evening meeting: trujillio

Evening meeting
To be held on 29 March 2007 at IStructE 11 Upper Belgrave Street , London SW1X 8BH at 18:00h

Bamboo structures in Colombia

Synopsis David Trujillo

Table 1: Reported mechanical properties of Guadua
Colombia has a long tradition in the structural use of bamboo
Angustifolia Kunth MSc, DIC, Civil Eng
and is the unlikely source of some of the world’s most
Associate Director, CCB
magnificent bamboo structures. This paper starts by Property N/mm2 Ref. Evolution
examining the structural properties of Guadua angustifolia
Compression parallel-to-grain fc.0,k 28 (3)
Kunth, the bamboo species that has significantly influenced
both past and present Colombian architecture. It then covers Tension parallel-to-grain ft,0,k >35 (3)
some of the developments in the emerging field of bamboo Keywords: Bamboo,
Bending fm,k 46 (3) Mechanical properties,
engineering, focusing on the structural research made in
Shear fv,k 4 (3) Colombia, Housing,
recent years including the development of possibly the first Seismic design,
bamboo design code. Compression perpendicular-to-grain fc,90,k – – Connections

What is bamboo? Tension perpendicular-to-grain ft,90,k ≈ 0.2 (4) © David Trujillo

Bamboos belong to the Gramineae family, which essentially
means that they are grasses, not trees. More than 1100 species
have been identified round the world; surprisingly about half
of these (451 species) are native to the Americas, ranging from
southern USA to the southern tip of Chile1. Interestingly
bamboos are endemic to all continents in the world with the
exception of Europe.
Bamboos are divided into two large groups, herbaceous
bamboos and woody bamboos. The latter group is the one with
greatest industrial applicability. Colombia has 72 species of
woody bamboos1. One species has been of such significance to
the population that it has been honoured with songs and names
of towns. Its botanical name is Guadua angustifolia Kunth.
Guadua bamboo, or ‘guadua’ as it is commonly called, is native
to Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela, but due to its outstand-
ing structural qualities it has been introduced to several Latin
American countries including Costa Rica, México, Puerto Rico
and Brazil. For the purposes of this paper the characteristics
and properties of the species Guadua angustifolia Kunth will
be generalised and referred to as simply bamboo.
When designing bamboo structures a good knowledge of
timber engineering is essential. This is not to say that the differ-
ences between timber and bamboo should be overlooked in
design. Understanding the anatomy of bamboo is a good start-
ing point for understanding the material and its differences
with respect to wood.
Bamboos have hollow cylindrical stems called culms. The
culms are segmented into nodes and internodes (fig 1). The
walls of the culm are made up of fibres and vascular bundles
embedded in a meaty matrix called parenchyma. The vascular
bundles contain the phloem, xylem and fibres that would be
found as separate structures in timber. Within the internodes
the vascular bundles run parallel to the axis of the culm and at
Modulus of Elasticity – Compression Ec,0,mean 15000 The Discussion that
follows the presentation
Modulus of Elasticity – Bending Em,mean 11800 (3) of this paper will be
published online
Notes: Characteristic values taken as the 5th percentile of the test
results.
These values should not be read as definite design values.
Other researchers have reported much higher tension parallel-to-
grain results for guadua – e.g. ref 4 reported ft,0,mean = 255N/mm2.
Bending tests are complex and results for modulus of rigidity and
elasticity are quite variable
the nodes they intersect, some of them crossing into the
diaphragm. These tough tubes provide most of the mechanical
strength and are denser and smaller towards the outside of the
culm, making this part stronger. In contrast in timber the
strongest wood is found towards the centre, in the heartwood.
Bamboo has no bark either. It relies on a hard and shinny
cortex to protect it. Unlike timber it has no cambium. Cambium
is a thin layer of cells in trees that continuously divides through-
out its life making it broader over time. Therefore, bamboo does
not become broader over the years, a culm is born of the diam-
eter it will have throughout its life. Overtime it will only
‘mature’.
Bamboo’s growth is incredibly fast, up to 25m over 6 months,
although it will take 3 to 5 years to ‘mature’. Unlike timber,
where each tree is an independent organism, bamboo develops
as an underground network of roots that ‘branch-off’ to produce
stems and roots. Each stem can be harvested separately
without necessarily affecting the health of the whole clump.
Quick growth is one of the most appealing qualities of
bamboo. This unique characteristic makes it one of the most
rapidly renewable construction materials available2 as well as
a fairly inexpensive material. Bamboo has other environmen-
tal benefits to be considered, it potentially can act as a carbon
sink1; its root network can help in soil retention and hydrolog-
ical cycle regulation; and if grown in its original habitat, can
serve to protect native flora and fauna.

