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INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Industrial materials are substances employed in industrial processes for the creation of goods and artifacts.
Materials may be classified in different ways: nature of constituents, usage, etc. In general, they are classified
as metals and non-metals. Most metals are solids at room temperature and exist as crystal lattices with atoms
held together by strong metallic bonds. Metals are grouped into ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Metals can
further be classified as plain or alloy metals. Plain metals are materials that have a significant composition of
a base element but contain traces of other elements mainly as impurities. Alloy metals are materials that have
one or more base elements but contain significant amount of other elements that are used to impact specific
properties. That is, for some metals, mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc., properties can be modified by
adding alloys. An alloy is an element added to a base material so as to modify the properties of the base
material. An alloyed material is a uniform mixture of the base and alloying substances. Metals usually have
high melting point, are relatively ductile and malleable, and are hard with relatively high tensile strength.
They are often good conductors of heat and electricity with high densities. Exceptions include mercury
which is liquid at room temperature with a melting point of -39 oC. Sodium and potassium are light and soft
with melting points of 97 oC and 63 oC respectively.

Metals are used in two forms of castings and wrought metals. Casting is used to produce ingots or component
blanks. The component blanks or workpieces are processed into finished forms by secondary manufacturing
processes. Ingots are used as stock materials for producing wrought metals which are obtained by some
secondary manufacturing processes such as forging, rolling, and extrusion. Practically all metals, which are
not used in cast form or component blank, are reduced to some standard shapes for subsequent processing.
Ingots are obtained by casting liquid metal into rectangular and square cross-sections. The section may be in
form of a slab, billet, or bloom. Sometimes continuous casting methods are also used to cast the liquid metal
into slabs, billets or blooms. Slabs measure 500-1800 mm wide and 50-300 mm thick. Billets measure 40x40
to 150x150 sq. mm, and blooms measure 150x150 to 400x400 sq. mm. These shapes are further processed
through hot rolling, forging or extrusion, to produce materials in standard form such as plates, sheets, rods,
tubes and structural sections.

Non-metals exist as covalent molecules where atoms are held together by weak forces. Non-metals usually
have low melting point, are relatively brittle and soft with relatively low tensile strength. They are often bad
conductors of heat and electricity with low densities. Exceptions include carbon which is extremely hard
with high melting temperature when in the form of diamond and is a good conductor of heat and electricity
when in the form of graphite.

FERROUS MATERIALS
Ferrous materials have iron as base or main constituent. They include iron, steel and their alloys. For
example, pig iron has iron content of 91% to 99% and carbon content of 3.5% to 4.5%. Carbon steel has iron
content of 98.1% to 99.5% and carbon content of 0.07% to 1.5%. Wrought iron has iron content of 99% to
99.8% and carbon content of 0.05% to 0.25%. These materials usually have some traces of manganese,
surphur, phosphorus, and silicon.

Cast Iron
Ferrous iron materials include pig iron, cast iron, and wrought iron. Cast iron can further be classified into
gray cast iron, white cast iron, chilled cast iron, ductile cast iron, and malleable cast iron. Pig iron is a very
brittle material and it is further processed to make it useful as a structural material. Generally, cast iron
materials are suitable in situations where components are under compressive loads. They are not good in
resisting dynamic and tensile loads. However, ductile cast iron is better in resisting tensile and dynamic loads
compared to other types. It is to be noted that malleable cast as a structural material is being supplanted by
ductile cast iron which is easier to produce. Table 1 summarizes cast iron materials and applications.

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Table 1: Iron materials

Iron Type Carbon Applications
Content (%)
Pig iron ≥3 Raw material for cast iron and steel manufacture. Produced as
ingots in the form of slabs, billets, and blooms.
Plain cast iron. Hard and brittle. Good for cast products. Used for
Gray cast iron 2- 4 machine beds and frames, cylinder blocks, agricultural
implements, etc.
Plain cast iron. Hard and brittle. Good for cast products where
White cast iron
high wear resistance is important.
Plain cast iron. Hard and brittle. Extremely hard surface, e.g. car
Chilled cast iron
wheels, furnace firebars, and rolls for rolling mills.
Alloy cast iron from heat-treated white cast iron. Easily machined
Malleable cast
and shock resistant. Used for pipe fittings, gears, housings for ball
iron
and roller bearings, agricultural and mining equipment, etc.
Alloy cast iron that is specially produced. Is relatively ductile and
Ductile cast iron has better shock resistance to malleable cast iron. Used for
crankshafts, anvils, wrenches, or heavy-use levers
Purest form of commercial iron. It is ductile, tough, malleable,
and easy to weld. Formerly used for making rivets, nails, chains,
Wrought iron ≤ 0.1
railway couplings, horse-shoes, etc.

