CHAPTER 1 .

EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

1.1 The concepts of sociology

What is Sociology?

 sociology may be generally defined as a social science that studies such kinds of social
phenomena as:
 The structure and function of society as a system;

 The nature, complexity and contents of human social behavior;

 Indigenous knowledge of the society;

 Interaction of human beings with their external environment and how the social world
affects us

 The processes and patterns of human interaction and indispensability of social

interactions for human development

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 Sociology to some extent has following
characteristics of science
 It is empirical; that is, it is based on reasoning and observation to
study human behavior.

 It is theoretical; that is, it attempts to summarize complex

observation in abstract, logically related propositions which purport
to explain causal relationships in the society.

 It is cumulative; that is, sociological theories build upon one

another, new theories, correcting, extending and refining the older
ones.

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 1.2 The Significance of Learning Sociology
(Q. What sociology offers? )

 provides us with what sociologists call the sociological

imagination.

 provides an understanding of social issues and patterns of

behavior

 helps us understand why and how society changes.

 Learning sociology helps to cast aside our own biased

assumptions, stereotypes and ethno-centric thinking and

practices to become more critical, broad- minded and
3 respectful in our interpersonal and inter- group relationships.
 1.3. Methods of sociological research
•Research is a careful, systematic, and patient study/investigation in a
field of knowledge
to study society/human phenomena/behavior.
Purpose of research
 Gather new information and knowledge
 Expand and verify existing knowledge
 Describe and understand existing status, relationships among society
Basic steps in scientific research methods
 Defining the problems
 Reviewing the literature
 Formulating the testable hypothesis
 Selecting the research design and then collecting and analyzing data
 Developing the conclusion
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III. Formulating the Testable Hypothesis
 A research hypothesis states the expected r/ship or difference b/n variables as opposed
that specify absence of r/ship or difference in a population of study.
Advantage of a Hypothesis
 Keeps the researcher focused on possible outcomes of the study
 Allows the researcher to make predictions based on theoretical argument and evidence
from literature review
 Allows the researcher whether s/he is investigating a r/ship
Iv. Research design and Collecting and Analysing data
 Research design is a detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically
 The major research design in sociological approaches includes: Survey, Observation
,Experiment, and existing sources
 Survey is the study which is conducted in a natural setting through questionnaires,
interviews, and participatory rapid approach (PRA) form to provide information about
study population.

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• Observation; It allows the researcher to study certain behavior of
humans and communities without using other research techniques
e.g, ethnography Experiment=;It allows the researcher to
examine a possible cause and effect relationship of study population
through conducting experiment.
Collecting and analysing data
 Sample is the subset of a population that one is interested in to study
 Sampling b/c: Limitations of: time, money, , materials, etc
Types of sampling method
1. Probability sampling =every unit of the population has equal
chance of being selected for the study
Types of probability sampling:
 Simple random sampling (lottery, random table)
 Systematic sampling (list sampling);1st subject randomly selected,
then every nth subject in the list
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 CONT’D………..
 Stratified sampling ;dividing population into homogenous group,
then sampling from each group (equal or proportional numbers from
each group)
 Cluster sampling ; when the population is large and widely
dispersed it is divided into clusters and sampled (all population in the
sampled cluster areas will be taken)
 Stage (multi-stage) sampling eg. Randomly selecting: Woredas
extension operational areas – farming villages households
2. Non-probability =a sampling procedure where every unit of the
population does not have
equal chance of being included for the study
Types of non-probability sampling:
 Convenience(accidental) taking subjects of study accidentally until
the sample size is achieved
 Quota sampling; equivalent of stratified sampling; representatives of
every group is included
 Purposive sampling ; that satisfy the specific needs of the study
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 CONT’D………..
• Snow ball sampling ; when the sampling frame cannot be
clearly defined and difficult to approach respondents in any other
way. first select a small group and then ask them to nominate
others, until the required number of subjects reached (eg.
Prostitution, drug users, etc)
Methods of data collection
 Data and information can be collected through:
Questionnaire
Interviews (personal or group)
Systematic observation
Document analysis (written, audio, video)
PRA (participatory rapid approach )
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Methods of analysing data
 Descriptive statistics; allows us to describe information contained in many
scores with just a few indices such as mean, median, etc
 Inferential Statistics; It is a procedure that allows a researcher to make
inferences about a population based on findings from a sample through
hypothesis testing
1.4. Definition, Scopes and Importance of Rural sociology
1.4.1 Definition of Rural sociology
 It is
_ The study of human beings and their lives in the rural situations
_ The science of rural society or rural man and his group relationships
_ The laws of social structures and development of rural society
_ An aid in discovering the social laws governing the rural society
_ It is simply enough to say that it studies and focuses on human behavior in
rural areas,
_ Rural sociologists do not study cattle, poultry, crop, agricultural
implements/tools, but they
study rural people,
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 Rationale to study rural sociology
 provides the basic concepts to understand the behavior of rural people
 to have a clear understanding of the behavior of the rural people, the
rural society, their institution, their organization and the social groups
in the rural community.
 to see the villagers from the new perspectives and deeper insights of
their reasons, motivations, purposes objectives
 For successful design and implementation of the projects/programs
 to understand the social nature, the relationship and interactions with
others, and roles play within the society.
 to improve the farming, home and village situation of the rural
people.
 Help to understand the human forces that work for and against change
in the rural area.
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 Why we study rural sociology in Ethiopia?

 Because more than 80% the people are living in the rural areas.

 Therefore developing and improving the life of this 80% the

people of the country is developing of the country as whole.

 If not, these 80% of people exploit adversely the natural

resources found in the rural areas. Consequently, the life the

people including the stability of the nation will be in danger.

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 The rural –urban continuum Debate
 The continuum theory lays emphasis on the rural-urban differences rather than on
the rural-urban dichotomy.
 The Rural-Urban Continuum Rural refers to areas with low population
density, small size, and relative isolation
 The areas considered rural are the settlements that have between 100 and 200
households (Mundi 2006).
 It also refers to remote areas or places far away from the seat of government and
having very few or no infrastructural facilities
 Rural; the countryside and the people living in the villages.

