ulu

ric 016
m
REVISED
r
cu er 2
E b
C ISCovem
N
he in
e r t ed
p as
As rele

The

TRAIL
History and Civics for ICSE Middle School

Class
Jayanti Sengupta
8
1
 3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.
Published in India by
Oxford University Press
22 Workspace, 2nd Floor, 1/22 Asaf Ali Road, New Delhi 110002, India
© Oxford University Press 2003, 2008, 2012, 2016, 2017, 2020
The moral rights of the author/s have been asserted.
First Edition published in 2003
Revised Edition published in 2008
New Edition published in 2012
Revised Edition published in 2016
Revised Edition published in 2017
Revised Edition published in 2020
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
ISBN-13: 978-0-19-012150-1
ISBN-10: 0-19-012150-5
Typeset in Palatino Linotype Regular
by Innovative Processors, New Delhi 110002
Printed in India by Manipal Technologies Limited, Manipal
Maps are not drawn to scale
Acknowledgements
Shutterstock Images: p11 Lestertair / Shutterstock; p15 Georgios Kollidas / Shutterstock; p21 Everett Historical / Shutterstock; p34 (left)
Georgios Kollidas / Shutterstock; p34 (right) Georgios Kollidas / Shutterstock; p43 (left) Everett Historical / Shutterstock; p64 Everett Historical /
Shutterstock; p86 Raksha Shelare / Shutterstock; p89 Aztec Images / Shutterstock; p99 Marzolino / Shutterstock; p103 (right) imagedb.com /
Shutterstock; p111 brandonht / Shutterstock; p115 reddees / Shutterstock; p126 rook76 / Shutterstock; p127 (top) rook76 / Shutterstock; p147
Ankit M / Shutterstock; p154 (right) Historia/REX / Shutterstock; p161 ARTEKI / Shutterstock; p162 (right) CRS PHOTO / Shutterstock; p169 (left)
Ververidis Vasilis / Shutterstock; p169 (right) saiko3p / Shutterstock; p178 TK Kurikawa / Shutterstock; p179 Rashbihari Dutta / Shutterstock;
p186 (left) Arna ldo Jr / Shutterstock; p186 (right) Alexander Zavadsky / Shutterstock; p195 (left) yui / Shutterstock; p195 (right) Julie Pop / Shutterstock
Getty Images: p9 Popperfoto / Getty Images; p10 Universal History Archive/Getty Images; p14 © DigitalVision Vectors/Getty Images;
p22 (top) SSPL / Getty Images; p22 (centre) Hulton Archive / Getty Images; p22 (bottom) Bettmann / Getty Images; p24 Culture Club / Contributor /
Getty Images; p30 Harold M. Lambert / Kean Collection / Archive Photos / Getty Images; p32 Ed Vebell / Getty Images; p33 Universal History Archive/
Getty Images; p35 Leemage / Corbis via Getty Images; p42 Photo12 / Universal Images Group via Getty Images; p43 (right) Bettmann / Getty Images;
p49 IndiaPictures / Universal Images Group / Getty Images; p50 DeAgostini / Getty Images; p58 Universal History Archive / Getty Images; p59 Fine Art
Images / Heritage Images / Getty Images; p69 Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images; p75 The Print Collector / Getty
Images; p80 Hulton Archive / Getty Images; p87 (left) DeAgostini / Getty Images; p87 (right) The Print Collector / Print Collector / Getty Images;
p91 R.M. Richardson & Co / Hulton Archive / Getty Images; p93 Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group via Getty Images; p103 (left)
The Print Collector / Print Collector / Getty Images; p114 Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group via Getty Images; p116 (bottom)
IndiaPictures / Universal Images Group via Getty Images; p123 Corbis / Getty Images; p135 Keystone-France / Gamma-Keystone via Getty Images;
p142 Bettmann / Getty Images; p143 (right) Bettmann / Getty Images; p144 Bettmann / Getty Images; p146 Bettmann / Getty Images; p151 Universal
History Archive / Universal Images Group via Getty Images; p152 Hulton Archive / Getty Images; p153 Devi / Fox Photos / Getty Images; p162 (left)
Ritesh Shukla / NurPhoto via Getty Images; p163 Sonu Mehta / Hindustan Times via Getty Images; p164 T. Narayan / Bloomberg via Getty Images;
p170 EZEQUIEL BECERRA / AFP / Getty Images; p171 Mohd Zakir / Hindustan Times via Getty Images; p185 (top) Fox Photos / Getty Images; p185 (bottom)
Hulton Archive / Getty Images; p188 (top) Drew Angerer / Getty Images; p188 (bottom) Abdullah Asiran / Anadolu Agency / Getty Images; p190 Peter
Turnley / Corbis / VCG via Getty Images; p196 (left) MARWAN IBRAHIM / AFP / Getty Images; p196 (right) FABRICE COFFRINI / AFP / Getty Images
Alamy Images: p12 Art Directors & TRIP / Alamy Stock Photo; p56 The History Collection / Alamy Stock Photo; p57 Hemis / Alamy Stock Photo;
p66 North Wind Picture Archives / Alamy Stock Photo; p77 Historic Images / Alamy Stock Photo; p92 History and Art Collection / Alamy Stock
Photo; p102 Dinodia Photos / Alamy Stock Photo; p112 Historic Collection / Alamy Stock Photo; p132 (right) History and Art Collection / Alamy
Stock Photo; p134 (left) Historic Collection / Alamy Stock Photo; p134 (centre) Historic Collection / Alamy Stock Photo; p134 (right) Dinodia
Photos / Alamy Stock Photo; p143 (left) maurice joseph / Alamy Stock Photo; p154 (left) Historic Collection / Alamy Stock Photo
Videos: p147 Rick Ray / Shutterstock; p143 Onyx Media, Llc - Footage / Getty Images; p162 AFPTV / Getty Images;
p188 Golden Brown / Shutterstock; p196 OR Productions / Shutterstock;