Mechanical properties
Bamboo’s mechanical properties are very appealing too, but
further understanding of these is still needed. Codes of practice
have been developed to determine some of its mechanical prop-
erties, but strength-grading procedures have not been intro-
duced. Table 1 lists some mechanical properties obtained for
Guadua angustifolia Kunth3, 4.
Compression and tension strength parallel-to-grain are quite
high. This relates to its strong parallel fibres. Compression Fig 1. Schematic
strength of the whole round culm is enhanced by the efficient representation of a
‘design’ of the culm: a hollow circular column with its strongest bamboo culm

20 March 2007 – The Structural Engineer|25

 evening meeting: trujillo
Fig 2. Schematic
representation of a
tension
perpendicular-to-
grain failure induced
by perpendicular-to-
axis forces
fibres placed on the outer edge with stiff nodes placed at regular
intervals within the void that will brace against certain buck-
ling modes. Shear strength is relatively low, and becomes quite
critical due to the relatively thin walls of the culm and the
action of the all too frequent cracking of culms, that greatly
reduces the shear strength of a section. The only favourable
factor is the nodes that act as ‘stirrups’ stopping the progression
of any cracking or splitting.
Compression perpendicular-to-grain has been left blank in
the Table 1 because these values are for whole round culms and
testing these elements perpendicular to the grain induces
tension perpendicular-to-grain failures as shown in fig 2.
Crushing failure is common and requires consideration during
design, especially for beams. Tension strength perpendicular-to-
grain is very low and an important factor to consider in connec-
tion design.
Another important property is its low modulus of elasticity,
which makes structures relatively flexible. This is certainly one
of the reasons why simple bamboo-frame buildings have faired
well in earthquakes combined with its high strength-to-weight
ratio. Of course its lightweight and flexibility are a problem
when considering vibrations in floor design.
As with all materials its strengths come with shortcomings.
Round hollow elements are difficult to connect. As with most
natural products standardisation is a problem unless further
transformation is introduced. The fact that it is hollow makes
it weaker in shear than, say, a rectangular section. As most of
its fibres run parallel to the axis, it is also weak in tension
perpendicular-to-grain and will split easily.
Bamboo burns, as does timber, but, unlike timber, because it
is hollow it could quickly lose its residual strength during a fire.
However, it is likely that due to its greater density than soft-
wood, its charring rate might be slower. Unfortunately there is
surprisingly little research in this field.
Its greatest weakness is its durability. Its poor durability
would seem like nature’s offset for its rapid growth. This
problem can be overcome in a similar fashion to the less durable
timbers, using careful detailing i.e. durability by design,
combined with preservative treatments. Proof of this is that in
the coffee-growing region of Colombia bamboo and timber
frame houses have stood for over 100 years requiring only occa-
sional maintenance of the more exposed elements.
History of use of Guadua bamboo in Colombia
When Spanish conquistadores arrived in the territory that