Steels
Steel is a material consisting mainly of iron (Fe) and iron carbide (Fe3C) or cementite. The carbon content is
at most 2% and it can contain other elements and alloys in controlled amounts. It is produced mainly from
pig iron (about 90% of pig iron is converted to steel) by oxidation which reduces the carbon content and
removes impurities in pig iron. It is a hard, tough, and strong material. Properties of steel depend on its
carbon content, alloys, and heat treatment given to it.

Table 2: Steel materials

Steel Type Designation* Principal Mechanical Properties Common Applications
Carbon Steels
Low Carbon 1005 - 1025 High toughness and ductility, low Pressed steel products, chains,
(0.05
Medium– 0.25)
Carbon 1025 – 1050 strength.
Medium toughness and ductility, Medium rivets.
Machine parts, gears, axles,
(0.25 – 0.50)
High Carbon 1050 & over strength.
Low toughness and ductility, high forgings,
Cutting bolts
tools,and nuts. wires,
music
(0.50
Alloy –Steels
1.50) strength. springs.
Sulfurized (Free- 11XX Improved machinability Machined parts, threads,
cutting) splines.
Higher strength and hardness, lower
Phosphorized 12XX
ductility.
Manganese 13XX Improved surface finish
Mechanical parts, axles, gears,
Molybdenum 40XX - 48XX High strength
cams, forgings.
Improved hardness, great strength and Gears, shafts, bearings,
Chromium 50XX – 50XX
toughness. springs, connecting rods.
Chromium- Punches, dies, piston rods,
61XX Improved hardness and strength
Vanadium gears, axles.
Nickel-
High corrosion resistance, high strength Food containers, surgical
Chromium- 86XX – 88XX
and hardness. equipment.
Molybdenum
Silicon-
92XX High springiness and elasticity. Springs.
Manganese

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Generally, tensile strength of steel increases with higher carbon content but the steel loses ductility,
becoming brittle. Steel of appropriate carbon content may be hardened and annealed or tempered. Hardening
is the process of cooling steel of high temperature (red hot) rapidly so as to increase its hardness. Annealing
is the process of reheating hardened steel to elevated temperature and allowing it to cool in air. Annealing is
generally employed when hardened steel needs machining. Tempering is the process of reheating hardened
steel to elevated temperature and allowing it to cool. The hardness and tensile strength of steel depends on
the tempering temperature and rate of cooling.

Table 3: UNS classification of materials (e.g. SAE/AISI1025 = G10250)

UNS Series
Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys
A00001 to A99999
C00001 to C99999
L00001 to L99999
Z00001 to Z99999
Ferrous Metals and Alloys
D00001 to D99999
F00001 to F99999
G00001 to G99999
H00001 to H99999
J00001 to J99999
K00001 to K99999
S00001 to S99999
T00001 to T99999
Material
Aluminum and alloys
Copper and alloys
Low-melting metals and alloys
Zinc and alloys
Specified mechanical properties of steel materials
Cast irons
AISI and SAE carbon and alloy steels, excluding tool steels
AISI H-classification steels
Cast steels, excluding tool steels
Miscellaneous steels and ferrous alloys
Stainless steels
Tool steels

Table 4: Carbon steel types and applications

Plain Carbon
Carbon (%) Stock Form Processing and Applications
Steel Type
Stock available in black and Easily worked when hot but difficult to machine
low 0.05 – 0.15 bright bars, tubes, and wires. due to tendency to tear. Rivets, screws, nails, wires,
chains, pipes, boiler plates.
Stock is available in black Cheapest type of steel. Easily machined and
bar and sheet section or welded. Ship plates, forgings, gears, shafts, bolts,
Mild 0.15 – 0.25
bright strip, and tube nuts, washers, rivets, chains.
sections.
Stock is available in black Can be machined satisfactorily. Responds to heat-
bar, plate, and sheet section treatment. Machine parts and forgings, castings,
Medium 0.25 – 0.50
or bright rod, strip, and flats springs, drop hammer dies.
sections.
Harmers, sledges, stamping and pressing dies,
0.5 – 0.7
drop-forging dies, screwdrivers, set-crews.
Punches, cold chisel, hammers, shear blades, drop-
0.7 – 0.8 Machining and forming forging dies, lathe centers, spanners, band saws,
difficulties increase with vice jaws, rivets.
carbon content. Stock Punches, cold chisel, hammers, shear blades, drop-
High
available in bars and strips. forging dies, lathe centers, spanners, saws, vice
0.8 – 1.0
Silver steel rods available jaws, rivets, springs, axes, rock drills, milling
too. cutters, lathe centers, reamers, screw dies and taps.
Drills, milling cutters, lathe tools, files, wire
1.0 – 1.5 drawing dies, hacksaw blades, ball bearings, screw
dies and taps.

