rm o e le ctric g e n e ra to r w o rk in g p rin cip le is [

(a) S eebeck e ffe c t (b) F arad ay 's law
(c) P e ltie r e ffe c t (d) N one
2. T e m p e ra tu re o f w o rk in g flu id in M H D cy cle is [
(a) 90 0 °C (b) 7 1 5 (,C
(c) 120 0 °C (d) 30()0°C
3. T h ern io io n ic e m issio n m ain ly d ep en d s on I

(a) \v o rk fu n c tio n
(b) b in d in g energy
(c) c o n fig u ra tio n o f the arran g em en t
(d) n one
4. T h e rm o e le c tric en erg y co n v e rsio n is due to

(a) e m issio n e ffect
(b) ra d ia tio n e ffect
(c) therm al e n erg y
(d) ch em ical e n erg y
5. E x am p le o f d ire c t e n e rg y co n v e rsio n is []
(a) H y d ro e le c tric p o w er
(b) S team p o w er
(c) T h e rm o e le c tric e ffect
(d) N one
6. S o u rce o f en erg y in fuel c e lls is

(a) ch em ical en erg y
(b) h eat energy
(c) electrical en erg y
(d) none
A n sw e rs
1. a 2. d 3. a 4. a 5. c 6. a
Chapter - 7
H ydroelectric Power
T he e n erg y o f the w a te r by v irtu e o f its p o sitio n can be d e riv ed and used for m echanical
drives and p o w er p ro d u c tio n , p o w er o f such kind is kno w n as w a te r p ow er.
W ater p o w e r (H yd ro E le c tric ity ) is the c h eap est o f all e n e rg ie s in o u r co u n try . M oreover

20% o f w o rld p o w er is by h y d ro p la n ts only.
P o ten tial e n erg y re la tiv e to o cean level can be c o n v e rte d in to sh aft work- and ultim ately
into electricity .
WH . ( _ pQ H
The sh att h o u se p o w e r (H P) = x 2 r |J — x Tlh)
W : R ate o f w ate r flo w in kg/sec.
H :H eig h t o f w a te rfall in m eters.
tih : H y d ra u lic e ffic ie n c y o f prim e mover.
Pow er d ev elo p ed in kW =
pQ H
kW (P o w er) = —^ r x r)h x r \^ x rig x 0.736
{ T) : M ech an ical effic ie n c y
t]„ : G e n e ra tio n effic ie n cy
T h e s’tu d y m a tte r f o r m e s ite s e le c t i o n o f an h y d r a u l i c p o w e r p la n t b a s ic a lly

depends on •
1. A v ailab ility o f w a te r and

2. H ead (po ten tial o f w ater).
As the second p o in t (i.e. head) is to tally d e p en d e n t on site se le c tio n p ro cess, the first poinl
(i.e. w ater a va ila b ility) is g en erally m atter o f rain fall and run o ff. H ence it is o f considerable
interest to an acco m p lish ed h y d ro p o w e r eng in eer.
180 POWER P L A N T ENG IN EER IN G
7.2 HYRDOLOGY
T here is no p e rfe c t d efin itio n o f h y d ro lo g y , d iffe re n t d e fin itio n s are g iv e n by different
authors.
D efin itio n
T he stu d y o f w ater, in c lu d in g rain , snow , w ater on e a rth ’s su rfa c e , c o v e rin g its properties,
d istribution an d u tiliz a tio n is c alled h y d ro lo g y .
or
"S tud y o f ra in fa ll an d runoff"

A n o th er im p o rta n t term a sso c ia te d w ith h y d ro lo g y ,is h y d ro lo g ic a l cycle.
I
7.3 H Y D R O L O G IC A L C Y C L E
T he scien ce w hich d e a ls w ith ra ilfa ll and ru n -o ff is c a lle d h y d ro lo g y . T he evaporation o f
w ater from th e su rfa c e o f riv e r an d o cean s and its p re c ip ita tio n on the earth is know n as the
h y d ro lo g ical cy cle. T h e h y d ro lo g ic a l c y c le c o n sid e ra tio n s h e lp s us to fin d o u t the d istrib u tio n o f
p recip itatio n on the e a rth 's su rfa c e an d b e n eath the earth. C lo u d s are fo rm ed due to ev ap o ratio n
o f w ater. W hen th e se c lo u d s co o le d below the d ew p o in t te m p e ra tu re they fall in the fo rm o f
w ater or snow on th e e a rth , c a lle d p re c ip ita tio n . T h is cy clic p ro c e ss is called h y d ro lo g ical cycle.
See fig. 7.1.
Fig. 7.1 Hydrological cycle
In o th e r w o rd s it a c y c lic m o v e m e n t o f w ater fro m th e sea to th e atm o sp h e re o f e v a p o ratio n

and th en b ack to th e e a rth su rfa c e (sea, o cean ) by p re c ip itatio n .
T h e h y d ro lo g ic a l e q u a tio n is
P rec ip ita tio n = R u n o f f + E va p o ra tio n .
P re c ip ita tio n
It is sam e as c o n d e n sa tio n i.e. c o n v e rtin g n atu ral w a te r v a p o u r in to w ater.
H Y D R O E L E C T R IC P O W E R 181
B asically p re c ip ita tio n is o f tw o ty p es
1. L iq u id p re c ip ita tio n (R ain fall).

2. S o lid p re c ip ita tio n (S now ).
R un o ff
It is the p o rtio n o f p re c ip ita tio n w hich reaches the stream s again. O b v io u sly this know ledge
aids is in p o w er p la n t p la n n in g . R un o ff o ccu rs only if the rate o f p re c ip ita tio n ex ceeds the rate
o f w hich w a te r 'in filtra te s in to the soil.
E v a p o r a tio n
It tak es p la c e fro m the su rface o f o cean s, riv ers, lakes etc.
T h e w ater a v a ila b le fo r sto ra g e is k n o w as Yield.
T h e sto red w a te r is u sed fo r irrig a tio n , w ater supply, e n erg y p ro d u c tio n etc.
7.4 ST R E A M F L O W M E A S U R E M E N T S
T h e q u a n tity o f w a te r flo w in g in a riv e r w ould be v ary in g and m ay n o t be co n sta n t for a
perio d o f tim e. T h e re fo re the flow m e a su re m en t is very im p o rtan t. S o the q u a n tity o f w ater
flow ing and its v a ria tio n w ith tim e is a m a tte r o f co n sid e ra b le in te re st. T h e re are no w orthy
m eth o d s, e x cep t d ire c t m e a su re m e n t at a g iv en site fo r lo n g en o u g h tim e.
W e can asses th e fo llo w in g p a rtic u la rs ab o u f p o w er p o te n tial
1. T h e m in im u m e n e rg y o u tp u t p o ssible.
2. M in im u m o u tp u t p er day w ith o u t storage.
3. T h e sto ra g e c a p a c ity req u ired to en su re the g iv en flow .
4. C a p a c ity o f sp illw a y s re q u ire d to re le a se ex c ess w ater.
U sing a channel o f fixed cross section and m easuring the w ater velocity using current meters
at m axim um points o f the cross section at different w ater levels at reg u lar intervals the flow volume
may be m easured. A nd by integrating the velocities over the cross section total flow can be calculated.
A curve can be plotted betw een gauge, height and discharge, show n in fig. 7.2.
Fig. 7.2 Curve relating water level at gauging station and stream flow
By m u ltip ly in g d isc h a rg e w ith head we g et en erg y a v a ila b le fo r p o w er g en eratio n . By

using m ath em atical th eo ry o f p ro b ab ility and u sin g av ailab le d a ta w e can p red ict the average
floods o f g iv en flo w s o c c u r in so m any years.
The part o f the h y d rau lic p lan t cap acity a v ailab le at all tim es (i.e. w hen e n e rg y need arises)
is know n as p r im a ry p o w e r. W h ereas th e a v a ila b ility o f ad d itio n al (w o rk ) o u tp u t at high water
flow s is k n ow n as se c o n d a ry p o w er. T he stream flow d ep en d s on ra in fa ll. A ty p ic a l hydrograph
is show n below w hich ex p lain s the tim e o f ra in fa ll a v a ilab ility in fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.3 Hydrograph for a stream
7.5 H YDRO G RAPH

A h y d ro g rap h is a d isc h a rg e -tim e cu rv e o f the flow . It show s the v ariatio n o f river flow
w ith tim e. It m ay be p lo tte d b ased on d ata, o f w eeks, m onths and even years. D isch arg e on
y -a x is and tim e on x -axis.
N o te : H y d ro g rap h is riv e r site d ep en d en t there is no u n iv e rsal h y d ro g rap h er.
In general a H y d ro g rap h er show s the av ailab ility o f p ow er (im p ed an ce to p o w er production)

in a specified tim e p eriod.
7.5.1 L im ita tio n s o f H y d ro g ra p h

1. It's u,se is lim ited to sm all re g io n s (~ 5 000 K m 2) b ec au se ra in fa ll d istrib u tio n is not
sam e o v er w ide g eo g rap h ical areas.
2. A b o u t m o u n tain reg io n s, since the rain fall d istrib u tio n is uneven h y d ro g ra p h s cannot
be used.
7.5 .2 Im p o rta n ce o f H y d ro g ra p h
1. It g iv es d isc h a rg e a v ailab le at d iffe re n t tim e (day, w eek, m o n th o r year).
2. M ax im u m and m in im u m run o ff can also be stu d ied .
3. It g iv es m ean run o ff (m ean an n u al run o ff o r m ean m o n th run off)
H Y D R O E L E C T R I C PO W ER 183
4. It h e lp s in s tu d y in g th e e ffe c ts o f sto ra g e on flow .

4 5. T h e a rea u n d e r th e h y d ro g ra p h g iv es to tal v o lu m e o f w a te r fo r g iv en durations.
7.6 D R A IN A G E A R E A C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
l
In d ra in a g e a re a c h a ra c te ris tic s w e g e n e ra lly stu d y , H y d ro g ra p h s, flo w d u ra tio n curve,
m ass cu rv e fo r e stim a tio n o f sto ra g e c a p a c ity o f a reserv o ir.
H ydrograph
It is p lo t b etw een d isc h a rg e and tim e. In o th e r w ords it show s the riv e r flo w v ariations
with resp e c t to tim e. S e e se c tio n 7.5.
T h e re are th re e ty p e s o f stre a m s b ased on n a tu re o f flow .
(a) S tead y flo w riv e rs.
(b) ' F la sh y flo w riv ers.
(c) p eren n ial flow
(a) S te a d y flo w
If the v a ria tio n o f d isc h a rg e is less fo r a c o n sid e ra b le tim e su ch stream s are term ed as
steady steam s. T h e A n n u al h y d ro g ra p h is sh o w n b elo w in fig 7 .4
,A!
M /V i 1 ! Y \ I |
!\
V/ ‘
i i V
iv'Vv'-
Ja a Feb' M ar A pr M sy Juo Kov 15=0

M o n th >
Fig. 7.4 Annual hydrograph of a river with exceptionally steady flow
(b) F la sh y flo w
In certain areas w h ere soil su rfa c e s are im p erv io u s, irre g u la r d istrib u tio n and slope. The
flow o f steam s in such areas is g e n e ra lly flash y and the h y d ro g ra p h c h a ra c te ristic s o f flashy riv er
is show n in fig. 75.
-V
Fig. 7.5 Annual hydrograph of a river with flashy characteristics

(c) P e re n n ia l stre a m s
The stream s in th e g e o g ra p h ic a l areas o f m o n so o n lan d s gen erally riv er flo w levels are^
low in sum m er and h ig h d u rin g m o n so o n tim e. S u ch strea m s are called as peren n ial stream - A
H ydrograph fo r tw o su c h riv e rs are sh o w n in Fig. 7 .6 .
Fig. 7.6 Monthly discharges for perennial streams
F low d u ra tio n cu rv e
From th e d ata o f h y d ro g ra p h and ru n -o ff d a ta a cu rv e can be d ra w n k n o w n as F low
d istrib u tio n curve. It is a g rap h p lo tte d b etw een d isch a rg e a n d p e r c e n ta g e tim e. T y p ical flow
duration cu rv e is sh o w n in fig. 7.7. T h is flow d u ratio n cu rv e is also kno w n as P o w e r duration
'curve. D e p e n d a b ility o f d isc h a rg e can be assessed fro m th is flo w d u ra tio n cu rv e.
Fig. 7.7 Flow duration curve
M ass C urve
It is th e g ra p h o f c u m u la tiv e v a lu e s o f run o f f (w a te r q u a n tity ) an d tim e. S torage !
.req u irem en ts can be a sse sse d by this curve. S lo p e o f the m ass c u rv e at a p o in t g iv es the rate o f '
inflow at that in stan t. Fig. 7.8 sh o w s ty p ical m ass curve. T he m ass cu rv e is the cum ulative flow
volum e - tim e curve.
H Y D R O E L E C T R IC POWER 185
Fig. 7.8 Mass curve
C u m u lativ e v o lu m e o f w atei at any tim e T is given by V = | Q dt

o
T he slo p e o f the cu rv e g iv es the av erag e flow d u rin g the p e rio d o f in te re st Q = rate o f flow
V BC
= —= = tan 0. It is the slo p e o f the graph.
1 nL -
7.7 STO R A G E AND PO N D A G E ’ '

S to r a g e
T he c o lle c tio n o f w a te r in a re se rv o ir u p stream o f the p lan t and in c rea sin g the capacity of
stream fo r a long p erio d o f tim e a c alled storge.
S to rag e p lan ts w ork as b ase load and p eak load statio n s. B ase load plants are o f high
capacity and tak es the load on th e b ase p o rtio n o f the load cu rv ed . P eak lo ad p lants are designed
for taking care o f peak loads. A sim p le load cu rv e is show n below in fig. 7.9.
' T i n t ' O '" * )

Fig. 7.9 Load curve
! 86 POWER PL AN T E N G IN E E R IN G
Pondage
For a sh o rt p erio d o f tim e the p o n d ag e in c re a se s the stre am c a p a c ity b ehind a dam near
the plant. Pond p erm its to sto re w ater d u rin g o ff peak h o u rs and th is c o u ld be used during peak
hours o f the sam e day. P o n d ag e takes care o f flu ctu atio n s on h o u r to h o u r basis over a day. If
storage is p ro v id ed n e a r the p la n t, no p o n d ag e is n ecessary as the sto ra g e its e lf w ill provide the
necessary p ondage. If there is a c o n sid e ra b le d ista n c e betw een p lan t and the reservoir, pond is
needed at the p lan t to re g u la te th e flow . T h e cap acity o f the pond has to be determ ined considering
the in-flow and o u t flo w o f stre a m no m a tte r th e lo catio n o f pond. In sim ple w ords pondage
refers to the c o lle c tio n o f w a te r b eh in d the d am n ear the p la n t and in c rea se s the stream cap acity
for short periods.
7.8 D A M S A N D S P IL L W A Y S
7.8.1 D am s
D efin itio n D am is a c o n c re te or sto n e m aso n ry b a rrie r to raise w ater fo r sto ra g e and also
hydraulic head.
It is the m ost im p o rta n t stru c tu re for high and m edium head hydro p ow er p la n t and incurs
huge capital (~ 25% o f total p ro ject co st). T h e D am m ust fulfil tw o fu n d am en tal fu n c tio n s
(i) It d ev elo p s a re se rv o ir w hich has a cap acity to sto re w ater.

(ii) It b u ild s up head and thus p o ten tial fo r the riv er ie. w aterh ead .
C la ssific a tio n o f d a m s
Dams
Masqnry dams Earth fill dams
Gravity dams Buttress dam Arch dams Earth fill dams Rock fill dams
B efo re any c o n stru c tio n o f dam the site m ust be c are fu lly stu d ied and the n atu re o f dam
need to be c o n stru c te d is o f cru cial im p o rtan ce.
S ite se le c tio n fo r dam s

(i) G ood b asin sh o u ld be q.vailable.
(ii) T h e c o n stru c tio n m aterials sh o u ld be a v ailab le at the darn site o r n ea rb y .
(iii) S in ce the m in im u m p o ssib le h eig h t and length is a good e c o n o m ic w ay o f dam
c o n stru c tio n u su ally narrow v alley s are preferred.
(iv) G ood catc h m e n t area sh o u ld be there on the up stream o f the dam .
H Y D R O E L E C T R IC PO W ER 187
(v) T h e re sh o u ld be su ita b le site a v ailab le fo r the sp illw a y c o n stru c tio n so that surplus
* w a te r m ay be d isc h a rg e d .
(vi) E asy a c c e ssib le and co m m u n icab le at all tim es.
D am ty p e se le c tio n
D am se le c tio n g re a tly d e p e n d s on g e o lo g ic al facto rs.
- If th e fo u n d a tio n is so u n d an d c o m p o sed o f ro ck s any ty p e o f d am can be selected.
- If the e a rth b a sis has p o o r ro c k stru c tu res g en erally E arth d am s are preferred.
If the v alley is n arro w w ith good rocky flo o r arch dam can be ad opted.
- If v alley is w ide and fo u n d a tio n is, w eek b u ttres dam is b etter.
- S teel d am can be a d o p te d fo r any w idth v alley w ith g o o d fo u n d atio n .
If th e w ater level re q u ire d is low fo r any w id th o f v alley and fo r any foundation
tim b e r d am is b etter. F o r w ide v alley w ith g en tle slo p es, it is b e tte r to construct
earth dam .
If the liftin g p re ssu re is high on the b ase o f the d am , A rch dam s are b etter.
M aso n ry d a m s
1. S o lid g r a v ity dam
T h is dam is c o n stru c te d u sin g m aso n ry c o n cre te o r m o rtar. It is b u lk y and m assive than

o ther types. S ound ro ck fo u n d a tio n is req u ired . T he h e ig h t o f th e d am is lim ite d by the strength
o f the base. T h e stru c tu re is show n in fig 7.10. T h e d esign is sim p le b u t it con su m e heavy
m aterials. T h is type o f d am s are m ore eco n o m ic a l at sm all riv e r v alley s. T h ese dam s provides
safe and eco n o m ical sp illw a y fa c ilitie s. T h e sta b ility o f so lid g ra v ity dam m ainly depends on
w eight, (w eig h t due to c o n c re te ).
Roadlevnl
Fig. 7.10 Solid gravity dam

188. PO W ER P L A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
2. A rc h d am s
Arch dam s are curved in plan. Structure is curved upstream . T his type o f dam s are moref"
econom ical and stronger than gravity dam s. T his type o f dam s are only suitable for narrow valleys
with steep slopes o f solid rock to support the outw ard thrust o f the structure. T he w ater thrust is
resisted by the arch action alone to the large extent, so the total section w ould be a subjected to
com pression. A rch type o f m asonry dam is show n in the Fig. 7.11. It is necessary to provide a
separate spillw ay for this dam . A rch dam is quake free if the reservoir is full but not w hile it is empty.
India's first arch dam w as constructed in K erala know n as Idikki hydel p o w e r station.
Fig. 7.11 Arched type of masonry dam
3. B u ttr e s d am s
T hey are also know n as hollow gravity dam s inclined upstream face so that the pressure of
w ater create large dow nw ard force w hich provides stability o f sliding and overturning. T he force
(pressure o f w ater) is transm itted to a row o f buttres (A rchpiers). T hey are also safe against earthquakes
hence countries like Japan and Italy are going for these dam s. It requires l/3 rd o f m aterial required
for solid gravity dam. T he arrangem ent is show n in fig. 7.12. B uttress dam s are generally triangular
in shape.
(a) Buttress dam Fig. 7.12 (b) Section of buttress dam

A dvantages o f bu ttress dam s

(i) T hese dam s are m uch lighter in w eight.
(ii) No scope o f o v erturning or sliding o f dam since the pressure is alw ays on the sloping
deck.
(iii) A lterations can be done easily (height o f dam ) against the above advantages the only
disadvantage is extra cost and need o f skilled w orkers.
(iv) Pow er house and other equipm ent can be housed is the space betw een buttresses thus
saving space cost.
4. Fill d am s (E m b ank m ent dam s)
Earth fill dam s
It is generally used for sm all capacity pow er plants.
A dvantages
1. C heaper than m asonry dam s.
2. C an be built at any locations.
3. Suitable for relatively pervious foundation.
4. G ets stronger with age.
5. C an be erected quickly.
D isadvantages
1. S eepage loss is greater than other dam s.
2. R equires m ore m aintenance.
3. S upplem entary spill w ay is required.
4. Fails suddenly w ithout any warning.
5. It is subjected to erosion and flood dam age.
6. L im ited in height.
7. " Not suitable in areas o f heavy rainfall.
Fig. 7.13 show s Earth fill dam. T hese dam s are m ade o f clay, silt and sand. B ase is longer
then height. Instead o f clay and silt, loose rock, gravel and floor can also be used.
Fig. 7.13 Earth fill dam

(ii) R o ck fill D am
T h ese d am s are e v e n tu a lly c o n stru c te d in m o u n ta n eo u s re g io n s w here ro c k is ra th e r than,
earth is av ailab le. R o c k fill d am is show n in fig. 7.14. R o ck fill d am s c o n sists
(i) L ose R o ck fill
(ii) An u p stre a m d ry ru b b le cu sh io n o f laid up sto n e b o n d in g into the dum ped rock.
(iii) A n u p stre a m im p e rv io u s m em b ran e on dry ru b b le cu shion.
Fig. 7.14 Rock-filled dam
7.7 .2 S p illw a y s
S p illw a y s acts as a safety v alv e for a dam . T h ey are p ro v id e d on dam s to avoid dam ag e to
dam s. T h e y k eep the re se rv o ir level b elo w the p re d e te rm in ed m a x im u m level. T h e dow n stream
m ust alw ay s be p ro v id e d a safe p assag e. U n til dam reach es fu ll re se rv e level sp illw ay s never
disch arg e th e w a te r to d o w n stream .
D e fin itio n T h e p a rt o f the dam w hich d isc h arg e s the flo o d flo w to the dow n stream side
is called as S p illw ay .
T h e re are d iffe re n t ty p es o f sp illw ay s.

