See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/260210805

Vitamin A: A review article

Article  in  Journal of Medicinal Plant Research · September 2011

CITATION READS
1 16,510

7 authors, including:

Muhammad Akram Akhtar Naveed

University of the Punjab The Islamia University of Bahawalpur
594 PUBLICATIONS   7,113 CITATIONS    278 PUBLICATIONS   2,882 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Muhammad Asif Pervaiz Akhtar Shah

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur University of the Punjab
99 PUBLICATIONS   1,118 CITATIONS    48 PUBLICATIONS   696 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Intuitionistic fuzzy bialgebras View project

Logic connectives in Fuzzy (higher) logic View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Akhtar Naveed on 18 February 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Vol. 5(20), pp. 4977-4979, 30 September, 2011
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR
ISSN 1996-0875 ©2011 Academic Journals

Review

Vitamin A: A review article

M. Akram1*, Naveed Akhtar2, H. M. Asif1, Pervaiz Akhtar Shah3, Tariq Saeed3,
Arshad Mahmood4 and Nadia Shamshad Malik5
1
Faculty of Eastern Medicine, Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan.
2
Faculty of Pharmacy and Alternative Medicine, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan.
3
University College of Pharmacy, The University of Punjab Lahore, Pakistan.
4
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan.
5
School of Pharmacy, The University of Lahore, Islamabad Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Accepted 8 June, 2011

Vitamin A has important function in the body. Vitamin A is involved in vision, growth, and reproduction.
In this paper, description, function and deficiency diseases of vitamin A has been delineated herewith.

Key words: Vitamin A, retinol, deficiency disease, research study.

INTRODUCTION

Vitamin A (called retinol in mammals) is a fat-soluble FUNCTIONS

vitamin. Human ingest two types of vitamin A: provitamin
A from plants and preformed vitamin A from animal
source. It is related to growth and differentiation of the
tissues. The main sources of preformed vitamin A or
retinol are liver, whole milk, fish oil and egg. Vitamin A is
present in many animal tissues and is readily absorbed
from such dietary sources in the terminal small intestine.
Vitamin A is a constituent of visual pigment and maintains
epithelium. Vitamin A deficiency occurs with the chronic
consumption of diets that are deficient in both vitamin A
and beta-carotene. Deficiency symptoms are night
blindness and dry skin (Brazis, 2004). Prolonged and
severe vitamin A deficiency can produce total and
irreversible blindness. Vitamin A deficiency is also
common in areas like Southeast Asia, where polished
rice, which lacks the vitamin, is a major part of the diet.
Animal sources of vitamin A include halibut fish (richest
source), shark and cod liver oil, animal liver, egg yolk,
milk and colostrums. Plant sources include carrot,
spinach, yellow corn and potato. Daily requirement for
infant, children and adults is 400, 700 and 1000 µg
(Nishimura et al., 1998). Food fortification is the most
cost effective, long-term approach, while supplementation
is considered to be the fastidious way to uplift vitamin A
status.
Vitamin A contributes for vision in dim light. Vitamin A
maintains the integrity and normal functioning of
glandular and epithelial tissues. It supports skeletal
growth and acts as anti-infective agent. It protects against
some epithelial cancer (Borel et al., 2005). Vitamin A is
oxidized to retinal, or vitamin A aldehyde, which
combines with opsin, a protein, to form rhodopsin, the
light sensing pigment in the retina. Thus, the earliest
symptom of vitamin A deficiency is night blindness. In
addition, vitamin A is required to form and maintain
epithelial surfaces through a mechanism that is still
unknown (Sale, 2004).
Role in immune system
Vitamin A, along with certain carotenoids, enhances the
activity of the immune system and helps in controlling
infections and even malignancies (Mushtaq, 1998).
Vitamin A has strong effect on the immunity of the body.
Vitamin A deficiency compromises the immune system,
and can increase the risk of illness and death from
diseases such as malaria and measles.

Antixerophthalmic activity
*Corresponding author. E-mail: makram_0451@hotmail.com.
Tel: 92-021-6440083. Fax: 92-021-6440079. Vitamin A protects skin and mucous membranes
4978 J. Med. Plant. Res.

