Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Oncology
Branch of medicine that deals with the study, detection, treatment and management of neoplasia
What Is Cancer?
Complex of diseases which occurs when normal cells mutate into abnormal cells which take over normal tissue
eventually harming and destroying the host
International Incidence
Still the 2nd leading cause of death
Nearly 1 in 6 deaths is caused by cancer
Nearly 70% of cancer deaths occur in low to middle income countries
Late stage presentation
Inaccessible diagnosis and treatment
25% are caused by cancer-causing infections (HPV, Hepatitis)
Tobacco use: most important risk factor (22%)
Five Leading Cancer Risk Factors
High body mass index
Low fruit and vegetable intake
Lack of physical activity
Tobacco use
Alcohol use
Five Common Causes of Cancer Death
Lung (1.69 M)
Liver (788,000)
Colorectal (774,000)
Stomach (754,000)
Breast (571,000)
Philippine Incidence
Cancer is the third leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Philippines.
Breast, lung, colorectal, liver, and cervical cancers are the most commonly diagnosed types of cancer, and are
the leading causes of cancer-related mortality.
Prevalence
Cancer is a disease associated with aging
In children: leukemia
Top three causes of mortality:
o Women: breast, cervix, lung
o Men: lung, prostate, liver
Risk Factors
Heredity – 5-10% of cancers
o Breast and colon --- well documented
o Lung, ovarian and prostate
Age – 70% of cancer occur in clients above 65 years old
o 5 cycles of mutation is necessary to cause permanent damage to cells
o Immune response alters with aging
o Accumulation of free radicals over time
o Hormonal changes associated with aging
o Cumulative stressors
Gender
o Thyroid cancer --- females
o Bladder cancer --- males
Poverty
o Inadequate access to health care
o Diet and stress
Stress
o Elevated cortisol and epinephrine results in systemic fatigue and impaired immunologic surveillance
o Type C people --- those who tend to others needs to the exclusion of their own
o Depression – shuts down energizing chemicals
Diet
o Genotoxic – nitrosamines, nitrosindoles found in salted, pickled and preserved foods (esophageal and
gastric cancer)
o High fat, low fiber --- colon, breast and sex-hormone dependent tumors
Cancer Screening
Cytologic Examination
o Exfoliation from an epithelial surface
Pap’s smear, bronchial washings
o Aspiration of fluid from body cavities or blood
WBC, pleural fluid, cerebrospinal fluid
o Needle aspiration of solid tumors
Breast, lung, prostate, liver
Papanicolaou “Pap” Smear
o Developed by George N. Papanicolaou in 1943
o Materials that can be examined are:
Cervical scrapings
Bronchial secretions and washings
Urine sediment
Coughed up sputum
Aspirated gastric secretions
Mammary gland discharge fluid
Pap’s Smearing
o A screening technique called the Pap test (or Pap smear) allows early detection of cancer of the cervix, the
narrow portion of the uterus that extends down into the upper part of the vagina. In this procedure, a
doctor uses a small brush or wooden scraper to remove a sample of cells from the cervix and upper vagina.
The cells are placed on a slide and sent to a laboratory, where a microscope is used to check for
abnormalities. Since the 1930s, early detection using the Pap test has helped lower the death rate from
cervical cancer more than 75 percent.
o Should abnormalities be found, an additional test may be necessary. There are now 13 high-risk types of
human papillomaviruses (HPV) recognized as the major causes of cervical cancer. The U.S. Food and Drug
Administration has approved an HPV test that can identify their presence in a tissue sample. This test can
detect the viruses even before there are any conclusive visible changes to the cervical cells.
Pap’s Smear Grading
Class I – Normal
Class II – Inflammation
Class III – Mild to moderate dysplasia
Class IV – Probably malignant
Class V – Malignant
NELLY JR. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN Page 7 of 10
o The examiner will repeat the Pap smear if the result is Class III
o If the cells are Class IV, biopsy will be done
X-ray Imaging
Least expensive and least invasive
Limited use because they do not easily distinguish among calcifications, benign cystic growths and true
malignancies
The method of choice for lung cancer but does not reveal tumors until they have reached about 1cm in size
Contraindicated for pregnant women
Nursing Considerations:
o Remove metallic accessories, buckles in belts, wired undergarments
Computerized Axial Tomography
An X-ray technique that produces sequential cross-sectional body images at progressive depths
Helps to differentiate malignant and nonmalignant masses and accurately identify their size and location
Occasionally, an oral or intravenous contrast agent is administered to increase the sensitivity of the CT scan
Nursing Considerations (if contrast medium is used)
o Check for allergies
o WOF anaphylactic/allergic reactions
o Advise client that there will be a warm sensation and metallic taste upon introduction of the dye
NELLY JR. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN Page 8 of 10
o Contraindicated for pregnant clients
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Identifies abnormalities without the use of contrast dyes or radiation
MRI provides clear images of internal structures in response to the magnetic field created by harmless low
energy radio waves
Nursing Considerations:
o Explain that the client will be placed in side an enclosed machine and that there will be thumping
sounds that may be frightening to the client
o Contraindicated in pregnant women due to an increase in the temperature of amniotic fluid
Ultrasound Procedures
High frequency ultrasound can be used to demonstrate the interfaces around organs and within pathologic
masses
Noninvasive way to demonstrate and follow the growth of neoplasms without radiation exposure
Used to diagnose prostate cancer , and to guide needle biopsy
Nuclear Imaging
Involves the use of a special scintillation scanner in conjunction with the ingestion or injection of specific
radioactive isotopes
The principle underlying the technology is that certain isotopes have an affinity for specific tissues
Malignancies in these tissues sequester an abnormally large amount of the isotope, which can be traced and
measured by the scintillation scanner
Nursing Considerations:
o Anti-anxiety medication
o Antiemetics
o NPO or clear fluids post midnight
o Contraindicated in pregnant women
o For I131 use a straw to administer the liquid orally to lessen the exposure of the oral mucosa to the
radioactive isotope
Mammography
Mammography is a screening tool that can detect the possible presence of an abnormal tissue mass.