 On the other hand, urban people are those who live in towns with a population of

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2,500 and over in the U.S.A., or 3,000 and over in Nigeria (Jibowo, 1992).
 Rural Community:
 Rural community is considered as one of the primordial
organizations of mankind.
 Hence, Rural Sociology is chiefly concerned with the origin,
nature, characteristics, social attributes and human ecology of
rural community.
Rural Social Organization:
 Social organization plays the backbone of every society as well
as social life
 Rural Social organization envelops the spiritual lives, religious
activities, sacred relationship and divine notion of rebirth,
Karma phala etc

13 The rural folk which intensely affects the entire rural social life.
Rural Social Problems:
 One of the important contents of rural sociology includes the
study of problem engulfed in the rural life.
 These problems are centered on socio-economic conditions,
political, cultural ethos and value based.
 The problems generally are poverty, unemployment,
population growth, illiteracy, casteism, untouchability etc.
Rural Social Control:
 Social control is the control of society over an individual.
 In Rural Society, social control is in formal and rigid in
nature.
 In rural society, the imperative primary groups like family
and neighborhood play a vital role in social control.

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 1.6. Concepts of rural and Difference between rural
and urban
The Concept of Rurality
 According to the 1963 Nigerian Census, the official designation
of ―rural‖ is a 20,000 population.
 Rural communities should not be considered to be
homogenous units.
 There are three indicators for determining the degree of rurality
namely,
a) community size,
b) Amenities(facility) found within the community and
c) proportion of male heads of households engaged in farming as
primary occupation.

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 CONT’D………….
 In rural areas, they lack good amenities like good roads,
electricity, pipe borne water etc.
 All these things are found in abundance in the urban
areas, big towns or cities?
 Historically, Rural, referred to areas with low
population density, small size, and relative
isolation, where the major economic activity was
agricultural production,
 and where the people were relatively homogenous in
their values, attitude and behaviour (Beter et al, 1975).
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The Difference b/n Rural & Urban Settlement
 Urban and rural settlements differ in demographics, land
area and usage, population density, transportation networks
and economic dependencies
Demographics
 Urban settlements contain a heterogeneous population
consisting of different ages, cultures and ethnicities,
 whereas rural areas contain a more homogenous population
based on family, similar ethnicities and fewer cultural
influences.
Land Area and Usage
 Urban settlements are more expansive and contain a wide
range of land uses.
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 CONT’D………..
Population Density
 The U.S. Census Bureau defines urban settlements as areas
with more than 50,000 people and at least 1,000 people per
square mile; including contiguous census tracts or blocks with
at least 500 people per square mile.
 In contrast, rural settlements contain less than 2,500 people,
at a density between one and 999 people per square mile.
Transportation Network
 Rural transportation networks consist of local and county
roads with limited interconnectivity to rail and bus lines.
 Urban settlements contain highway infrastructure as well as
airports and light or heavy commuter rail.
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 CONT’D………..
Economy
 Urban areas are dependent on a global economy of import and
export,
 whereas rural economies rely on a local and agricultural-based
economy
Characteristics of Rural Settlement
 Rural settlements remain common around the world
 Each country has its own definition as to what defines a rural
settlement,
 but there are some common characteristics among them. Some of
these characteristics include illiteracy, traditionalism,
isolationism and an agricultural economy.
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 Culture is the totality of learned, socially
transmitted customs, knowledge, material
objects and behaviour
 culture is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, custom,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society (Tylor in 1871).
 A shared and negotiated system of meaning
informed by knowledge that people learn and
put into practice by interpreting experience
and generating behavior(Lassiter’s )
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Culture is
learned. (from families, peers,
institutions, and media)
shared.
integrated.
based on symbols. (e.g., a flag).
Dynamic; cultures interact and change

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Universality of Culture:
 features that are found in every culture.
 Anthropologist George Murdock (1945:124) compiled
a list of cultural universals, including athletic sports
,cooking ,medicines marriage and sexual restrictions .
 The cultural practices Murdock listed may be
universal but the manner in which they are expressed
varies from culture to culture .
Generality of Culture
 generalities include features that are common to
several, but not all, human groups.
 Certain practices, beliefs, and the like may be held
commonly by more than one culture, but not be
universal; these are called “generalities.”
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 features that are unique to certain cultural
traditions.
 is a trait or feature of culture that is not generalized
or widespread; rather it is confined to a single
place, culture, or society.
2.4. Types of Culture
 Sociologist Willian F.Ogburn (1922) made of useful
distinction between the elements of material and
non-material culture:
 Material culture ; the tangible aspects of culture,
those things that can be seen or touched.
 the physical or technological aspects of our daily
lives including food, houses, factories and raw
materials-etc

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 Non-material culture: using material objects and
customs beliefs, philosophy, governments and
patterns of communication.
 consists of the abstract aspects of culture, which
cannot be directly seen or touched; e.g. values,
folkways, ways of thinking and feeling etc.
 Custom; practices that have been repeated by a
multitude of generations, practices that tend to be
followed simply because they have been followed in
the past.
 Folkways; are socially acceptable ways of behaviour,
the customary norms of society that do not imply
moral sanctions; e.g. Good Manners
 Mores are socially acceptable ways of behaviour that
do involve moral standards, violation may result in
severe social action .
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  Norms are the customary rules and behaviours
established as standards for guiding a society.
 Statuses and Role; Status is a position in the system
of social relationships. include father, mother,
rainmaker, diviner, ETC…
 A role is a set of expectations applied to an occupant of
a status and is characterised by certain obligations
(functions or duties) and privileges (rights).
 Values are generally derived from beliefs, which are
convictions about the ways things are.
 Beliefs; These are ideas held by members of a society to
be true.
e.g. • Putting food into mouth with a knife will result in
a double
row of teeth
• Beating a male child with a broom will make him
impotent.

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  Taboo; refers to anything (food, place, activity)
which is prohibited and forbidden. For example,
some animals such as snakes, fish, and civet cats
 Ritual is any formal action, following a set pattern, which
express through symbol in public or shared.
 Tradition; refers to any human practice, belief, in-situation or
art fact which is handed down from generation to the next.
2.5. Cultural variation and Change
Why and how do cultures change?
 Diffusion to the process by which a cultural item spreads from
group to group or society to society. (forced or unforced)
 Acculturation is the exchange of cultural features that results
when groups have continuous first hand contact.
 Innovation is the process introducing a new ideas, or objects to
a culture.