Steel materials may be broadly classified into plain and alloy steels. Plain steel has carbon as main alloy in
an iron base. Plain steels may be grouped into cast steel, carbon steels, and carbon tool steels. Alloy steel has
other elements in significant quantities and they include chromium, nickel, surphur, etc. These elements are
deliberately added to steel so as to impact specific properties desired. Alloy steels include low, high, and

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alloy tool steels. Table 4 is a summary of the different types of steels and typical applications. Table 5
summarizes common alloy elements and their effects on steel.

Table 5: Effects of alloying elements on steels

Alloy Content (%) Effect
Along with nickel and or molybdenum, increases hardness and tensile strength
0.3 - 1.5
Chromium with considerable ductility. Enhances corrosion and wear resistances. High values
12 - 20
Improves fatigue resistance.
5 – 10 Retention of hardness at high temperature.
Cobalt 12 – 18 Increased corrosion resistance in stainless steel.
≤ 40 Improves coercive force of magnetism in some steels.
1.5 – 5 Increases tensile strength and toughness.
Nickel
≥ 20 Increases corrosion and heat resistance.
Strengthens steel at normal and high temperature. Greatly improves hardness of
Tungsten
steel.
Improves resistance to sulphuric and other acids in stainless steels. Helps steel to
Molybdenum 0.08 – 0.4
retain strength and hardness at elevated temperature.
Silicon 1.8 – 2.2 Improves springiness and elasticity.
Sulphur Improves machinability.
Phosphorous Increases strength and hardness but reduces ductility.
Manganese 1.6 – 1.9 Improves surface finish, shock and wear resistance.
Vanadium Increases hardenability, toughness, and strength.
Titanium
Tantalum Prevents weld decay in chromium and nickel stainless steels.
Niobium
Boron 0.003 Greatly improves hardenability.
Copper 0.2 – 1.0 Improves corrosion resistance.

PLAIN NON-FERROUS METALS

The common non-ferrous metals are copper, zinc, tin, lead, and aluminum. Others are tungsten, vanadium,
chromium, magnesium and manganese.

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
Non-ferrous alloys contain non-ferrous metals as base materials with alloying elements that may be ferrous
or non-ferrous. They generally exhibit better mechanical properties than the plain materials. The popular
non-ferrous alloys include brasses, bronzes, magnesium alloys and solders.

PLASTICS
Plastics are solid materials that are mainly hydrocarbon (hydrogen and carbon) or organic compounds. They
consist of long chains of simple molecules fused together by a process called polymerization. During
polymerization, simple hydrocarbon molecules are replicated and linked together to form heavier and more
complex hydrocarbon molecules. Hence they are also called polymers. As a rule of thumb, a polymer must
contain at least 10 simple organic molecules. The complex molecules from polymerization have physical
properties usually different from the original molecules. They are capable of retaining their shape and form
under ordinary conditions. Plastics are manufactured mainly from products of crude oil and natural gas.
Plastics may be grouped into thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers.

Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics are the set of plastics that soften and melt when heat is applied. They have
straight or branched chains of molecules joined by weak forces. They harden when cooled and are capable of
being re-shaped or re-molded several times. Examples include acrylic, ABS, Nylons, Polyethylene, PVC, etc.

Thermosetting Plastics: Thermosetting plastics or thermosets are the set of plastics that do not soften and
melt when heat is applied. They have chains of molecules in 3-D layout that are joined by strong forces.

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They are formed by the application of both heat and pressure. They harden when heated and cannot be re-
shaped or re-molded several times. Examples are polyester, phenolics, polyimides, etc.

Elastomers: Elastomers are plastics with high elasticity. They undergo considerable elongation under load
and return to their original shape and size when unloaded. Examples are rubber, silicones, polyurethanes, etc.

WOOD
Wood is composed of cellulose bonded by lignin and the cellulose is longitudinal in orientation. Wood
contains about 50% - 60% cellulose and 20% - 35% lignin with other constituents in small amounts. These
other constituents include resins, pentosane, carbohydrates, gum, and mineral water. The cellulose is the
structural substance in wood and is hollow with very small diameter. Wood may be classified into softwood
and hardwood. Softwood products are generally used for structural applications in the United States.

Softwood: Softwoods are derived from coniferous trees which have needle like leaves. The dimensions of
softwood lumber are standardized with the actual sizes are generally less that the nominal sizes. Softwood
products are mainly used for building construction and decorative works. Examples of softwood sources are
pine, cedar, spruce, fir, and redwood. Pine wood is used in building construction, furniture work, boxes, and
molds for manufacturing processes. Cedar wood is used in making closets, chests, planks, and blinds for
windows. Spruce wood is used in making boxes, crates, ladders, ship masks, aircraft parts. Fir wood is used
in furniture, windows, doors, and frames for windows and doors. Redwood material is used in flooring
houses, panels, and fences.