(especially front of eye and lining of digestive and Keratomalacia

respiratory tracts). It is essential for regeneration of visual
purple (Forsmo et al., 2008). Generally Retinyl acetate It is a condition, in which cornea becomes dull,
and retinyl palmitate are used in different food products insensitive and necroses resulting in loss of vision.
as fortificants against the vitamin A menace. Each year
the deficiency of vitamin A in developing countries has
identified as a serious nutritional handicap like blind. Extra ocular manifestation

(1) Follicular hyperkeratosis

Role in gene structure
Retinol is the immediate precursor to two important active
metabolites: retinal, which plays a critical role in vision,
and retinoic acid, which serves as an intracellular
messenger that affects transcription of a number of
genes. Vitamin A does not occur in plants, but many
plants contain carotenoids such as beta-carotene that
can be converted to vitamin A within the intestine and
other tissues (Duester, 2008).
DEFICIENCY DISEASE
(2) Anorexia
(3) Intestinal infections
(4) Degeneration of myelin sheath
Effect on respiratory system
Retinoic acid is used in the body for regulating the
development of various tissues, such as the cells of the
skin, and the lining of the lungs and intestines. If
deficiency occurs then cilia are lost, causing respiratory
tract infections.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that as REPRODUCTION

many as 140 million children, especially in Africa and
Southeast Asia, suffer from vitamin A deficiency (VAD).
Vitamin A deficiency is a world wide nutritional problem
especially in the developing countries that afflicts
severely the health of pregnant and lactating women,
infants and children. It is considered a wide spread public
health problem among preschool children in the
developing countries.
Vitamin A deficiency causes follicular hyperkeratosis
(that is, the development of keratin plugs in hair follicules,
as seen in scurvy and a xeropthalmia (that is, corneal
dryness) that can progress to corneal ulcers and resultant
blindness. Acute vitamin A intoxication has occurred in
arctic explorers who ate polar bear livers. Chronic
hypervitaminosis A usually occurs after enormously
excessive vitamin A ingestion by food faddists or in the
treatment of acne (Strobel et al., 2007). Its features may
include arthralgias, fatigue, night sweats, and headaches
due to benign intracranial hypertension. Though
harmless, excessive beta carotene ingestion makes
yellow or orange. In distinction to the observation in
cases of jaundice, the sclera remains white (Strobel et
al., 2007). Different strategies like food diversification,
fortification and supplementation are helpful to cope with
vitamin A deficiency (Tang et al., 2005).
Infertility results due to interference with ovulation (Schulz
et al., 2007). Vitamin A is important during embryological
development, since, without vitamin A, the fertilized egg
cannot develop into a fetus.
Effect on kidneys
Kidney stones are formed due to accumulation of stone
forming compounds normally present in urine around
shed keratinized epithelium cells.
Tooth changes
A defective formation of the tooth enamel takes place and
this may lead to abnormalities of dentine (Takita et al.,
2006).
Bone remodeling
Vitamin A plays an important role in normal functioning of
osteoblasts and osteoclasts, vitamin A is use in
prevention of diseases, which include (Crabb, 2001):

Ocular manifestation (1) Acne

(2) AIDS
(1) Night blindness (3) Alcoholism
(2) Conjuctival xerosis (4) Atopic dermatitis
(3) Bitot spot (5) Cataracts
(4) Corneal xerosis (6) Cervical dysplasia