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 Discovery involves of making known or
sharing the existence of an aspect of reality
 Independent invention the creative
innovation of new solutions to old and new
problems.
 Globalization encompasses a series of
processes that work to make modern
nations and people increasingly interlinked
and mutually dependent.
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2.6. Attitudes toward Cultural Variation
 Ethnocentrism is the use of values, ideals,
and mores from one’s own culture to judge
the behaviour of someone from another
culture.
 Cultural relativism asserts that cultural
values are arbitrary, and therefore the
values of one culture should not be used as
standards to evaluate the behavior of
persons from outside that culture.
 Cultural rights are vested in groups and
include a group’s ability to preserve its
cultural tradition.
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 CHAPTER 3: Social Change,
Social movements and Social mobility in rural
society
 Social change is the process by which attraction occurs in the structure and
function of a social system
 Social system, in this definition, may be a group, a community, a city, a
region or a nativity.
 It is the alteration of social situation, structures and functions, roles of
social members in a given social system or in a society i.e. change in a
society as a whole.
Nature of social change
 Only such changes are designated as social change that affects the bulk of
the community.
 Social change is a universal process.
 Social change does not always depend on the willingness of society
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and its members.
 Many tribal and rural societies change at much slower pace than
industrial societies.
 Social change is the result usually of both internal (endogenous)
factors (the community itself recognises the need for change) and
external (exogenous) factors, e.g. industrialisation, land reforms and
urbanisation
3.2 . Types of Social Change
1. Planned change. is the one in which deliberate intervention
effort is made to alter existing practice.
2. Unplanned/ unintended plan/ natural change. involves
operations or activities which human being has no control over.
e.g. natural disaster such as flood or earthquake
3. Total Change It covers all aspect of the social system such as
economic, social, political and so on.
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4. Segmental Change ; This occurs in part as opposed
to total change above.
5. Coercive change ; is a change of force.
6. Immanent change and contact change
Immanent change is that which takes place internally
among people without external influence e.g. when a local
blacksmith comes up with a new farm implement.
7. Emulative Change associated with formal
organization or parastatas with clear cut
superior/subordinate relationship.
8. Technocratic change This is a type of change that
relies on collecting and interpreting data e.g. the
researchers or engineering model
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 Sources of Change
 The major sources of social change are through invention,
discovery, and diffusion.
 Others include religions, urbanization, governmental policies,
application of science and technology and natural physical forces.
3.3. Measurement of Social Change
 A social change is a continuous process in which changes in
human relationship occurs.
 Social change is usually measured through the following ways by
using:
1. Economic indicators:
 Involves the use of per capital income, gross national product, the
amount spent on different sectors
 such as agriculture and education and unemployment rate.

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2. Demographic indicators:
 The factors considered under this type of measurement are birth rate,
death rate, expected life span, fertility rate immigration and
emigration rates.
3. Social indicators: social indicators are statistics that try to look at
the well being of the people.
3.4. Data collection for measurement of social change
 Data for the measurement of social change are usually collected in
three forms namely information, enlightenment and intelligence
data
1. Information data- this data is specific in nature as it does
not give more than the required information, it is equally used for
operational purpose
2. Enlightenment Data- It is a kind of data upon which we
can make some evaluation
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 3. Intelligence Data- This type of data is used for
administrative and management purposes.
Resistance to Social Change
 As admirable and desirable as change is, it is not all changes
that are wholeheartedly received with open hands by the
people such changes are intended.
 Attributes such as fatalistic tendencies, familism, low
empathy, Aversion to risk-taking, traditionalism and
immediate gratification make the people to doubt the
objectivity and certainty of the changes.
Dimensions of Social Change
 Economic change, Political change, Cultural Change,
Technological change, Behavioural change
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Factors that are Conducive to Change
 Education
 Social disorganization
 Heterogeneous population
 Contact with other cultures
 Favourable Political and Economic climate
 Active Involvement of the people
SOURCES OF RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
 Cost
 Fear of Disruption, Suspicions and Anxiety
 Vested interest
 Cultural Resistance
 The Degree of Complexity
 Compatibility
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 Chapter 4: Social Structure and Institution of Rural
Society
4.1. Social Stratification
 If we look around us, we find that society is heterogeneous in nature.
 Everywhere society is divided into classes, economic, social, political
and religious.
 Social stratification means division of society into different classes.
 Murray, ―Social stratification is the horizontal division of society into
higher and lower social units.
 Gisbert, ―Social stratification is the division of society into permanent
groups or categories linked with each other by the relationship of
superiority and subordination.‖
 Maciver and Page, ―This understanding of social class on a distinct
status group provides us with a precise concept and is generally
36 applicable to any system of social stratification wherever found.
 Functions of Stratification
 A means of accomplishing jobs in society
 Regulation and control of individual and group relationships
 Contribution to social integration and structure
 Simplification
Factors for social stratification
 There are two different sources from which stratification is society
has developed either ethnic, or social.
 Ethnic factors occur in society in which two ethnic or racial
groups exist and one dominates the other over a long period of
time.
 Social factors that give status to individuals of groups are
criteria socially determined, based on the value system and social
values of society.
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 CONTD………
 The universal criteria for determinants of status are wealth, ancestry,
functional utility of the individual, religion, biological characteristics.
Types of social stratification
 based on the degree of social mobility in a
society there are two types of stratification
system.
A. Open stratification system
 Each individual is influenced by his/her achieved status.
 Movement between strata is possible and ease of movement depends on
the degree of openness in the system
 Person’s flexible
 Societies range from open to very open
 encourage competition among members of society
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B. Closed stratification system
 It allows little /no possibility of individual social mobility
 Social placement is based on ascribed status.
 Movement between the status levels, or strata, is impossible.
 A person is assigned a status at birth and remains at that
level throughout life.
 Person’s status is assigned at birth
Four major principles of Stratification
• It is a trait of society, not simply a function of individual
differences.
• It is persists over generations.
• It is universal but variable.
• It involves not just inequality but beliefs
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4.2 Rural social Institutions

 Social institutions are created by man from social relationships in

society to meet basic needs such as stability, law and order

 Horton (1964) defined institution as an organised system of

social relationships which embodies certain common values and

procedures and meets certain basic needs of society.

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 4.2.1. Major types of rural social institutions
4.2.1.1 Family
The Concept of Marriage and Family
 The family is usually defined as a kinship group linked by
blood and marriage and occupying a common household
 A household is not the same thing as the family. It refers to
all persons occupying the same house. These include relatives
as well as lodgers
 The family as a social group is made up of a man, his wife or
wives and children living under a common roof, interacting
and influencing the behaviors of each other in a more intimate
manner than with others who do not belong to it.