(a) O v erflo w sp illw ay s
(b) C h u te sp illw a y s
(c) S h aft sp illw a y s
(d) Side c h an n el sp illw a y s
(e) S ip h o n sp illw ay s
(a) O v e r flo w sp illw a y s (O g ee sp illw a y s)

T his is the sim plest, low in cost and suitable for concrete dam s. W hen dam reaches full reservoir
level stream overflow s from the top as show n in the fig. 7.15 (a). T here m ay be a gate control at t h e ^
top o f a dam. Here the counter w eight is provided to lift the gate. T his is show n in fig. 7.15 (b). This
type o f spillw ay is w idely used on gravity arch and butress dams.
(b) C h u te S p illw a y (T h ro u g h sp illw a y )
This spillw ay is a channel m ade o f reinforced concrete slap. T he w ater is discharged into steep
sloped open channel called chute. T h is type o f spills are adopted to earth or rockfill dam s Fig. 7.16
shown below gives the details. T his is sim ple in design and construction and adoptable to alm ost all
foundations.
Fig. 7.15 Chute spillway
(c) S h a ft S p illw a y s
In this spillw ays w ater d rops through vertical sh aft and passes th ro u g h a conduit horizontally
and sends the w ater dow n stream . W hen there is very lim ited space for sp illw ay s this type is
adopted. Fig. 7.17. M ain d ra w b a c k o f th is sp illw ay is the hazard o f c lo g g in g w ith debris. So
care should taken th at in p re v e n tin g d eb ris from en terin g into sh a ft sp illw ay .
Fig. 7.17 Shaft spillways

P 192 POWER P L A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
(d) Side ch an n el sp illw a y s

These spillw ays are e m p lo y e d at n arro w g o rg es (n a rro w ste e p sid e v alley ) o r n arro w
;anyons. W hen the scope fo r o v erflo w on ch u te sp illw ay s is very less this type is e m p lo y ed .
4 simple Side C hannels S p illw ay s is show n in Fig. 7.18.
Fig. 7.15
(e) Siphon sp illw a y

The stream is d isch arg ed by sip h o n ic actio n hence the nam e sip h o n spillw ay. Fig 7.19
shows general sip h o n ic spillw ay. W hen d isch arg e is c o n sid era b ly low this type is p refe rred .
W hen all the air is rem o v ed in sip h o n the sp ace gets filled w ith w ater, siphon action starts and
w ater starts flo w in g o v er the crest. T h is will co n tin ue until the re se rv o ir level b ec o m es d o w n
below the inlet or m outh level.
Fig. 7.19 Siphon spillway

"V l. W hat is a dam ? H ow m any ty p es o f dam s ? E x p lain about

(i) R ock fill dam s
(ii) B uttress dam s
2. C lassify dam s. W hat facto rs are co n sid ered in selec tin g a ty p e o f d am s ?
3. D efine H y d ro lo g y . D raw and exp lain the h y d ro lo g ic al cycle.
4. D iscu ss the site se le c tio n s facto rs o f H y d ro e lec tric p o w e rs plant.
5. W rite sh o rt n o tes on
(a) H y d ro g ra p h
(b) H y d ro lo g ical cy cles
(c) H y d ra u lic ash sy stem
(d) S tream flow m easu rem en ts
S elf - test
1. C u m u lativ e v alu es o f w ater q u an tity (ru n -o ff) a g a in st tim e is

(a) M ass cu rv e
(b) H y d ro g rap h
(c) F low d u ratio n curve
(d) N one
2. H y d ro g rap h is
(a) D isch arg e o f flo w in g w a te r w ith re sp e c t to tim e
(b) G raph re p re se n tin g the annual flow rate o f w ater
fte ) W ater a v a ila b le ro u n d th e y ear graph
(d) N one
3. Flow d u ratio n cu rv e re p resen ts

(a) A v a ila b ility o f w ater
(b) R un - o ff d ata
(c) R un out d ata
(d) D isch arg e o f w ater
4. P o w er a v a ila b le from fallin g w ater is given by
IV
(d) N one
5..................is a sm all re se rv o ir (or tank) in w hich w a ter lev el ra ise s o r fa lls to red u ce pow er
sw in g s
(a) D am
(b) S p illw ay
(c) C anal
(d) S urge tank
A n sw ers
1. c 2. b 3. c 4. b 5. b
Chapter - 8
T ypes of H ydroelectric Pow er Plants
T h ere are d if f e re n t ty p e s o f h y d ro e le c tric p o w e r p la n ts. T h e h y d e l p la n ts are c la ssified
based on a v a ila b le h e a d an d fu n c tio n o f th e p la n t lik e s to ra g e p la n t. P u m p e d sto ra g e p la n t is
an o th er type o f h y d e l p la n t g a in in g p o p u la rity th o u g h the c o m b in e d e ffic ie n c y is less. F or
co m m ercial p ro d u c tio n o f e n e rg y th ro u g h w a te r re s o u rc e s it is s u ita b le c a se w hen w ater
available is in a d e q u a te . T h e g e n e ra l lay o u t o f hy d el p la n t w ith its a u x ilia rie s and cla ssific a tio n
are to be know n.
8.2 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N
y. H ydro-electric p lan ts are c la ssifie d acco rd in g .
(i) B ased on a v a ila b le head
1. H igh h ead p la n ts (H = 100 m and abo v e ~ 2 0 0 0 m)

2. M ed iu m head p lan ts (H .=, 30m to 100 m)
3. Low h ead p lan ts (H = < 30m )
(ii) B ased on the n atu re o f load
1. B ase lo ad p lan ts
2. P eak load p lan ts
(iii) B ased on q u a n tity o f w ater a v ailab le
1. R u n -o ff riv e r p lan ts (w ith and w ith o u t po n d ag e)

2. S to rag e plants
3. P u m p ed sto ra g e plants.
8.2.1 H ig h H e a d P la n ts
If the hydraulic head is m ore than 100 m the plants are know n as high head plants. Sometimes
even the head closes 2000m also safe spillw ays are very m uch needed for such plants.
Pelton w heel is em p lo y ed in such p lan ts as a prim e m over. T h e w ater from the main
reservoir is first c arried by a tu n n el upto surge tan k and then is c a rrie d th ro u g h pen sto k e (pipe) to
pow er house. S urge ta n k re d u c e s w a te r h am m er e ffec ts on the p e n stock.
8.2.2 M edium H ead P la n ts

If th e h y d ra u lic h e a d is b e tw e e n 30 and 100 m , th e p o w e r p la n ts are c a te g o rise d a s f
m edium head p o w e r plants.
F rancis P ro p e lle r an d K a p la n T u rb in es are u sed as prim e m o v ers in th ese p la n ts. W ater is

carried by p en sto ck s. F o reb ay is p ro v id ed at the b eg in n in g o f p e n sto c k and serv es as re se rv o ir.
Forebay its e lf act as su rg e tank.
8.2.3 Low H ead P la n ts

If the head is b elo w 30 m th e plan ts are kn o w n as low h e a d p la n ts. G e n e rally w ater is not
carried to p lan t by p e n sto c k but the p o w er plants are lo ca ted n e ar the dam itself. N o su rge tank
is required as the p o w e r h o u se is lo cated n earer to dam . F ra n cis P ro p e lle r and K a plan tu rb in es
are used.
8.2.4 B ase L oad P la n ts

Plants su p p ly in g b ase lo a d w h ich is g en erally c o n stan t an d ru n s w ith o u t stop are kno w n as
base load p la n ts. T h ese are o f g re a te r cap acity . T h e ru n -o ff riv e r and sto ra g e ty p e p o w e r p lants
are used as base load plants. L oad fa c to r is very high.
8.2.5 P eak L oad P la n ts

T hese plants su p p ly p o w er at th e p eak load tim e i.e. w hen load is m ore th an the average
load. Run o ff riv e r p la n ts w ith p o n d ag e and p u m p ed sto rag e p lan ts are used as peak lo ad plants.
They store w ater d u rin g o ff peak tim e and supply fo r peak hours. T h e lo ad fa cto r is low co m p ared
to base load plants.
£ 2.6
(a) R un o ff R iv er P la n ts w ith P o n d age
P o ndage refers to th e c o lle c tio n o f w ater b eh in d the dam (at the p lan t) and in cre ases the
stream capacity fo r short p erio d s. T h is p lap t has a flex ib ility to m eet the hourly (or daily) dem and.
8
H ence th e d isch arg e is m ore th an th e n o rm al, m ay be 3 to tim es m ore.
P o n d ag e in creases the stream cap acity fo r sh o rt tim e perio d s. T h e se p la n ts can m ee t peak

load dem and an d also u se d as b ase load plants.
(b) R un off R iv er P la n ts w ith o u t P o n d a ge

H ere the p o n d is not p ro v id e d to in crease the strea m cap acity . T h e dam w ill be used only
to raise the h y d rau lic h ead and th ereb y sup p ly in g w ater fo r som e o th e r task s lik e Irrig a tio n etc.
In case the stream flo w s are high and if su fficien t w ater rem a in s a fte r su p p ly in g for irrigation
purposes etc, such w ater can be used fo r the p ow er p ro d u ctio n th o u g h o f low lev els. T he p o w e r^ .
produced here is seaso n al. T h e u tility o f this p lan t is very less co m p ared w ith o th e r p lan ts due to
non-uniform ity o f su p p ly and lack o f assu ran ce fo r c o n tact co n tin u o u s supply.
T YPES O F H Y D R O E L E C T R IC PO W ER PLAN TS 197
8.2.7 S to ra g e P la n ts (R e se r v o ir P la n ts)
T h ese p la n ts w o u ld h av e re s e rv o irs o f larg e siz e to fa c ilita te the Storage o f w a ter and
thus it is in d e p e n d e n t o f se a so n a l stre a m s. T h e stre a m flo w s are c o n sid e ra b ly h ig h e r than
n atu ral flow . T h e re fo re th is p la n t can be used as base load as w ell as p eak load alternative. The
m ajority o f th e h y d ro p la n ts in w o rld are th is type.
8.2.8 P u m p ed S to r a g e P la n ts
A sk etch o f p u m p ed sto ra g e p la n t is show n b elo w in fig. 8.1
Fig. 8.1 Pumped storage plant
A s th e n am e in d ic a te s th e w a te r is p u m p ed fro m ta ilra c e to h ig h e r lev e l re se rv o irs in these

plants. If w a te r is in a d e q u a te fo r p o w er g en eratio n th ese ty p e o f p lan ts a re p referred .
T h e se p lan ts are n o t o p e ra te d sin g ally but in te r c o n n e c te d w ith ste a m o r diesel pow er

plants. T h e sp eciality o f such p la n ts is, they can be u sed as p u m p in g sta tio n s w hich can pum p
w ater from ta ilra c e to h ig h e r lev els by u sin g p o w er fro m som e o th e r p la n t.
G en erally the e x c e ss e f p o w er g e n e ra te d is used to run su ch p la n ts. H ere the im portant

p o in t is the g e n e ra tin g tu rb in e can also pu m p the w ater. T he h ead ra n g e is g en e ra lly from 30 m
to 300 m fro m tailrace
A d v a n ta g es o f p u m p ed sto r a g e p la n t
1. C o m p a re d to o th e r p e a k in g u n its it is ch eaper.
2. T hey are re a d ily a d a p ta b le to a u to m atio n and re m o te c o n tro l.
3. T he p o w er re q u ire d fo r p u m p in g is cheap er.
4. L oad on th e p la n t rem ain s u n ifo rm th ro u g h o u t.
5. T h ese p lan ts can be u sed fo r lo ad fre q u en c y co n tro l.
198 POWER PLAN T EN G IN EE R IN G
8.3 H Y D R O E L E C T R IC P L A N T L A Y O U T
The basic c rite ria o f site selectio n are high a ltitu d es and la rg e c a tc h m e n t areas. 'r '
A part from th is som e o th e r facto rs are
T he w a te r a v a ila b ility and storage.
T h e w ater head av ailab le.
D istan ce from the load cen ters etc.
W a te r A v a ila b ility
The data is generally available from hydrographs. T he data o f sufficiently large num ber of
years m ust be studied as plant layout seriously depends on these factors. R equirem ent o f pondage
and spillw ays is also studied and assed by the geological factors. The plant capacity generally
depends on this analysis.
Storage o f w ater is another im portant factor because w ater may not be available in all seasons
of the year, so with m inim um expenditure m axim um storage should be provided. Storage capacity
can be calculated w ith the help o f m ass curve or by m athem atical approach to find the relation
between storage capacity and dam height is given.
W a te r H ead
U sing stream flow reco rd er and geographical conditions the w ater head can be estim ated water
head effects the pow er generations considerably. For a given pow er increase in effective head reduces
the w ater quantity required to be stored.
D ista n c e f ro m th e L o a d C e n te r
F or the po w er tran sm issio n to be eco n o m ical, u su ally hydro p o w er p lan ts are lo cated nearer
to the load cen ters. A p art fro m the abo v e facto rs site selectio n is also very im p o rta n t due to the.
follow ing reasons
(i) W ater polution
(ii) Sedim entation effects. :
(iii) Environm ental effects and.
(iv) G rand w ater phenom ena etc.
A u x ilia rie s
F u n d am en tally h ydro p o w er plan t c o n sists o f a u x ilia ry e q u ip m e n t and th e e q u ip m e n t study
is also an im p o rtan t a sp e c t o f p lan t design. A u x ilia rie s fo r sta rtin g the u n it
(i) E x citer
(ii) G o v e rn o r oil system
(iii) L u b ric a tin g o il pum p.
T Y PE S OF H Y D R O E L E C T R IC P O W E R PLAN TS .199
A ccessories
(i) A ir C om pressors
(ii) C ooland and D rainage pum ps
(iii) Fans
(iv) V alves
(v) C ranes
(vi) G ate hoists etc.
A uxiliaries are generally drivers o f electrical pow er and standy-by auxiliaries are used in
em ergency.
A d v a n ta g es
1. O p eratio n and m a in te n a n c es ch arg es are very less. S om e tim es it is only h a lf to that
o f th e rm a l p lan ts.
2. N o t o n ly o p e ra tio n co st but ru n n in g c o st is also low .
3. T h e life o f H y d ro p la n t is fiv e tim es m ore than th erm al p la n t app ro x im ately .
4. N o fu el co st, tra n sp o rta tio n and sto rag e o f fuel p ro b le m s are also vanished.
5. S tan d by lo sses are absent.
V 6. E fficien cy o f th e p la n t n e v e r falls as tim e p asses.
7. A s th ere is no fuel p ro b lem the ash and sm oke p ro b lem s are ab sen t.
8. T he m ach in es u sed in th ese plan ts are ro b u st and g e n rally ru n n in g at 300-400 rpm
v is-a -v is th erm al p lan ts run at 3 0 0 0 -4 0 0 0 rpm . T h e re fo re no p ro b lem s regarding
m ech an ical sy stem s and m aterials.
9. N o p o llu tiio n p ro b lem s.
10. C o st o f la n d w o u ld be m inim um as the hydro p lan ts g e n e ra lly lo cated aw ay from
d ev elo p ed areas.
1. T h e cap ita l in v e stm e n t is very high.
2. It is tim e c o n su m in g , it tak es m any y ears in e re c tin g dam s and b u ild in g hydro plants.
3. B ecau se th e w ater flo w is d ep e n d e n t o f n atu re the p o w er p la n t gen erally depends on
the stream ra in s and so less p re fe rred to y e ar ro u n d p o w er g en eration.
8.4 P R IM E M O V E R S O F H Y D R O P O W E R P L A N T S
T he poten tial e n erg y (h y d rau lic h ead) o f w ater is c o n v e rte d in to m ech an ical energy by the
prim e m overs (T u rb in es) in h y d ro p o w er plants.
On the basis o f w ater actio n on the p rim e m o v ers H y d rau lic T u rb in es are classified as
' r (i) Im p u lse type

(ii) R eaction type
8.4.1 Im p u lse T u r b in e s
T he p re ssu re e n e rg y (o f w ater) is c o n v e rte d in to k in etic e n e rg y an d strik es the turbine
blades thro u g h n ozzle. T h is h ig h v elo city w a te r je t driv es th e w heel. E x : P e lto n w heel, turgo
im pulse w heel, etc.
P elto n W h eel
P e lto n ^ W h e e l c o n s is ts o f a w h e e l ty p e r o to r a n d sp o o n s h a p e d b u c k e ts a ro u n d the
circu m feren c e o f 't h e w heel. T h e sh ap e o f th is b u c k ets is d o u b le h e m isp h e ric a l. T he w ater
com es out o f n o zzle at h ig h -sp eed s and strik e s th ese b u ck ets at the c e n te r and d e v ia te d to both
sides o f the b u ck ets (elim in atin g and thrust). C asin g w ill be pro v id ed round the ro to r and splashing
effect is rem o v ed . In fig. 8.2 a p elto n w h eel is show n
Fig. 8.2 Single jet horizontal shaft pelton turbine
A rra n g e m e n ts o f J ets
B asically P elto n W h eels h av e sin g le Jet and h o riz o n tal sh aft. D e p e n d in g on the specific
speed n u m b e r o f je ts are d e c id e d . In fig. 8.3 (a) (b) (c) g iv en b elo w m u ltije t sy stem is show n.
(a) Single jet, horizontal shaft pelton turbine

T YPE S O F H Y D R O E L E C T R IC PO W ER PLANTS 201
S P E A R ROD
(b) Double-jet, horizontal shaft pelton turbine (c) Four-jet vertical shaft pelton turbine
Fig. 8.3
A rrangem en t o f R unner
The turbine runner and g enerator rotor are driven by the sam e shaft o f the T urbine. The
generator is generally heavier than the turbnine runner and therefore supported by tw o bearings,
where as the runner is keyed on the length o f the shaft overchanging one o f the bearings. Hence the
name single-overhung type. T here is also double overhung. T he schem atic is show n in fig. 8.4.
° VERS e^ 8ine
G» ^ RI^T U R B IN i
To g e n e r a t o r t u r b in e
b e a r in g
m
t u r b in e
b e a r in g
f.^ E R A T O R
(ALTERNATOR)
t u r b in e
Fig. 8.4 (a) Single overhung unit Fig. 8.4 (b) Double runner arrangement
8.4.2 R ea ctio n T u r b in e s (F r a n c is T u rb in es)

In reactio n tu rb in e s b o th p o te n tia l and k in etic energ ies o f w ater is used in running the
turbine. In such tu rb n in e s w a te r flo w s co m p le te ly full and w ith high pressure. T herefore the
runner m ust be fu lly e n c lo se d in a stro n g casin g . A fter do in g w ork the w ater is discharged to the
tail race through a c lo se d tu b e o f g ra d u a lly en la rg in g sectio n k now n as d ra ft tu b e..
T he w ater is sen t to th e tu rb in e th ro u g h p e n sto ck and w h o se is co n n e cte d to the spiral
casing o f the turb in e. T h e sch e m a tic d ia g ra m is show b elo w in fig. 8.5.
Fig. 8.5 Francis turbine comprises

TYPES O F H Y D R O E L E C T R IC P O W E R PL A N T S 203
F rancis tu rb in e c o m p rise s sp iral ca sin g (flu m e ca sin g ) w h ic h su p p lie s w a te r to the ru nner

and links to the p en sto ck . G u id e w heel co n tro ls the flo w and d istrib u te s the w ate r to the ru n n er
axisym etrically. D raft tu b e d isp o se s th e w a ter a fte r the ru n n e r ta k es the en erg y . T he guide
m echanism is sh o w n in fig. ^.6 (a) (b). T h e ru n n e r o f F ran cis T u rb in e is show n in Fig. 8.7.
(a) Guide Vane (b) Regulation of Guide Vane

Fig. 8.6
Fig. 8.7 Francis turbine runner

8.5 COMPARISON OF HYDRO-POW ER PLANT W ITH THERM AL PO W ER PLANT
S. No. A spects Hydro Plant Therm al Plant
1. Design and Construction Design is simple Com plicated

and robust and also design and less
reliable. robust.
2. Plant life Quite long life Not suitable for
(100-125 years) Long life
(20-25 years)
3. Capital Cost More Less
4. Cost of fuel No fuel hence no cost Costlier
5. Energy cost Cheap Costlier
6. Pollution No Pollution problem Pollution is high
and hazardous
7. W orkable below certain 'yes' (adoptable for -N o -
load factor small load factors)
8. Construction time Slightly more than
thermal plants
9. Man power required Less More
T Y PE S O F H Y D R O E L E C T R IC PO W ER PLANTS 205
•V 1. Sketch the lay o u t o f h y d ra u lic p o w er p lan t fo r high h eads, label the p arts and explain their
functio n s.
2. W hat factors are to be considered in selecting prim e m over for a hydroelectric pow er plant ?
3. D escrib e the g o v e rn in g o f p elto n w heel.
4. W h at is a p u m p ed sto ra g e p la n t ? E x p lain.
5. D iscu ss p u m p ed sto ra g e p lan t and also ab o u t tu rb in e g o v e rn in g system .
6: W here can p u m p e d sto ra g e p lan ts can be in stalled and w hy ?
S e lf - te s t
1. T h e an n u a l d e p re c ia tio n o f a h y d ro p o w e r p la n t is about
(a) 0.5 to 1.5% (b) 10 to 15%
(c) 15 to 20% (d) 20 to 25%
2. W ater h a m m e r is g e n e ra lly d ev elo p s in

(a) T u rb in e (b) D raft tube
(c) P en sto ck (d) S u rg e tank
3. R u n n in g c o st o f h y d ro e le c tric p o w er plant is
(a) L ess th an ru n n in g co st o f steam po w er p lan t
(b) E qual to th e ru n n in g c o st steam p o w er p lan t
(c) M o re th an the ru n n in g c o st o f steam p o w er plant
(d) N o c o m p a riso n can be m ade
4. T h e o p e ra tin g c o st is m in im u m fo r the sam e p o w er o u tp u t in

(a) G as tu rb in e p la n t (b) H udd p lan t (c) T h e rm a l p la n t (d) N u clear plant
5. P elto n tu rb in e s are m o stly

(a) V ertical (b) H o rizo n tal (c) In clin ed (d) N one
6. F ran cis tu rb in e s a re u su ally for

(a) L ow h ead s (b) M edium heads (c) h ig h h ead s (d) No heads
7. T h is type o f w ind m ill o f sim ple design

(a) H o rizo n tal axis w ind m ill (b) V ertic a l ax is w ind m ill
(c) In clin ed axis w in d m ill (d) N one
8. T he tidal m o v em en t o f sea is becau se o f the actio n o f

(a) W ater c u rre n ts (b) Low p ressures
(c) S tars and P lan ts (d) Sun and M oon
9. A dam or d yke is c o n stru c te d b asically in th e fo llo w in g p lants

(a) N u clear p lan ts
(b) T idal p o w er p lan ts
(c) S o lar plants
(d) G as tu rb in e p lan ts
10. S uitable site for w ind e n erg y is

(a) H illy or C o astal
(b) D ry and A rid p laces
(c) R ivers av a ila b ility
(d) N one
11. C ost o f w ind e n e rg y g e n e ra to r co m p ared to co n v en tio n al po w er p lan ts for the sam e pow er
output is
(a) equ al (b) lo w er
(c) h ig h e r (d) u n co m p arab le
A nsw ers
I. a 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. b
6. b 7. b 8. d 9. b 10. a
II . c
Chapter - 9
N uclear Energy
M o d er w o rld n eed s ch eap and ab u n d an t electric al e n e rg y fo r the fe a tu re use. Slow ly the
co nv en tio n al so u rces o f e n erg y are g e ttin g d ep leted and b e co m in g co stly . T h is a sp e ct forces the
pow er in d u stry to search and d ev elo p altern ate sources o f p o w e r d e v elo p m e n t.
T he atom o ffe rs a p ro sp e c tiv e so u rce o f energy. O ne o f the o u tsta n d in g facts ab o u t nuclear
p o w er is sm all m ass re le a s e s m a ssiv e e n e rg y . It h a s b e e n p re d ic te d by th e s c ie n tist that
co n sid e ra b le e n e rg y is. re le a se d by b re a k in g h eavy a to m s (fissio n ). T h e p ro c e ss o f energy
conversion is b ased on E in s te in 's e n e rg y e q u a tio n E = n tC 2. T h is en o rm o u s release o f energy
m ake! the n u c le a r e n erg y a p o in t o f in te re st in p ow er p ro d u ctio n .
9.2 NUCLEAR ENERGY

N u clear en erg y is th e o ld est and also n e w e st form o f en e rg y . T h e o ld e st is b ecause of, its
presence in th e early h isto ry o f co sm o lo g y . It is new est b ec au se this en ergy is the m ost recent
form o f energy d isc o v e re d by E n r ic o F e r m i in 1940’s.
In studying th e su b je c t m a tte r o f n u clear scien ce, it is alw ays b e tte r to b eco m e accustom ed
to its term inology.
N u c le u s
C enter o f an atom is a co m p lex system co m p rises o f e lem en ta ry p a rtic le s called p rotons
and neutrons. It's d ia m e te r is g en erally ab o u t one th o u san d th o f an atom itse lf, yet the total mass
is concentrated in th is sm all p art (9 9 .9 % o f m ass is c o n c en tra ted at the cen ter).
E le c tro n
A round nucleu s c e rta in n e g ativ ely ch arg ed p artic les w ould be ro ta tin g ju s t as planets do
around Sun^ In terestin g ly th e n u m b er o f e lectro n s in an atom eq u a ls w ith n u m b er o f Protons in
the nucleus therefo re an ato m is alw ay s c h arg eless (N eutral).
S ym bolic view is sh o w n in fig. 9.1 to c le a r the above term s.
(a) Hydrogen
■4
( ^ t>
(b) Helium
cE
>
(c) Lithium
Fig. 9.1 Sym bolic view of some atoms
A to m ic N u m b er
T he n u m b er o f P ro to n s in th e n u cleu s is re fe rred as "A tom ic N um ber". It is n o t the com plete
id entity o f an ato m , a n o th e r n u m b e r w h ich c h a ra c te rise s the w e ig h t o f an ato m is n eed ed and that
is called "M ass N u m b er".
Sam e atom ic n u m b er atom s m ay be ch em ically identical b u t they m ay have d iffere n t num ber
o f neu tro n s h en ce th e m ass o f c h e m ic a lly sim ila r ato m s m ay vary.
M ass N u m b e r = N u m b e r o f p ro to n s + N u m b er o f n eu tro n s.
Iso to p e s
T he atom b h av in g sam e ato m ic n u m b er (ch em ical p ro p e rtie s) b u t h a v in g d iffe re n t m ass
are c alled iso to p es. E x am p les
H y d ro g en 1 = O n e p ro to n and one ele c tro n (M ass N u m b e r = 1)
H y d ro g en 2 = 1 p ro to n + 1 n eu tro n and one e le c tro n (M ass N u m b e r = 2)

(D euterium )
4
H y d ro g en 3 = 1 p ro to n + 2 n e u tro n an one ele c tro n (M a ss N u m b e r 3)
(Tritium)
N U C LEA R ENERGY 209
T hus atom s o f sam e ato m ic n u m b er can be lig h t w eig h t and heav y w eight.
As w e already k n ew , ev ery atom w ould fly apart (D isin te g ra te ) if there is no binding

energy w ithin the n u cleu s. It is th is B inding E nergy th at keeps n u c le u s highly densed and stable
though rep u lsio n s are also in d u ced due to n u m b er o f pro to n s p resen t at the center.
It is th is b in d in g e n e rg y w h e n r e le a s e d u n d e r c o n tr o lle d c o n d itio n s , p ro d u c e s h e a t
th a t p o w e rs ste a m d riv e n e le c tr ic g e n e r a to r s in a N u c le a r P o w e r P la n t. It im p lie s th at we
can o b ta in n u c le a r e n e rg y fro m a lm o s t a li (e le m e n ts ) s u b s ta n c e s . T h e a n s w e rs are 'y es'
and 'n o '.
T h eo retically it is 'y es', b ecau sc we can trig g er and b rea k th e n u cle u s and o b tain energy.
But practically 'no', b ecau se the en erg y req u ired to trig g e r n u clea r re ac tio n w ould be m ore than
the energy we o btain fro m b re a k in g all th e elem en ts. So p ro p er study about elem en ts is needed.
The elem ents in the u n iv e rse are d istin g u ish e d on the basis o f n u m b er o f p ro to n s and neutrons
contained in th e n u cleu s.
M a ss d e fe c t
T he m o st c o m m o n iso to p e o f h e liu m c o n sist tw o p ro to n s and tw o n e u tro n s. I f w eighed
sep arately th e se fo u r p a rtic le s it is e q u a l to 4 .0 3 2 0 u n its, b u t h e liu m n u c le u s w eig h t is only
^ 4.0016 u n its. T h e lo ss o f w e ig h t 4 .0 3 2 0 - 4 .0 0 1 6 = 0.1)304 u n its. T h is loss o f w eig h t is called
mass d efect. W e can u n d e rs ta n d th is m ass d e fe c t cle a rly by re c o lle c tin g E in ste in 's m ass -
energy re la tio n .
E = mC 2
Loss in m ass is ap p earin g in the form o f energy. W hich can be rele ase d by nuclear reactions.
N uclear reactio n s are b a sic a lly tw o types
1. N u clear F ission
2. N u clear F usion
B efore w e study fissio n and fusion let us see the basic d iffe re n c e betw een chem ical and
n u clear re a c tio n s. In a c h e m ic a l re a c tio n h e a t is e v o lv e d by c h a n g in g the o u te r e lec tro n
arrangem ent o f an atom . T h e b asic stru ctu re o f the nucleus re m ain s un ch an g ed .
E xam ple.
B urn in g o f co al o r o rg a n ic m a tte r re le a se s e n e rg y (h e a t) by c h a n g in g the m o lec u lar
arrangem ent (chem ical co m p o u n d ) rejectin g C a rb o n d io x id e, sm oke etc.
In n u c le a r r e a c tio n s th e r e a c tio n is b a s ic a lly in th e n u c le u s o f an a to m . T h e se