today is Colombia they were impressed with the shear size and
Fig 3. Watercolour
from 1853 showing a
stayed-bridge over
Ingará river, Colombia
26|The Structural Engineer – 20 March 2007
abundance of bamboo, which they called canes5. Archaeological
investigations have also shown that bamboo was used by
natives in pre-Columbian times6. Housing was obviously one of
its traditional uses. More surprisingly stayed-bridges were also
built from bamboo, which due to their level of exposure required
permanent maintenance or reconstruction7, fig 3. This type of
traditional bamboo bridge has all but disappeared.
The most extensive and significant structural use of bamboo
in Colombia was during the establishment of the coffee-growing
region in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This is a very
seismically active region in the heart of Colombia. This forced
the colonisers to move away from the more traditional rammed
earth techniques (‘tapia pisada’) to wattle-and-daub combined
with timber and bamboo frame structures (‘bahareque’)8, fig 4.
Bamboo was more resilient to deforestation than timber and
soon became the standard construction material. As the 20th
century progressed and the riches from coffee grew, bamboo
housing was gradually replaced by the more prestigious and
low-maintenance concrete and masonry housing.
Present use of bamboo
Despite its depreciated perception, interest in guadua bamboo
remained strong, mainly amongst architects. Several books
Fig 4. Traditional bahareque house from the coffee-growing
region of Colombia. Typically bamboo is concealed within
the walls and roofs. Only timber elements are exposed
were published on the subject promoting its versatility, its possi-
ble applications in housing for the poor, reminding Colombians
of its heritage value8 or simply exulting its beauty and grace1.
Mainly the very poor continued using it in their shantytowns,
reinforcing its perception as a marginal material. However,
towards the end of the 20th century two factors would place
guadua bamboo in the limelight.
Firstly, the 1999 coffee-growing region earthquake would
be a stark reminder of the reason why ’bahareque’ had been
chosen as a structural frame a century ago. During the
Quindío or coffee-growing region earthquake all too often
masonry and reinforced concrete buildings collapsed, killing
thousands and leaving tens of thousands homeless9. On the
other hand few bamboo-and-timber frame houses were
damaged, and most damage could be associated with rotten
rafters or poor foundations9.
The good performance of bamboo structures inspired
several NGOs and international development agencies to
donate new bamboo housing after the earthquake, fig 5.
However, there was some debate on what constituted best
practice when designing and building a modern bamboo
house, as this material had never been incorporated into
the Colombian seismic design and building codes. As a
result, in 1999 the Colombian Earthquake Engineering
Association (AIS)10 commenced a research programme
aiming at the introduction of a chapter in the design code
that covered bamboo housing. Financed by the Fund for the
Reconstruction of the Coffee-growing region (FOREC), the
team from AIS tested a series of wall panels in racking, some
typical connections and a full-scale model was subject to a
quasi-static lateral forces test10. As ‘bahareque’ had a
successful track record its research focused on a modernised
 evening meeting: trujillo