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Family involves:
 A set of common procedures such as betrothal or
engagement, courtship, honeymoon, wedding
 A common set of values and norms e.g incest taboo which
forbids sexual intercourse with blood relations thereby
necessitating marriage outside the immediate family
(exogamy), love between husband and wife in a way different
from that which is expected between brother and sister.
 Family is the most basic, fundamental, universal human / social
institution / unit or minimal social unit.
 It is also a distinct social group with its own roles, patterns,
behaviors, and cultural universal, though its structure varies across
time and space.
 E.g1.Variations in ―the family‖ across cultures= Toda (southern
India) –a woman may be married to several men.
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Functions of the family
• Reproduction (replacement dying members)
• Protection (Infants/sick /disabled are very dependent)
• Socialization (transmit the norms, values, and language)
• Regulation of sexual behavior (standards of sexual behavior are most
clearly defined within the family)
• Affection and companionship (provides warm and intimate
relationships)
• Providing of social status (inheritance)
Composition of family
• Nuclear family;a married couple and their unmarried children living
together .
• Extended family;a family in which relatives such as grandparents
43 ,aunts or uncles live in the same house as parents and their children
 Forms of Marriage
It was earlier said that marriage involves choice of
mates.
Where one man and one woman are involved, the
marriage is described as monogamy.
Where more than two people are involved, it is called
polygamy. Polygamy can assume three forms.
One is the case of one man married to two or more
women. This is called polygamy
Kinship is a set of relationship based on biological or
blood relationships and any type of social binding.
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 4.2.1.2. Rural religious institutions
The Meaning of Religion
 Religion is defined as consisting of institutionalized
systems of beliefs, values and symbolic practices
 Types of religion
 Buddhism
 Christianity
 Islam
 Judaism
 Hinduism

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Functions of the Religion
 Used as sources of social integration and unification composed of
individuals and social groups with diverse interests and aspirations
 to bind people together in time of crisis
 Used to provide social support=death/serious injury
 Promote social change (provide disciplined ,work ethnic )
 Social control (encourage oppressed people to focus on the other world
concerns rather than immediate poverty )
Types Of religious Organization
1. Ecclesiae; it is religious organization that claims to include most /all
members of society
2. Denominations; it is a large organized religion that is not officially
linked to the state or government
3. Sects; Relatively small religious groups that have broken away from the
other religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of
faith.
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4. Cults
 Found in South California
 Small secretive religious groups that represent either a new
religion or a major innovation of an existing faiths.
4.2.1.3 Rural education institution
 Education is the process of transmitting the socially approved
cultural heritage of any society from one generation to another
Functions of the education
 Maintaining social control
 Serving as agent of change
 Promoting social and political integration
 Transmission of knowledge (School teach students )
 Transmitting culture.
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4.2.1.4 Rural leadership institutions
 Leadership refers to the processes through which a person directs
guides, and influences, the thought, feeling, and behavior of
members of the society.
Types of Leadership
1. Autocratic leadership
 Domination/dictatorship types of leadership
2. Aristocracy leadership
 The government by the best individuals or small privileged class –
usually by the heredity or hereditary nobility
3. Democratic leadership
 Decisions made by active participation of followers
4. Laissez-fair/laisser-fair leadership
 Everything is going on by its own
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Types of leaders
1. Traditional leaders
 emerged out of the tradition of the community and they
stick to the tradition
e.g. Tribal chiefs or leaders
2. Caste leaders
 followers are belongs to from the same caste as that of
their leaders
 provide leadership in matters related to the caste
3. Religious leaders
 Become leaders through preaching religious doctrines
4. Political leaders
 They arise out of the political system and give
leadership function relating to their political
ends/objectives
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5. Functional leaders
 They are recognized as leaders, because of their
specialization or specialized knowledge and function in the
society.
e.g. head masters of schools, scientists, doctors,
agricultural innovators, etc.
6. Opinion leaders
 There are persons to whom people go for opinion and
advice on certain issues
 have higher social and socio-economic status
Rural Political institutions
 Political institutions serve the people of a nation in
form of governments in their traditional and modern
forms which exist at the local, state and national
levels.
 They serve executive, legislative and judiciary functions at
each level
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Rural economy institutions
 Economics created by man to satisfy economic,
material and other physical needs of human beings.
 It provides the society with the necessary supply
and services such as marketing, credit, banking,
cooperatives, exchange, etc.
 Included are the economic institutions of production
– agriculture, industry, and the distribution,
exchange and consumption of commodities, goods
and services necessary for human survival.

51
 Chapter 5: The Historical development
and future of AgEx
The concept of Extension
 Meanings of the term extension vary according to the field it is
applied
 Besides agriculture, extension work has been applied in other
fields such as health and nutrition, education and family
planning.
 The meaning of extension as a concept has become unclear and
often people fail to identify the doctrine of extension work..

52
 Concept and definition----
 There are many expressions about extension
worldwide.
 In German the term ‘Beratung’ means giving advice,
assistance for problem solving;
 In French ‘volgarisation’ means to make popular;
 In Italian ‘divulgazione’ means spread out;
 In Dutch ‘voorlichting’ means to light ahead, to
illuminate.
 Therefore; there is no single and universally accepted
definition for extension.

53
Extension is concerned with three basic tasks:

1. The dissemination of useful and practical information relating to

agriculture and home economics;

2. Helping people to use the information in order to help

themselves and

3. The practical application of such knowledge to farm and home

situations. These are carried out in an informal atmosphere, with

adults as main clientele.

54
 The definitions of AgEx
 AgEx is about sharing scientific findings and know-how with farmers

and helping them capture a greater share of the value chain.

 The provision of knowledge and skills necessary for farmers to be able to

adopt and apply more efficient crop and animal production methods to

improve their productivity and living standards.

 These definitions suggest that extension involves the provision of advice,

ideas, information, knowledge, skills and that the activity of extension

begins with that provision.

55
 The ingredients of the above definition
 Extension is a professional activity, practiced by people who

are somehow paid and/or rewarded for it.

 Extension is regarded as an intervention, as it is usually

subsidized or paid for by external agencies (donors,

governments, private companies) whose aspirations for doing

so are not the same as those of the supposed beneficiaries.

56
 The ingredients----
 Extension draws heavily on communication as a strategy for
furthering aspirations.
 Extension activities are usually legitimized by referring to the
need for solving a problematic situation.
 Used to convey effective innovations
 Aims to ‘develop and/or induce’ innovation
 Multi-actor problematic situations-the activities of several
interconnected actors

57
 Characteristics of the original extension
services
 Relatively small in scale and limited in the scope of their work and

contact with farmers

 Their organization was often somewhat random even though based on

legislation.

 They were organized predominantly either by central or local

governments, or by agricultural colleges

 were close association with experiment stations, or by farmers’

organizations, or combinations of these parent bodies.

58
 Characteristics---
 Top–down in terms of structure; with information coming

from the university or ministry of agriculture and filtering to

the farmers through extension agents

 Transfer of technology’

 Blue print approach

59
 5.3 Communication processes within
extension systems
 Communication is the process of people sharing thoughts, ideas,
and feelings with each other in commonly understandable ways.