-V' re a c tio n s te n d s to c h a n g e n u m b e r o f p ro to n s an d n e u tro n s an d h e n c e d if f e r e n t e le m e n ts
w ill be fo rm ed .
B in din g E n erg y
The e n erg y r e q u ire d to ta ke the n u cleu s a p a rt is c a lle d B in d in g E nergy. *
It is d ire c t m easu re o f n u c le a r stab ility . B in d in g E n erg y p er n u c le o n is the b in d in g energy

div id ed by tdfcaj n u m b e r o f n u cleo n s
(B inding' E n erg y ) o f H e = 0 .0 3 0 4 u n its

= 0 .0 3 0 4 x 931 M ev
= 2 8 .4 M ev
T h e v a ria tio n o f b in d in g e n e rg y p e r n u c le o n am o n g d iff e re n t e le m e n ts is show n in
fig. 9 .2 below .
Fig. 9.2 Variation of Binding Energy (per nucleon) with mass number
H a lf life an d D eca y C o n sta n t

R ad io a c tiv ity , or th e em issio n o f a o r (3 p a rtic les and y - ra y s is due to d isin teg ratio n of
nuclei. T h is d isin te g ra tio n o b ey s c e rta in law s o f sta tistic s.
T hu s w e can say m ix tu re o f ato m s d isin te g ra te p er se co n d th o u g h w e c a n 't say which

p a rticu la r atom d isin te g ra te n ext.
'i
N um b er o f ato m s d isin te g ra te p er second (d N /j{) is d ire ctly p ro p o rtio n a l to num ber of
atom s p resen t at th at in sta n t o f tim e.
dN oc N
M
dt
4
X ■ R a d io a c tiv ity C o n stan t.
dt
N U C LE A R ENERGY 211
N egative sign is b e c a u se N d e c re a ses co n stan tly (d isin teg ratio n ).
0
If N is num ber o f radioactive atom s present at tim e t = 0 and N is num ber o f atom s at the end
of time t.
jN dN
dt
Nr N Jo
[ln N £ =-Xt
0
N = N e"x'
T h e h a lf life ( t 1/2)
If is defined as th e tim e tak en for h a lf o f the atom s to d isin te g rate .
N
S ub stitu tin g —
0 at N in the ab ove eq u atio n
0
— = N e~h '12
2 0
—= e _Xt,/2
2
2_‘ = e "
In 2 0 .6 9 3 1
t,/2_ X = X
T he h alf life tim e is in v e rse ly p ro p o rtio n a l to the d ecay co n stant.
G raphical re p re se n ta tio n s w o u ld be as b elow
9.3 F E R T IL E M A T E R IA L S
Some m aterials though radioactive are not fissionable by them selves but they can be converted
212 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
into fissionable m aterials, they are know n as fe rtile m aterials.
92U 238and 9QT h 232are used to produce another fertile m aterial g4Pu 239and 90U 233as they are
not available in nature.
92U 238 + 0n ' -> 92U 239 + y
92U 239 23.5 min ) £ -( ^ 0 ) + ^ N p 239
93N p239— da>!> > ^“C je0) + 94Pu 239 .....H alf life o f 94Pu 239is 24000 years.
Sim ilarly
9()T h 232 + 0n> 90T h 233 + Y
9()T h 233 233min ) 91Pa 233 + p-(_ie °)
91P a 233 ■■■ m"' > 92U 233 + P _(_ie°) H alf life o f 92U 233is 1.6x 105years.
O ther fertile m aterials T h 227, Pa232, U231, N p 238and P u 241 etc. A ll these reactons are carried
out in breeder reactor.
9.4 FISSIO N R E A C T IO N
U ranium is a heavy elem ent and nearly com es in ten isotopes. In the case o f certain naturally
occurring isotopes (U 235) if appropriate conditions are provided, a free neutron collides with the
nucleus o f an atom and this absorption m ay upset the stability o f the nucleus causing it to split into
tw o parts, releasing at the sam e tim e tw o to three neutrons. D uring this process very large energy is
released along w ith "fission fragm ents". T he released neutrons if they strike other U 235nuclei, perform
the sam e fission-triggering function. T his sequence is called chain reaction. Fig. 9.3 show s the
fission and chain reaction.
9.5 F U SIO N R E A C T IO N
N uclear fusion is a process o f fusion or com bination o f two sm aller nuclei to form a single
heavy nucleus. In such reaction energy is released, because m ass o f the product nucleus is less than
the m asses o f tw o nuclei w hich are fused.
Exam ple : H ydrogen is fused into helium (in steps) w ith release o f enorm ous energy.
Fusion has an im portant advantage that, its principle raw m aterial is hydrogen isotope, D is 2
2
nearly sam e as w ater (H 0 ) hence renew able. D uring this reaction 100 m illion Celsius o f temperature
is released.
N U C L E A R E NER GY 213
Neutron
Fission
fragment
J J
Election Electron
Fig. 9.3 Fission Chain Reaction
9.6 NUCLEAR R EA C TO R
N uclear re a c to r is a d e v ic e w h ich re le a se s m assiv e h eat e n e rg y u n d e r co n tin u o u s and

controlled co n d itio n s. It c o n tro ls the ch ain reactio n that starts o n ce the fissio n is done. If the
chain reaction is n o t c o n tro lle d it re su lts in ex p lo sio n due to the ra p id in crease in the energy
released. U 235is co m m o n n u clp ar fuel w hich p artic ip a te s in fissio n re a c tio n liberatin g 2 to 3
neutrons along w ith fissio n frag m en ts like stro n tiu m and xenon and lib e ra te s m assive heat energy.
T hese fission frag m en ts also p a rtic ip a te in fissio n rea ctio n re su ltin g c h a in reaction. Fig. 9.4
show s d ifferen t co m p o n e n ts o f n u c le a r reacto r. T h e p rin c ip le o f o p e ra tio n is w ell discussed in
sectio n 9.8. T h e h e a t e n e rg y m a in ly d e p e n d s on a c c e le ra tio n o f th e n e u tro n s, g re a te r the
acceleratio n g re a te r th e e n e rg y re le a se d . G e n e ra lly m o d e ra te a c c e le ra tio n is u sed in pow er
production and in sta n ta n e o u s ac c e lera tio n c o n c ep t is u sed in n u c le a r bom b.
Control rods
Fuel rods
Reflectors
Moderator
Concrete
shielding
Fig. 9.4 Nuclear reactor
9.7 M A IN C O M P O N E N T S O F N U C L E A R R E A C T O R
(a) Fuel
(b) M o d e ra to r
'(C)' C o o la n t
(d) C o n tro l rods
(e) R e fle c to r and
(f) S h ield
(a) F uel
Fuel w ill be at th e co re o f n u c le a r reacto r. Fuel c o n stitu te s fissile m a te ria ls as U233, U 235
or Pu239and fertile m a te ria ls as T h 232o r U 238. A ty pical fa st re a c to r fu el co n ta in s 15 % to 20 %
U 23
5o r P u 239and re m a in in g U 238w hich serv es as a fe rtile m ate ria ls. F uel e le m e n ts w ill be used
in the form o f ro d s o f 3 cm d ia m e te r and 1 m long. G en erally U ra n iu m is c la d in M agnesium
alloy (M agnox). T h e m ain fu n ctio n o f th is c la d d in g is to p re v en t th e c o rro sio n b etw een fission
m aterial and co o lan t.
The cla d d in g m a te ria l m u st sa tisfy th e fo llo w in g p ro p e rtie s
{a) T h ey sh o u ld re sist co rro sio n by the c o o la n t and rem ain c o m p a tib le w ith the^fuelv
o v er a w id e te m p e ra tu re ranges.
(b) T h e th e rm a l co n d u c tiv ity sh o u ld be g ood so th at it sh o u ld tra n s fe r th e heat rapidly
and e ffic ie n tly to th e su rro u n d in g coolant.
(c) S h o u ld w ith sta n d high th erm al stresses.
(d) S h o u ld be re sista n t to rad iatio n d am ag e at o p era tin g te m p e ra tu res.
N U C L EA R ENERGY 215
(b) M o d era to r
M o d erato r slo w s d o w n th e n eu tro n s b efo re they b o m b a rd th e fuel rods. N eutrons released
by fission m ove w ith h ig h sp eed s. T h e m o d e ra to r's b asis duty in a n u c lear reacto r is to slow
dow n these fast n eu tro n s. T h e p ro cess o f slo w in g dow n is n o th in g b u t w hen the neutrons escape
from the fuel w ill c o llid e w ith and b o u n ce b ack am ^n g the c o n stitu e n t ato m s o f the m oderator.
T hereby losing th e ir v e lo c ity . G raphite, D e u te riu m ; C arbon and B e ry lliu m are the com m only
em ployed m oderators.
T he m o d erato r m u st sa tisfy the fo llo w in g p ro p erties

1. M o d e ra to r m u st be able to slow d o w n the n e u tro n s in q u ick tim e w ith o u t absorbing
them .
2. It m ust be very lig h t b ecau se th e .slo w in g dow n actio n is very e ffe ctiv e w ith light
elem en ts (in e la stic c o llisio n ). L ithium and B oron are also low atom ic w eight but
they have stro n g a ffin ity for n eutrons.
3. M o d erato r sh o u ld be co rro sio n re sista n t w ith co o lan t.
4. T herm al c o n d u c tiv ity sh o u ld be high.
5. M o d erato r m u st h av e h ig h m eltin g point.
6. H igh c h e m ic a l sta b ility is re q u ire d b e c au se m ore h e a t is p ro d u c e d during operation.
(c) C o o la n t
Very high te m p e ra tu re are p ro d u ced in n u c lea r re a c to r it is essen tial to rem ove the heat
that is not u tilised (rejected ).
B asically heat is c o lle c te d by p u m p in g g aseous c o o lan t, C a rb o n d io x id e etc.
The m o st im p o rta n t a n d d e sira b le c h a ra c te ristics o f c o o la n ts are
C hem ical and ra d ia tio n sta b ility , high b o ilin g p o int, non c o rro siv e , high boiling point and
high d en sity . H y d ro g e n is a s u ita b le c o o la n t b u t im p lie s fire risk s. H e liu m o ffe rs good
(possibilities) q u a litie s as a g as co o lan t. It is in use now in U SA , G erm any and E ngland. Because
of its cost is lim ited.
B roadly sp eak in g c o o la n ts sh o u ld h av e low n eu tro n ab so rp tio n c ro ss-se c tio n high heat
capacity, and easy co n tain m en t.
H yd ro g en and H e liu m are g a se o u s c o o la n ts. W ater, h e a v y w a te r, S o d iu m , Sodium -

Potassium alloys and B ism u th are som e liq u id s co o lan ts. S o d iu m , B ism u th are som e liquid
m etal coolants.
(d) C on trol rod s

T hese elem ents are g e n e ra lly m ade o f neutro n a b so rb in g m a te ria ls (In the co re) to control
the chain reaction.
To m aintain the b alan ce in the rate o f chain reac tio n th ese co n tro l e le m e n ts are inserted
into the core through sp ecial ch an n els. C ad m iu m is strong n eu tro n a b so rb e r and thus regulates
the supply of n eu tro n s fo r fissio n . W hen co n tro l rods are p u sh ed in d eep enough they absorb
m ost o f fission n eu tro n s and h en ce chain reactio n stops.
2 16 PO W ER P L A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
The c o n tro l e le m e n ts a re c la ssifie d as
1. F ine c o n tro l rods (T o b alan ce surges in reac tio n ). ^

2. C o u rse c o n tro l rods.
3. S h u t c o n tro l ro d s (U sed fo r em erg en cy ).
(e) R e f le c to r
P laced aro u n d th e co re to re fle c t th e leak ed o u t neu tro n s back. A re fle c to r is a low neutron
cro ss sectional m aterial. A ctu ally the c o llid in g n eu tro n changes its d ire ctio n ra th e r been absorbed
by this m aterial h en ce the n am e reflecto r. L o g ically good m o d e ra to r can also be good reflector
in certain c irc u m sta n c es. E x am p le : C arbon (g ra p h ite form ), L ig h tw a te r and B erylliu m are good
reflectio n s,
(f) S h ie ld
S h ie ld in g is the b a rrie r su rro u n d in g the reacto r in o rd e r to p ro te c t the w alls o f reactor*
vessel and to in te rc e p t the rad iatio n s e m itted from the co re. S h ie ld in g is done in tw o steps first
one is th erm a l sh ie ld in g seco n d one is b io lo g ic a l shielding.
T h e rm a l s h ie ld in g a b s o rb s so m e o f th e rad iati'o n b u t th e p rim a ry p u rp o se is to p ro te ct *

the s u rro u n d in g c o n c re te fro m th e in te n s e h e a t o f the p re s s u re v e s s e l. T h ro u g h the gap
b etw een th is s h ie ld an d th e b io lo g ic a l sh ie ld c o o la n t is p u m p e d to m a in ta in th e in n e rfa c e o f
the c o n c re te w ith in c e rta in a c c e p ta b le te m p e ra tu re lim its. T h e rm a l s h ie ld in g is d o n e w ith
th e ste e l lin in g . T h e s te e l lin in g is p r o v id e d a fte r th ic k c o n c r e te u s u a lly 1.8 to 2 .5 m
(th ic k n e ss). Iro n o r ir o n o x id e a d d itiv e s are u se d a p a rt fro m e le m e n ts su c h as C adm ium ,
B o ro n o r H a fn iu m .
T h e se e le m e n ts a re v ery h ig h n e u tro n c ro ss-se c tio n and h e n c e n e u tro n s are a b so rb e d to

the g reat e x te n t. B ut u n fo rtu n a te ly high n eu tro n a b so rb in g e le m e n ts e m it y ra d ia tio n s hence
the in ten sity o f Y ra d ia tio n w ill be m ore. T h e d e g ree o f e x p o su re to ra d ia tio n is m ea su re d in
R o n tzen (y). A c c o rd in g to in te rn a tio n a l c o m m issio n on ra d io lo g ic a l p ro te c tio n 0.3 y per w eek
is the m ax im u m ra d ia tio n a w o rk e r can be e x p o se d . 50 0 y is c o n sid e re d as le th a l.
9.8 R E A C T O R O P E R A T IO N
T h e p rin c ip le o f n u c le a r re a c to r o p eratio n is show n in the fig. 9.5.
T h e U ran iu m fu el in the form o f th ick rods are en cased in long A lu m in iu m tubes, they are
air-tig h t to co n tain any g ases released and p re v e n t the o x id a tio n o f the su rro u n d in g fuel. The
tubes are lo w ered into h u n d red s o f ch an n els in sid e blocks. G ra p h ite is u sed to red u ce the speed ^
o f the n eu tro n s re le a se d on fissio n until they b eco m e slow the n eu tro n s. T h e g ra p h ite m oderator
is in th e form o f b lo ck s o f p u re carb o n arran g ed in a stack.
N U C L EA R ENERGY 217
Fig. 9.5 Nuclear reactor principle
D euterium o xid e is also used as a m o d erator. T h is d e u teriu m (H ea v y W ater) reduces the

speed o f co llid in g n eu tro n to ab o u t o n e h a lf w h ereas g ra p h ite re d u c es th e speed to about one
seventh w ith a gra p h ite m o d e ra to r the se p a ra tio n is n early 20 cm . In th is d ista n c e the fast neutron
m akes about 2 00 co llisio n s. N e u tro n s b eco m e slow e n o u g h to p ro d u c e fissio n on collision with
a U 235nucleus.
T he pow er level o f re a c to r is d irectly p ro p o rtio n al to the n eu tro n flu x density. A lthough
the neutron reprod u ctio n fa c to r should be g reater than unity to m ake ch ain reactio n se lf sustaining.
T he control rods are ra ise d o r lo w ered in ch a n n e ls in sid e th e g ra p h ite b lo c k by electric m otors
operated from a co n tro l ro o m u n til n eu tro n re p ro d u ctio n rate is ju s t g re a te r than one reactor then
go 'C RITIC AL'. U n d er a$y d a n g e r th e ro d s fall and a u to m a tic a lly the re a c to r stops. These
neutron absprbing m aterials are g e n e ra lly G ra p h ite o r B erylliu m .
R eactors d esign ed to fu n ctio n w ith slow ed n eu tro n s are therm al rea cto rs and others aie
fast reactors. B asically one o f th e freed neutro n causes a new fissio n . A re a c to r system is said to
t be divergent w hen total n u m b e r o f n eu tro n s p ro d u ced is g re a te r th an the n u m b er absorbed.
B ecause the e n erg y p ro d u ced in a re a c to r is by n u c le a r re a c tio n the tem p eratu re would be

too high. A coolant is th erefo re required. W ater and gases like c a rb o n d io x id e are used as coolants.
' /,olten sodium w hich has h ig h sp ecific h eat c a p a c ity and d e n sity w ith high therm al conductivity
-;ed as coolant. T h e w ater is h eated to p ro d u ce steam and it is led fro m the reactor into heat
exchanger and p ow er is p ro d u ced w hen tu rb in es d riv es the gen erato r.
218 PO W ER P L A N T E N G IN EE R IN G
9.9 C H A IN R E A C T IO N
B o m b a rd in g o f u ra n iu m n u clei w ith slow m o v in g n e u tro n s re su lts in fissio n reaction. This

splits the u ran iu m n u clei lib e ra tin g 2 to 3 n eu tro n s and fissio n fra g m e n ts w ith m assiv e heats.
T hese fissio n n e u tro n s c a u se fu rth e r fission. If th is p ro cess c o n tin u e s w ith in no tim e m assive
energy is re le a se d a n d m ay cau se ex p lo sio n . (E x p lo siv e ch ain re ac tio n ). Fig. 9.3 illu strates this
chain reactio n .
F issio n n e u tro n s h elp s in s e lf su stain in g the chain reactio n . T h e re w ill be som e absorption
and leakag e o f n eu tro n s in th e re a c to r c o n fig u ra tio n w h ich also to be tak en into consideration.
T h erefo re the e sse n tia l co n d itio n to m ain tin g the ch ain re a c tio n is the fissio n neu cleu s must
produce atle a st one se c o n d a ry neu tro n w hich p a rtic ip a te s in fu rth e r fissio n re ac tio n . T h e chain
reaction co n cep t can be c a te g o rise d in term s o f m u ltip lica tio n fa c to r o r re p ro d u c tio n factor (k).
D efin itio n :
M u ltip lic a tio n fa c to r is th e ratio o f n u m b er o f neu tro n s o f any g e n e ra tio n to the n u m ber of
neutrons o f im m e d ia te ly p re c e e d in g g en eratio n .
k _ N um ber o f neutrons o f any one generation

N u m b er o f neutrons o f im m ediately preceeding generation
If k = 1 T h e sy ste m is k n o w n as critic a l system .

If k < 1 T h e sy stem is know n as su b critical system .
If k > 1, T h e sy stem is know n as su p e rc ritic al systerq.
R ev iew Q u e s tio n s
1. E xplain how fissio n re a c tio n takes p lace and how ch ain rea ctio n is c o n tro lled .
2. D iscu ss ab o u t fissio n and fusion reactio n s.
3. E xplain clearly the fu n c tio n s o f d iffe re n t co m p o n e n ts n u c le a r plant.
4. W rite sh o rt n o tes on N u c le a r F uels.

i
5. W hat is h a lf life and B in d in g energy o f ra d io a ctiv e elem en ts.
6. G ive som e N atu ral and A rtific ia l ra d io a c tiv e elem ents.
S e lf - te s t
1. T his is n o t sam e fo r ato m and an iso to p e
(a) A to m ic N u m b er (b) C h em ical p ro p e rtie s
(c) M ass N u m b e r (d) A ll o f the above

N U C L E A R ENERGY 219
2. T he m easure o f n u c le a r en erg y
(a) M ev (b) C urie
(c) Mw (cl) F arad
3. T he m ost u sab le iso to p e o f U ran iu m is

(a) U 233 (b) U 238
(c) U 231 (d) U 235
4. U 233u n d e rg o e s fissio n by
(a) low e n erg y (fast) n e u tro n s alone
(b) low en erg y (slo w ) n eu tro n s alone
(c) N one can
(d) e ith e r fa st o r slow (n eu tro n s)
5. T he m ost a b u n d a n t iso to p e o f U ranium is

(a) 233 U (b) U 238 (c) U 235 (d) Pu 238
6. Fission o f U 235re le a se s
(a) 200 M ev o f e n erg y
(b) 431 M ev o f en erg y
(c) 231 M ev o f en erg y
(d) 301 M ev o f en erg y
7. The energy re q u ire d to b last o ff the nucleu s o f ra d io a c tiv e elem en t

(a) 2.4 M ev (b) 4.5 M ev
(c) 7.8 M ev (d) 2 00 M ev
8. P u239,js p ro d u ced
(a) by neu tro n irra d ia tio n o f U 238
(b) as b asic raw m aterial
(c) A rtificially
(d) by neu tro n irra d ia tio n o f T h o riu m
9. R eactor is said to be critic a l if

(a) It ex p lo d es
(b) It p ro d u ces high p o w er
(c) C hain re a c tio n can be in itiated
(d) It p ro d u ces no p o w er
10. B reed er reacto r has a co n v e rsio n s ratio o f

(a) unity (b) g reater than unity
(c) less than u n ity (d) zero
A n sw e rs 1. c 2. a 3. d 4. d 5. b
6. a 7. e 8. a 9. c 10. b
Chapter - 10
T ypes o f N u c lea r Reactors
In C h a p te r - 9 th e b a sic c o n c e p ts o f n u c le a r e n e rg y are w ell d isc u sse d . T h e h e a t released
in a n u c le a r re a c to r is e x tra c te d a n d u tiliz e d fo r p o w e r p ro d u c tio n b u t th e re a re d iffe re n t
asp ec ts re g a rd in g th e tra p p in g o f th is h e a t e n e rg y . D esig n o f p a r tic u la r ty p e o f a re a c to r is
go v ern ed by e c o n o m y , te c h n ic a l f e a s ib ility , m a te ria l a v a ila b ility and m a n y o th e r factors.
B ased on th e o p e ra tio n , u tiliz a tio n o f n e u tro n e n e rg y , fu e l, ty p e o f c o o la n t, m o d e ra to r used
reacto rs are c la ssifie d like fa s t re a c tio n , b re e d e r re a c to r, g a s c o o le d re a c to r etc. M o reo v er
the d isc o v e ry o f fis s io n o f u ra n iu m h as o p e n e d tre m e n d o u s p ro s p e c ts o f u sin g a to m ic en erg y
w hich is o f g re a t im p o rta n c e .
10.2 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F R E A C T O R S
G enerally n u c le a r re a c to rs are c la ssifie d based on m any th in g s like n eu tro n energy, fuel
type, m o d erato r m aterial, c o o la n t m aterial, type o f a rran g e m en t o f fuel a n d m o d e ra to r etc. Based
on these co n cep ts in d iv id u a lly or in c o m b in atio n the d iffe re n t re a c to r are :
1. H o m o g en eo u s o r h e tro g en eo u s reacto rs
2. B reed er o r c o n v e rto r reacto r.
3. Fast, in te rm e d ia te o r th erm al reacto r.
4. L iq u id c o o le d reacto r.
5. G as co o le d reacto r.
If the fuel is in th e fo rm o f ro d s o r sh eets the freed n e u tro n s fin d a h etro g e n eo u s m edium ,

on the o th er hand fuel m ay be ev en ly d isp ersed in the m o d e ra to r p ro v id in g hom o g en eo u s m edium
for neutrons.
The. re la tiv e ad v an tag es o f h o m o g en eo u s and h e tro g en e o u s reac to rs are as follow s
H o m o g en eo u s V s H etro g en eo u s
H o m o g en eo u s r ea cto r
A d v a n ta g es
(i) H eat tra n sfe r p o te n tia l is g o o d and u n ifo rm th ro u g h o u t the core.
(ii) I t 's d e s ig n is e a s y to i n c o r p o r a te m e th o d s o f c o n t i n u o u s l y r e p r o c e s s in g
b u rn t-u p -fu e l.
222 POW ER PLAN T E N G IN EE R IN G
(i) C o rro sio n e ffe c ts are co n sid e ra b ly m ore.
(ii) S eco n d ary h eat e x c h a n g e r problem .
(iii) C o n tain in g and c irc u la tio n o f rad io activ e m aterial p roblem s.
H etro g en eo u s rea cto r x

A dva n ta g es
(i) F a c ilita tin g c o n ta in m e n t o f rad io activ e co n stitu en ts.
(ii) C o n stru ctio n is sim p le.
(iii) No c o rro sio n p ro b lem s.
(i) Low efficien cy .
(ii) H eat T ra n sfe r c h a ra c te ristic s are less and no n -u n ifo rm .
Fast, In te r m e d ia te an d T h erm a l R eactors