Illustrations by Santosh Mishra

Cover: © LO Kin-hei / Shutterstock
Although we have made every effort to trace and contact copyright holders before publication,
this has not been possible in all cases. If notified, the publisher will rectify any errors or
omissions at the earliest opportunity.
Preface

T he revised edition of The Trail, a series of history and civics books for Classes 6–8, is designed
as per the curriculum released by the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination
(CISCE) in November 2016.
The only constant factor in life is change. History seeks to record, interpret and explain these
changes that have transformed the lives of humans—for better or for worse. Down the ages,
ideas, events, movements, personalities and processes have changed, shaped and defined our
present world. Some changes were dramatic and sudden, while others were slow and barely
perceptible. History did not always repeat itself—more often than not it threw up unpredictable
surprises and new challenges. Humans adapted to the changed circumstances, faced these
challenges and made history, again and again.
There are two ways of looking at every turning point in history. One is to recreate the event or
the process as it happened at that particular point in time. The other is to review and analyse it in
the light of developments that preceded and followed it. This helps us to interpret major turning
points in the past, and enables us to understand our present and determine our future. Humans
are the makers of their own destiny—history is the facilitator. This series seeks to present truths
objectively with a view to creating a clear understanding of our past.
Many accepted facts of history, in general, and prehistory, in particular, are placed under the
scanner and researched. Continuous research and increasing speculation have often converted
widely accepted historical issues into contentious and variable ones. However, at the middle
school level, we do not seek to raise the heat and dust, but to inform and enlighten on the basis
of generally accepted truths and to generate and sustain a healthy curiosity that will in the future
make the student a seeker of the truth.
The primary objective of The Trail is to help children enjoy and appreciate the study of history,
civics and the evolution of society. The presentation and layout of the book is basically
designed to facilitate the learning process for 11–13 year olds, keeping in mind their maturity
levels and skills at the middle school stage. The factual treatment is in accordance with the
ICSE requirements and trains students to adapt to the pattern prescribed by the CISCE. The
mathematically precise style of presentation of facts facilitates retention and recall, and stimulates
further learning.
The series also incorporates some of the recommendations of the Draft National Education
Policy 2019, which emphasize on the development of 21st century skills, focusing on critical
thinking, collaboration, creativity and communication (life skills), and create awareness of the
interrelationship of subjects in dealing with a topic (subject integration).
Preface