 Communication is the essence of human society, and human

beings have developed the most complex systems for exchanging
information.

 Three major forms of communication have been identified: verbal,

non-verbal and symbolic.

60
 Framework of Inferences
Interpretations
Channel ( methods and
media)
Elements of communication

Source of
Information
Feedback
Sender
Receive
Message r

Employing Commo
Agency n code

Experience Experiences
s of Sender of Receiver

Framework of References

61
 Purposes of communication

1. Advisory Purpose
 to share ideas on how to deal with a particular
management problem
Immediate and /or longer time-scale problems
 Offer guidance on the process of problem solving
 Enhance the clients’ own problem-solving ability
 The role of communication worker’s is consulting or
counseling Fs on particular issue

62
 2. Supporting horizontal knowledge exchange
 Informal means of exchange of knowledge and
information from farmer-to-farmer
 Experience sharing
 On-farm experimentation and/or training

 Conducive environments/ Mechanism for horizontal

exchange
 Markets, work parties, funerals, celebrations, community meetings ,
Churches and mosques
 Observation of other farmers’ practices

 Communication workers play an important role in

farmers-to-farmers information exchange

63
 3. Generating policy and/or technological innovations
 To arrive at appropriate and sound innovations in the face
of certain challenges and/or problems
 Due to the collective nature of innovations, this
communication service usually requires the bringing
together of various stakeholders
 Here a wide range of activities can take place In group
sessions
 semi-permanent ‘platforms’.,
 joint experimentation and investigation

 Aimed at generating new knowledge, insight and mutual

understanding

64
 4. Conflict management
Question
a) what are the sources of conflict?
b) Consequences of conflict
c) How can resolve conflicts
 Distribution and use of collective resources
 Natural resource degradation
 hinder progress and innovation
 War and vulnerability
 Involvement of relative outsiders – in the form of mediators,
facilitators or referees

65
 5. Supporting organization development and capacity
building
Strengthen a particular group’s capacity to
innovate
Initiating organization development
Contributing to administrative activities and
processes
Providing training in organizational skills
Facilitating processes of organization change

66
 6. Persuasive transfer of policy and/or technological
innovations- tool
 To persuade farmers or other target groups to adopt
specific technological packages and/or to accept certain
ideas or policies.
 Farmers are more at the receiving end than the demanding
end
 Persuasive transfer has become increasingly unpopular in
discussions of communicative intervention
 The main intervention goal here is to help realize specific
policy objectives
 increase export earnings
 adoption of cash crops and/or new varieties

67
 Chapter-6: Extension Methods
6.1. What is Extension Method?
 is the way extension agents commonly used to help farmers form sound
opinion and make decision.
 Principles of Selecting Extension Methods

 The extent to which the receiver is involved

 Size of the audience to be reached

 The nature of the audience

 Who control the pace of communication

 The cost per person reached, etc.

68
6.2. Classification of Extension Methods
There are several methods used in extension work. Some
of these include:
• Individual/household extension
• Group methods
• Mass media.
The choice of methods depends on various factors such
as the tenure system in the area, community
organization, and resources available for extension.
None of these methods can be singled out as the best
one: all of them have their advantages and disadvantages
A combination of extension methods is more effective
69 than just one method.
1. Individual extension methods- individual extension method involves process of
meeting farmers individually.

 This approach is most effective for activities undertaken by or within the full control of the

individual farmer or household.

Advantages of the individual method:

 Unclear messages that have not been fully understood can easily be clarified;

 The extension officer is able to secure cooperation and inspire confidence in the family

through personal contact; ( build trust between farmers and extension worker)

 It facilitates immediate feedback on the effectiveness of the measures discussed;

 It may be the best way to ensure that everyone in the family participates in decision-

making.

 Provide first hand information to solve unique problems

70 Possible to integrate farmers knowledge and extension worker

Disadvantages of the individual method:
 It is expensive in terms of time and transport;

 Only a few farmers may be visited, and sometimes they may be

mainly the extension worker’s friends;
 The area covered is small since all the effort is concentrated on a
few farmers.
 it seldom used for collective interest

 it is based on level of trust between farmers and extension worker

 extension agent can give incorrect information if he is not well

71
prepared
 Individual extension method includes farm and home visits, office calls/letter

calls, and informal contacts.

2. Group Extension Method

 involves working with groups or the community at large.

 It is suitable when discussing matters related to the whole community (such as

postharvest grazing, protection, and management of indigenous forests)

 Field days and demonstration are best organized on individual farms.

 Two kinds of demonstration can be used: Result and Method demonstration.

 Result demonstration shows farmers the results of a practice that has been in

use for some time

72
 CONT,,,,
Method demonstrations show farmers how a particular activity or
task is carried out.

Under the group approach five different methods are used: the
catchment approach, T&V, the school approach, the mass media
approach, and Farmer Field Schools.

Group extension methods includes: lecture methods, brain

storming, group discussion, demonstrations, panel discussion,
symposium, field days, seminar, workshops, role paying, etc.

Group extension methods have advantages over mass media which it

makes it possible to reduce some of the miss-understanding that
may develop between extension agent and farmers.
73
 Advantages and disadvantages of group extension
methods
Advantages Disadvantages
 facilitate sharing of  dominance of discussion by
knowledge and skills certain individual may prevail
 provide a good opportunity  group members at least must
for audience to ask question have minimum knowledge
and discus issues in depth for a good discussion
 it is less expensive than  group members may quickly
individual due to more loose main points in speeches
coverage or talks or lecture unlike
 motivate people to accept publications
change due to group
influence
 strengthen learning of
74
 3. Mass extension methods
 involves the use of the mass media (e.g. radio, posters, drama, television, newspapers, films, slide

shows) to inform the public

Advantages of mass extension methods:

 These methods can increase the impact of extension staff through rapid spread of information;

 Many people can be reached within a short time, even in remote areas.