Fast R eactor
In these reacto rs th ere w ill be no m o d e ra to r to co n tro l n eu tro n v e lo cities, n e u tro n s fly at
their natural speeds, e n erg y released is v ery high.
Interm ediate R ea cto r

In th e r e a c to r s o f in te r m e d ia te ty p e , th e m o d e r a to r r e ta r d s n e u tr o n v e lo c ity to
intermediate levels.
Therm al R eactor
In these reactors m o d eratin g m aterial is used to slow dow n n eu tron v e lo cities. T his slow ing
down is by absorbing n eu tro n s by fissio n a b le m aterial w hich m a in tain ch ain rea ctio n .
F aster R eacto r T h erm al R e ac to r
1. Size of core and capital costs are T he capital costs are m ore in such
less because no m oderator is used. reactor.
2. Allways expensive because enriched T hey can use natural uranium hence less
fuels are only used. fuel cost.
3. Reactor materials are m ore expensive Choice o f m aterials is lim ited and cheaper
such as Niobium, V anadium . m aterials.
4. Heat generation per unit volum e is Heat generation is not as good as the fast
more in this reactor. reactor.
5. Safety is extrem ely im portant as com T here are negative tem perature coefficient
pared to thermal reactors. H ence safer.
T Y P E S O F N U C L E A R R EA C TO R S 223
B reed er and C on vertor R eactors

Som e reactors produce m ore fissile m aterial through nuclear reaction than they consum e in a
chain reaction process such reactors are called as "Breeder reactor".
Som e reactors are designed and operated for the only purpose o f converting non-fissile materials
into fissile m aterials. T h ey are know n as "C onvertors."
10.3 P R E SSU R IZ E D W A T E R R E A C T O R (PW R )

It is a therm al reactor, uses enriched fuel, (uranium used w hich contains 5 to 10% o f U 235
sheathed in stainless steel or zinc alloy.
The com bined m oderator and coolant is ordinary or heavy w ater w hich is m aintained at higher
pressure to prevent boiling. T he pressure m aintained in this reacto r is about 16 M Pa o r 150 atm.
A ccording to properties o f w ater the boiling point at this pressure is nearly 346 °C. The fig.
10.1 (a) show s one type o f pressurised w ater reactor, and typical cross-section at the core o f PW R is
shown in fig. 10.1(b).
ooo
Pressurized
heated water Steam
Pressurized
wate
t .: Heat
Reactor m u 3 exc&fcnger
3 Condenser
F< êdwater,rj~j Pump
Fig. 10.1 (a) Schematic arrangem ent of a PWR powerplant

^ . Core barrel
Fig. 10.1 (b) C ross Section at the C ore of PWR

The w ater at h ig h p re ssu re is p assed fro m co re to the h e at e x c h a n g e r at aro u n d 250°C and

returns in cooled state. W o rk in g flu id (w ater) in seco n d ary c irc u it g ain s h e a t an d g ets transform
into steam that w orks on tu rb in e d u rin g ex p an sio n .
Large PW R m ay p o sse s tw o to fo u r in d e p e n d e n t steam g e n e ra to rs in p arallel. M ost o f

these steam g e n e ra to rs h av e large n u m b e r o f in v erted U sh ap ed tu b e s e n c lo se d in sh ell. G eneral
type is show n in fig-.. 10.2. T h e p rim ary c o o la n t fro m the reac to r flo w s in sid e o f th e tu b es, w here
secondary lo o p is filled w ith w ater. T h e o n ly a d v an tag e in U -tu b e d e sig n is the se co n d a ry w ater
flow ing upside g ets v ap o rized , and the steam is sep arated at the top o f th e u n it and rem ain in g
w ater circulates. „
Low er shell
_Tube supports
T ube bundles
Feed w ater
inlet
Tube s h e e t
C oolant inlet
Coolant outlet
Fig. 10.2 U - tube recirculating-type steam generator
A d v a n ta g es o f P W R
(i) C o m p act in d esign.
(ii) C ap ital c o s ts are less.
(iii) S team su p p lied to tu rb in e is frê from co n ta m in atio n .
(iv) W ater is the c h e a p e st m o d erato r and coolant.
(v) T h e d esign can in co rp o rate U 238 b la n k e t fo r p lu to n iu m b ree d in g .
(i) Fuel co sts m o re since en rich ed u ran iu m is used.
(ii) H ig h p ressu res c reate p ro b lem s to c o n ta in in g v e sse ls etc.
(iii) S a fe ty m e a su re r are very high .
(iv) C o rro sio n p ro b lem s due to high tem p eratu re and p re ssu re.
T Y PE S O F N U C L EA R REA CTO RS 225
10.4 B O IL IN G W A T E R R E A C T O R (B W R )
t T his is also th erm al type reacto r. L ik e PW R it also uses w ate r as m o d erato r and coolant.
M oreover it uses w ater as a n eu tro n reflecto r. T he p re ssu res are n o t as h ig h as that o f PW R so
the steam is g en erated w ith in the core o f th e reacto r, uses d irec t ste am cycle.
T his high p re ssu re steam is feed to tu rb in es d ire ctly w ith o u t in term ed ia te exchangers.
In Fig. 10.3 arran g em en t o f B W R is show n. S in ce in te rm e d ia te a u x ilia rie s are rem o v ed the pow er
out put m ay raise by 5% , B W R also u ses e n rich ed ui'anium as fuel in the form o f rods. N early
180 control rods are d istrib u te d th ro u g h o u t th e core. T h e y are in se rte d fro m the b ottom o f the
core. No pum ps are used to c irc u la te the w ater in the reacto r. In ce rta in cases this w ater is
pum ped to in crease th e c a p a c ity o f the p lan t (k n ow n as fo rce d c irc u la tio n p lan t.
Saturated Steam
Steam ►
---------
seperator Turbine
Saturated
steam to turbine
►
Water steam
mixture
Downcomer i Cooling
Core recirculation [Condenser!
\ water
Feedwater Core (saturated)
Feedwater
Recirculation *----- -n ^ Condensate
water Feedwater pump
pump
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.3 Schem atic of a BWR system (a) internal and (b) external recirculation.
A d v a n ta g es
(i) C o n ta in m e n t is c h e a p e r (low p ressu re) so fo r a g iv e n o u tle t tem p e ratu res B W R are
ch eap er.
(ii) F o r a g iv en p re ssu re the o u tlet te m p eratu res o f steam fro m B W R is g re ate r then
PW R th e re fo re steam cy cle w ould be efficie n t.
(iii) T h erm al e ffic ie n cie s are m ore than PW R by 10% n early.
(i) P o ssib ilitie s o f ra d io a c tiv e co n ta m in atio n in tu rb in e , if fu el e le m e n ts fails.
(ii) B io lo g ic a l p ro te c tio n is n eed ed m o re then PW R h en ce m o re co stly .
10.5 L IQ U ID M E T A L R E A C T O R (S o d iu m - G ra p h ite R ea cto r)

T h ere is a th e rm a l re a c to r, em p lo y s liq u id S odium as c o o la n t and G ra p h ite as m oderator.
S lightly e n rich ed U ra n iu m allo y is u sed as fu el U ran iu m C a rb id e c la d w ith sta in less steel is
used as fuel. U ran iu m can also b e clad w ith N io b iu m o r B ery lliu m c o u ld also be used as fuel.
T h ese re a c to rs a re d e v e lo p e d to av o id the d iffic u ltie s fac ed by p re ssu rise d reactors. Here
a m etal is u sed as c o o la n t in liq u id fo rm (i.e. S o d iu m ) has g o t m any ad v an ta g e s as vapour pressure
2 26 PO W ER PL A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
o f liquid m etal is low an d h e n c e d e sig n o f p re ssu re v essel w ill b e c o m e sim p le. T h is type of
liq u id m e ta ls c a n a lso b e u se d (as c o o la n t) in b o th th e rm a l as w ell as in fa st reacto rs. An
in te r m e d ia te h e a te x c h a n g e r is u s e d in S o d iu m G r a p h ite R e a c to r . In th is in te rm e d ia te
h e a te x c h an g e r th e h e a t is tra n sfe rre d fro m so d iu m to N aK (allo y o f N a and K) and this heat
in tu rn w ill g e n e ra te steam . S in ce th e re a c tio n b etw een N a w ith air and w a te r is v io le n t the whole
sy stem sh o u ld be leak p ro o f. S c h e m a tic view is sh o w n in fig. 10.4.
Controls
Fig. 10.4 Sodium cooled, graphite moderated reactor (SGR)
A d v a n ta g es o f S G R
(i) H igh te m p e ra tu re s are g en erated .
(ii) L ow c o o la n t p re ssu re a v o id s c o n ta in m en t p ro b lem s.
(iii) In th e p rim a ry sy ste m p re ssu re s a re lim ited.
(iv) S u p e rc h a rg in g o f steam is p o ssib le.
(i) C o stly b e c a u se le a k p ro o f sh o u ld be m ain tain ed .
(ii) V io len t re a c tio n s (so d iu m and w ater) are p o ssib le.
(iii) T h e rm a l stre sse s are m ore.
(iv) S o d iu m as c o o la n t, p o ses co rro sio n p ro b lem s.
(v) S o d iu m re a c t w ith w a te r fo rm in g c a u stic so d a lib te ra tin g h e a t w hich m ay cause
ex p lo sio n .
10.6 F A S T B R E E D E R R E A C T O R (F B R )
I f f is s io n is in itia te d w ith U 235 it n o t o n ly g iv e s o f f h e a t b u t a ls o fre e n eu tro n s.
U n d e r c e r ta in c o n d itio n s i f U 238is p la c e d in th e r e a c to r , th e s e fre e n e u tr o n s m ay co n v ert
U ",8 in to P lu to n iu m ( P u 239 w h ic h is a ls o a f is s ile m a te ria l). T h is p ro c e s s is know n as
b re e d in g . T h e s e r e a c to r s a re th e r e f o r e k n o w n fo r th e ir b e tte r fu e l u tiliz a tio n . S chem atic
la y o u t is s h o w n in f ig . 1 0 .5 .
T Y P E S O F N U C L EA R R EA C TO R S 227
Controls
r
>nt
S econdary
sodium loop
high pressu re
Coolant Coolant
pump pump
U 238 Blanket
(fertile material)
Fig. 10.5 Fast Breeder Reactor System (FBR)
T his re a c to r u ses h ig h ly e n ric h e d fu el an d liq u id m etal co o led . N o m o d e rato r is used

in FBR. U 235 co re is co m p le te ly su rro u n d e d by U 238 and th u s a b so rb s e x ce ss neu tro n s and
therefore it is c o n v e rte d in to p lu to n iu m .
The reacto r is co o le d by liq u id m etal and U 238is c o n v e rte d to P U 239o r T h 232into U 233
w hich can be used as fu e ls in th e sam e re a c to r o r it can be u se d so m ew h ere else.
92U 238+ 0n ' _> 92U 239+ y

Since U 239 is u n sta b le the re a c tio n fu rth e r c o n tin u es.
92U 239 - » 93N P 239 + _[e°
N eptunium h a lf life is ab o u t 2 0 days and em its (3 p a rtic le s
The coolant is p o ssib ly liq u id S odium o r an alloy o f S odium o r P o tassium . H ence Plutonium
and other iso to p es are p ro d u c e d in such n u c le a r reactio n s can fu rth e r be used.
A d v a n ta g es
(i) N o m o d e ra to r is required.
(ii) H igh p o w e r d en sity .
(iii) B reed in g is p o ssib le
(iv) Fuel b urn up is high sin ce th ere is no a b so rp tio n risk.
228 PO W ER PL A N T E N G IN EE R IN G
(i) C o n tro l b eco m es d iffic u lt at e x trem e te m p e ratu res, since th ere is no m oderator.
(ii) P o w er (sp e c ific p o w er) is not as high as th at o f th erm al reacto rs.
(iii) L iq u id S o d iu m is co rro siv e.
(iv) E n rich ed fu el is need ed .
10.7 H O M O G E N E O U S R E A C T O R (H A R ) H o m o g en eo u s A q u eo u s R ea cto r
It is ac tu a lly th erm al h o m o g en eo u s re a c to r o f b re ed in g type. T h e fuel is e n ric h ed solution
o f u ranyl su lp h a te in w ater, c o n ta in e d in Z inc alloy.
A slurry o f T h o riu m is p laced ro u n d the co re-v essel as a b lan k et T h o riu m slurry is a m ixture
o f th orium p o w d er and h eavy w ater. H eavy w ater is used as c o o la n t and m o d erato r. Fig. 10.6
show s H A R.
Heat Boiler
To fuel
processing
Fig. 10.6 Homogeneous reactor
T he c irc u la tin g flu id is fu el m o d erated m ix tu re. P u m p c irc u la te s th is flu id b etw een vessel
and h eat e x c h an g er. T h e h eated so lu tio n e n ters the b o ile r to tra n sfe r its e n e rg y to the circulating
w ater. T h u s p ro d u ced steam is ex p an d ed in turbines. H ere fuel ele m en t p ro b le m s are not present
although fuel so lu tio n is ra d io a c tiv e and co rro siv e.
A d v a n ta g es
1. T h e b re e d in g p o ten tial is high and refu ellin g is easy.
2. N o co n tro l rods are needed (e x c e p t fo r safety).
3. S o lid fuel p ro b lem s are rem oved.
4. N eu tro n eco n o m y is good.
T Y PE S O F N U C LEA R R EA C TO R S 229
1. L arg e q u a n titie s o f ra d io a c tiv e m a te rials (F lu id s) c irc u la tin g m ay be som etim es
d a n g ero u s.
2. H igh a m o u n t o f fu el is req u ired .
10.8 GAS C O O L E D R E A C T O R (G C R )
It is sim ila r in o p e ra tio n o f PW R . T h e re are tw o ty p es in G C R sy stem .
1. G as C o o led G ra p h ite M o d erated (G C G M )
2. H igh T e m p e ra tu re G as C o o led R eacto r. (H T G R ).
10.8.1 G as C ooled G r a p h ite M o d era ted R ea cto r

T h ese r e a c to rs a re re g e n e ra tiv e an d c o n v e r to r ty p e as th e y p ro d u c e P lu to n iu m from
n atu ral U ra n iu m . T h e y a re p rim a rily d e s ig n e d to p ro d u c e P lu to n iu m b u t se c o n d a rily used in
pow er p ro d u c tio n . T h e se G C G M u ses g rap h ic m o d eratin g m aterial. Fig. 10.7 (a) show s sim ple
gas cooled g rap h ite m o d e ra te d reacto r.
Fig. 10.7 (a) G as cooled graphite m oderated reactor

230 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
A d v a n ta g e s
(i) N atu ral fuel can be used.
(ii) C o rro sio n p ro b le m s are less.
(iii) x.D esig n is sim p le an d safe.
(iv) G ra p h ite ('m oderator) easily available.
(i) C ap ital c o st is high.
(ii) M a te ria l e ffic ie n c y is low .
r
(iii) S ize is sm all.
10.8.2 H igh T e m p e r a tu r e G as C o o led R ea cto r (H T G R )

It is an a d v a n c e d c o n c e p t o f G as c o o le d g ra p h ite m o d e ra te d ty p e . It is an a tte m p t to
a c h ie v e h ig h te m p e ra tu re s . It is a q u a s i-h o m o g e n e o u s s o lid fu e l re a c to r. It u se s e n ric h e d
fu el m ix e d w ith f e r tile m a te ria l an d is d is p e rs e d in m o d e ra to r. A sc h e m a tic d ia g ra m is show n
in fig . 10.7 (b).
Fig. 10.7 (b) High tem perature g a s cooled reactor

10.9 R A D IO A C T IV E H A Z A R D S A N D S H IE L D IN G
^ 10.9.1 In tro d u ctio n

II is very m uch tru e th at n u c le a r plants not o nly leav es b eh in d a hig h ly radioactive w aste
but if proper sh ield in g is not d o n e the a d v erse affects o f th ese p lan ts are still greater. R ecently
there has bean m uch a p p re h e n sio n a b o u t th e d a n g e rs th e n u c le a r p la n ts are posing by both
radiations from plan ts u n d er o p eratio n and also d u rin g w aste d isp o sa l. U n b iase d observation .
show s that radiation h azard s from p lan ts due to im p ro p er sh ield in g and also n u c lear w aste disposal
are the m ost d isa stro u s so u rces fo r the life on the earth.
10.9.2 R ad iation h a za rd s
R adiation c a u se s d am ag e to liv in g cells. T h e d am ag e d ep en d s on th e in te n sity o f radiation
and tim e o f e x p o su re to ra d ia tio n . W h en an o rg a n ic ce ll e x p o se s to ra d ia tio n , this is called
ion iza tio n . M o le c u le s d i s i n t e g r a t e d u e to io n iz a tio n aijid th e re b y a d v e rs e ly a ffe c tin g th e
biological system .
/
If the neutro n h av e su ffic ie n t en erg y , they rep la ce the p o sitio n o f la ttic e stru ctu re o f tissue
cell. T his p rocess is k n o w n as d isp la cem en t.
W hen th e n e u tro n s a re a b s o rb e d b y tis s u e n u c le i th e y g e t ra d io a c tiv a te d and sta rts

disintegration. T h is p ro c e ss is k n o w n as n e u tro n ca p turing.
R a d ia tio n d o se is th e co m m o n te rm in o lo g y in n u c le a r e n e rg y w h ic h is m e asu red in

roentgen (r).
Low doses w ould h av e c u m u la tiv e effe c ts and ca u ses 'C a n ce r' and 'L eu ka em ia ' where as
high dose is fatal. M o reo v er ex p o su re to ra d ia tio n m ay a ffect ly m p h a tic tissu e s, nervous system ,
and also rep ro d u ctiv e org an s.
. 10.9.3 T erm s a sso cia ted w ith ra d ia tio n ex p o su re
The C urie
R adiation has b oth q u a lity and also q u an tity . T he q u an tity o f ra d ia tio n can be m easured
by physical units c alled C urie (C i).
D efinition : It is given in term s o f d isin te g ra tio n o f ra d iu m nuclei.
10
1 C i = 3 .7 0 x 1 0 d isin te g ra tio n s/sec
N ote : C urie is big un it, the sm all u n its are p re fe rred , lik e m C i (m illic u rie ), PC i (picocurie).
R ad iation (r)
R adiation is the ra d ia tio n en erg y ab so rb ed p e r u n it m ass.
* 1 rad = 0.01 J/k g
1 m illi rad = O.OOOOlJ/kg
G ray (gy)
R ad is not in use now a d ays in stead o f rad SI units are used. T he SI unit is gray (gy)
1 gy = 1 J /lg = I 0 0 rad.
Rem
T h e e ffe c t o f ra d ia tio n on h u m an b e g in s can be c a lc u la te d as th e e n e rg y (rad ia tio n )
a b so rb ed and a lso b io lo g ic a l e ffe c ts d u e to th e ra d ia tio n . T h a t is w hy rad is m u ltip lie d w ith a
fa c to r k n o w n as re la tiv e b io lo g ic a l e ffe c tiv e n e ss (R B E ) and re m is o b ta in e d fro m roentgen
e q u iv a le n t m ass (rem )
1 rem = 1 rad x R B E .
\
■ R B E = 0.6 to 0.8 fo r 4 M ev y ray s
= 1.4 for 1 M ev ele<5trons
= 4 to 5 fo r n eu tro n s (therm al),
= 2 to 10 fo r 1 M ev n eu tro n s
= 10 to 20fo r a p a r t i c l e ,/
S iev ert (Sv)

T he S.I unit in stead o f rem is sie v e n t (Sv) = 100 rem
R o n tg en (r)
It is the q u a n tity o f ra d ia tio n w hich can p ro d u ce one e le c tro sta tic u n it o f ch arg e in one
cubic cm o f dry air at sta n d a rd tem p eratu re and pressure.
10.9.4 S h ie ld in g
S h ie ld in g is req u ired in o rd e r to p ro te c t th e w alls o f re a c to r as w ell as p e rso n n e l from the
dam aging effe c ts o f n e u tro n s and g am m a rays. U sually sh ield in g w ill be in tw o lev els internal
sh ield in g (th erm al) and e x te rn a l sh ie ld in g (B io lo g ical). B io lo g ic al sh ie ld in g is g e n erally made
o f concrete. T h e th ic k n e ss w o u ld be aro u n d 2 m eters to 2.5 m eters.
I
A lpha ( a ) and B eta (3) p a rtic le s co u ld be sto p p ed by lead sh ie ld in g o f ju s t centim etres.
B ut neu tro n s and g am m a rays can trav el c o n sid e ra b le d ista n ce s in air, as w ell as in solids.
A tten u a tio n o f ga m m a rays

T h e y in te ra c t p rim arily w ith the e lectro n s o f an atom in th e ir o rb its. So in attenuating
(m aking w eak er) the g am m a ray s, high electro n d en sity m aterials are m o st su itab le.
M etals such as lead, tu n g sten , co n c re te w ith high atom ic n u m b e r e le m e n ts o r heavy ore

are used in sh ie ld in g the g am m a rays.
T Y PE S OF N U C LEA R REACTORS 233
A tten u a tio n o f n eu tro n s

Basically neutrons are first slow ed and then absorbed. T he slow ing o f neutrons is done by
using low atom ic num ber elem ents as hydrogen, water, polyethylene concrete. A fter slowing them
using suitable m aterials they m ust be absorbed and in doing that B oron is the m ost im portant element.
So requirem ent in sh ie ld in g g am m a and n eu tro n s is c o n flic tin g (o p p o site ). H ence w ell m ixture
o f such elem ents is u sed in sh ie ld in g m aterials u sed fo r n u c le ar p o w e r re acto rs.
10.10 R A D IO A C T IV E W A S T E D IS P O S A L (N u c le a r W aste and D isp o sa l)

10.10.1 In tro d u ctio n
T he cap acity o f p o w e r p ro d u ced by n u clear p lan ts by the w o rld by the end o f 1990-91 is
alm ost 17 percen t. T h o u g h n u c le a r p lan ts is clean so u rce o f p ow er. T h e in c lin a tio n tow ards
nuclear pow er h as (red u ced ) d im in ish e d d u rin g last d e cad e, this is b e ca u se o f the dangers posed
by them .
If we classify th e stu d y o f n u clear hazard s it falls into tw o c a teg o rie s
(i) T he m an ag em en t o f ra d io a c tiv e w aste.

(ii) T he lo n g stan d in g e ffe c ts in case o f accidents.
10.10.2 U nit o f N u c le a r ra d ia tio n
T he b asic u n it o f n u c le a r ra d ia tio n is ro entgen (r).
l r = 8 6 . 9 e% m
i.e. 86.9 ergs o f e n erg y ab so rb ed p er gram o f air.
The ab so rp tiv ity o f tissu e (M u ssle) fo r d iffe ren t ra d ia tio n s differ. H ence m odified unit
'Rem' is suggested R em is eq u al to the e ffe c ts as that o f 1 ro en tg e n o f g am m a radiation.
■ R em (R o en tg en e q u a lan t m ass) y = 1
R em y = 1
R em (P )= 1 R em (n e u tro n s ) = 10
On the b asis o f stu d ie s on hum an p h e n o m en a based on ra d ia tio n 20 0 rem is the lim it o f

radiation ex p o su re fo r an a v erag e p erson in his life tim e.
10.10.3 N u clear W astes

In the p ro cess o f u n d e rsta n d in g n u clear w astes. It is p re p rim a ry to know and understand
the fuel cycle o f n u c le a r plants. T h e v ario u s steps in volved is show n in fig. 10.8.
Back end
n^M. | E3 irfU . I»»l

Fuel fabrication • s P0n< fuel sto ra g e Fuel tabricalion I S p e n t fuel sto rag e
t ^ I J ifQ n t 1 .
nIH
bm l«l n 1. Plotinium
PlotAnium j n f lln I I High-leve
Enriching , UT , Enriching
A X I * High-level f i ;
■ ^ ^ J w aste - _ _ r= n 1 :
Q # —f==]g Uraniun / -O jC L J JL
P rocessing $ P ro c essin g ^
I uk,?i |
-4 - &
Exploration-nmning
!
F ed eral repository
A. I ts
Exploration-m ining
(a) with reprocessing (b) without reprocessing
Fig. 10.8 A typical nuclear fuel cycle
1. M ining o f the uranium ore.