a b concealed behind ceiling boards. Porous tiles and poor detail-

version of traditional ‘bahareque’ which used cement mortar
render instead of the more traditional horse-dung. In 2002
the outcome of this project was unveiled, possibly the World’s
first design code to incorporate bamboo as a construction
material and its accompanying handbook – The seismic-
resistant mortar-rendered bahareque construction hand-
book11. Limited time and resources mean that the code is
quite prescriptive, but nonetheless a useful bamboo engi-
neering tool.
The second and possibly most important factor why
bamboo has grown in popularity was the birth of a new
architectural movement led by Colombian architect Simón
Vélez1. His work is known worldwide for the elegance and
audacity with which he has employed the giant grass. In his
designs bamboo is celebrated as the centrepiece, no longer
confined to be the shameful ‘poor man’s timber’. His vision
is admired by an ever more environmentally conscious public
and encouraged by his wealthy clientele.
Possibly his most famous structure is the ZERI (Zero
Emissions Research Initiative) pavilion at Expo2000 in
Hannover, fig 6. Nonetheless, some of his grandest structures
are located in Colombia and they include the Peñalisa Golf
Club, the city of Pereira’s temporary cathedral (fig 7) and The
Jenny Garzón footbridge in Bogotá1.
ing and maintenance meant that durability used to be a
problem, but with modern detailing and tiling materials this
should be overcome. For longer spans and greater roof
weights deflection and bearing crushing could prove to be a
problem.
• Floor joists: Its low density and modulus of elasticity make
bamboo a poor joist. Deflections and vibrations are a common
problem. The latter can be addressed by using heavier floor
finishes, but can cause other problems like bearing crushing
and even greater deflections. Bearing crushing sometimes is
resolved by filling the nodes with cement grout. Some
authors show two or three culms placed one above the other,
seemingly suggesting some form of composite action.
However, no clear guidance has been shown on how to intro-
duce shear links between culms. Interestingly, bamboo joists
were not common in traditional houses.
Fig 5a. (left) One of • Beams: Some newer designs use bamboo elements subject
the ‘Bambusa’ to greater bending moments and shear forces than tradi-
development houses tionally would have been expected. Some builders have over-
donated to tenants come this by bundling bamboo culms into a large beam.
who had lost their Caution is recommended in beam design as shear and crush-
housing during the ing failures are commonplace.
1999 coffee-growing
region earthquake. Seismic design basics
Here showing the An all too common misconception is that bamboo is a ‘natu-
whole round culms rally’ seismic resistant material. Abuse of the fairly good
used as studs and results of both traditional and modern bamboo housing has
bracing, and split led to the erroneous idea that extrapolation of these results
bamboo used as is ‘safe’, regardless of the size and complexity of a structure.
sheathing Though the material has some qualities that means it can
Fig 5b. (right) A be used in seismic design, ultimately safety is a product of
terrace of ‘Bambusa’ design and construction, not of material choice. The follow-
houses nearing ing are some facts about bamboo that should aid in seismic
completion, fully design:
rendered • Bamboo has a high strength-to-weight ratio. This means that
a bamboo structure should be relatively light; hence seismic

Guidelines for structural use of bamboo

Should a structural engineer be commissioned to use whole
round bamboo culms the following guideline drawn from the
author’s own direct and indirect experience might serve as a
starting point.

Structural uses of bamboo

• Walls: bamboo’s good compressive strength makes it an
excellent stud and in combination with a protective lining
encasement will overcome its durability and fire weak-
nesses. For ease of use and better results horizontal compo-
nents, if employed, such as soleplates, headbinders, top and
bottom rails should be made out of sawn timber.
• Space frames: though space frames do not constitute
part of traditional use, it is increasingly appealing as it
exploits bamboo’s high compressive and tensile strengths
and low density. The downside is that it will require special
connections that can be expensive. Though space frames
would expose the elements to fire, this might not be so impor-
tant when considering a roof space.
• Columns: traditional constructions seldom used bamboo Fig 6. View of the ZERI
columns indoors and very rarely outdoors. If for aesthetic pavilion roof
reasons columns are left exposed, it should be done indoors structure. Two
and some consideration should be given to its poor fire resist- pavilions were built.
ance. The first was built in
• Trussed rafters: For the same reasons that bamboo Colombia so that
works well in a space frame it should do so in a trussed German authorities
rafter; however large deflections and special connections could test it. The
mean that typical timber trussed rafter profiles might not be pavilion built in
applicable. Germany was
• Rafters: Due to its low weight and the inconspicuous loca- demolished after
tion, bamboo was also traditionally used as a rafter expo2000