 Minimize the time and work load of extension workers

Disadvantages of mass extension methods:

 The amount of information that can be transmitted is limited;

 Radio and television reception is poor in some areas and the target group may not own sets, particularly
TVs;
 It is difficult to evaluate the impact since there is no immediate feedback;
 Production of both programs and printed materials is costly and requires special skills.
 Poor possibility of adjustability
75
Note that; No single extension method is better than another-
therefore:
 Use a number of teaching method /combination of extension
methods
 Use visual aids and written material when possible

6.2 Designing Effective Extension Messages

 Collecting information and understanding about the condition
and livelihoods for the general analysis of specific development
interventions like; need assessment, feasibility studies, problem
analysis and program monitoring and evaluation.
76
 An effective extension message has the following key
components:
 it is participatory in nature
 Funding would come from various sources including the government
budget, donors, private companies and payment by clientele
 An effective system has limited bureaucracy
 An important aspect of an effective system is that diversity is
encouraged.
Principles in designing effective Extension Messages
1. Respecting people’ knowledge and learn from them
2. Listen to the disadvantageous member of the community
3. Optimal ignorance and appropriate imprecision
4. Flexibility and informality-plans, Visualization, Triangulation,
Multidisciplinary team, On-the spot- analysis
77
Chapter 7:-Diffusion and adoption of innovation
What Is Diffusion?
 Is the process in which an innovation is communicated through
certain channels over time among the members of a social system.
 It is a special type of communication, in that the messages are
concerned with new ideas.
 This newness of the idea in the message content gives diffusion its
special character.
 The newness means that some degree of uncertainty is involved in
diffusion.
78
  Uncertainty is the degree to which a number of alternatives are
perceived with respect to the occurrence of an event and the
relative probability of these alternatives.

 Uncertainty implies a lack of predictability, of structure, of

information

 Information is a means of reducing uncertainty.

 Information is a difference in matter-energy that affects

uncertainty in a situation where a choice exists among a set of
alternatives.

79
 Diffusion is a kind of social change, defined as the process
by which alteration occurs in the structure and function
of a social system.
 When new ideas are invented, diffused, and adopted or
rejected, leading to certain consequences, social change
occurs.
 Some authors restrict the term ―diffusion‖ to the
spontaneous, unplanned spread of new ideas and use the
concept of ―dissemination‖ for diffusion that is directed
and managed.
 But the word ―diffusion‖ has to include both the planned
and the spontaneous spread of new ideas.
80
  Four Main Elements in the Diffusion of Innovations
 Previously, diffusion was defined as the process by which (1) an
innovation (2) is communicated through certain channels (3) over time
(4) among the members of a social system.
 The four main elements are the innovation, communication
channels, time, and the social system.
1.The Innovation
 An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new
by an individual or other unit of adoption.
 The perceived newness of the idea for the individual determines his
or her reaction to it.
 If an idea seems new to the individual, it is an innovation.
 Newness in an innovation need not just involve new knowledge.
 ―Newness‖ of an innovation may be expressed in terms of
knowledge, persuasion, or a decision to adopt.
81
 What are innovation drivers?
Market Pull

Innovations

Technology Push Society demand

Main focus: Innovations Main focus: Innovation trends

based on own technologies backed by governmental funds
and on market knowledge and regulations

82
Principles of Innovation
 Innovation starts when people convert problems to ideas
 New ideas are born through questions, problems and obstacles.
 In order for the innovation process to flourish, it needs a climate that
encourages inquiry and welcomes problems.
 Innovation needs a system
 All organizations have innovation systems.
 Some are formal, designed by the leadership, and some are informal,
taking place outside established channels.
 Passion is the fuel and pain is the hidden ingredient
 Ideas do not propel themselves; passion makes them go.
 Passion, in addition to talent and skill, is a valuable company asset.
 Passion is what transforms other resources into profits, but it never
83 shows up on a balance sheet.
 Co-locating drives effective exchange
 Co-location refers to physical proximity between people.
 It is a key for building the trust that is essential to the innovation
process.
 It also increases the possibility for greater exchange of information,
cross-fertilization of ideas, and stimulation of creative thinking in one
another and critique of ideas during their formative stage.
 Differences should be leveraged
 The differences that normally divide people — such as language,
culture, race, gender and thinking and problem solving styles — can
be a boon to innovation.
 When differences are used constructively and people move beyond
fear, suspicion, mistrust and prejudice, differences can be pulled to
enhance and sustain the innovation process.
84
 2. Communication Channels
 Are means of transmitting messages/ innovation
A/ Mass media channels
 are the most rapid and efficient means of informing an
audience of potential adopters about the existence of an
innovation—that is, to create awareness-knowledge.
 are means of transmitting messages that involve a mass
medium, such as radio, television, newspapers, and so on
 Enable one or a few individuals to reach an audience of
many.
B) Interpersonal channels
 are more effective in persuading an individual to accept a
new idea, especially if the interpersonal channel links two
or more individuals who are similar in socioeconomic
status, education, or other important ways.

85
  involve a face-to-face exchange between two or
more individuals.
C/ Interactive communication using the Internet
 has become more important for the diffusion of
certain innovations in recent decades.

86
 Heterophily Vs Homophily Diffusion
Homophily is the degree to which two or more
individuals who interact are similar in certain
attributes, such as beliefs, education, socioeconomic
status, and the like.
 It occurs when similar individuals belong to the
same groups, live or work near each other, and share
similar interests
More effective communication occurs when two
or more individuals are homophilous
87
However, when two individuals are identical regarding their
technical grasp of an innovation, diffusion cannot occur as there
is no new information to exchange
 The nature of diffusion demands that at least some degree of
heterophily be present between the two participants in the
communication process.
 Ideally, the individuals would be homophilous on all other
variables (education, socioeconomic status, and the like) even
though they are heterophilous regarding the innovation.
 Heterophily, the opposite of homophily, is defined as the degree to
which two or more individuals who interact are different in
certain attributes.
88
 3.Time
 Time is a third element in the diffusion process.
 The time dimension is involved in diffusion in
(1) The innovation-decision process by which an individual passes
from first knowledge of an innovation through its adoption or
rejection,
(2) The innovativeness of an individual or other unit of adoption
(that is, the relative earliness/ lateness with which an innovation is
adopted) compared with other members of a system, and
(3) An innovation’s rate of adoption in a system, usually measured as
the number of members of the system who adopt the innovation in
a given time period.

89
 4. Social system
 A social system is defined as a set of interrelated units that are
engaged in joint problem-solving to accomplish a common goal.
 The members or units of a social system may be individuals,
informal groups, organizations, and/or subsystems.
 The social system constitutes a boundary within which an
innovation diffuses.
 A second area of research involved how norms affect diffusion.
 Norms are the established behavior patterns for the members of
a social system.
 A change agent is an individual who attempts to influence clients'
innovation-decisions in a direction that is deemed desirable by a
change agency.
90
 4.2. Adoption process
Is depend on innovativeness which is the degree to
which an individual or other unit of adoption is relatively
earlier in adopting new ideas than the other members of
a system.
 It is one stage of innovation development process

The innovation-development process consists of all the

decisions, activities, and their impacts that occur during
innovation development.
91
 The innovation-development process

RANKING MUNDIAL DE USUÁRIOS DE INTERNET

Recognizing 1º 2º Development
Research
3º 4º 5ºCommercialization
6º
a Problem

Diffusion and
Consequences Adoption

92
Innovation-development process

1. Recognizing a Problem or Need

 The innovation-development process often begins with recognition of a problem

or need, which stimulates research and development activities designed to create

an innovation to solve the problem or need.