2. R efining w hich produces uranium concentrates.
3. Processing (produces uranium hexafloride) U F6.
4. Isotopic E nrichm ent o f fuel (U Ffi).
5. Fabrication o f fuel elem ents. (U F —» U 0 2). 6
6. Pow er generation (rejecting the spent fuel).
7. R eprocessing o f the irradiated fuel (conversion o f residual U into U F6)
8. W aste m anagem ent, includes long-term storage o f high level w astes.
10.10.4 C lassification o f N u clear W astes

N uclear w astes can be classified into fiv e types as,
(i) G as effluents
T hese gases are released slow ly into the environm ent and diluted hence harm less.
(ii) M ine T ailings

T hese are naturally occurring radioactive m aterials o f low concentration since this is a residue
o f U ranium m ining and m illing operations.
<iii) H igh L evel W aste (H LW )

T his w aste is generated in the reprocessing o f spent fuel. H L W contain alm ost all fission
products and during reprocessing m ost o f transuranium is separated. H L W should be disposed very
carefully. D uring reprocessing the cladding m aterial that contains fuel is rem oved from the fuel is
dissolved in nitric acid. T he U and Pu 235 239
are rem oved leaving non-volatile products in the solution.
called highly active liq u id waste.
T Y P E S O F N U C L EA R R EA C TO R S 235
(iv) Low L evel W aste (L L W )

I The waste that contains less than 10. nanocuries per gram of transuranium contaminants and
that have low but potentially dangerous concentration of radioactive material LLW is produced in
almost every activity like medical, industrial etc. that involve radioactive materials. There are usually
disposed in liquid form by shallow land burial.
(v) Spent fuel
Unreprocessed fuel came from core of the reactor. It is removed from the reactor core after
reaching its end of life core service. Ccfre service is needed for careful disposal.
10.10.5 W aste disposal
N uclear w aste d isp o sa l ca n be classified as
1. High level waste disposal.
2. Intermediate level waste disposal.
3. Low level waste disposal.
1. D isposal o f H igh L evel N u clear W aste
The radioactivity level is above 1000 curie. They are generally managed by incorporating
them in inert solid matrices, placed in canisters (small box) which are kept under cooling till
radioactivity comes to desired level, and finally these canisters are stored in deep geological media.
Typical view is shown in Fig. 10.9. \
Fig. 10.9 High level w aste disposal

The special advantage of this method is the deposition in salt provides strong capability of
absorbing radioactive emissions and also good thermal conductivity. J
These wastes are also incorporated under intermediate storages.
viz. (i) Geological storage (Rocksalt, Hard Rocks etc.)
(ii) Ocean storage
(iii) New methods (Harvest process, AVM process)
(i) G e o lo g ic a l S to r a g e
R ock sa lt
This technique is used in USA and Germany for storage of high level waste. This is
shown in fig. 10.10. This method has got some a d v a n ta g e s because
(a) It is an excellent absorber of radioactive emissions.
(b) It has very good thermal conductivity to keep the temperatures in safe limits.
(c) Big drums can be made.
Fig. 10.10 Geological storage technique
H ard ROcks
Metamorphic and Sedimentary rocks have a potential of radioactive absorbability and
withstand for long times.
(ii) O cea n d isp o sa l

Japan, USA and Canada are following this system of disposal.
After the waste material disintegrates to low levels this system of disposal is preferred.
But the following factors must be considered before, seebeck selection for the disposal.
(a) Flow (water) currents and sea bed properties.
(b) Design of containers should be tested for corrosion and thermal conductive properties.
(c) Chemical properties.
(iii) N ew m eth o d s o f H igh L ev el W a ste d isp o sa l

(a) Harvest process (Highly Active Residues V erification Emergency Study).
The process was found in 1970. Fig. 10.11 shows the principle.
O FF GAS TREATMENT
nm TTTTl
STORAGE
L -s V A V i
i
FILLED
NEW CONTAINER IN CONTAINER CONTAINER
CONTAINER FURNACE AT 1000°C COOLED & IN OUTER
SEALED CANISTER
Fig. 10.11 Principle of 'Harvest' Process
In. a stainless steel vessel container the liquid waste (together with glass forming materials) is
fed into it, and thereby the total mixtures fuses as a homogeneous glass. As the vessel fulls it is
removed from the furnace and cooled, after that the vessels are ‘sealed and send to storage place.
(b) AVM Process (Atclierde Vitrification Marcoule)
This method was developed by France. The method is same as harvest but the advantages is
higher production rate and greater potential. Fig. 10.12 shows the principal of AVM process. In this
two stages are followed, liquid waste dried to a free flowing power in a rotary kiln.- After that, this
powder along with glass powder is fed into glass making furnace.
TO OFF GAS
TREATMENT
STORAGE
DISPOSAL —
DECONTAMINATE
FIT LID FILL CONTANER
EXTERIOR
Fig. 10.12 Principle of AVM p ro cess

238 PO W ER PL A N T EN G IN EE R IN G
2. In te rm e d ia te level w aste disposal

A ctu ally th e se w astes are in co rp o rated in to cem e n t c y lin d ers. T h e a d v a n tag e is cem en t^
acts as sh ie ld in g and re sista n t to b each es by gro u n d w ater.
3. Low Level W aste Disposal

N u c le a r w a ste o f this ty p e is c ast into steel d rum w ith c em en t. T h e re a fte r th e se drum s are
b uried on land as in the sea bed. R efer to c la ssific a tio n o f N u c le a r w aste.
*
10.11 NU CLEAR HAZARDS - P recautions and Safety M easures

1. S ite fo r n u c le a r p lan ts sho,uld be c h o o sed w ith sa fety p a ra m e te rs in m ind.
2. D esig n m ust be fo r the safe o p eratio n and p ro te c tiv e m e asu res in case o f accidents.
3. P o ssib ility o f hum an error, eq u ip m en t failure and extrem e natural p henom ena, should
be re c o g n ise d and p la n t d esig n m ust be b ase d on this co n cep t.
4. D esig n on th e c o n c e p t o f "d efen ce-in -d ep th ".
5. E m erg en cy esc a p e m easu res shall be p ro v id ed ;
6. D iffe re n t sig n a llin g sh o u ld be in sta lle d at ev ery c o rn e r o f w o rk in plant.
7. T ra in in g (E d u c a tio n ) p ro g ram m u st be stressed , fo r the w o rk ers.
8. E m erg en cy H o sp ita l m ust be pro v id ed .
10.12 LOCATION O F N U CLEAR PLANT

The fo llo w in g fa c to rs m u st be co n sid ered fo r site selectio n .
(i) N ear to Load C enter

T h e c lo se r th e p la n t site to lo ad the m in o r the tra n sm issio n lo sses. A t the sa m e tim e land
cost, adeq u ate co o lin g w ater, etc. are also considered".
(ii) Safety
R ad iatio n h azard s an d w aste d isp o sa l are the lim itin g fa c to rs a ffe c tin g the site selection.
P lant sho u ld be reaso n ab ly aw ay from p o p u la te d areas.
(iii) Seismic behaviour

T h e p lan t site shall n e v e r b e p re fe rred at q u ake p rone areas. C a re fu l study is very much
essential b e fo re p lan t erectio n at c o astal p laces.
10.13 NUCLEAR PO W ER STATIONS IN INDIA

1. T a ra p u r A to m ic P o w er S tatio n (T A P S ) It is the first a to m ic p o w er p lan t o f India
n ear M um bai. It co m p rises tw o B W R s each 160 M W has c o m p le ted 25 years of
c o m m ercial g en eratio n . It tak es c o o lin g w ate r fro m A rab ian sea. It is the second
larg est in A sia and second o ld est B W R in the w orld. ^
2. R an ap ratap S ag ar A to m ic P o w er S ta tio n It is lo cated n e a r K ota, R ajasthan. It is

w o rk in g on C A N D U -P H W re a c to r p rin cip le . It has tw o id e n tic a l u n its o f 200 MW
T Y PE S OF N U C LEA R REA CTO RS 239
3. K alp ak k am A to m ic P o w er S tatio n (K A P S ) : It is th e th ird ato m ic p o w er project

w h ic h is d e sig n e d by In d ia n E n g in e e rs u sin g . In d ig e n o u s m aterials at C hennai"
C o m p rise s tw o fa s t b re e d e r re a c to rs o f 235 M W it is also kno w n as In d ira G andhi
N u c le a r P o w e r P la n t u ses p lu to n iu m c o m b in e d fu el.
4. N a ro ra N u c le a r P o w er S tatio n : It is the fo u rth , p o w e r p la n t uses tw o CA N D H -

PH W re a c to rs o f 235 M W cap acity each sta rte d in 1981 in UP.
5. K ak rap ara N u c le a r P o w er P l a n t : It's co n stru ctio n is in p ro g ress near Surat in Gujarat.

It is p ro p o se d to h av e fo u r re a c to rs o f 235 M W c a p a city . S ee A p p en d ix - 11.
R eview Q u estion s
1. W hat is H o m o g en eo u s R eacto r ? D escrib e H A R in d etail.

2. D iscuss w ith th e h elp o f n eat sk etch the w o rk in g o f p re ssu rise d w a te r rea cto r (PW R ) plant.
3. C lassify N u c le a r p o w er p lan ts. D iscu ss ab o ut co n tro lled ch ain reactio n .
4. W hat are the featu res o f ad v a n c e d gas co o led rea cto rs o v e r o th e r types.
5. G ive ad v an tag es and d isa d v a n ta g e s o f n u c le ar p o w er p lan ts o v er th erm al plants.
6. Explain th e term "F ast B reed er R eacto r", and d escrib e the la y o u t and w orking.
7. E xplain gas co o le d re a c to r w ith the h elp o f n e at sketch.
8. W rite a n ote on ra d ia tio n h azard s and sh ield ing.
9. M ention som e a d v a n ta g e s o f gas co o le d reacto rs.
10. Is sh ield in g is n e c e ssa ry fo r a n u c le a r p lan t ? W rite a b o u t T h e rm a l shielding.
11. W rite notes on
(a) w o rk in g o f PW R
(b) N u clear p la n t h a z a rd s and sh ield in g .
(c) S o d iu m G ra p h ite R eacto r (SG R )
(d) H ealth h azard s due to N u c le a r p lan ts
S elf - test
1. T he average th erm al e ffic ie n cy o f a m o d ern n u clear p o w er p la n t is

(a) 30% (b) 60%
(c) 40% (d) 80% .
2. T arap u r n u c le a r p o w er p la n t has
(a) P ressu rised w a te r R e a c to r (b) B o ilin g w a te r R e ac to r
(c) C A N D U R e a c to r (d) G as co o le d R e ac to r
3. In a P ressu rised w a te r R e a c to r (PW R )
(a) the c o o la n t w a te r b o ils in the core
(b) the co o lan t w ater is p re ssu rise d to w o rk as m o d erato r
(c) th e co o lan t w ater is p re ssu rise d to p rev en t b o ilin g o f w ate r in the core
(d) no m o d e ra to r
4. In gas co o le d re a c to r (G C R ) are u sed as m o d e rato r and c o o la n t re sp e c tiv e ly

(a) G ra p h ite an d C 0 2 (b) G rap h ite and air
(c) H eavy w ater and C 0 2 (d) N one
5. F ast B reed er R eacto r uses

(a) U 238 (b) 90% U 235
(c) U 235 (d) Pu 239
6. C o o la n t in b o ilin g w a te r re a c to r is
(a) C0 2 (b) W ater & S team
(c) L iq u id m etal (d) M ercu ry
In b o ilin g w ater re a c to r th e m o d e ra to r used is

(a) F errite ro d (b) G rap h ite rod
(c) C o o lan t its e lf (d) L iq u id S o d iu m m etal
BW R u se s th e fo llo w in g as fuel
(a) T h o riu m (b) P lu to n iu m
(c) U 235 (d) * E n rich ed U ranium
9. India's first n u c le a r p lan t is

(a) N a ro ra (U P ) (b) K ota (R aja sth an )
(c) K alp ak k am (M ad ras) • (d) T a ra p u r (B o m b ay )
10 . T h erm al S h ie ld in g is to
(a) A b so rb th e fast n eu tro n s
(b) P ro tect th e p e rso n n e l from rad iatio n in the p la n t
(c) B oth a & b
(d) N one
A n sw ers 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. a 5. b
6. b 7. c 8. d 9. d 10. c
Chapter -11
P o w er Plant Economics
T h e per c a p ita l e le c tric a l e n e rg y c o n s u m p tio n by th e p e o p le o f a c o u n try show s its ,
stan d a rd o f liv in g a n d th e g ro w th o f its e c o n o m y . T o d e te rm in e the e le c tric a l e n e rg y req u ired
fo r an area it is n e c e s s a ry to fin d o u t th e re s o u rc e s fo r g e n e ra tio n , in d u s tr ia l d e v e lo p m e n t in
that area and th e c o s t o f e le c tric a l e n e rg y . A part from this it is v e ry im p o rta n t to have a
co rre c t id ea o f the lo a d re q u ire m e n ts o f an a re a w h ere e le c tric ity is to b e m ade av a ila b le.
We have seen th a t th e re a re th re e im p o rta n t ty p e s o f p o w e r sta tio n s n a m e ly T h e rm a l, H ydro
and N u c le a r p o w e r s ta tio n s . In c h o o s in g th e ty p e o f g e n e ra tio n e c o n o m ic a lly a n u m b er o f
p o in ts have to be c o n s id e re d .
In th is c h a p te r w e d isc u ss ab o u t e c o n o m ic a l'a s p e c ts o f p o w e r p la n t and p o w er plant

environm ental c o n sid e ra tio n s, w hich co n stitu te the co st o f po w er, the fixe^l and o p eratin g cost,
description o f gen eral a rra n g e m en t o f p o w er d istrib u tio n and o th e r factors' a ffectin g econom ics
o f generation and d istrib u tio n o f p o w er plants.
11.2 C O ST C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T he selectio n o f a p a rtic u la r p o w er p lan t fo r p e rfo rm in g a p a rtic u la r jo b is based on the
cost co n sid eratio n s. T h e c o st o f e le c tric al en ergy d ep en d s upon the in v estm en t on the plant,
distribution system , co st o f o p e ra tio n an d m ain tenance.
The co'st o f a n y p la n t ca n be b ro a d ly d iv id e d into tw o p a rts

(i) F ixed cost.
(ii) R unning cost.
11.2.1 F ixed C ost

T his C o st is in d e p e n d e n t o f p la n t o p e ra tio n and it is fu rth e r c la ssifie d as
(i) C apital c o st o f plant.
(ii) D ep reciatio n cost.
(iii) M an ag em en t and C lerical s ta ff salaries.
(iv) T ax es, in su ran ce and in te re st on cap ital cost.
(i) C a p ita l C ost o f P la n t

T he ex p e n d itu re that is sp en t on L and, b u ild in g , eq u ip m en t d e sig n in g and p lan n in g o f the ^
plant is c alled th e ca p ita l co st. It m ain ly d ep en d s u p o n the lo ca tio n and ty p e o f plant. A plant
located at th e cen tre o f a c ity w ill b e c o stlie r as co m p ared to one th a t is c o n stru c te d o u tsid e the
city since the land co st in th e city is m ore. If the p o w er statio n is lo c ate d a t the lo a d cen tre, then '
the tran sm issio n and d istrib u tio n sy stem co sts w ill be reduced. T h e ty p e o f p o w e r p lan t plays a
vital ro le in the c a p ita l co st. H y d ro p o w er p lan t is c o s tlie r p lan t as fa r as c a p ita l c o st is concerned
w hile the T h e rm a l and d iesel p lan ts are co m p arativ ely cheaper.
(ii) D e p r e c ia tio n C ost

T h e cap ital in v e stm e n t on the p la n t m ust be reco v ered by th e tim e the life span o f the plant
is over, so th at a new p la n t can be rep laced . D e p re c iatio n a c co u n ts the w e ar and tear o f the
equipm ent and it also co v ers the d ecrease in value o f eq u ip m en t due to obso lescen ce. D epreciation
co st is the am o u n t th a t sh o u ld be k e p t aside p er y e a r fro m th e in co m e.
Som e o f the im p o rta n t m eth o d s used to c a lc u la te the d e p re c ia tio n c o st are
(a) S tr a ig h t lin e m eth o d
It is sim p lest and co m m o n ly used m ethod. T he life sp an and salv ag e value o f the equipm ent
is first assessed. T h is salv ag e valu e is d ed u ced from the. in itia l c a p ita l c o st and the b alance o f it f
is divided by the a sse sse d life span in years. T h u s the rate o f d e p re c ia tio n is calcu la ted . The
assessed dep reciatio n c o st is set asid e ev ery year. By the tim e the e q u ip m e n t life span is com pleted
an am ount e q u iv a le n t to eq u ip m en t n et c o st is accu m u lated . T h is am o u n t c an be used to replace
the old e q u ip m e n t by a new one.
(b) S in k in g fu n d m eth o d
In this m eth o d th e d e p re c ia tio n co st th at is k ep t aside fro m the an n u al in co m e w ill also
includes the in te re st e a rn e d on the am o u n t set asid e p er year.
T he m eth o d is e x p la in e d b elow .
L et
n = T h e ex p e c te d life o f the p lan t in years

A = T h e am o u n t set asid e at th e en d o f each y e ar fo r 'n y e ars, 1
i = R ate o f co m p o u n d in terest p er annum on the in v e ste d cap ital.
C = T h e in itia l in v e stm e n t on th e plant.
S = S alv ag e valu e at the end o f p lan t life,
y = T o tal am o u n t acc u m u la ted in 'n' years.
A fter 1 y e a r the am o u n t se t asid e = A
A fte r 2 y ear th e am o u n t set asid e = A + Ai

= A (1 + i)
P O W E R P L A N T E C O N O M IC S 243
A fter 3 y ears th e a m o u n t set asid e = A (1 + i) + in te re st on A (1 + i)

= A (1 + i) + A (1 + i) i
= A (1 + i )2
A fter 'n' y ears the am o u n t set aside is 'y'
y = A + A (1 + i) + A (1 + i )2+ ................. + A ( 1 + i)n ~ 1
= A [1 + (1 + i) + (I + i )2+ .... + (1 + i) n ~ > ]/ 1
.( )
M ultiplying the ab o v e e q u a tio n by ( 1 + i ) , w e get

y( l +i ) = A [ ( l + i )1+ ( l + i )2+ ( 1 + i )n 1 .(2)
S ubtractin g e q u a tio n (1) from (2)
y * i = [(1 + i)n -1 ] A
A
y =
T he to tal am o u n t acc u m u la ted in 'n' y ears should be eq ual to the d ifferen c e o f capital
investm ent and sa lv a g e value.
i.e., y = C -S
(l + i)n- I
c-s =
A = (O r)
A = (C -S )
(iii) M a n a g em en t an d C lerica l s ta ff S a laries

T his is the am o u n t th at is g iv en to the em ployees in the p o w e r p lan t w h ich is independent
o f the energy being prod u ced .
(iv) T a x es, In su r a n c e an d In terest on C ap ital C ost

F ix ed co st is in flu e n c e d by so m e m o re fa c to rs su ch as in su ra n c e , in te re st and taxes on
cap ital cost. T h e rate o f in te re s t d e p e n d s upon the c re d it on th e b o rro w m o n ey . T axes w ill be
m ore if the p o w e r p la n t is e s ta b lis h e d in th e u rb a n a rea w hen c o m p a re d to the rural areas.
Som e o f the c o stly e q u ip m e n t sh o u ld be in su red to o v e r co m e a g a in st the risk o f accidents.
2 44 PO W ER PL A N T E N G IN E E R IN G
11.2.2 V ariable C ost

V ariable cost m ainly depends upon the electrical energy produced ir. kW h. T he following
costs influences the variable cost.
(i) Fuel C ost
(ii) M aintenance C ost
(iii) O perational C ost
(i) F uel C ost

T he cost o f the fuel consum ed by the plant to generate a p articular am ount o f energy is called
fuel cost. W hen m ore am ount o f energy is generated the cost o f fuel utilized w ill be m ore. Fuel cost
also depends upon the efficiency o f the plant. F or m ore efficient plant the fuel consum ed corresponding
to the energy generated w ill be less com pared to the less efficient plant. T herefore, the generator in a
plant is norm ally loaded to the m axim um extent.
(ii) M ain ten an ce C ost

It is the am ount o f m oney spent for the m aintenance o f the plant. F or sm ooth running o f the
plant proper m aintenance is required, w hich accounts scheduled m aintenance, preventive m aintenance
and forced m aintenance. F or this m aintenance som e em ployees are required. T he salaries o f these
em ployees form the m aintenance cost.
(iii) O peration C ost

For a particu lar installed capacity, the operational co st m ay be ind ep en d en t o f the energy
generated. As the generated energy w idely varies, the operational co st depends upon the energy
generated. It includes the salaries o f the labours and technical staff. It does not include the salaries
o f the clerical and m anagem ent staff.
11.3 LO A D C U R V E S
The curve show ing the relation betw een load on the p ow er station w ith respect to tim e is
known as a lo a d curve. G eneral load curve is show n in fig. 11.1. T he load on a pow er plant is
continuously varying as show n in figure. D epending upon the tim e scale the curves are called as
1. D aily Load C urve
2. M onthly L oad C urve
Fia. 11.1 G eneral Load C urve

PO W E R P L A N T ECO N O M ICS 245
Daily Load Curve

It is a cu rv e sh o w in g th e lo ad v ariatio n on the p o w er p la n t w .r.t w h o le day. T y pical daily
load curve is sh o w n in fig. . . 11 2
12 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 12
T im e (M onthly)
T im e (D aily)
Fig. 11.2 Daily Load Curve Fig. 11.3 M onthly Load Curve
Monthly Load Curve

It is a cu rv e sh o w in g th e lo ad v ariatio n o n the p o w e r p la n t w .r.t. w h o le m onth. T his can
also be o b tain ed by th e d aily lo ad cu rv e. T y p ic al m o n th ly lo ad c u rv e is show n in fig. 11.3.
Yearly Load Curve

Y early load c u rv e is sh o w n in fig. 11.4. It is a cu rv e sh o w in g the v a riatio n o f the load on
the po w er p lan t in a y ear. It is u se d to d e te rm in e annual lo ad factor.
£
S
o
T im e (Y early )
Fig. 11.4 Yearly Load Curve
Importance of the Load Curve

T h e fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n can be o b ta in e d fro m lo ad cu rv es.
1. T h e m ax im u m an d m in im u m v alu es o f the lo a d in a day.

2. T h e v a ria tio n o f th e lo ad d u rin g d iffe re n t h o u rs o f th e day.
3. A v e ra g e an n u al load on the station.

4. A nnual m ax im u m and m inim um v alu es o f th e load.
5. It g ive an id ea w h eth er the p o w er sy stem in sta lla tio n is w o rk in g e ffic ie n tly or not.
11.4 L O A D D U R A T IO N C U R V E
L oad d u ra tio n c u rv e is sh o w n in fig . 11.5. L o ad d u ra tio n c u rv e g iv e s th e re la tio n betw een
the p e rc e n t o f tim e fo r w h ic h a p a rtic u la r load e x is ts on the sy ste m . It g iv e s us an id e a o f the
load at any in sta n t o f tim e in a d ay o r m o n th o r o v e r a y ear. F ro m th e c u rv e w e can determ in e
th e n u m b e r o f h o u rs p e r y ear. It is sim ila r to lo a d c u rv e s, th e o n ly d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e load
c u rv e s a n d lo a d d u r a tio n c u r v e s is th a t th e o r d in a te s a r e r e a r r a n g e d in lo a d m a g n itu d e
d ecre a sin g order.
Fig. 11.5 Load Duration Curve
T he fo llo w in g p ro c e d u re can be used fo r d raw in g lo ad d u ra tio n cu rv e .
1.From the d ata, d ete rm in e th e p eak load on the sy stem and the d u ra tio n fo r w hich it
occurs.
2. T ak e th e n ex t lo w er load an d n ote the total tim e p e rio d fo r w h ic h th is load occurs.
3. N o te d o w n all th e d iffe re n t lo a d s th a t o cc u rs at d iffe re n t tim e p e rio d s in load

d escen d in g order.
4. P lo t th e load ag ain st th e p erc e n ta g e o f tim e d u rin g the y e a r o r th e n u m b er o f hours

d u rin g th e y e a r fo r w h ich it occurs.
5. T h e c u rv e so o b ta in e d is kn o w n as y early lo a d d u ratio n cu rv e.
PO W ER PLA N T ECO N O M ICS 247
Problem 11.1
P lot the load d u ra tio n cu rv e from th e g iv en data.
Load (kW ) 2000 4000 500 6000 2500 1000

Tim e (hrs) 4 6 6 4 2 2
Sol.
T otal tim e is 2 4 hrs. T h is 24 h rs is c o n sid e re d as 100% . T h e v ario u s points on the load
duration curve can be ta b u la te d as sh o w n below .
T a b le Ex. 1
L o ad H ours in a day % tim e
6000 4 16.66%
4000 4+ 6= 10 41.66 %
2500 4 + 6+ 2 = 12 50.0 %
2000 4 + 6+ 2 + 4 = 1 6 66.67 %
1000 4 + 6+ 2 + 4 + 2 = 1 8 75 %
500 4 + 6+ 2 + 4 + 2 + 6= 24 100%
T in t —
Fig. 11.5 Load Duration Curve
Im p ortan ce o f L oad D u ra tio n C urve