20 March 2007 – The Structural Engineer|27

 evening meeting: trujillo
a b
inertial forces will be relatively small too.
• Its relatively low modulus of elasticity implies that it can be
used to make relatively flexible structures. Flexible struc-
tures have longer natural periods. This in general means a
reduced response to ground accelerations. However, flexibil-
ity has its drawbacks too, as serviceability failures and
secondary effects (i.e. P-delta) may be more significant due
to the increased drift. It is important to differentiate here that
flexibility does not equate to ductility.
• As with timber, bamboo is not a ductile material i.e. most of
its failure modes are brittle. This is a serious downside for
seismic design that might be overcome by designing ductile
connections.
• Some traditional forms of construction using bamboo have
performed well in earthquakes, mainly due to the fact that
bamboo has been combined well with other structural compo-
nents such as nails, timber and render to create a dissipative
system not dissimilar to platform timber frame. Energy dissi-
pation has been shown to occur through cracking of render
and nail yielding10. Some dissipation might occur also
through friction in some connections. Additionally, the
natural period of these buildings is likely to increase as the
render cracks and spalls.
Connection design
Guidance on ways to achieve safe and reliable connections
is still scarce, despite the growing amount of interest, docu-
mentation and research into structural use of bamboo. This
is still the weak link in bamboo design. Until this is resolved
bamboo engineering will still be in its infancy. In an attempt
to clarify some of the confusion about bamboo connections
some definitions are presented below.
Mechanical fastener – is an element the main purpose of
which is to transmit forces into the body of a bamboo culm
through mechanical means. Typical mechanical fasteners
are nails, screws, bolts, dowels and pegs, however lashings
made from string or wire are not uncommon.
Clavijo and Trujillo12 investigated the strength of differ-
ent fasteners subject to parallel-to-the-grain double shear
forces, fig 8, Table 212. Unfortunately perpendicular-to-the-
grain shear forces were not tested, nor was the ductility of
the failure measured, limiting the applicability of the
results. Some of the more interesting conclusions of this
work were:
• Dowel type fasteners (nails, screws, bolts) should be fixed
using predrilled holes as splitting is commonplace.
• Smaller fasteners are preferable to larger ones, as the
28|The Structural Engineer – 20 March 2007
Table 2: Reported ultimate strength values for dowel type
fasteners loaded parallel-to-grain
Fastener type kN Observed failure modes
Splitting or local crushing followed
Predrilled nails 2.5
by splitting
Splitting or local crushing followed
Bolt φ = 6.4mm (¼”) 5
by splitting
Splitting, shear or local crushing
Bolt φ = 9.5mm (3/8”) 6
followed by splitting or shear
Shear failure or local crushing followed by
Bolt φ = 12.7mm (½”) 7
shear failure
latter will induce shear failures, which are very brittle.
• Fasteners that are close to the loaded edge will induce
shear failures, if a node is placed between the fastener and
the loaded edge; the risk of shear failure is reduced.
• Dowel type fasteners such as nails, screws and bolts
induce three types of failure modes: shear, splitting and
local crushing. Shear and splitting failures are brittle.
Local crushing displayed some ductility, but if the test
continued a shear or splitting failure would eventually be
induced.
Carpentry or traditional joints – are abutments or
assemblies between two or more culms and in general rely
Fig 7a. Inside view of on mechanical fasteners to transmit forces between one
Pereira’s temporary element and another. Two typical carpentry joints are the
cathedral, its shape ‘fish mouth’ and the ‘flute tip’, fig 9. Carpentry joints in
evoking a bamboo bamboo are well liked for their handsome appearance and
grove. This structure favoured by many architects, but they are also extremely
was demolished once labour intensive and, as such, are very susceptible to the
the maintenance and quality of workmanship. This inherent variability implies
reinforcement works their strength and stiffness is neither predictable nor reli-
to Pereira’s ‘Nuestra able. In traditional construction carpentry joints were
Señora de la Pobreza’ combined with simple fasteners such as pegs and lashings
cathedral were that were effective enough although not very strong.
finished
Fig 7b. View of a
bamboo grove a
b
Fig 8. Dowel type
fastener parallel-to-
grain failures:
a) Shear mode
b) Splitting mode
Connections – are the complete joint detail required to trans-
mit all design forces including fasteners, carpentry joints if
present, and any other structural components that might be
required e.g. grouting or gusset plates. The full connection
design is a quite complex and poorly understood process.
The desire to produce strong, reliable and simple connec-
tions has inspired many. One very significant breakthrough
was the idea of filling the internode with cement grout to
attain stronger and stiffer connections. This technique
increases the strength of connections subject to tension
several-fold4 and is the backbone to Mr Vélez’s designs with
their characteristic overhangs. Grout-filling can also be used
to prevent internode crushing in compression perpendicular-
to-grain and reduce tension perpendicular-to-grain failure.
Due to its good results, simplicity and compatibility with
carpentry joints, the grout-filled-internode technique is now
quite widespread in Colombia. Table 3 illustrates the contri-
bution in strength that this technique provides.