Hardwood: Hardwood is obtained from deciduous trees which shed their leaves at the end of each growing
season. Most hard wood materials are strong, durable, and experience minimum shrinkage or warping with
age. They are primarily used for furniture and cabinet works. Examples of hardwood sources are oak, walnut,
mahogany, cherry, maple, and teak. Oak is used for desks, flooring, and boat frames. Walnut and mahogany
are used for desks, tables, and cabinet. Cherry is used for cabinets, door handles, and boats. Maple is used for
flooring and bowling alleys. Teak is used for flooring, in shipbuilding, window and door frames.

CERAMICS
Ceramics are inorganic compounds that contain metals and non-metals. They are corrosion resistant and very
hard. However, they are brittle and have low impact strength. Clay-based ceramic products include bricks,
tiles, clay pipes, porcelain, stoneware, and earthware. Fire clay, a common refractory material, is designed to
resist high temperatures. Ceramics may be grouped as oxides, nitrides, carbides, and glasses.

COMPOSITES
Composites have two or more constituents that are blended and held together by mechanical or adhesive
bonding. The constituent materials are usually distinct in chemical properties. Composites are referred to as
engineered materials because they are designed and manufactured to desired application qualities.
Composites can be a combination of metals, plastics, ceramics, fibers, etc. In composites, a filler material or
filler materials are dispersed in a matrix or base material so that the filler(s) reinforce the matrix. Usually
fillers are made from strong and stiff materials while the matrix has low density. The properties of the
composite are better than the properties of individual constituent. Typically, the fillers carry the load while
being held in place by the matrix. The fillers or reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical
properties to enhance the matrix properties. The number of composite materials is increasing rapidly and so
are their applications. Composite materials are used to make consumer and recreation products, components
for bicycles, vehicles, and aircrafts, electrical products, and products for building construction and industrial
facilities. Composites have high strength to weight ratio, can resist fatigue damage better that steel or
aluminum, have high wear resistance, and can be formulated to provide high toughness and damping.
Composites may be classified into fiber-reinforced, particulates, and laminates, based on the filler type.
Another classification approach uses the matrix material type: polymer, metal, and ceramic matrix
composites.

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Table 6: Some materials and properties

Young’s Modulus Yield Strength Tensile Strength % Elongation (50
Material
(GPa) (MPa) (MPa) mm length)
Metals
Aluminum & alloys 69 - 79 35 - 550 90 – 600 45 - 4
Copper & alloys 105 – 150 76 - 1100 140 - 1310 65 – 3
Lead & alloys 14 14 20 - 55 50 – 9
Magnesium & alloys 41 - 45 130 - 305 240 - 380 21 - 5
Molybdenum & alloys 330 - 360 80 - 2070 90 - 2340 40 – 30
Nickel & alloys 180 - 214 105 - 1200 345 - 1450 60 – 5
Steels 190 - 210 205 -1725 415 - 1750 65 – 2
Titanium & alloys 80 -130 344 - 1380 415 - 1450 25 – 7
Tungsten & alloys 350 - 400 550 - 690 620 - 760 0
Non-Metals
Ceramics 70 - 1000 - 140 - 2600 0
Diamond 820 - 1050 - - -
Glass & porcelain 70 - 80 - 140 0
Rubbers 0.01 - 0.1 - - 1000 – 5
Thermoplastics 1.4 – 3.4 - 7 - 80 -
Thermoplastics,
2 - 50 - 20 - 120 10 -1
reinforced
Thermosets 3.5 - 17 - 35 - 170 0
Boron fibers 380 - 3500 0
Carbon fibers 275 - 415 - 2000 - 3000 0
Glass fibers 73 - 85 - 3500 - 4600 0
Kevlar fibers 62 - 117 - 2800 0

Summary
Industrial materials are substances employed in industrial processes for the creation of goods and artifacts.
Materials may be classified in different ways: nature of constituents, usage, etc. In general, they are classified
as metals and non-metals. Metals are of two groups: ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Ferrous materials
include Iron (Pig, Wrought, Cast); plain carbon steels (Low, Medium, High); and alloy steels (Stainless,
Tool, etc). Non-ferrous materials include plain (Aluminum, Copper, Titanium, Nickel, Tungsten, etc) and
alloys (Brass, Bronze, etc). Non-metals include plastics, wood, ceramics, composites, and miscellaneous.
Plastics are of three parts: thermoplastics (Acrylic, ABS, Nylons, Polyethylene, PVC, etc); thermosetting
(Epoxies, Phenolics, Polyimides, etc); and elastomers (Rubber, Silicones, Polyurethanes, etc). Woods are
classified into two groups of hardwood and softwood. Ceramics may be grouped into oxides, nitrides,
carbides, and glasses. Composite materials include fiber-reinforced, particulates, and laminates.
Miscellaneous materials include fabrics, leather, and paper. Table 16 presents a summary of some materials.