1. F ro m L o a d d u r a tio n c u rv e th e m a x im u m and th e m in im u m d e m a n d s can be
d eterm in ed .
2. T he area u n d er th e load d u ratio n cu rv e gives the total e n e rg y consum ption.
3. T he area b elo w the d o tted line an d above the cu rv e g iv e s the am ount o f energy
w hich m ig h t have b een g en erated if the load fa c to r o f the sy stem is %. 100
4. L oad d u ratio n cu rv ed is u seful fo r fin an c ial an a ly sis stu d ie s o f a pow er plant.
248 PO W ER PL A N T EN G IN EE R IN G
11.5 IM P O R T A N T D E F IN IT IO N S
T he fo llo w in g a re so m e o f the im p o rta n t d e fin itio n s used in v a rio u s lo ad problem s i n ^
P ow er P lant E n g in eerin g .
(i) C o n n e c te d L o a d
It is the su m o f th e a ll e q u ip m e n t ra tin g s c o n n e c te d to the su p p ly system . T housands of
co n su m ers d raw p o w e r fro m th e p o w er statio n sup ply. E ach c o n su m e r has ce rta in equipm ent
installed in his p rem ises. T h e sum o f all the c o n tin u o u s ratin g s o f the eq u ip m e n t connected in
his prem ises can b e c alled as c o n n e c te d load. If we c o n sid e r a c o n su m e r h a v in g the follow ing
loads such as 2 F an s, 3 L am ps, and 1 H eater o f c a p ac ities 40 W atts, 100' w atts and lOOO watts
resp ectiv ely . T h en the c o n n e c te d load is 2 x 40 + 3 x 100 + 1 x io o o = 1380 w atts. 1380 W is
the co n nected load o f th e co n su m er. S im ilarly the sum o f the c o n n e c te d load o f all the consum ers
gives the co n n ected lo ad o f th e p o w er plant.
(ii) M a x im u m D e m a n d
It is the m a xim u m d e m a n d o f lo a d on the p o w e r sta tio n f o r a g iv e n p erio d . T he load on the
pow er sta tio n is n o t c o n sta n t, it varies from tim e to tim e. T h e m a x im u m o f all the load dem ands
that have o ccu rred in a g iv en p erio d is called the m a xim u m dem and. T h e m axim um d em and at
\ 4 ,
the m ost equ al to c o n n e c te d lo ad , in gen eral it is alw ays less th an the c o n n e c te d load be cause all
the co nsu m ers do not sw itch on th e ir co n n ected load to the sy stem a t a tim e. M a x im u m dem and t
helps in d ete rm in in g the in sta lle d c a p a c ity o f th e station.
(iv) D e m a n d F a c to r
D em and fa c to r is the ratio o f m axim um dem and to th e co n n e cted load. D em and factor is
usually less th at 1 and at th e m o st eq u als to 1. T h is is b ecau se m axim um d em an d is in generally
less than c o n n ected load.
C o n sid e r th a t th e m ax im u m d em an d on the p o w er statio n is 60 M W and the connected

load is 100 M W th en th e d em an d fa c to r eq u als to 0.6. It is very im p o rta n t in d eterm in in g the
capacity o f the p la n t eq u ip m en t.
I Maximum Demand
D em and F acto r, = --------------------------
Connected Load
(iv) A v e ra g e L o a d
T h e av erag e o f all lo ad s on the p o w er statio n that occu rred in a g iv e n p e rio d is know n as
avera g e lo a d or a vera g e dem and.
D ep en d in g upon the tim e p erio d considei'ed, it can be d aily av erag e lo ad , m onthly average
load or y early av erag e load.
^ , No. of units generated in a day (k W h )

D aily A v erag e L oad = ---------------------------------------------------
24 hours
PO W ER PL A N T ECO N OM ICS 249
, , No. of units generated in a month (k W h )

M onthly A v erag e L o ad = ------------------------------------------------------
Number of hours in a month
No. of units g eneratedinayear(kW h)

Y early A v erag e L oad = —— —------: 7IZ 7T , ----
No. of hrs.inayear(8760 hrs)
7
A verage load can also be d efin ed as th e ratio o f en erg y c o n su m ed to th e given tim e period.
(v) L oad F a c to r / ^
It is th e ratio o f a v e ra g e load to the m axim um load on th e su p p ly sy stem , during a given
period.
Average Load
L oad F a c to r = 7T ~
Max. demand
7
T he area u n d e r th e L o a d C u rv e g iv e s the total e n e rg y c o n su m e d in kW h, d u rin g the

period. If a p o w e r p la n t is ru n n in g w ith an a v era g e lo ad o f 70 M W and w ith a m axim um
dem and o f 100 M W th e n th e lo ad fa c to r is 70/1.00 e q u a l to 0.7 . T h e load fa c to r is alw ay s less
than 1 b ecau se m a x im u m d e m a n d w ill be g re a te r than a v e ra g e load. It is very im p o rta n t to
determ in e the o v era ll c o st p er u n it g e n e ra te d . If the lo ad fa c to r is h ig h , th en the c o st per unit
gen erated is less. If th e c o n s u m e r's m a x im u m d em an d e q u a ls h is a v e ra g e lo a d then his load
facto r is 100%.
(vi) D iv ersity fa c to r
T he ratio o f th e sum o f in d iv id u a l m ax im um dem ands to the m ax im u m dem and on the

pow er station is k n o w n as d iv e rsity fa c to r .
_ . „ Sum of individual max. demands

D iv ersity fa c to r --------------------------------------------
, M ax. demand on power station
C o n sid er th ree c o n su m ers w ith the sam e m axim um d e m an d o f 4 M W each. If all the three
consum ers use the electric p o w er at a tim e in 8hours o f a day, then the load facto r o f the consum er
will be 33% and the d iv e rsity fa c to r = 12/12 =1. If they use th is 4 M W each in 8different hours
o f a day then the load fa c to r is 100% and d iv ersity fa c to r is 3. H ig h er the diversity factor the
better w ill be the load fa c to r and hence e lectrical en erg y w ill be ch e ap e r. D iversity factor will
alw ays be g reater than 1 b e c a u se the m axim um d em and on the p o w er station is alw ays less than
the sum o f in d iv id u al m ax im u m d em an d s o f the co n su m ers.
(vii) U tiliz a tio n F a cto r

T he u tilizatio n fa c to r is d efin ed as the ra tio o f the m ax im u m g e n e ra to r dem and to the i
gen erato r cap acity .
(viii) P la n t C a p a city F a cto r /

It is d efin ed as the ratio o f actual energy pro d u ced in k ilo w att hours (kW h) to the m axim um
possible energy th at co u ld have been p ro d u ced d u rin g the sam e period.
A ctual energy p roduced

P la n t C a p a c ity F a c to r =
M ax. energy th at could have been pro d u ced
A verage dem and --—

Plant capacity C -f ^
It gives an in d ic a tio n o f the reserv e cap acity o f the p lan t. S o m e re se rv e c a p ac ities are
alw ays m ain tain ed to m eet the in creased load dem an d in future.
R eserve c a p a c ity = P la n t cap acity - M ax im u m dem and
(ix) P la n t U se F a cto r /
Plant use fa c to r is d e fin e d as the ratio o f en erg y p ro duced in a g iv en tim e to the m axim um
possible energy that co u ld have been p ro d u ced d u rin g the actual n u m b er o f hours th e plant was
in operation.
e
Station o u tp u t in kW h -- :
Plant u se fa c to r = ~
P lant capacity x H ours o f use
Problem 11.2 v:
D eterm in e th e to tal en erg y co n su m ed in a y e a r if th e m a x im u m d em an d on the station is
200 M W w ith an n u al load facto r 50% .
Sol.
E nergy co n su m ed = m ax. dem an d x L .F 'x H o u rs in a year
3
= 200 x 10 x 0.5 x (24 x 365) kW h
= 876 x 106kW h.
P roblem 11.3
A 200 M W p o w er statio n d eliv ers 200 M W fo r 2 ho u rs, 100 M W fo r hours and is shut 6
dow n for the re st o f the day. It is also sh u t dow n fo r m a in ten an ce fo r 35 days in a year.
C alcu late its annual load factor.
Sol.
E nergy su p p lied for a day

= (200 x 2) + (100 x 6) = 1 000 M W h
PO W ER PL A N T ECO N OM ICS 251
T he n u m b er o f o p e ra tin g days = 365 - 35

i = 330 days in a year
E nergy su p p lied in a y e a r = 1000 x 330

= 3 3 0 ,0 0 0 M W h
M W h sup p lied per annum . _»

A nnual load fa c to r = — x 100
m ax. dem and in M W x w orking days
--------------- x 100
200 x 3 30 x 24
= 20 . 8 %
Problem 11.4
A g en eratin g statio n has a co n n ected load o f 100 M W and a m ax. d e m an d o f 40 MW. The
6
units g en erated b ein g 84 x 10 kW/]ber annum . C alcu late
(i) the d em an d fa c to r (ii) load facto r.
Sol.
m a x . dem and 1
(i) D em and fa c to r =
connected load
= 4 0 /1 0 0 = 0 .4
U nits generated / annum

(ii) A verag e d em an d =
H ours in a year
84xm^Kwh=958gKW
8760
A verage dem and

.Load fa c to r =
M ax. dem and
9589
x 100 = 23.9
4 0 x 10
Problem 1 1 .5 ,
t ^ ^ e m ax dem an d on a p o w er station is 150 M W . If the an n u a l load fa c to r is 35% calculate

the total e n erg y g en e ra te d in a year.
Sol.
E nergy g en erated in a y e a r = M ax. dem and x L .F x H ours in a y ea r
= (150 x 103) x 0.35 x 8760
= 4 5 9 9 x 10 kW h5
Proble^ri 11.6
A pow er sta tio n has a m ax im u m d em an d o f 160 M W . T h e an n u a l lo ad fa c to r is 28% and 4

the cap acity fa c to r is 30% . D eterm in e th e reserv e c a p ac ity o f a plant.
Sol.
T otal en erg y g e n e ra te d in a y ear
= M ax. d em an d x L.F. x H ours in a y ea r
= 160 M W x 0.28 x 8760
6
= 3 92448 x 10 w att hr.
= 39 2 .4 4 8 x 10 6kW h.
•' U nits generated / annum

Plan t C ap acity fa c to r = ------------------------------------------------
Plant capacity x H ours in a year
_ 3 9 2 .4 4 8 x 10 kW h
P lan t cap acity
0 .3 x 8760
= 149 M W
R eserve c a p a c ity = P lan t cap acity - M ax. dem and

= 1 4 9 0 0 0 -1 6 0 0 0 0
= - 11000 kW
N ote : Sin ce reserve ca p a c ity is negative, the p la n t d e sig n is n o t optim um .
Problem 11.7
T h ere are tw o u n its in a sy stem . T h e m axim um d em and on the sy stem is 30 M W . The
load su p p lied by tw o units is 20 M W and 12.5 M W ; F irst u n it acts a base load unit and
second u n it as a p eak load unit. T h e b ase lo ad u n it w orks fo r 100% o f th e tim e and peak
8
load u n it for 35% o f the tim e. T h e en erg y g e n e rate d by first u n it is 1.2 x ,1 0 units and by
second u n it is 0.9 x 107. D eterm in e the load facto r, p la n t c ap a city fa c to r and plant use
facto r o f each u n it and load fa c to r o f the to tal plant.
Sol.
1.2 x 10s x 100

Y early load fa c to r by first u n it =
2 0 0 0 0 x 8760
= 68.49%
S ince first u n it su p p ly 20 M W load c o n stan tly . T he m ax. d em an d on first u n it is 10 MW.
T he yearly load fa c to r by second unit.
0 .9 x l 0 7x 100 >
= 29.35%
1 0 x 1 0 0 0 x 0 .3 5 x 8 7 6 0
PO W ER P L A N T E C O N O M IC S 253
Since no re se rv e u n it is a v ailab le fo r first unit. T he cap acity facto r is equal to load factor
68.49% . T h e p lan t use fa c to r is eq u als to the p lan t c ap acity fa cto r = 68.49% .
The p lan t cap acity fa c to r fo r seco n d unit.
0.9 x 107 x 100

= 12.5 x 103x 8760
= 8 .2 2 %
T he plant use fa c to r fo r seco n d unit.
0.9 x 107x 100

1 2 .5 x 1 03x 0 .3 5 x 8 7 6 0
= 23.4 8 %
T he annual lo ad fa c to r o f the co m p le te pant.
1.29xl08x l0 0
30000x8760
= 4 9 .0 9 %
Problem 11 .8
T he m axim um d em an d o f a hydro station is 150 M W , the annual lo ad factor being 60%
calcu late the total e le c tric a l en erg y g e n e ra te d p e r year.
Sol.
M axim um dem and,
= 150 M W = 150 x 10 kW 3
L oad facto r - 60% = 0.6
A verage dem and

L oad facto r =
M axim um dem and
A v erag e dem an d
= 0.6 x 150 x 10 kW 3
= 90 x 10 kW 3
T otal energy g e n e ra te d p er y e a r
= A v erag e dem and x tim e
3
= 90 x 10 kW x 8760
= 7 8 8 .4 x 10 kW 3
ER PLA N T E N G IN EE R IN G
;or a facto ry lig h tin g in stallatio n there w ere 20 lam ps w ith 60 w atts cap acity . T he operation 4
o f th e se lam p s are as fo llo w s
15 lam p s fro m6pm till 10 pm
10lam p s fro m 10pm till 12 pm
5 lam p s from 12 pm till 6am
D ete rm in e th e c o n n e c te d load, the m ax im u m d em an d , the d em an d fa c to r and the daily
load factor.
Sol.
T he co n n ected load = 20 x 60 = 1200 w atts
T he m axim um d em an d = 15 x 60 = 900 w atts
900
D em and fa c to r = --------= 75%
1200
T he total en erg y co n su m ed
= (15 x 60 x 4) + (10 x 60 x 2) + (5 x 60 x 6)
= 3600 + 1200 + 1800 = 6600 w atts
6600x100
D aily load fa c to r = = 30.55%
3 24x900
11.6 F A C T O R S E F F E C T I N G T H E T Y P E O F G E N E R A T IO N
T he fo llo w in g p o in ts a re to be co n sid ered in se lectin g the ty p e o f g e n eratio n .
1. T h e type o f fu el a v ailab le
2. T h e tra n sp o rta tio n c o st o f fuel
3. R e q u ire m e n t o f land.
4. F o u n d a tio n cost.
5. T h e w ater av ailab ility .
6. P lant life
7. C o st o f the e n erg y to be tran sm itted .
8. T h e type o f lo ad to be m eet by the plant.
9. R eliab ility in o p eratio n .
10. L ab o u r a v a ila b ility and lost.
11.7 S T E P S F O R R E D U C IN G P O W E R G E N E R A T IO N C O S T
1. P ro p er se le c tio n o f eq u ip m e n t w h ich posses lo n g er life and p ro p e r cap acity . ♦
2. T h e d esig n o f p lan t sh o u ld be sim p le w hich does n o t re q u ire h ig h ly sk ille d persons.
PO W ER P L A N T E C O N O M IC S 255
3. T he p o w er p lan t sh o u ld run at h ig h e r load factors.

4. T h e e ffic ie n c y o f p o w e r p la n t sh o u ld be in creased .
5. T h e b reak d o w n s on the p lan t sh o u ld be re d u ce d w hich req u ire s p roper supervision.
11.8 E C O N O M IC A S P E C T S O F H Y D R O - E L E C T R I C P O W E R P L A N T S
H y d ro -e le c tric p o w e r p la n t c o s t a n a ly s is is d iffe re n t fro m th e o th e r p o w e r plants.
T he fix ed c o st is m o re th a n th e v a ria b le c o st in the h y d ro p o w e r p la n ts. W hereas in other
pow er p lan ts th e v a ria b le c o s t (o r) ru n n in g c o st is m o re than the fix e d c o st b ecau se the fuel
cost is m ore.
T he fixed co st o f a h y d ro -p la n t is about 60 to 70% o f the total c o st, w hich does not depend
upon the statio n ou tp u t.
T he fixed c o st in clu d es
(i) In te re st on cap ital
(ii) A m o rtizatio n o f the cap ital cost.
T he fix ed c o st in c lu d e s the fo llo w in g item s.
1. In v estig atio n s and p relim in ary survevs o f the top o g rap h y and geology o f the proposed
site o f th e plant.
2. C o m p e n sa tio n to o u stees.
3. P u rc h a sin g o f w ater rig h ts and land.
4. D etailed d esig n s and sp e c ific a tio n s cost.
5. C ost in v o lv in g in te stin g the m aterials o f con stru ctio n .
6. T h e actu al c o st o f co n stru ctio n .
7. C o st o f p u rc h a se and in sta lla tio n o f the eq u ip m en t.
8. In terest on c a p ita l d u rin g co n stru ctio n .
9. C ost re la tin g to new ro a d s, railw ay lines and re sid en tial h ouses.
10. W o rk in g cap ita l d u rin g the p erio d o f land dev elo p m en t.
The fo llo w in g table show s the typical co st an aly sis o f a h y d ro -p lan t.
S. No. C om ponents C ost
1. Land 15%
2. Structure 10%
3. Pow er P lant and equipm ent 20%
4. D am , R eservoir and w ater ways 55%
On the w h o le the to tal c o n stru c tio n a l co st o f h y d ro p o w e r p la n t is higher than the

th erm al p la n t o f eq u al cap acity .
T h e sm a lle r the w ater sto rag e q u an tity the h ig h e r is th e co st per kW .

T h e ru n n in g ch arg es d epend upon the station ou tp u t, but not as m uch as in the therm al
p o w er plant.
11.9 E C O N O M IC A S P E C T S O F H Y D R O A N D S T E A M P O W E R P L A N T S
T h e fo llo w in g ad v an tag es can be seen due to the c o m b in e d plan ts.
1. C o n tin u ity o f p o w e r supply.
2. F le x ib ility o f p o w e r supply.
3. S e c u rity o f sup p ly .
4. R ed u c tio n in the p o w er cost.
5. S p are p lan t system .
A ll the la rg e p o w e r p la n ts in th e w o rld h av e h y d ro ste a m in te rc o n n e c tio n . It is also

estab lish ed in the area w h ich is n e ith e r rich in fuel rese rv e s n o r in hydro reso u rces.
11.10 E X P R E S S IO N S F O R C O S T O F E L E C T R IC A L E N E R G Y
P o w er statio n g e n e ra te e le c tric al en erg y . T h e annual c o st o f e le c tric a l en ergy generated
can be ex p ressed in tw o form s
(i) T h ree p art form
(ii) T w o p art from
(i) T h ree p a rt form

In this m eth o d , the annual co st o f e le c tric al en erg y g e n e ra te d can be d iv id ed into three
parts. T hey are fix ed co st, se m i-fix e d cost and ru n n in g cost.
T otal annual c o st o f e n erg y = F ix ed c o st + S e m i-fix e d c o st + R u n n in g cost.

= C o n sta n t + P ro p o rtio n a l to m ax. d em and
+ P ro p o rtio n a l to kW h gen erated .
= R s.(x + ykw + zkw h)
x £ T he an n u al fix ed co st in d ep en d en t o f m axim um d em an d and e n erg y output,

y : C o n sta n t w hich w hen m u ltip lie d by m axim um kW , g iv e s the sem i-fix ed cost.
z : C o n sta n t w h ich w hen m u ltip lie d by kW h p ro d u c es th e a n n u al ru n n in g cost.
*
(ii) T w o p art form

In this m eth o d , th e an n u al co st o f en erg y is ex p re sse d in tw o p a rt fo rm i.e. fixed sum per
kW o f m axim um d em an d and a ru n n in g ch a rg e p e r u nit o f en ergy.
T o tal annual co st o f energy

= Rs. (X kW + Y kW h)
X : a constant w hich when m ultiplied by m axim um kW , gives the annual fixed cost.
Y : a constant which when m ultiplied by the annual kW h gives the annual running cost.
PO W ER PL A N T ECO N O M ICS 257
E x e rc ise
1. T he m ax im um d e m a n d on a g e n e ra tin g station is 6000 kW and the d aily load is as shown

below
Time (hrs) 5 AM to 8AM 8AM to 1 PM 1 PM to 4 PM 4 PM to 7 PM
Load (MW) 2000 4000 3750 4000

Time (hrs) 7 PM to 9 PM 9 PM to 11 PM 11 PM to 5 AM
Load (MW) 6000 2500 1500 •
From th e a b o v e d ata o btain the fo llo w in g

(i) D raw the land curVe
(ii) D raw the load d u ratio n curve.
(iii) D ete rm in e th e reserv e p lan t cap acity
(iv) O b tain the load facto r
(v) P lan t c a p a c ity facto r.
T h e d aily load cu rv e o f a p o w er p lan t is given by the ta b le below
Time 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
Load (MW) 2 2.5 3 4 6 6.5 6.5 5 6 8 9 5 2
(i) F in d th e d aily lo ad fa c to r
(ii) A ll lo ad s in e x cess o f 500 kW are c a rried out by u n it N o. 2 ra te d at 600 kW . Find its

use factor.
3. A 100 M W p o w er statio n has an annual peak load o f 80 M W . T h e m ax im u m dem ands of

c o n n e c te d load on the statio n are 40 M W , 20 M W , 30 M W , 15 M W and 10 M W . The
- annual load fa c to r is 0 .4 5 . D eterm in e
(i) A v erag e load
(ii) T o ta l e n e rg y su p p lie d p e r year.
(iii) D em an d facto r.
(iv) D iv ersity facto r.
4. 6
A g en eratin g sta tio n su p p lie s th e fo llo w in g loads. 15 MW', 12 M W , M W , 8.5 M W and
0.45 M W . T h e sta tio n has a m ax im u m d em and o f 22 M W . T h e an n u al load factor o f the
station is 0 .4 8 . C alcu late.
(i) T h e n u m b er o f u n its su p p lied annually.
(ii) T h e d iv e rsity factor.
'■* (iii) T h e d em an d facto r.
[Ans: (i) 92.5 x 106 kW h (ii) 1.907 (iii) 0.525]
5. A p o w er p la n t o f 150 M W installecT capacity has the fo llo w in g d ata

C a p ita l C o st = R s. 1800 / kW in sta lle d . A n n u al lo a d fa c to r = 0 .6 ; A n n u al capacity
fa cto r = 0.5; A n n u al ru n n in g ch arg e = Rs. 30 x 106, In te re st and d e p re c ia tio n = 12 percent.
6
E nergy c o n su m e d by th e p o w er p lan t a u x ilia rie s = p erce n t.
C alc u la te th e re se rv e cap acity .
6. T h e y early d u ra tio n c u rv e o f a certain p la n t can be c o n sid e re d as a stra ig h t line from

160 M W to 50 M W . P o w er is su p p lied w ith one g en e ratin g u n it o f 100 M W C apacity and
tw o units o f 50 M W c a p a c ity each.
D eterm in e (i) In sta lle d cap acity .
(ii) M ax im u m dem and.
(iii) L oad facto r
(iv) P la n t facto r
(v) U tiliz a tio n facto r
7. A p o w er sta tio n h as a m ax im u m dem an d o f 20 M W , a lo ad fa c to r o f 0.7, a p lan t capacity

facto r o f 0.5 2 5 and a p lan t u se fa c to r o f 0.85. D eterm ine.
(i) T h e d aily e n erg y p ro d u ced .
(ii) T h e p la n t re se rv e cap acity .
8. 6
A p ow er c o n su m e r co n su m es 1 x 10 kW hr. p er y e a r w ith lo ad fa c to r o f 4 0% . T he tariff
is Rs. 100 p er kW p e r y e a r + paise 25 p er un it. D eterm in e the sav in g in h is energy cost
annu ally if he im p ro v es his load fa c to r to 100
p ercent.
9. A g e n e ra tin g sta tio n su p p lie s the fo llo w in g load : 15 M W , 12 M W , 9 M W and 16 MW.

T he statio n has a m ax im u m d em an d o f 23 M W . T he annual lo ad fa c to r o f the station is
46% . Calculate
(i) T h e num ber o f units supplied annually.
(ii) T h e diversity factor
(iii) T he dem and factor
10. A daily load c u rv e w h ich e x h ib ite d a 20 m in ute peak o f 3 0 0 0 kW is d raw n to scale of

1 cm = 2 h o u rs and 1 cm = 1000 kW . T h e total area u n d er the lo a d c u rv e is m easured
by th e p la n im e te r a n d is fo u n d to b e 15 c m 2. C a lc u la te th e lo a d f a c to r b ase d on
20 m in u te peak.
R eview Q uestions
1. W hat are the Perform ance and O perating ch aracteristics o f p ow er p lants ? Explain with
exam ples.
2. D iscuss the depreciation determ ination m ethods o f E lectric pow er plants.
3. W hat is the m eaning o f P ow er plant econom ics ? Explain fixed and operating costs ?
POW ER PLAN T ECONOM ICS 259
4. Explain about Load C urve and L oad duration Curve.
t 5. Define M axim um D em and, D em and factor, C onnected load factor, and Diversity factor.
6. The yearly duration curve o f a certain plant can be considered as a straight line from 300 MW
to 80 MW. Pow er is to be supplied w ith one generating unit o f 250 M W capacity and two
150 M W capacity each. D eterm ine.
(a) Installed C apacity
(b) Load Factor
(c) Plant F actor
(d) M axim um D em and
(e) U tilization Factor
7. D iscuss the m e th o d s o f d ete rm in in g th e d e p re cia tio n o f e le c tric a l p o w e r plant.
8. (a) W hat is m ean t by load cu rv e ? W hat is its sig n ific a n c e in p o w e r generation ?

(b) E xplain the term s m axim um dem and and load facto r w ith reference to a pow er system.
9. D efine the fo llo w in g and also ex p lain the im p o rtan ce o f eac h in total p o w er system s.
(i) C o n n ected load (ii) M ax im um dem and
(iii) D em an d F a c to r (iv) L oad F a cto r
V
10. W hat is m ean t by p o w er p lan t eco n o m ics ? W hat are fixed and o p e ratin g costs ?
11. E xplain the d iffe re n c e b etw een load curve and load d u ratio n curve.
■-s
12. E xplain the term s lo a d fa c to r and d iv e rsity factor.
Self - test
1. The m axim um dem and o f a consum er is 2 kW and his daily energy consum ption is 20 units.
Find the load factor ?
(a) ' 20.15% (b) 50% (c) 41.6% (d) 80%
2. A rea tinder the daily load curve divided by 24 gives.