The book for Class 6 deals with the people and the society in the Ancient Period and local
self-government in modern society. The book for Class 7 deals with the people and the society
in the Medieval Period and the Indian Constitution. The book for Class 8 deals with the people

3
 and the society in the Modern Period, the Indian government today and the role and services
of the United Nations. Certain topics have been included for the sake of continuity and a more
comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.
The Trail aims to make history and civics a living subject and enables the students to understand
society and the world they live in, better. In order to achieve this, the series:
• presents facts in an easy-to-understand, lively manner.
• enlivens the text through vibrant layout, pictures, illustrations, photographs and maps.
• facilitates quick learning of facts with the use of highlighted words within the chapter.
• develops essential skills, through various features, as suggested by the CISCE curriculum
guidelines.
• includes Suggested Transactional Processes TP to enhance formation of concepts.
• provides the scope for integration of subjects SI as suggested by the CISCE curriculum.
• facilitates introspection by talking about social and ethical topics in Values and Life Skills.
• provides timelines for a clear and authentic historical perspective.
• summarizes the chapter using structured flow charts, for easy recapitulation.
• contains a medley of exercises, which gradually prepares the students for the board
examinations at the senior level.
• includes Worksheets and Map Practice sheets for revision.
• provides interesting snippets of information through Did You Know?
• provides hands-on experience and makes learning fun and exciting through a plethora of
Use your imagination and Project work questions listed in the Do and Learn section.
• contains illustrated stories which use captivating narrative and vibrant artwork to bring
to life people and events from history.
• contains term-wise test papers.
• contains guidelines for project work.
• tests students along the line of skills mentioned in the curriculum.

It is my sincere effort to make the study of the past an enjoyable and fruitful experience and to
instil in the learners a sense of pride in their Indian identity and an interest in the contemporary
world organizations and developments.
I dedicate this series to the memory of Ma and Baba. I would like to thank my family, friends
and well-wishers for their constant support, enthusiasm and goodwill during the making of
this series. I would also like to extend my appreciation to the editorial team at OUP for their
commitment, hard work and vision.
I am deeply grateful for the enthusiastic and overwhelming response of teachers and students
alike to the previous editions of The Trail. Changes in this revised edition have been incorporated
on the basis of feedback of valuable comments and positive suggestions made by history teachers
of various schools. I look forward to further inputs from teachers and students and welcome their
Preface

recommendations in future.