Table 3: Reported ultimate strength values for some bamboo connections
Components Strength (kN)
Connection Geometry: Transverse dowel, symmetric in-plane connection, force is applied in line with the culm’s
axis.
Fastener: 12.7mm dia. through bolt.
1 10– 13
Other: Node to the loaded edge
12.7mm dia. through bolt.
2 Other: Node to the loaded edge, 35
grouted internode
Fasteners: 12.7mm dia. through bolt
and 7-8 6.35mm rebar pins helically
3 fitted. 60
Other: Node to the loaded edge,
grouted internode
Connection geometry: Transverse dowel, asymmetric in plane connection, force is applied in line with the culm’s axis.
Fastener: 12.7mm dia. through bolt.
4 Other: Node to the loaded edge, 7 - 10
grouted internode
Connection geometry: Coaxial dowel, tension force onto dowel
Fastener: 12.7mm dia. coaxial bolt
with nut and washer.
5 2
Other: No node to the loaded edge,
grouted internode
Fastener: 12.7mm dia. coaxial bolt
with nut and washer.
6 10
Other: No node to the loaded edge,
grouted internode
Note: These values should not be read as design values. There is no code for bamboo connection
testing; therefore procedures used by different researchers may vary.
Dotted lines represent a typical failure mode
Fig 9. Examples of
carpentry joints. To
the left a side
elevation of a ‘fish
mouth’ joint, to the
right a side elevation
of a ‘flute tip’ joint
Fig 10. (right)
Examples of parallel
plane connection
Diagram Failure mode Ref.
Refer to table 2 (13)
Local crushing and
(4)
diaphragm rupture
Local crushing followed
by bolt bending and (12)
grout tensile failure
Local crushing of
bamboo and mortar
(13)
accompanied by dowel
rotation
Mortar debonding from
(13)
bamboo
Diaphragm shear failure (13)
evening meeting: trujillo
The following points of caution are recommended when using
cement grout filling:
• Firstly, the whole internode must be full of grout; hence suffi-
ciently fluid grout should be specified.
• Secondly, only dry bamboo should be used for this technique.
Bamboo’s tangential shrinkage is significant and cracking
will onset if the set grout hinders this process.
Connection geometry is another point to consider. If two
culms are within the same plane carpentry joints provide
an elegant but laborious solution, fig 9. Gusset-plates are
an obvious but uncommon option. Alternatively, culms can
be placed in parallel planes and connected through a trans-
verse dowel, fig 10. However, this type of arrangement is
bulky and might result in larger deflections. Eccentric
arrangements are likely to be detrimental, Table 3. Space
frames overcome this by resolving the change of direction
within the connecting hub.
The future of bamboo
Following the introduction of the ‘bahareque’ code in 2002,
80 bamboo houses were donated to tenants who had lost
their housing during the 1999 coffee-growing region earth-
quake by the US-AID (United States Agency for
International Development)2, fig 5. This was the first
housing project to be designed to the new chapter of the
code. The ‘Bambusa’ housing development was part of a
major development composed of mainly masonry housing
known as ‘Nueva Ciudad Milagro’. The budget for the
substructure and superstructure of each house was approx-
imately US$2200 of the day, regardless of the chosen struc-
tural material. This provided a fairly level playing field in
which to compare building costs. Interestingly bamboo
houses were cheaper to build – the finished bamboo houses
had a 35m2 gross floor plan, whilst their masonry counter-
parts had a 25m2 gross floor plan. Environmental costs
were lower too. A life-cycle assessment of the ‘Bambusa’
houses also demonstrated that their structural elements
have about half the environmental impact of a hypotheti-
cal, identically sized, reinforced masonry house2.
These environmental and economic credentials might
extend to industrialised applications such as laminated
products. Analogous to glue-laminated timber (glulam) or
laminated veneer lumber (LVL), laminated bamboo could
have an infinity of applications. Currently laminated
bamboo is already being used in the UK as flooring, but
potentially could be used to produce joists and panel prod-
ucts similar to those made from timber, and thus benefit-
ing from the technological developments of the timber
industry.
If current trends prove to be correct, the 21st century will
be marked by increased urbanisation in developing coun-
tries. One consequence of this will be that natural disasters
such as earthquakes will have a higher toll on the poorly
built densely populated cities. For this reason, the case for
housing and low-rise buildings that are robust, safe and
built out of a cheap and sustainable material seems
20 March 2007 – The Structural Engineer|29
 evening meeting: trujillo