(a) A verage load (b) U nits generated
(c) ,M aximum dem and (d) Load factor
3. It is alw ays econom ical to im prove the pow er factor o f an installation to

(a) Z ero (b) A little less than unity
(c) A little m ore than unity (d) Unity.
4. Pow er plant having m axim um dem and m ore then installed capacity w ill have utilization factor,
(a) equal to 100% t (b) less than 100%

(c) m ore than 100% (d) none o f these
5. A load cu rv e is a p lo t o f
(a) L oad v ersu s g en e ra tio n cap acity . (b) L o ad v e rsu s cu rre n t.
(c) L o ad v ersu s tim e (d) L oad v ersu s c o st o f pow er.
M axim um p eak lo ad is p ro v id ed by
(a) A ir c o n d itio n e r (b) A ir fu rn ace
(c) C old sto rag e p la n t (d) A ir c o m p re sso r ru n n in g continuously.
7. T he g e n e ra tio n p o w er w ill be eco n o m ical if
(a) P lan t u tilisa tio n facto r is low . (b) D iv ersity fa c to r sh o u ld be high.
(c) L oad fa c to r sh o u ld be high. (d) L oad factor and diversity factor should be low.
In a sy stem if th e b ase load is the sam e as the m axim um d e m a n d , the load facto r w ill be
(a) Z ero (b) 1 (c) In fin ity (d ) 10.
9. D u rin g w h ich se a so n th e lo a d on a p o w er p la n t w ill be h ig h e st ?
(a) R ainy seaso n (b) S u m m er (c) W in ter (d) A u tum n
10. C apital c o st p er M W h is h ig h est in case o f

(a) D iesel en g in e p o w er plants. (b) S team p o w e r plan ts.
(c) N u clear p o w e r plan ts (d) H ydro e le c tric p o w e r plan ts.
j
r
m ax im u m dem an d o f the installation
11. is k n o w n as
surft o f individual m ax im u m dem ands
(a) P lan t use fa c to r (b) D iv ersity fa c to r
(c) D em an d fa c to r (d) P la n t c a p a c ity fa c to r
12. Id en tify th e in c o rre c t relatio n
kW
(a) P o w er fa c to r = , T. (b) kV A x kW = P o w e r fa cto r
kV A
(c) kW = kV A x P o w e r fa c to r (d) kV A = kW
p o w e r fa c to r
13. W hich o f the fo llo w in g item h as h ig h est p o w er ra tin g ? *

(a) C eilin g fan (b) M ixi (c) R e frig e ra to r (d) Electric iron.
14. W hich p lan t can n e v e r have 100% load fa c to r ?
(a) P eak load p lan t (b) B ase lo ad p la n t
(c) N u clear p o w er p la n t (d) H ydro e le c tric plant.
A n sw e rs
1. d 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. c
6. b 7. a 8. b 9. b 10. c
11. b 12. b 13. d 14. a
Chapter -12
Effluents
A ll p o w er p la n ts o n e w ay o r the o th e r h a v e an e ffe c t on the e c o lo g y o f the earth. Though
po llu tio n is in e v ita b le , p ro p e r te c h n o lo g y an d h u m an c are w o u ld d e fin ite ly re d u c e the im pact
o f p o llu tio n on th e e n v iro n m e n t. T h e h u m an sa fe ty is m ain ly the a rea o f co n ce rn as w e are
g en eratin g pow er.
In developed co u n tries like U SA , U K , Japan, the p o llution p ro b lem is alarm ing. In countries
like India also it is a m a tte r o f co n cern in re c e n t y ears, as p o p u la tio n in c re a sin g the contam inants
and pollutants left in to e n v iro n m e n t o b v io u sly in creases.
12.2 E N V IR O N M E N T A L P O L L U T IO N
P ollution is g e n e ra lly d efin ed as an u n d e sira b le and e x c e ssiv e ad d itio n o f substan ce to the
water, air and lan d w hich ad v ersely alters th e n atural q u a litie s o f the e n v iro n m e n t. The term
environm ent in clu d es th e lan d , a ir and w ater.
L and P o llu tio n

T h e m ajo r so u rces o f land p o llu tio n are the in d u strie s lik e p u lp an d p a p e r m ills, pow er and
heating plants, oil re fin e rie s, c h em ical p lan ts etc.
A ir P o llu tio n
A ir pollu tio n is m ain ly c au sed b y the d isc h a rg e o f gases and p a rtic le s fro m the sources as
dom estic fires, therm al p la n ts, g a stu rb in e p lan ts, facto ries, m o to r v eh icle s etc.
L ead c o m p o u n d s , O x id e s o f n itro g e n , s u lp h u rd io x id e a n d s m o k e e tc . a re th e m ain

pollutants o f air.
W ater p o llu tio n

W ater p o llu tio n is o f tw o ty p es
(i) F re sh -W a te r p o llu tio n
(ii) S e a -W a te r p o llu tio n . ✓
i
P o llu tio n o f riv e rs, p o n d s, stream s and lak es, is k n o w n as fr e s h w a ter p o llu tio n . Pollution
around sea is k n ow n as sea w a te r p o llu tio n .
D iffe re n t p o llu ta n ts a n d th e ir im p a c t on h u m an h e a lth a n d w e lfa re is show n in the

follow ing table.
T able.
Pollutant Source Impact on Humans Impact on Ecolony
Acids Atmospheric Reduce the availability Eliminates the sensitive

deposition, mine of natural ingredients organism s as fish etc.
effluents, plant for human existence on
materials etc. and land water
High Reduced discharge, Subjects to new Raises the temperature

Tem pe from dams, discharge damaging diseases o f environm ent and
rature's. from pow er plants by the environment reduce the ecological
and radiations. and also reduces the ingredients.
available natural
resources.
Toxic Industrial discharges Reduce the availability Fish growth will be

chemicals and Agricultural run offs. of water and natural reduced and natural
resources and increases calamities as acid rains,
diseases. Ozone depletion etc.
Fossils Natural source, Nuclear Pollutants like S 0 2, CO, Disturb the ecological
fuels plants and mining of NOx are generally very balance by mass elimi
fissile fules. dangerous for human nation o f birds, fish etc.
existence, hinderance and destruction of crops.
to proper life growth and
sustained causes for
diseases and deformities.
12.3 M ETH O D S TO C O N TR O L PO LLU TA N TS

C o n tr o l o f S u lp h u r O x id e
T he rem o v al o f S u lp h u r co m p o u n d s from th e fuel befo re b u rn in g is one m ethod where as
the rem oval o f S O , from the flu e g ases is an o th er m ethod, to co ntrol the su lp lh u r oxides's em ission
into the en v iro n m en t.
C ataly tic o x id atio n , solid ab so rb e n t and w et scru b b in g are the m ain types o f processes
com m only em p lo y ed to rem ove S O , from flue gases leav in g the b o ile rs. W et scru b b er is shown
in Fig. 12.1.
EFFLU EN TS 263
Clean air
Fig. 12.1 Wet scrubber
U sage o f w et sc ru b b e rs h as g o t som e d isa d v an ta g es also
(i) H igh p re ssu re d ro p s

(ii) p a s e s a re co o le d to very low d eg ree etc.,
H ence som e m o d ern m eth o d s are u sed to co n tro l S 0 2. T a ll ch im n e y s are installed to

2
disperse flu eg ases as S 0 c o n c e n tra tio n at g ro u n d lev el m ay not e x c ee d the lim it o f 0.5 m g/m 3.
It is ad v isab le to rem o v e H 2S fro m n atu ral gas before b u rn in g it.
2 2
D ry m eth o d s are su g e ste d to rem o v e S 0 by co m bing S 0 w ith p o w d ered lim e-stone.
The lim e sto n e ( C a C 0 3) is a d d ed to th e coal b efo re p u lv e risa tio n . T h is p u lv e rised m ixture
(fuel + C a C 0 3) is fed in to th e c o m b u stio n ch am b er.
C aC 0 3-> 2
C aO + C 0
C aO + S 0 2—> C a S 0 3
C on trol o f N itro g en O x id es
N itrogen o x id es in the air h av e adv erse re sp irato ry e ffe cts on h um an bein g s. Eye irritation
is anoth er effect o f n itro g en o x id es w hen they m ix w ith h y d ro c a rb o n s.
A c o rd in g to a su rv e y th e e x te n t o f th is p o llu tio n fo r a b o ile r o f 170 to n s/h r steam

generating c ap acity d isch arg es 2.2 tons o f N O x p er day. A 9 5 0 to n s/h r c ap a c ity b o iler discharges
57 ton/day o f n itro g e n o xides.
T h e re fo re , it is e x tre m e ly im p o rta n t to c o n tro l p re s e n c e o f n itro g e n o x id e s in our

atm osphere. B ut at th e sam e tim e rise o f C O c o n te n t o f N O x c o m p o u n d s rases the C O content.
T here are so m e m eth o d s co m m o n ly used to red u ce N O x e m issio n s from gas turbines and
therm al plants.
(i) C o m b u stio n zo n e te m p era tu re red u ctio n
Injection o f steam and th ereb y d ecreasin g th e te m p eratu re in c o m b u stio n zone is com m only
used to red u ce N O x em issio n s.
(ii) N O x R e m o v a l from p o w er p lan ts

A p rocess k n ow n as "Infurna.ee" is d ev elo p ed by Jap an fo r N O x rem oval from therm al
pow er plants.
In this p ro cess th e N O x p ro d u ced by c o m b u stio n o f fuel in the m ain b u rn er is subjected to
strong reduction actio n u sin g rad ical sp ecies as C O , C o r h y d ro ca rb o n s w hich are p ro d u ced by
pyrolysis o f fuel from N O x, th ereb y red u cin g N O x com pounds.
12.4 P O L L U T IO N D U E T O T H E R M A L P L A N T S
The air p o llu tio n

T he larg e m easu re o f th erm al p o w er plants p o llu tio n is by air. B e cau se o f th e b u rn in g o f
conventional fuels as C o al, O il or G as th e co m b u stib le elem en ts o f the fuel are co n v erted to
gaseous pro d u cts.
2
,/
The*kirge p art o f air p o llu tio n is by su lp h u r p ro d u cts and N O x p ro d u cts. P o llu tan ts as S 0
causes suffocations, resp irato ry pro b lem s in hum an beings. N O x pro d u cts ca u ses, O ed em a ,flurges
and bronch itis etc. W h e re a s C O p ro d u cts are p o iso n in g and leth al.
W ater P o llu tio n

A ir p o llu tio n is an o th er e q u a lly im p o rta n t p ro b lem b esid es w a te r p o llu tio n by therm al
plants.
The w ater co n tain in g ash and c o n d e n se r w ater d isch a rg e , are the m ain p o llu ta n ts o f w ater
causing h y d ro lo g ical and b io lo g ic a l e ffe c ts on the eco sy stem .
T he w aste w ater from w ater d e m in e ra liz atio n plant c o n tain s larg e q u a n titie s o f Mg, Ca,
Ra and K (P otassium ). T h ese salts p ercu late in the nearby soil and m ake the g ro u n d w ater salty.
H ence this w aste w ater should be treated first w ith lim e to p rec ip ita te m ag n esiu m hydroxide
and w ith soda
EFFLU EN TS 265
2
M g C l + C a (O H ), - > M g (O H )2+ C aC l 2
2
C a C l + N a xC 0 3 -h> C a C 0 3+ 2 N a 2Cl
T h e r m a l p o llu tio n
T h erm al d isc h a rg e index (T D I) is th e term used in e stim a tin g the th e rm a l en ergy released
to env iro n m en t.
T h erm al p o w er d isc h arg ed in to the environm ent in M W ,/lCTMj

electrical p o w er o u tp u t in M W dectric
(a) C o n stru c tio n o f se p a ra te lakes.
(b) C o o lin g to w ers and co o lin g ponds are som e o f the m ethods used to reduce the therm al
p o llu tio n .
12.5 P O L L U T IO N D U E T O N U C L E A R P L A N T S
(a) R ad iio activ e p o llu tio n .

^ (b) T h erm al p o llu tio n .
(c) W aste fro m reacto r.
R ad ioactive p o llu tio n

T his is the m o st im p o rta n t an d serio u s p ro b lem o f n u c le a r plan ts. T h e proper shielding
and m aintenance o f re a c to r is th e b est w ay to sto p this.
T herm al p o llu tio n

N u clear p lan ts d isc h a rg e e sse n tia lly m uch o f its h eat in to the e n v iro n m e n t. To com bat
this, pro p er c irc u la tio o f co o lin g w ater (larg e am o u n t and cool w ater) sh o u ld be done and proper
organ isatio n o f sh ield in g is also a m ust.
N u clea r w a ste and d isp o sa l

P roper h an d lin g o f n u c le a r w a ste is very im p o rtan t from e c o lo g ic a l view point. D ue to
nuclear reactio n , lot o f m ix tu res o f ra d io a c tiv e iso to p es ((3 and y - ra y s) w astes are produced
w hich can n o t be n e u tra liz e d by any ch em ical re ac tio n s and p ro cesses.
D isp o sin g o ff the n u c le a r w aste is d one by various p ro c ed u res
(i) W aste d isp o sal in d eep soil (earth) grounds.

-♦ (ii) A fter a d eq u ate d ilu tio n n u c le a r w astes are d isp o se d u n d e r sea beds.
(iii) Low en erg y w a ste s are d ilu ted and after d ilu tio n th ey can be d isp o sed o ff into sewer.
266 POW ER PL A N T EN G IN EE R IN G
12.6 E M IS S IO N S - E N V IR O N M E N T A L IM P A C T (T h erm a l P o w er - In d ia)

Ind ia is the w o rld ’s fo u rth la rg e st ec o n o m y and has a fa st g ro w in g en erg y m arket. In d ia ’s—A
cu rren t p o w e r c a p a c ity is 30% sh o rt o f d em an d . C oal and p e tro le u m are the p rim ary sou rces o f
energy. H igh ash c o n te n t in In d ia n co al and in e ffic ie n t c o m b u stio n te c h n o lo g ie s c o n trib u te to
In d ia ’s e m is s io n o f a ir p a rtic u la te m a tte r an d o th e r tra c e g a s e s , in c lu d in g g a ses th a t are
re sp o n sib le fo r the g re e n h o u se e ffe c t. T h e U S A ID O ffic e o f E n v iro n m e n t, E n e rg y & E n terp rise
in In d ia p ro m o te s c le a n e n e rg y d e v e lo p m e n t th ro u g h e f f ic ie n t e n e rg y u se an d p o llu tio n
red u ctio n . T h is o rg a n iz a tio n has sp o n so re d the p ro je c t, A n th ro p o g e n ic E m issio n s fro m Energy
A c tiv itie s in In d ia, to a sse ss the e m issio n s o f g re e n h o u se and o th e r tra c e a tm o sp h e ric gases
fro m en e rg y a c tiv itie s in In d ia.
H ere study the tra n sp o rt and p a tte rn s o f e m itte d p o llu ta n ts, and d e v elo p a long-term air
quality datab ase c o v e rin g the c o u n try ’s v ario u s g e o g rap h ic al areas. T he e m issio n estim ates are
m ade for each p ow er p lan t based on pow er g en eratio n p er day and the coal used per u n it generation
o f pow er.
In d ia ’s p o p u latio n , seco n d in the w orld, g ro w s at a rate o f ab o u t 2% ev ery y e a r and has

grow n from 300 m illio n in 1947 to m o re than a b illion to d ay . R isin g p o p u latio n and changes in
lifestyles co n siste n t w ith ra p id e co n o m ic g ro w th have a c c e le ra te d the e n erg y d em and. Energy
consum ption in In d ia has g ro w n 7 ,0 0 0 % from 1950 to 1998. T h e p re se n t an n u al g ro w th rate of
e n erg y c o n s u m p tio n in In d ia is 4 % . P e r c a p ita e n e rg y c o n s u m p tio n in In d ia in 1997 w as ^
19 m illion BTU (B ritish T h erm al U n its) (I B T U = 1.005 kJ), c o m p a re d to 323 m illion BTU in
the U nited S tates and a w o rld a v erag e o f 65 m illio n BTU (1 BTU = 1.005 kJ). By the year 2010,
per cap ita en erg y usag e in In d ia is e x p e c te d to in crease to alm o st 4 0 m illio n B T U , a tw o-fold
increase in 13 years.
Fossil fuels are the m ain so u rce o f en erg y and also, u n fo rtu n a te ly , o f p o llu tan ts, greenhouse
gases, and o th e r trace atm o sp h e ric v arieties. C oal is the p rim a ry fuel in th e rm a l p ow er plants;
gasoline and d iesel are the p rim ary fuels fo r au to m o b iles. T h e re is also lim ite d use o f natural gas
in these en erg y activ ities.
A cco rd in g to the N atio n al T h erm al P o w er C o rp o ra tio n , co al is u sed fo r approxim ately

62.3% o f Indians e le c tric p o w er g e n e ra tio n ; oil and gas a c co u n t fo r 10.2% ; w a te r’s share is
24.1% ; n u clear, w in d , and o th e r p o w er g en eratio n m ethods c o n trib u te to the rem ain in g 3.4%
usage. In 1997-98, to tal e le c tric ity g en eratio n ex ceed ed 4 6 ,0 0 0 G W h (G ig a w a tt H ours) by all of
the prim e so u rces (S team , G as, D iesel, W ind, N u clear, and H y dro). T h is in c lu d es electricity
generation by u tilitie s and cap tiv e p lan ts (e le c tricity g en e ra tio n by o th e r in d u strie s for their own
use). P ublic u tilities p rim arily use steam in the g en eratio n o f pow er.
In d ia is the th ird -la rg e st p ro d u c e r o f co al, b u t Indian coal is o f p o o r q u a lity w ith high ash
co ntent (3 5-50% ) and low c a lo rific v alu e (g ro ss h eat o f co m b u stio n ). A m a jo r p o rtio n o f the ash
is inherent in the co al, ag g ra v a tin g the d iffic u lty in rem o v in g it.
A cco rd in g to the C en tral E lectricity A u th o rity o f In d ia, as o f M arch 31, 1998, 83 steam
p lants w ere in o p eratio n in India. T h ese p lan ts g en erated alm o st 80% o f to tal g e n e rate d pow er
for the nation.
E FFLU EN TS 267
C oal co n su m p tio n by v ario u s p lan ts in the c o u n try d u rin g the y e a r 1997-98 was alm ost
203 m illion m etric tons. T he c o n su m p tio n o f fuels such as fu rn ac e oil d e c re a se d by m ore than
32.5% , w hile the co n su m p tio n o f lig n ite coal, a lo w -su lp h u r h eavy sto c k (L S H S ), a high sulphur
heavy stock (HI1S), and d iesel oil increased by 7.54% , 31.91 % and 33.9% , resp ectiv ely . D ecreased
use o f furnace oil has d e c re a sed the em issio n s to som e extent.
The m ain e m issio n s fro m coal co m b u stio n at th erm al p o w e r p lan ts are carbon dioxide
( C 0 2), nitrogen o x id es (N O x), su lp h u r o xides (S O x), c h lo ro flu o ro c a rb o n s (C F C s), and air- borne
inorganic p articles such as fly ash, soot, and o th e r trace gas sp ecies. C arb o n d io x id e, m ethane,
and ch lo ro flu o ro carb o n s are g re e n h o u se g ases. T h ese e m issio n s are c o n sid e re d to be responsible
for heating up the atm o sp h ere, p ro d u cin g a harm ful g lo b al e n v iro n m e n t. O x id es o f nitrogen and
su lp h u r p lay an im p o rta n t ro le in a tm o s p h e ric c h e m is try a n d are la rg e ly re s p o n s ib le fo r
atm ospheric acid ity . P a rtic u la te s and b lack carbon (so o t) are o f co n cern , in ad dition to possible
lung tissu e 'irrita tio n re su ltin g from in h alatio n o f so o t p a rtic le s and v a rio u s org an ic chem icals
that are know n carc in o g e n s.
C 0 2, S 0 2, N O , and so o t em issio n s from each o f the p o w er p lan ts h av e been com puted.

Em issions from co m b u stio n o f the su p p lem en tary fu els su ch as h ig h -sp ee d diesel (H SD ) and
1
furnace oil used in sm all q u a n titie s ( < %) are not co u n te d in the p re sen t c a lcu la tio n s.
U tilities burn m ostly co al w ith ap p ro x im ately 10 -30% e x cess air. T he total carbon obtained
2
from analysis is co n v erted to C 0 after the reaction (com bustion) is co m p lete. T o tal C 0 em issions 2
for 1997 from all the p o w e r p lan ts in In d ia are e stim a ted at 1.1 T e ra g ra m s (T g) p e r day or 397 Tg
2
per year. A verage C 0 e m issio n p er unit o f e le c tric ity is 1.04 G ig ag ram s (G g). T echnological
im provem ents in e ffic ie n t co m b u stio n o f coal can lead to g re a te r p ro d u ctio n o f electricity per
9
unit o f coal that w ill e ffe c tiv e ly red u ce C 0 em issio n per unit o f e le c tric ity . A lth o u g h the current
per capita carbon d io x id e ( C 0 2) e m issio n in Ind ia is o n ly one q u a rte r o f the w orld average and
about tw enty tim es less than U n ited S ta te ’s av erag es, the g ro w th rate o f em issio n s is very high.
Because o f this g ro w th , the re g io n is ex p ected to soon b eco m e a m ajo r c o n trib u to r o f greenhouse
2
gases, such as C 0 and o th e r air p o llu tan ts.
T he su lp h u r c o n te n t in In d ian co al is low co m p ared to U n ited S tate s coal. A cid rain due to

sulphur dioxide em issio n s is p re se n tly not o f g reat co n cern . H ow ever, in c re a sin g coal use or
blending Indian co al w ith im p o rted coal o f h ig h e r c a lo rific value (fu rth e r in cre asin g electricity
production) n eeds to be c a re fu lly a d d re sse d th ro u g h viab le te c h n o lo g ic a l o p tio n s. A v erage S 0 2
2
em issions per u n it o f e le c tric ity are 0 .0 0 6 9 G g. T o tal S 0 em issio n s a re e stim a te d to be 7.33 Gg
per day or 2.7 T g p er year.
O xidation o f n itric o x id e (N O ) d isch arg ed in c o m b u stio n p ro d u c ts fo rm s nitrogen dioxide

(N O x) in th e a tm o s p h e re . T h e s e o x id e s o f n itro g e n are r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e fo rm a tio n o f
p h o to ch em ica l sm o g . N itric o x id e em issio n p er u n it o f elec tric ity is estim a te d as approxim ately
0.00056 Gg. T o tal N O e m issio n s are estim ated to be 0.5 G g per d ay and 0.185 Tg per year.
N itrogen oxides are im p o rta n t ch em ical sp ecies in the a tm o sp h ere sin c e th ey c o n trib u te to its
acidity; they also act as p re c u rso r g ases fo r the fo rm atio n o f tro p o sp h e ric o zone. T ropospheric
ozone is a g reen h o u se gas re sp o n sib le fo r g lobal w arm in g an d is a lso know n to have an adverse
affect on plants. N O x em issio n s sh o u ld be k ept at a m inim um p o ssib le level. L o w er concentrations
o f N O x lessen the fo rm atio n o f tro p o sp h eric o zo n e even w hen o th e r p re c u rso r g ases like carbon
m o noxide (C O ) a re p re se n t in h ig h e r co n c e n tra tio n s.
In c o m p le te an d /o r in e ffic ie n t co m b u stio n p ro cesses o f fo ssil fuel g e n e ra te soot. A recently

co n d u cted In d ian O cean E x p erim en t (IN D O E X ) su g g ests th at the p resen c e o f so o t carb o n in the
atm osphere o v er th e n o rth ern Indian O cean h in d ers its natural h e atin g p ro c e sse s by ab o u t 15%.
E n h ancem en t o f b o u n d a ry la y e r h eatin g can sig n ific a n tly in flu e n ce re g io n al h y d ro lo g ica l cycles
and clim ate. P re se n t c a lc u la tio n s show th at so o t em issio n s are p ro d u ce d at a rate o f 2 2 .0 Gg per
year from In d ian th erm al p o w er p lan ts. S o o t e m issio n s in In d ia h av e n o t been stu d ied thoroughly
so far; these are th e first e stim a te s o f so o t em issio n from Indian therm al p o w er plants. A ppropriate
tech n o lo g ical in te rv e n tio n to p rev en t so o t carb o n e m issio n s m ay p o ssib ly n o t only red u ce the
ch ances o f so o t e sc a p in g -into the atm o sp h e re (w h ere it can p o te n tia lly ch a n g e the radiation
balan ce), b u t can also lead to fu rth e r in c re a se s in e le c tric ity p ro d u c tio n .
i
O B JECTIV E Q U ESTION S
jL
1. L o n g est
(a) N e y v e li (b) S arn i (c) C h a n d ra p u r (d) K orba
2, India's first N u c le a r P o w e r P la n t w as in sta lled at

(a) T a ra p o re (b) K o ta (c) K alp ak k a m (d) R akrapur
3. T he en erg y ra d ia te d by sun on a b rig h t day is

(a) 860 W /m 2(ap p ro x ) (b) 860 k W /m2 (a p p ro x )
(c) 1 k W /m 2 (ap p ro x ) (d) 86k W /m 2 (a p p ro x )
4. T h e rm o e le ctric g e n e ra to r w o rk in g p rin cip le is
(a) Seebeck (b) F arad ay (c) P e ltie r (d) Jo u le T hom pson
5. T h e m ain so u rc e o f b io -g a s is
(a) cow d u n g (b) w et liv e sto c k w aste
(c) hu m an w aste (d) all o f th e above
6. T he ex h a u st fro m M H D g e n e ra to r is at a te m p e ra tu re o f about.
(a) 1000 K (b) 1500 K (c) 2000 K (d) 2 500 K
7. The air fu el ra tio in G as T u rb in e is o f th e o rd e r o f