JAYANTI SENGUPTA

4
Syllabus
HISTORY
Key Concepts/Concerns
Theme 1: A Period of Transition
• The period of transition—basic understanding
• Sources—primary and secondary
• Transition from Medieval to Modern Age (a brief mention of
Renaissance, Reformation, Voyages, Discoveries)
• The Industrial Revolution—meaning and reasons why it
began in England, major inventions, impacts of Industrial
Revolution
• Imperialism—its meaning, causes and impacts with special
reference to South Asian countries
Theme 2: The Growth of Nationalism
• The French Revolution—causes, the outbreak, impact, the
post-revolution period, Napoleon Bonaparte (brief study of
the Revolution)
• The American War of Independence—colonies, causes,
beginning, birth of the United States of America
• American Civil War—background, causes, beginning, role of
Abraham Lincoln and Gettysburg Address
Theme 3: India in the 18th Century
• Decline of the Mughal empire—major factors/causes
• Rise of independent/regional kingdoms—Hyderabad,
Awadh, Bengal, Rajputs, Sikhs, Mysore, Marathas (brief)
Theme 4: Traders to Rulers
• Advent of English East India Company—a brief mention
• Conquest of Bengal—Battle of Plassey, Buxar—causes and
results
• Dual Government—drawbacks of Dual Government
• Policy of British expansion (meaning and examples)—
Doctrine of Lapse, Subsidiary Alliance, annexation of Awadh
(pretext)
Theme 5: British Policies and Impact
• Economic policy
 Land revenue system (Permanent Settlement, Mahalwari,
Ryotwari), highlight Permanent Settlement only
• Exploitation of artisans and weavers
• Drain of wealth
• Introduction of modern education
 Wood’s Despatch (What was Wood’s Despatch and its
effects)
Theme 6: The Great Uprising of 1857
• Reasons—political, socio-religious, economic, military
• Immediate causes
• Leaders and spread of the uprising
• Consequences
• Nature of uprising
Learning Outcomes
Children will be able to:
• create a general idea of events and changes that occurred all
over the world during the period of study;
• identify the basic differences between primary and
secondary sources;
• recognize, understand and reflect on the important
movements such as Renaissance, Reformation;
• analyse the radical changes brought about by the Industrial
Revolution;
• evaluate the impact of imperialism on the world.
Children will be able to:
• identify the earliest nationalist movements in history;
• examine major changes that occurred in the world due to the
French Revolution and the American War of Independence;
• analyse various factors leading to the French Revolution;
• trace the history of the American War of Independence;
• identify the reasons for the Civil War;
• analyse the role played by Abraham Lincoln;
• evaluate and assess the impact of the Civil War.
Children will be able to:
• identify the Mughal rulers who ruled after Aurangzeb (Later
Mughals);
• discuss factors responsible for the decline of the Mughal
empire;
• examine the rise of regional kingdoms;
• recognize the rising power of the Marathas under the
Peshwas.
Children will be able to:
• understand and discuss the system of trade and commerce
in India in the 17th and 18th centuries;
• identify the intense rivalry among the trading companies;
• discuss the impact of the battles of Plassey and Buxar in
strengthening the British position in India;
• understand the expansionist policy of the British with
reference to Dual Government, Doctrine of Lapse,
Subsidiary Alliance and annexation of Awadh.
Children will be able to:
• critically analyse and reflect on the economic policy of India
under the Company;
• identify the different land revenue systems introduced by
the British;
• discuss and examine the impacts of the British rule on the
traditional industries;
• evaluate and analyse the educational policy of the British.
Children will be able to:
• analyse the reasons for the great uprising;
Syllabus
• trace and locate centres of the Great Uprising on an outline
map of India;
• discuss the policy of Doctrine of Lapse;
• examine the consequences of the Great Uprising of 1857.
5
 Theme 7: Socio-Religious Reforms
• Contribution of social reformers in brief:
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar,
Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekanand, Jyotiba Phule,
Annie Besant, Kandukuri Veeresalingam, Sri Narayan
Guru, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and Singh Sabha
Theme 8: India’s Struggle for Freedom
Phase 1
• Rise of nationalism: factors—economic exploitation, spread
of western education, role of the press, repressive policies of
Lord Lytton (to be covered briefly)
• Early political associations—The Indian National Congress
(formation and objectives), the Moderates—leaders, methods,