By itself, it is not accurate enough to provide definitive proof of either the presence or the absence of breast
cancer.
If a mammogram indicates the presence of an abnormality, further tests must be done to determine whether
breast cancer actually is present.
Nursing Considerations:
o Inform the client that there will be some discomfort during the procedure
o Instruct the client to refrain from application of talc, lotion, deodorant on the breasts and armpits prior
to the procedure
Angiography
Involves injecting a radiopaque dye into a major blood vessel proximal to the organ or tissue to be examined
Performed when the precise location of the tumor cannot be identified or there is a need to visualize the
tumor’s extent prior to surgery
Nursing Considerations
o Requires preparation similar to that for minor surgery ---clear fluids, skin prep, administration of
sedatives
o Instruct client that injection of dye may cause a hot, flushing sensation or nausea or vomiting; check for
allergies to the dye
Biopsy
A surgical excision of a small piece of tissue for microscopic examination
o Excisional biopsy
Excision of the entire tumor for examination
o Incisional biopsy
Excision of a part of the tumor for examination
o Needle or aspiration biopsy
Aspiration of a core of tissue from a suspicious nodule or mass rather than excising it
Direct Visualization
Invasive but do not require the use of radiography
Allow visual identification of the organs and usually permit biopsy of suspicious lesions or masses
o Sigmoidoscopy – viewing the sigmoid colon with a fiberoptic flexible sigmoidoscope
o Cystoscopy – viewing the urethra and bladder
o Endoscopy – viewing the UGIT
o Bronchoscopy – inspecting the tracheobronchial tree
Obtain informed consent
Place specimen (if biopsy is done) in a properly labeled container that is sealed tightly
NELLY JR. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN Page 9 of 10
Keep emergency equipment available in case of respiratory complications
Pre-procedure for UGI endoscopy:
o Bowel preparation: NPO for 8 hours
o Explanation of the procedure: client will feel a fullness in the throat or sense of gagging during the test;
client will be unable to speak as the endoscope enters the esophagus
o Position: left Sim’s or left lateral position
Pre-procedure for LGI endoscopy:
o Bowel prep but may have light breakfast
o Explanation of the procedure: client will feel discomfort and the urge to defecate as the instruments are
inserted; the client will feel gas pains because the physician uses air to distend the bowel for better
visualization
o Position: knee-chest position face down or left Sim’s position
o Drape the client
Post-procedure:
o NPO until the gag reflex returns (for UGI)
o Cool fluids and normal saline gargles to relieve hoarseness and sore throat
o Watch out for bleeding, fever, abdominal pain, blood in the stool, difficulty with swallowing and
dyspnea
Tumor Staging and Grading
Staging determines size of tumor and existence of metastasis
Grading classifies tumor cells by type of tissue
The TNM system is based on the extent of the tumor (T), the extent of spread to the lymph nodes (N), and the
presence of metastasis (M).
TNM Staging
Primary Tumor (T)
T0 No evidence of primary tumor
Tis Carcinoma in situ (early cancer that has not spread to neighboring tissue)
T1, T2, T3, T4 Size and/or extent of the primary tumor
Regional Lymph Nodes (N)
N0 No regional lymph node involvement (no cancer found in the lymph nodes)
N1, N2, N3 Involvement of regional lymph nodes (number and/or extent of spread)
Distant Metastasis (M)
M0 No distant metastasis (cancer has not spread to other parts of the body)
M1 Distant metastasis (cancer has spread to distant parts of the body)
Tumor Grading
Refers to the classification of the tumor cells.
Seeks to define the type of tissue from which the tumor originated and the degree to which the tumor cells
retain the functional and histologic characteristics of the tissue of origin.
Done through Cytology, Biopsy, Surgical Excision.
Cancer Prevention
Avoid Tobacco
Protection from Excessive Sunlight
Limit Alcohol and Tobacco
Limit Fat in the Diet
Consume Fruits and Vegetables
Avoid Cancer Viruses
Avoid Carcinogens at Work
Avoid Industrial Pollution