(a) 15:1 (b) 30:1 (c) 50:1 (d) 100:1
C ritical p ressu re ra tio P c fo r a n o zzle is g iv en by th e relatio n .
n -l
X-
(a) Pc = (b) Pc =
n -l n+ 1
n -l n+1
(c) (d) Pc =
Pc =
n+ 1 n -l.
9. C o n stan t p ressu re g as tu rb in e w o rk s on the

(a) R ankine C y cle (b) D ual C ycle
(c) B rayton C y cle (d) C arn o t C ycle
10. C hoice o f the v o lta g e o f tra n sm issio n o f p o w er to su ita b le d istrib u tio n centre is
(a) 11 kV (b) 22 kV (c) 44 kV (d) 33 kV
270 POW ER PL A N T EN G IN EE R IN G
11 . E co n o m isers g e n e ra lly im p ro v e b o ile r e ffic ie n cies by

(a) 2 to 5% (b) 3 to 8%
(c) 4 to 10% (d) 10 to 12%
12. H eatin g valu e o f d iesel oil is ab o u t
(a) 6 0 0 0 k c a l/k g (b) 8000 k cal/k g
(c) 10,000 k c a l/k g (d) 11,000 k cal/k g
13. A sh c o n te n t in b itu m in o u s coal is o f the o rd er o f
(a) 6- 12% (b) 1 2 -1 8 %
(c) 4 -6 % (d) 8- 12%
14. W hich o f the fo llo w in g co als has the h ig h e st c alo rific value.
(a) A n th ra c ite coal (b) L ig n ite
(c) P e a t coal (d)- B itu m in o u s co al
15. For co m b u stio n o f fuel the fo llo w in g is e sse n tia l

(a) C o rrect A ir/fu el ratio (b) O x ygen to su p p o rt co m b u stio n
(c) P ro p er ig n itio n tem p. (d) all o f the ab o v e
¥
16. E co n o m isers are u sed in b o ile r o f p lan ts w o rk in g a b o v e ____ _ k g /c m 2 p re ssu re
(a) 30 (b) 40 (c) 50 (d) 70
17. In hig h p re ssu re b o ile r the steam is p ro d u ced at a p re ssu re m ore than
(a) 30 K g /c m 2 (b) 50 K g /cm 2 (c) 60 K g /cm 2 (d) 120 K g /cm 2
18. T herm al e ffic ie n cy a w ater tube b o ile r is o f the o rd er o f
(a) 30% (b) 45% (c) 60% (d) 80 - 90%
19. T herm al e ffic ie n cy o f steam p lan t is o f the o rd e r o f

(a) 30%.- (b) 4 5% (c) 60% (d) 80%
20 . N atu ral d rau g h t in a steam p lan t is p ro d u ced by

(a) C h im n ey (b) S team Jets (c) Fans (d) none
21. In im p u lse reactio n tu rb in e the p ressu re d ro p s take p la ce in

(a) fix ed b lad es (b) m o ving blad es
(c) fix ed nozzle (d) both in fixed & m o v in g b lad e
22. C o m p o u n d in g o f steam tu rb in e is done

(a) to red u ce the w ork done. (b) in c re asin g the ro to r speed, -4
(c) red u c in g th e ro to r speed (d) b a lan c in g the tu rb in e
O B J E C T IV E Q U E S T IO N S 271
23. T he value o f th e re h e a t fa c to r is o f th e o rd er o f
(a) 0.9 to 1 (b) 0.02 to 1.04 (c) 1.1 to 1.5 (d) above 1.5
24. T h e m ost c o m m o n ly used m a te ria l o f c o n d e n se r tu b es is

(a) C ast Iro n (b) A lu m in iu m (c) A d m iralty b ra ss (d) M ild Steel
25. V acuum m ean s

(a) e v a c u a ted space (b) p ressu re b elo w atm o sp h ere
(c) n eg a tiv e p re ssu re (d) both (b) & (c)
26. The sp ecific sp e e d (N s) o f the tu rb in e is
N-y/p N ^P
(a) (b) Ns =
H ■y*
N ^P
(c) Ns = (d) Ns
H
27. P elton tu rb in es are m o stly ,

(a) H o riz o n ta l (b) In clin ed (c) V e rtic a l (d) none
28. W ater h am m er o ccu rs in

(a) S u rg e T a n k (b) T u rb in e (c) P e n sto c k (d) D raft tube
29. T he ru n n e r o f K aplan T u rb in e, c o n sists the n u m b er o f b lad e s o f the o rd e r o f

(a) 2 -4 (b) 3 -6 (c) 4 - 8 (d) 10 12
30. C A N D U re a c to r uses
(a) H ighly e n ric h e d u ran iu m (85% U 235)
(b) . N atural u ran iu m (as fu el) and h eavy w a ter as m o d e ra to r an d co o lan t.
(c) O nly fe rtile m aterial
(d) P lu to n iu m
*
31. T he fo llo w in g are fe rtile m a te ria ls
(a) U 238& P u 239 (b) U 233& P u 239
(c) U 238& T h 232 (d) U 238& T h 239
32. In gas co o led re a c to r (G C R ).... is u sed as m o d e ra to r an d c o o la n t re sp ec tiv e ly ,

(a) G rap h ite and air (b) G rap h ite & C 0 2
(c) H eav y -W ater & C 0 2 (d) G ra p h ite & W ater
33. T he m axim um te m p e ra tu re d ev elo p s in a c y lin d e r o f d iesel en g in e is around.

(a) 1000 - 1500°C (b) 1500 - 2000°C
(c) 2 0 0 0 - 2 5 0 0 °C (d) 2500 - 3000°C
34. C etane n u m b er o f d iesel fuels are u su ally in the range o f

(a) 1 0 -2 0 0 (b) 2 0 -4 0 0 (c) 3 0 -6 0 (d) 5 0 -1 0 0
35. In the case o f d iesel e n g in e, th e p ressu re at the end o f co m p ressio n is in the range o f
(a) 7 - 8 k g /c m 2 (b) 20 - 25 k g /c m 2
(c) 35 - 40 k g /c m 2 (d) 50 - 60 k g /c m 2
36. T he ideal efficien cy o f sim p le gas tu rb in e cy cle d ep en d s on

(a) P ressu re ra tio (b) C ycle's M ax im u m T e m p e ra tu re
(c) C y cle's m in im u m tem p (d) all o f the above.
37. Gas tu rb in es uses fo llo w in g ty p e o f air co m p ressor.

(a) C en trifu g al type (b) R ec ip ro c atin g type
(c) L obe type (c) A xial flow type X
38. The ratio o f sp ecific w t/h t o f gas tu rb in e and IC en gines m ay be ty p ic ally o f the order o f ^
(a) 1:1 (b) 2:1 (c) 1:6 (d) 4:1
39. Open cy cle gas tu rb in e w orks on

(a) B rayton or A th ism so n (b) R ankine
c) C a rn o t (d) Jo ule
*
40. T h erm o io n ic c o n v e rto r u tilizes
(a) S eeb eck e ffect (b) P eltier effect
(c) T h erm o n ic em issio n (d) none
41. T herm o electric en erg y c o n v e rsio n is due to

(a) E m ission e ffe c t (b) R adiation
(c) T h erm al e n erg y i (d) C h em ical energy
42. L argest G eo th erm al P lant is in o p eratio n in

(a) C a lifo rn ia (b) Italy
(c) N e w z e a lan d (d) M exico
43. M o st w idely used m aterial o f a so lar cell is

(a) S ilico n (b) C adm ium -V
(c) A rsen ic (d) H afm ium
O B JE C T IV E Q U ESTIO N S 273
44. P h o to v o ltaic c e lls are m ad e o f

/
(a) C o n d u c tio n m a te ria ls (b) Sem i C o n d u c to r m a terials
(c) In su la to rs (d) C eram ic s
45. Pum ps w h ich ra ise w a te r by b u o y an cy o f an aerated co lu m n o f w ater in a subm erged tube

are called
(a) A ir lift p u m p s (b) V acu u m pum ps
(c) P a ra c y c lic P u m p s (d) A erial p lu n g e r pum ps
A n sw e rs
1. d 11. c 21. d 31. c 41. c

2.. a 12. d 22. c 32. d 42. b
3. b 13. a 23. b 33. c 43. a
4. a 14. a 24. c 34. c 44. b
5. d 15. d 25. d 35. c 45. a
6. d 16. d 26. b 36. a
7. b 17. d 27. a 37. d
8. c 18. d 28. c 38. c /
9. c 19. a 29. b 39. a
10. d 20. a 30. b 40. c
APPENDIX - 1 Therm al Power Plants in India
Installed G eneration Coal per unit
S.No. Pow er Station capacity (M W /day) o f electricity M illion kW h/day
(M W /day) (kg/kW h)
1R BAD ARPUR 705 502 0.81 14.87

2R I.P. STA TIO N 277.5 136 0.86 2.96
3R RAJG HA T 135 62 0.83 1.93
4R FA RID A B A D 165 131 0.97 2.96
5R PANIPAT 650 362 0.82 9.74
6R BHATINDA 440 300 0.73 6.83
7R LEHRA 420 425 0.73 9.96
8R ROPAR 260 840 0.70 22.67
9R KOTA 850 856 0.75 2 0 .40
10R S U R A T G A R il 500 516 0.73 11.85
HR ANPARA 1630 1630 0.70 37.71
12R HARDUAGANG 385 135 1.02 3.07
13R DADRI 840 653 0.65 18.9
I4R OBRA 1442 1014 0.88 21.30
I5R PANKI 274 165 0.9 3.56
16R PA RICH A 80 220 80 0.88 1.75
17R RIHAND 1000 960 0.66 24.09
I8R SIN GRA ULI 2000 1545 0.61 4 4.06
19R TAN DA 330 195 0.96 4.9
20R UNCHAHAR 840 826 0.74 19.66
21 KUTCH 215 166 0.73 3.65
22R SA BARM ATJ 330 326 0.73 6.6
23 DH URVARAN 534 348 0.73 8.23
24 R GANDH1I N AGAR 870 722 0.60 17.09
25 R SIKKA 240 225 0.67 4.99
26R UKAI 850 775 0.72 16.74
27R W AN AK BORI 1470 1048 0.67 25.14
28R BHU SA W A L 478 445 0.79 10.80
29R CHA N K RA PU R 2340 1705 0.79 44.39
30R dahanu 500 412 0.62 10.77
31R KHAPF.R KHEDA 840 630 0.76 14.84
32R KORADI 1080 662 0.84 17.03
33R NASIK 910 810 0.74 17.6
34R PARAS 59 29 0.82 0.96
35 TOM BAY 1150 658 0.73 15.61
36R PARLI 690 625 .0.80 14.73
37R A M ARK AN TAK 290 201 0.72 4.7
38R SA NJA Y GANDH I 840 770 0.72 17.19
39P KORVA II&II1 400 315 0.97 7.29
40 P KIR BA W EST 840 630 0.68 50.14
4 IP KORBA STPS 2100 2153 0.63 50.14
42R SATPURA 1143 845 0.88 19.22
43P VINDHYAC'HAL 2260 2204 0.65 51.13
44 R KOTHAGUDEM S 1170 1004 1.08 22.39
45 R RAY ALSEEM A 420 432 0.78 10.08
46R NELLORE 30 23 1.21 0.45
47R RAM AGUNDA M 63 58 0.73 1.45
48R RGU ND AM (STPS) 2100 2160 0.63 50.65
49 R V IJA Y A W A D A 1260 1281 0.73 30.41
501 ENNORE 450 157 0.94 3.75
511 M E T rU R 840 860 0.75 20.33
52 ‘ NEYVELL1 600 550 12.77
531 NO RTH M ARAS 630 646 0.76 15.2
541 TU TICO R IN 1050 1070 0.74 25.13
55R RAICHUR 1260 850 0.76 21.2
56R BARAUNI 310 40 1.06 1.25
57R M U ZAFFARPUR 220 65 1.09 1.5
58R PATRATU 770 274 0.96 5.23
59R TENUGHA T 420 200 0.87 4.8
60P KAHALGAON 840 745 0.84 17.7
61R ROKARO A& B 805 260 0.80 5.70
62R CH ANDRAPURA 750 100 0.79 3.39
63R MEJIA 630 475 0.70 9.9
64 R DU RGAPUR-DVC 350 300 0.62 7.2
65R BAN DEL 530 150 0.59 4.87
66 R CALCUTTA 190 141 0.89 3.07
67 R NEW COSS1PORE 130 50.6 2.11
68R S.GEN STATION 135 136 0.62 3.26
69R D URG APUR-D PL 390 93 0.74 4.39
70R KILAGH AT 1260 1210 0.73 29.0
71R BA KRESHW AR 630 383 0.77 9,2
72R SANTALDIH 480 150 0.60 3.6
73R TITAGARH 240 240 0.64 5.76
74R BUD GEBU DGE 500 . 500 0.77 12
75 P FARAKKA 1600 ' 1470 0.83 34.95
76P T A LC H ER -N TPC 460 390 1.01 9.4
77P TA LCHER-STPS 1000 490 0.75 11.60
78 IB VALLEY TPS 420 1 406 0.91 9.70
79R BONGAIGAON 240 0 0.66 0.8
80 CHA ND RAPU R(A SSA M ) 60 7.82 0.66 0.33
81 NAM RUP 30 5.13 0.66 0.21
T O TA L A L L INDIA 53216 0.73

APPENDIX - II W o rld N u c le a r P o w e r R e a c to rs 2 0 0 1 -0 2
Reactors Uranium
N uclear electricity Reactors Reactors
J generation operatin > June 2002 construc Planned required
2001 tion June June 2002 ' 2001
2002
billion
%e No. MWe MWe MWe tonnes U
kW h
Argentina 6.5 8.2 2 935 0 692 133

Am enia 2.0 35 1 376 0 0 68
Belgium 44.1 58 7 5728 0 0 1109
Brazil 14.3 4.3 2 1855 0 0 296
Bulgaria 18.2 42 6 3538 0 0 618
Canada* 72.3 13 14 9998 3958 0 1343
Chinda NNC 16.7 1.1 ' 5 3702 4835 0 572
T aipow er 35 22 6 4884 2600 0 966
Czech Repuilc 14.7 20 5 2560 912 0 519
Finland 21.9 31 4 2656 0 0 553
France 401.3 77 59 63203 0 0 10159
G rem any 162.3 31 19 21141 0 0 3712
H ungary 14.1 39 4 1755 0 0 425
India 17.3 3.7 14 2548 3526 1400 312
Iron 0 0 0 0 950 0 0
Japan 321.9 34 54 44301 3696 15858 7393
Korea DPR (North) 0 0 0 0 0 1900 0
Korea RO (South) 112.1 39 17 13920 2850 9200 2466
L ithuania 1 1.4 78 2 2370 0 0 359
M exico 8.1 3.7 2 1310 0 0 232
N etherlands 3.7 4.2 1 452 0 0 115
Pakistan 2.0 2.9 2 425 0 0 56
Rom ania 5.1 11 1 655 0 620 90
Russia 125.4 15 30 20793 2625 2950 3411
Slovak Rep. 17.1 53 6 2472 840 0 528
Slovenia 5.0 39 1 679 0 0 131
South Africa 13.3 6.7 2 1842 0 0 363
Spain 61.1 29 9 7345 0 0 1613
Swenden 69.2 44 11 9460 0 0 1533
Sw itzerland \ 25.3 36 5 3170 0 0 599
Ukraine 71.1 46 13 11195 0 0 2588
U nited Kingom 82.3 23 31 12282 0 0 2588
USA 768.8 20 140 984406 0 0 20801
W ORLD 2544 16 439 355,956 26,432 3 4 ,5 2 0 \ 64.956
....
* In C anada, construction data is for four laid-up Pickering A reactors expected to re-enter service in 2003, plus
two B ruce A units very likely to do so later,
* IAEA- for nuclear electricity production & percentage o f electricity (% e).
W N A : G lobal N uclear Fuel M arket (reference scenario) - for U
Operating = Connected to the grid B uilding/ C onstruction = first concrete for reactor poured
Planned = A pprovals and funding in place. NB: 64.956 tU = 76,603 t U3 O g
TW h = Teraw att- hours (billion kilow att - hours),
MWe = M egaw att net (electrical as distinct from therm al), KWh = kilow att- hour
A P P E N D IX - I II Coal Properties
The quality o f coal dep en d s upon its rank and grade. T he coal rank arranged in an ascending
order o f carbon c o n te n ts is
Lignite ..> sub- b itu m in o u s co al ..> b itu m in ous coal ..> an th racite
Indian coal is o f m o stly su b -b itu m in o u s ran k , fo llo w ed by b itu m in o u s and lig n ite (brow n
coal). T h e a s h .c o n te n t in In d ia n co al ran g es from 35% to 50% . C h e m ic a l c o m p o sitio n o f the
coal is d efin ed in te rm s o f its p ro x im a te and u ltim a te and u ltim ate (e le m e n ta l) a n a ly sis. T h e
param eters o f p ro x im a te a n a ly sis are m o istu re, v o la tile m atter, ash, and fixed ca rb o n . E lem en tal
or U ltim ate a n a ly sis e n c o m p a sse s th e q u a n tita tiv e d e te rm in a tio n o f carb o n , h y d ro g e n , n itro g e n ,
su lp h u r, and o x y g en . T h e c a lo rific v alue Q , o f coal is the h e a t lib e ra te d by its c o m p le te
co m bustio n w ith o x y g e n . Q is a c o m p lex fu n c tio n o f the e le m e n ta l c o m p o sitio n o f th e coal.
G ross C a lo rific v alu e Q is m o stly d e te rm in e d by e x p e rim e n ta l m e asu rem en ts. A c lo se e stim a te
can be m ad e w ith th e D u lo n g fo rm u la Q = (1 4 4 .4 % [ c ] } + (6 1 0 .2 % [HI - ( 6 5 .9 % [ H ] } +
2
(0 .3 9 % TO] } Q is g iv en in k c a l/k g o r B tu /b . V alu es o f the e lem en ts C , H, and O , are c a lc u la ted
on a dry a s h -fre e coal b a sis, In d ian co al is c la s s ifie d by g rad es d e fin e d on the b a sis. In d ian
coal is c la ssifie d by g ra d e s d e fin e d on th e b asis o f U seful H eat V alue (U H V ). U H V is an
expression d eriv ed from ash and m o istu re c o n ten ts fo r n o n lo c k in g co als as per the G o vernm ent
o f India n o tific a tio n . T h e u ltim a te a n a ly sis o f co al used in p o w er p la n ts in In d ia is read ily not
available. S o m e a re g iv e n in tab le b elo w .
E lem ental an aly sis, m o istu re co n ten t, and grades o f ty p ical In d ian coals.
T ab le : I
Coal Grade C% H% SSfc n 2% o,% A% M%l NCV (Kcal/Kg)

D 33.1 2.46 0.44 0.83 NA 25.9 7.2 4999.0
D 30 2.48 0.57 0.69 NA 27.1 2.9 5555.0
D 32.31 2.12 0.4 0.78 NA 25 7.3 5068.0
F. 37.9 2.4 0.53 0.8 6% 30.4 7.5 4529.0
F, 41.87 3.33 0.56 0.94 6% 34.07 7.8 4137.0

F, 44.87 3.37 0.35 0.99 6% 36.3 8.4 3833.0
E lem ental an aly sis and m o istu re c o n te n t o f the coal used at the sam e coal used at the
seven pow er plants in India.
T a b le : 2 _
Coal C% S% n ,% o2% A% M% NCV
Datlri 40.3 4.16 0.5 0.9 15.92 38.22 NA NA

Rihand 37.74 3.26 0.39' 0.73 14.65 43.23 NA NA
Singarauli 50.22 4.78 0.33. 1.09 17025 26.33 NA NA
Chandrapur 37.69 2.66 0.8 1.07 5.78 47.0 5 3649.9
Dahanu 42.39.0 3.73 0.39 0.82 14.21 38.46 5.93 3986.37
Nevyeli Lignite 26.09 2.33 1.5 0.24 16.33 7.0 4.7 2229.0
Kutcli Lignite 2B.33 3.03 2.25 0.88 13.94 15.0 36 2900.0
NA: Not A vailable C: C arbon H: H ydrogen S:SuJphur N: N itrogen CV: C alorific value A: A sh M :M oisture
UHV: Useful heat value = 8900 - 138 (A + M ) G CV : C ro ss C alorific V alue = (U H V + 3645 - 7 5 .4 M ) /1.466
NCV: N et C alorific V alue = G C V - 10.02M R elationship o f G C V , U H V , and N CV is em pirical.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
t
1. Pow er P lant Technology - M.M.E.I - Wakil

- McGraw-Hill International Editions.
2. M odern Pow er Plant Engineering - Goel Weisman, Raj Eckart
- Prentice - Hall International
3. Construction o f N uclear Pow er Plants - A Kuznetso (translated fro m the Russian)
- Mir Publishers Moscow
4. R efrigeration & A ir Conditioning - Wilbert F. Strecker / Jerold W. Jones

«k - Me Graw Hill International Editions
5. An introduction to Pow er Plant Technology - G. D. Rai
6. A C ourse in Pow er Plant Engineering - Arora Damodkandwar

- Danpat Rai & Co.
7. A T ext book o f Pow er Plant Engineering - Er. R.K. Rajput
- Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
8. Therm al Engineering - P.L. Balani
- Khanna Publications
9. Fundam entals o f Internal Com bustion Engines - Gill & Smith - 4th Revised Edn.
10. Solar Energy - S. P. Sukatme
11. Heat transfer basic approach - J. P. Holman
12. H eat transfer basic approach - N. Ozisik
13. Principles o f Pow er System - V. K. Mehta, Rohit Mehta

- S. Chand & Company
14. H ydraulic M achines - Dr. Jagadish Lai
- Metropolitan Book Co., Private Ltd.
15. Electrical Pow er System s - C.L.Wadhwa
16. M ark’s H andbook for M echanical Engineering - Baumister - Seventh Edn.
17. Electrical E ngineering - M. Handa & A. Handa

- Satya Prakashan, New Delhi.
i
18. M echanical Engineering (Objective type ) - Dn R. K. Jain
- Khanna Publications
19. M echanical E ngineering (Objective type) - Dr. R. K. Bansal
- Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
20. Pow er Plant Engineering - Nag
- Tata Me Graw Hill
\ 21. A Guide to N uclear Energy - R. F. K. Belchem

- Sir Issac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER - 1 Page No.

CHAPTER - 2 Page No.

CHAPTER - 3 Page No.

CHAPTER - 5 Page No.

5.1 Introduction 137

CHAPTER - 6 Page No.

6.3 Therm oelectric generation 171

8.3 Plant layout 199 CHAPTER - 11 \ 241

9.3 Fertile materials

SOURCES O F EN ERG Y , „ne..oY w h ic h s ta te s th a t

P ow er p lan t : P ow er plant, is a unit built for p ro d u c tio n and d e liv e ry o f a flow of

Power plant is an a sse m b ly o f the eq u ip m ent, p e rm anently located at se le c te d site which

Power plant is a m ach in e that p roduces and d elivers a flow o f m e c h a n ic al or electrical

1.2.1 V ariou s so u r c e s o f en erg y

A ccording to the o c c u rre n ce the fuels are classified as under

Primary fuel Prepared fuel

Fuels (Based on stale)

eg : wood, charcoal, eg : petroleum, kerosene, eg : natural gas, producer gas

Types o f Coal Characteristics

2. L ig n ite / B row n C oal

1.2.3 A n a ly sis o f C oal

E x : M oisture = 6.5% ; V olatile m atter = 5.5% ; Fixed c a rb o n = 22.5% .

T his p ro x im a te analysis is easily done and used for c o m m e rc ia l purposes only.

Constituents Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulphur Nitrogen Ash

Im p o rta n t P ro p e rtie s of Coal

1.2.4 Liquid fuels

Fuel Calorific value in kJ/kg

The properties for g asoline and diesel are as follow s

Gasoline 0.76 0.72 (10°C) 18

Diesel 0.85 4.5 (10°C) 45 - 55

Petrol 85.5 14.4 0.1

Kerosene 86.3 13.6 0.1

Diesel 86.3 12.8 0.9

1.2.5 Im p ortan t P r o p e r tie s o f L iq u id F uels

(i) C alorific value (ii) Viscosity

1.2.6 A d v a n ta g es o f L iq uid F u els o v er S o lid F u els

1. Liquid Fuels are easy to handle.

6. C o n tinu ou s firing o f furnace is possible with liquid fuels.

1.2.7 D isa d v a n ta g es o f L iquid F uels

1.2.8 G aseous F uels

(b) B last fu r n a c e gas

1.2.9 A d v a n ta g es o f G a seo u s F u els

I Few im p o r ta n t p r o p e r tie s o f G a seo u s F uels

1.3 W ATER STO R ED ENERG Y

1.4 NUCLEAR ENERGY

(a) V ariable output

(a) No o perator is needed and

T he main application o f w ind energ y is in p um ping w a te r from d e e p wells. T h e e quipm e n t

Som e application o f Solar energy

1.7.2 D isadvan tages

1.8 GEOTHERM AL ENERGY

Fig. 1.2 Geothermal power plant

Fig. 1.3. Sketch Showing Indirect Method (Geothermal Power plant)

Heat Input by heat source

Fig. 1.4 Therm oelectric generator

2. E a sily c o n tro lle d

4. E asy tra n sp o rta tio n

5. C lea n lin ess

Source o f ------ ► Prime . . A lternator/

T he Fig 1.5 sh o w s an arrang em en t used for electrical p o w e r prod uction . T he various

The a rra n g e m en ts sh ow n in the sketch m ainly em p lo y s an alternato r (G e n e ra to r) coupled

1. High calorific value (H C V ) or G ross calorific value