demands, Partition of Bengal—only the anti-Partition
Movement—Swadeshi and Boycott to be covered briefly,
Surat Split—a brief understanding.
Phase 2
• Home Rule Movement—leaders and objectives, Lucknow Pact
(1916)—as Unity Pact (a brief understanding).
• Gandhian era (1917–1947).
 Early campaigns—Kheda, Champaran, Ahmadabad
(a brief description).
 Mass movements—Non-Cooperation (causes,
withdrawal, impact), Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala, Khilafat
(Chauri-Chaura).
 Civil Disobedience Movement—(causes) Simon
Commission, Lahore session of the INC
 Quit India—Forward Bloc and INA (objectives only)
Independence and partition—Cabinet Mission Plan,
Mountbatten Plan, Indian Independence Act (only
clauses).
CIVICS
Key Concepts/Concerns
Theme 1: The Three Main Organs of the Indian
Government: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary
• Legislature—Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, composition,
term, election, qualifications, presidency officer; powers and
functions of the Union Parliament.
• Executive—The President, The Vice – President, Prime
Minister and Council of Ministers—qualifications, election
(method not procedure) powers and functions.
• The Judiciary—The Supreme Court and the High Court—
composition, qualifications of judges, appointment,
jurisdiction and functions: Original, Appellate, Revisory,
Judicial Review, court of record, writs—what are writs, a few
examples.
Theme 2: United Nations
• Aims and principles, organs (all SLR mention in brief)—
General Assembly,
• Security Council, International Court of Justice (detail)—
Syllabus
composition and functions.
• Agencies of UN—UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO—functions only.
6
Children will be able to:
• identify the socio-religious practices that existed in Indian
society in the 19th century;
• discuss the importance of social reform movements during
the 19th and 20th centuries raising awareness about
prevalent social practices;
• explain the efforts of the reformers to deal with issues such
as caste system, child marriage, sati pratha, etc.;
• analyse the impact of the reform movement on the Indian
society;
• appreciate the role of social reformers.
Children will be able to:
• define nationalism and identify factors giving rise to
nationalism;
• state the objectives of the Indian National Congress;
• discuss and comprehend the methods and demands of the
moderates;
• appreciate the ideas of nationalism and Swadeshi;
• identify the significance of the Home Rule Movement and
the Lucknow Pact;
• discuss various campaigns initiated by Gandhi;
• explain the various factors responsible for the launching of
Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience movements and
Quit India movement;
• discuss the impact of the mass movements;
• analyse the objectives of Forward Bloc and the INA;
• examine the various clauses of the Indian Independence Act;
• appreciate and reflect on the sacrifices made by our national
heroes.
Learning Outcomes
Children will be able to:
• discuss the composition of the Indian parliament—the Lok
Sabha and Rajya Sabha;
• compare and understand the working of the Lok Sabha and
the Rajya Sabha;
• describe the relationship between the two houses;
• explain the powers and the functions of the Union
Parliament;
• state the qualifications, elections, powers and functions of
the President, Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers;
• discuss the composition of the Supreme Court and the High
Court and state the qualifications and appointment of judges
to the Supreme Court and High Court;
• highlight the powers and functions of judges of the Supreme
Court and the High Courts;
• discuss the concept of judicial review and court of record;
• explain the term ‘writ’ giving examples.
Children will be able to:
• understand and describe the aims and principles of the
United Nations (UN);
• outline the organs of the UN;
• discuss the composition of the General Assembly, Security
Council and the International Court of Justice;
• highlight the functions of the UN agencies (UNESCO,
UNICEF, WHO);
• appreciate the role and services provided by UN agencies.
Key Features
The Trail, a highly successful series, presents history and civics to middle
school students in an interesting and lively manner.
EXERCISES gradually
LEARNING  TOOLS prepare students for the ASSESSMENT  TOOLS
Mathematical Skills
The Mesopotamians were
highly skilled mathematici
ans. They had a special sign
repeat the sign of ‘one’ five times. The
they wanted to write five, they would o measure tim
for the number ‘one’. If
y counted in tens and sixties.
an hour into 60 minutes
board examinations.
e. They were the first to divide
CIVILIZATION two