compelling; and bamboo engineering will need to be ready

for the challenge. David Trujillo graduated in civil engineering at
Universidad Nacional de Colombia and for 4 years
continuously worked in the coffee-growing region of
Acknowledgments Colombia with bamboo structures as a designer,
Acknowledgment is given to publishers Villegas Editores researcher and lecturer. In 2003 he moved to the UK
for authorising the reproduction of figs 3, 4, 6 and 7 taken and undertook an MSc in earthquake engineering at
Imperial College. He is currently an Associate
from its book New Bamboo Architecture and Design1. Director at CCB Evolution.

REFERENCES

1. Villegas, M.: New Bamboo Architecture and Design. Bogotá, Colombia, Villegas Editores, 2003
2. Murphy, R. J., Trujillo, D. and Londoño, X.: ‘Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a Guadua House’, Simposio Internacional Guadua 2004, Pereira, Colombia, 27 Sept
– 2 Oct, 2004, p235-244
3. López, L. F. and Trujillo, D.: ‘Diseño de Uniones y Elementos en Estructuras de Guadua’ (Connection and Element Design in Guadua Structures), Seminario-
Taller Avances de la Investigación sobre Guadua, Pereira, Colombia, 16 – 18 mayo, 2002
4. Pacheco Puentes, C. A.: ‘Resistencia a la tracción perpendicular a la fibra de la Guadua Angustifolia’ (Perpendicular-to-grain strength of Guadua angustifolia),
Undergraduate Dissertation, Bogotá, Colombia, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2006
5. Castellanos, J. de, Obras (Works), Bogotá, Colombia, Editorial ABC, Vol. 4, 1955
6. Salgado, H., Rodriguez, C. A., and V. A. Vashilov: 1993. La vivienda Prehispanica Calima (The Calima pre-Hispanic housing). Instituto Vallecaucano de
Investigaciones Científicas (INCIVA), Imprenta Departamental del Valle del Cauca, Cali, Colombia
7. Azuola Guerra, R.: ‘La Guadua’, Anales de Ingeniería, Sociedad Colombiana de Ingenieros, 1/3, October, 1887
8. Robledo, J. E.: La ciudad en la colonización antioqueña: Manizales (The city within the Antioquian colonisation: Manizales), Manizales, Colombia, Editorial
Universidad Nacional, 1996
9. Macdonald, J.: ‘The Quindío, Colombia Earthquake of 25 January 1999’, SECED Newsl., 13/2, May 1999 p 1-3
10. Lopez, L. F. and Silva, M. F.: ‘Comportamiento Sismo-resistente de estructuras en bahareque’ (Seismic resistant behaviour of bahareque structures), Undergraduate
Dissertation, Manizales, Colombia, Facultad de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2000
11. Farbiarz, J., Mogollón, J. and Prieto, S. D.: Manual de Construcción Sismo Resistente de Viviendas en Bahareque Encementado (The seismic-resistant mortar-
rendered bahareque construction handbook), Asociación Colombiana de Ingenieros – AIS and Fundación Corona, Bogotá, 2001
12. Clavijo, S. y., Trujillo, D.: ‘Evaluación de uniones a tracción en guadua’ (Study into tension connections in guadua). Undergraduate Dissertation, Bogotá, Colombia,
Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2000
13. Farbiarz, J.: ‘Estudio sobre el Comportamiento de Conexiones con Guadua’ (Study about guadua connection behaviour), Boletín técnico, Asociación Colombiana
de Ingeniería Sísmica, 56, May, 2001

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30|The Structural Engineer – 20 March 2007