(7) Diabetes
(8) Dry eyes (Duester, 2008)
(9) Fibrocystic breast disease
(10) Hyperkeratosis
(11) Inflammatory bowel disease
(12) Kaposi's sarcoma
(13) Leukoplakia
(14) Osteoarthritis
(15) Otitis media (ear infection)
(16) Poor vision
(17) Psoriasis
(18) Thyroid disorders
(19) Ulcers
(20) Vaginitis
(21) Varicose veins
(22) Viral infections
TOXICITY
Acute toxicity
Headache, nausea and vomiting are examples of acute
toxicity (Myhre et al., 2003).
Chronic toxicity
Dry skin, cracking of lips and painful areas of bone are
examples of chronic toxicity (Penniston et al., 2006).
Diet
Vegetables are primary source of vitamin A. Vegetable
containing carotene do not produce teratogenic or toxic
effects. Ingestion of food containing beta-carotene
maintains vitamin A level in the blood.
DISCUSSION
Vitamin A is an essential micronutrient for the normal
functioning of the visual system, growth and
development, immunity and reproduction. This has been
pointed out by nutritional survey of Pakistan 1970 and
1976. The serum levels of vitamin A indirectly reflect its
status in the body. A pilot study for the nutritional
problems in Pakistan showed that majority of the children
in the study group was suffering from vitamin A
deficiency. A study was carried out to evaluate the
perception of eye health in schools in Pakistan. Study
indicated that schoolchildren and their teachers had a
good knowledge of eye health, but many of them had
serious misconceptions for example, use of kohl,
medicines and eye drops keeps eyes healthy. Kohl is an
important source of lead and can reduce children's
intelligence even at low blood levels. Health education in
schools must take into account children's existing
knowledge of and misconceptions about various aspects
View publication stats
Akram et al. 4979
of eye health. Such steps if taken could improve the
relevance of eye health education to schoolchildren
(Khabir et al., 2006). Women are the most vulnerable
group affected by vitamin A deficiency during their
pregnancy and lactating periods. Vitamin A deficiency
also causes night blindness and increases the risk of
child deaths, especially from diarrhea and measles, as
well as maternal deaths.
CONCLUSION
Vitamin A has important function in the body. It is
required for growth and bone development and to
maintain the health of the skin and eye sight. Night
blindness is the first symptom of vitamin A deficiency.
Low levels of vitamin A may cause vision problems (such
as night blindness) and permanent eye damage. Besides,
blindness, vitamin A deficiency can cause abnormal
changes in the epithelial tissues, these are the tissues
that cover the external surface of the body.
REFERENCES
Borel P, Drai J, Faure H (2005). Recent knowledge about intestinal
absorption and cleavage of carotenoids. Ann. Biol. Clin., 63(2): 165-
177.
Brazis PW (2004). Pseudotumor cerebri. Current neurology and
neuroscience reports 4(2): 111-116.
Crabb DW (2001). Alcohol and Retinoids. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res.,
25(l5): 207-217.
Duester G (2008). Retinoic acid synthesis and signaling during early
organogenesis. Cell, 134(6): 921-931.
Forsmo SF, Sigurd K, Langhammer A (2008). "Childhood Cod Liver Oil
Consumption and Bone Mineral Density in a Population-based
Cohort of Peri- and Postmenopausal Women: The Nord-Trøndelag
Health Study". Am. J. Epidemiol., 167(4): 406-411.
Khabir A, Aman K, Daud K, Babar Q, Tanveer A, Clare G (2006).
Perceptions of eye health in schools in Pakistan, BMC Ophthalmol.,
6(8): 1475-1478.
Mushtaq A (1998). Vitamin A, Med. Biochem., Merit publkishers,
Multan, Pakistan, pp. 6-7.
Myhre AM, Carlsen MH, Bøhn SK, Wold HL, Laake P, Blomhoff R
(2003). Water-miscible, emulsified, and solid forms of retinol
supplements are more toxic than oil-based preparations. Am. J. Clin.
Nutr., 78(6): 1152-1159.
Nishimura Y, Ishii N, Sugita Y, Nakajima H (1998). A case of
carotenodermia caused by a diet of the dried seaweed called Nori. J.
Dermatol., 25(10): 685-687.
Penniston, Kristina L, Tanumihardjo, Sherry A (2006). The acute and
chronic toxic effects of vitamin A. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 83(2): 191-201.
Sale TA, Stratman E (2004). Carotenemia associated with green
bean ingestion. Pediatr. Dermatol., 21(6): 657-659.
Schulz C, Engel U, Kreienberg R, Biesalski HK (2007). Vitamin A and
beta-carotene supply of women with gemini or short birth intervals: a
pilot study. Eur. J. Nutr., 46(1): 12-20.
Strobel M, Tinz J, Biesalski HK (2007). The importance of beta-carotene
as a source of vitamin A with special regard to pregnant and
breastfeeding women. Eur. J. Nutr., 46(1): 11-20.
Takita Y, Ichimiya M, Hamamoto Y, Muto M (2006). A case of
carotenemia associated with ingestion of nutrient supplements". J.
Dermatol., 33(2): 132-134.
Tang G, Qin J, Dolnikowski GG, Russell RM, Grusak MA (2005).
Spinach or carrots can supply significant amounts of vitamin A as
assessed by feeding with intrinsically deuterated vegetables. Am. J.
Clin. Nutr., 82(4): 821-828.