SUMMARY FLOW CHARTS

They also used the figure 60 as the unit t
(An advanced stage or system
as divided in to 12 month s. Days and nights were divided into
of social development)
and a minute into 60 seconds. A year w ch.
equal halves consisting o f 12 hours ea

Civilizations developed
Legal Systemof a civilization an life. These

present the key points of the

Bronze Age river valley civilizations spect of hum
iled a code of law dealing with every a along river banks because

Exercises
Main features on a
Hammurabi, the king of Babylon, compand safeguarded the right s of women. This code of law, written

First Term Paper

The Indus Valley in the
laws protected the poor and the weak des known to Indian humans.
subcontinent Abundant water supply
one of the o
stone slab, isSettled life ldest legal co
A Fill in the blank Marks 80
lifeline of this great

chapter in a structured format

Euphrates River, the Crops s.
ly changed its course.
The Nile Valley in Egypt grew in plenty 1. The local
THE
OFfood
DECLINESurplus production civilization, unexpected
as land was fertile. This
self-governing
bodies which
Part 1: History
5
TION The inhabitants abandoned the site. Winds ____________ look after the
MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZA Valleys of Tigris
left free time for other ______. needs of big
2. The mayor cities are ______
and the the blanks.
1. Fill in______ _______ development.
and sandstorms eroded the walls
occupations. of the munici
be inand ____________ pal corporation ____ _______ stage of ___________ ia.
can (a) Civilization is an ___________

to help with easy recapitulation.

Townsmodern
civilization of this ____ and ______ holds office for rs found in Mesopotam
Much of our s, burying the treasures
Mesopotamia a term varying
and cities Euphrates 3. The ______ _________yea _______ were temple-towe
genius of the monument

TERM PAPERS
____________ rs. betwee(b) n ___________ the __________________.
sandy desert
of
traced back to the inventive of Egypt were known as
Rivers wereameans sites.
great civilization beneath 4. Some seats supervises the (c) The rulers one of the major Harappan
transport and facilitated working of munici in __________________,
Yet, the vibrant culture
in the munici
pal corporation pal corporations. (d) A dockyard has been found
Mesopotamians.planning Valleys of Huang He and
The plain. trade. Scheduled Tribes. are ____________ _______ was the first Chinese emperor.
forgotten. Chang Jiang (Yangtze) ______ for Schedu (e) ___________ 5
declined and was gradually
Town 5. The munici
pal corporation led Castes and
in China establishes and
2. Match the following.

facilitate quick
B Match the maintains ______
Values and Life Skills following. ___________
education centre B
Governing bodies and laws ans did. We should make the best
Civilization s. A
creatively just like the Mesopotami
Mesopotamian (a) god of fire

TIMELINES help students to

We should try to solve our problems A 1. Mesopotamians priests and scholars
1. municipal (b) educated
use of our resources. and skills corporation
B 2. Great Granary
city was divided into three
Thes pollution? 2. mayor (a) respected (c) Indus Valley civilization

revision.
Special crafts
e solution to a major envi ronmental problem such a parts—the sacred area, the citizens 3. Confucianism
• Can you think of a creativ Oldest civilization in the world the 3. Alderman (b) optional (d) first to cultivate wheat
walled city on a mound and function of a 4. Agni
4. organizing municipal corpor (e) state religion of China

visually relate to and recall dates

outer town. (c) large cities ation
fairs 5. brahmana 5
Language and script 5. municipality (d) towns
answer.
developed Sacred areas had temple-towers or Present day
Arches, columns, domes
(e) head of a 3. Choose the correct dria.
Around this time, the Sumerians C Choose the municipal corpor
ation founded the city of Memphis/Thebes/Alexan
the world’s first civilization. ziggurats dedicated to the
patron and vaults were used in the correct answe (a) Alexander the Great ns/Chinese.
construction of the buildings. r. by the Mesopotamians/Egyptia rajan/grihapati/purohit.
god of the city. 1. Big cities (b) Tea was first cultivated was the

of important historical events.