2. Conducting research

Scientists may perceive a future problem and launch research to find a solution

Most technological innovations are created by scientific research, although they often

result from the interplay between scientific methods and practical problems.
93
3. Development of an innovation
The process of putting a new idea in a form that is expected to meet
the needs of an audience of potential adopters.
This phase customarily occurs after research, as part of the creation of
an innovation that stems from research.
4. Commercialization
The production, manufacturing, packaging, marketing, and
distribution of a product that embodies an innovation (hardware).
 It is the conversion of an idea from research into a product or service
for sale in the marketplace.
94
5. Diffusion and Adoption

Is the decision to begin diffusing an innovation to potential adopters.

A change agency’s reputation and credibility in the eyes of its clients

rests on only recommending innovations that will have beneficial

consequences for adopters.

6. Consequences

The changes that occur to an individual or to a social system as a result

of the adoption or rejection of an innovation.

95
 Characteristics of innovations
• Relative advantage – degree to which the innovation is perceived to be
superior to current practice
 Compatibility – degree to which the product is consistent with existing
values and past experience of the adopters (needs, resources, values and
beliefs)
 Complexity – degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to
understand and use
 Trialability – the ability to make trials easy for new products without
economic risk to the consumer
 Observability – reflects the degree to which results from using a new
96 product are visible to friends and neighbors
 In general, innovations that are perceived by

potential adopters as having greater relative

advantage, compatibility, Trialability,

observability, and less complexity will be

adopted more rapidly than others.

97
 Rate Of Adoption
 Rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is
adopted by members of a social system.
 It is generally measured as the number of individuals who adopt a
new idea in a specified period, such as a year.
 So the rate of adoption is a numerical indicator of the steepness of
the adoption curve for an innovation.
 When the number of individuals adopting a new idea is plotted on a
cumulative frequency basis over time, the resulting distribution is
an ―S-shaped curve.‖
98
 The Classic S-Shaped Adoption Curve

99
100
 Rate of Adoption
 But there is variation in the slope of the ―S‖ from innovation to

innovation;

 some new ideas diffuse relatively rapidly and the S-curve is

quite steep.

 Other innovations have a slower rate of adoption, and the S-

curve is more gradual, with a slope that is relatively lazy.

 There are also differences in the rate of adoption for the same

innovation in different social systems.

101
 Factors affecting diffusion/ Rate of
Adoption
1. Innovation characteristics (Relative
advantage, Compatibility, Complexity,
Trialability and Observability)
2. Individual characteristics
3. Social network characteristics
4. Others possible factors

102
103
 Innovativeness and Adopter Categories
 Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual or other
unit of adoption is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas
than the other members of a system.
 Adopter categories are the classifications of members of a
social system on the basis of innovativeness.
 The five adopter categories are:
1. Innovators
2. Early adopters
3. Early majority
4. Late majority
5. Laggards

104
 The five adopter categories

Adopt new ideas (technologies,

Innovators concepts, and behaviors in early stages
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Early Adopters 1º 2º 3º 4º 5º 6º
Still have some traits of innovation (risk
concern)

Early Majority First sign of diffusion

Delay its adoption, must be clearly its

Late Majority
advantages

Mature implementation and risks

Laggards
involved are smaller

105
 Adopter distributions follow a bell-shaped curve over time
and approach normality.

Many studies have looked at how these groups differ:

Innovators are highly cosmopolite and open to new things.
Early adopters tend to be opinion leaders.
Early majority provide “legitimization” of the innovation.
Late majority are skeptical.
106 Laggards put trust in the status quo.
 Adoption of innovation over time

Innovations do
RANKING MUNDIAL DE USUÁRIOS DE INTERNET not spread
equally over
1º 2º 3º 4º 5º 6º
different society
segments (social
groups) but
through 5 stages
with particular
profile of
reaction

107
 The S-shaped diffusion curves are essentially normal, a conclusion that is
very useful for classifying adopter categories.

108
Chapter 8: Extension Strategies
and Extension Approaches
is a learning plan that helps to identify and develop
specific programming to meet client-identified needs.
is ―the match an organization makes between its
internal resources and skills---and the opportunities
and risks created by its external environment.‖
It includes- the identification of the priority
of clients
the desired changes (both from the clients’
perspective and the researchers’ perspective),
indicators that the desired changes have been
achieved.
109
  outlines of the delivery methods (e.g.,
experiential, reinforcement, integrative)
 steps to accomplish the desired
changes
 assigns responsibility for delivery of the
extension program.
 methods for evaluating the success or
failure of the extension program
 There are various public sector agricultural
extension strategy reforms have occurred since
the mid-1980s.

110
 8.2 . Components of Extension Strategies
 The focus areas of extension strategy are

1. Poverty reduction
 By increasing knowledge intensity of rural
income-generating activities
 By public financing to the poor

2. knowledge and information support function

for rural people.
 a range of providers to deliver advice
 technology innovations, and facilitation services.

111
3. Extension strategy should be designed with
an inventory of the actors
 a stakeholder coordinating mechanism.

4. Capacity building at all levels is critical

 institutional strengthening
 qualified service provision

112
8.3 Extension Approaches

 is the heart of an agricultural extension system.

is the style of action within a system and embodies the
philosophy
of the system.
 It is like a doctrine for the system, which informs,
stimulates and guides such aspects of the system as
its structure, its leadership,
its program, its resources and
its linkages.
There are two major forms of extension approaches,
namely Conventional and Participatory; based on level of
participation
113
A top-down transfer of technology (TOT), it has
various limitations, these include:
 —
Harmful impacts on the environment, and
contamination of soil, water, air and food due to
use of chemicals and declining fertility
 Decreasing biodiversity due to the impositions of
hybrid and genetically modified seeds for cash
cropping

 The growing dependency of farmers upon

external agro-technologies and agro-technicians,
reducing their confidence in their own skills and
abilities to manage their resources
 Reduction of farmers into passive users of
solutions

114
In reaction to the top-down approach, participatory
approaches are assuming the following values:
 Traditional, indigenous, local, or popular
knowledge and experiences become the driving
force of development.
 Clear understanding of SK (is a product of
research centers, universities and development
agencies—known as technical, scientific or
modern knowledge and experiences) and thus
this knowledge assumes very different contexts,
values and conditions from those of farmers
 Enhancement of dialogue between the two
different knowledge systems, those of
―outsiders‖ and ―locals,‖
115
 Participatory Technology Development
 PTD is a long-term interaction between outsiders
and local people, with the aim of generating
innovations based on IK
 It involves and links the power and capacities of
agricultural research with the interests and
knowledge of local communities.
 Natural resources management by strengthening
the local indigenous specialists and their
communities to carry out experiments.
 The role of outsiders consists in facilitating self-
learning processes and serving as technicians
and managers of development institutions
together with local people.
116
CHARACTERISTICS OF PTD
PTD is an intercultural dialogue process with multiple
levels of complexity:
1. Human interaction to creatively link the knowledge of
scientists and farmers in order to overcome the
limitations of cultural or technical biases
2. Skillful application of participatory methods to involve
farmers as equally valuable agents in the generation
of ideas and new technologies
3. Technology generation dealing with practical solutions
that rely on local resources and indigenous
knowledge and practices
4. A shared vision of development that accomplishes
values which are environmentally sound and
culturally embedded and sustainable, and which
enhance biodiversity

117
 D/CE B/N PTD and conventional approach

TOT Approach PTD - Approach

Why Generalizes Gives more

? predetermined attention to local
solutions across validity of
wide areas, farmers’ solutions
beyond the FSR to empower IK.
Who Experts/ Experts/
? scientists/research scientists/
ers colaberately with
farmers 118
 TOT Approach PTD - Approach
Wha Experts diagnosis, Outsiders support or
informed mainly by facilitate local people
t? laboratories and to identify their own
experimental stations. problems, needs and
opportunities.
 Experts send  Outsiders learn
students or young from local
How researchers to collect knowledge,
? quantitative data from experiences and
the field or practices.
experimental stations  Their professional
using surveys and skills rely on a
pre-structured range of
questionnaires. participatory 119
 CONT’d…………….

TOT Approach PTD - Approach

When? According to office A long-term interaction, at

project planning frequent intervals, following a
project cycle and process.

120
 Fundamental aspects to the
participatory processes
 Consultation and access to information
for the local people about the intentions
of outsiders regarding the exchange of
knowledge to foster innovations.

 Freedom of choice for local people to

engage in a process of innovation.

 Empowerment through redistribution of

power on the basis of equity and
compatibility.
121
 Mutual trust and respect resulting in a process
in which both parties feel encouraged to
continue a relationship and maintain a long-term
process of community development on the basis
of self-reliant resource management.

 Distribution of benefits to partners equally

 Adaptability and flexibility of outside institutions

to changing and sometimes unforeseen
circumstances.

122
Participation at project level is an effective
communication and decision-making
process
 Participation in Planning
 The best way to plan with the people is to look at
situations through their own eyes and perceptions.
 Through the use of PRA-tools, we can establish not
only the starting point but also visions of
development based on local criteria.
 By this process, people are not made into objects of
our development ideas.
 Rather, they take ownership, mobilize their ideas
and forces, and decide on the content and method
of the project.
 Thereby they are positioned to determine our action
and facilitation tasks.

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 Participation in Implementation
 Planned by and with the people, implementation
also is in the hands of the people.
 They control and monitor the activities and
request external support as needed.
 Participatory Evaluation
 Evaluation in this context means to know about
what progress is being made and the difficulties
encountered in the original plan and to decide
jointly what to do next.
 Evaluation includes not only the field actions
but also the attitudes and proceedings of the
facilitation team.
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 WHY IS PARTICIPATION SO IMPORTANT?
 Development efforts in the last thirty years provide a
number of lessons on the significance of
participation:
• The interests and needs of local people will be defined
more effectively.
• Local people generate information that will create a
common understanding which is no longer ―only
scientific or only local‖ but the basis for original, self
beneficial solutions.
• The solutions will be socially and culturally acceptable.
• Participation creates a sense of ownership and local
people will implement activities on a basis of self
reliance.
• Participation creates a collective self-esteem leading
to renaissance of local experiences. Local people will
feel empowered to manage their resources with
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THE NATURE OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE
 Since, PTD focuses on rural society, the local,
indigenous knowledge is its main interest.
 IK is a concept that has several definitions in the
context of contemporary theory and praxis related to
development and conservation.
 IK and SK are different systems of generation,
interpretation and use of ideas, perceptions, and
feelings about reality.
 But one is not superior to the other. Both are equally
valuable.
 Study of IK requires awareness of our own
knowledge in order to prepare to enter in a process
of communication with local people.
 Communication means dialogue: exchange of ideas
and perceptions to reach a common understanding
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8.4. Roles and qualities of Extension
Staff/workers
 Extension worker is like a teacher, philosopher,
leader, guide and colleague for the community
and on the basis of his special qualities
 Has significant effect on development
programmes.
 Some of the expected qualities and roles of
extension worker are the following;
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 Qualities of Extension Worker are:
1. Sound knowledge of subject

 Introduce villagers to new ideas and to bring

change in their behavior.
 Aware of new technologies.
 Able to impress the people.
2. Burning desire for new knowledge

 Burning desire to know his subject and

problems and requirements of people,
 It is correct to say that the extension worker
should play the role of teacher as well as that
of a student.
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3. Explicitness
 Extension worker lives alone in the village and he
has to provide appropriate solution to the
problems of the people.
 Capable of taking timely action and providing
explicit solution.
4. Tactful
 Try to derive relevant benefits from the
experiences, problems and resources of the people
in order to gain their trust and become reliable
person for them.
5. Foresightedness
 know which type of work will bring, what kind of
result and what will be its impact on the people.
 Ability to priorize works in order to achieve long
lasting benefit.

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6. Sympathetic attitude
 Sympathetic attitude is the best quality in
extension worker.
 Capable of listening to the problems of people
and able to solve them
 This is the first and last step for the success of
the programme
7. Service attitude
 The mentality of extension worker should be
filled with service attitude.
 Help to develop interest in social welfare
programme and new leadership will emerge and
help voluntary in extension work.
8. Attractive personality 130
 9. Faith in programme–Strong faith enhances
personality and increases respect among people,
Due to strong faith in programme, people get self-
motivation to participate in programme and
extension work achieve success.
10. Enthusiasm–High motivation to work.
12. Tolerance–not get easily hurt by opposition.
There is no impact of anger on tolerant people.
13. Honesty– Wherever there is a question of
behavior and policy, people should practice
honesty and truthfulness
14. Simple living–extension worker’s standard of
living and his behavior should be like an educated
villager.
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.

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