CE
like Delhi and in the Early Vedic period life during the Later Vedic
period.
corporations. Mumbai have
town area comm (c) The head of the family third stage in a person’s
BCE 1 ce 500 1000 1500 2000
ittees/ (d) Brahmachar ya was the first/second/ Ramayana/M ahabharata/ Upanishads
2. The mayor municipalities the
/municipal (e) The essence of Hinduism is contained in
1500 1000 500
2500 2000 of /municipal comm
3500 3000 Agriculture, domestication 5
4000
Society divided into three classes— corporation. issioner/alder
and lower animals and art and crafts were man presides
middle class
upper class,flourished over the meetin following are true or false.
The Mesopotamian civilization
Father was the head of the some of the other occupations. 3. The chief
executive officer 4. State whether the
gs of the munici for their skills.
class. pal surgeons were renowned that were symbolic
family. commissione of a municipal
corporation is (a) Egyptian doctors and made terracotta figurines
r/sarpanch. Indus Valley civilization
4. The total known as the
mayor/munic (b) Craftspeople from the
number of memb shudras.
People believed in many gods ipal of the Mother Goddess. kshatriyas, vaishyas and
Important Words
ers of a munici
of the city/sta pal corporation classes or castes—brahmanas,
trade developed. and each city had its special te/country. of a city depend (c) Janas were the four the Yagna Age.

IMPORTANT WORDS
Flourishing foreign 5. A municipal as
god. ed as schools, granaries corporation is s on the popula (d) The Later Vedic period is also known
patron god and were also us elected for a tion artisans, traders and farmers.
stage or system of social period of 2/10/5 (e) The shudras were the 10
Civilization is an advanced and trade centres. D State wheth years.
script of the Mesopo- er the follow words/sentences.
development. Cuneiform was the wedge-shaped ing are true questions in one or two
the river changed its
‘the land between two Civilization declined as n on clay table
1. A port trust
is or false. 5. Answer the following ians introduce?
Mesopotamia in Greek means ts. forms did the Mesopotam
people abandoned the site. 2. The memb an urban local self-governing (a) Which architectural cities, used for?
History

civilization developed course and

tamians, writte of the major Indus Valley
History

Granary at Harappa, one

help explain key terms in a

The Mesopotamian of reed, bone or sometimes ers of the munici body.
rivers’. Stylus was a sharp pen made that city. pal corporation (b) What was the Great dead?
and Tigris. are directly elected preserve the bodies of the
between the rivers Euphrates metal. 3. Some seats by the adult citizen (c) Why did ancient Egyptians
found in the sacred area are reserved
Ziggurats were temple-towers 4. The munici for women in
municipal corpor
s of (d) What are pagodas? women of the Early Vedic
period.
were dedicated to the pal corporation
of the Sumerian city of Ur. They 5. The munici is ations. (e) Name two highly educated 25
pality is the local not responsible for the supply
14 13 self-governing the following questions
briefly.

simple way.
of safe drinkin
6. Answer any five of

Civics
body in smalle g
E Answer the r cities and towns.water. civilizations develop along
river banks?

Term Paper
following quest (a) Why did the earliest
1. Name the ions in one or of the Mesopotamians.
local self-governing two words/sente (b) Discuss the art and architecture Egyptians.
2. Who is the bodies that look nces. of the family life of the ancient system in Harappan cities.
mayor? after the urban (c) Mention any five features features of the drainage
of the important sources of information?
114 areas. (d) Give an account considered to be valuable
Indus Valley civilization
(e) Why are seals of the

116

EXTENDED LEARNING
The following elements in each chapter help develop essential skills as suggested by the CISCE curriculum guidelines.
DISCUSS helps
develop observation, THINK AND ANSWER Worksheet 1 WORKSHEETS
listening and music and dance.
Indoor
encourages critical Identify Who I Am.
1. I am an advance stage
2. I am a temple-tow
or system of social developme
er in Mesopotamia. I am
nt. I am a __________________
a __________________
_______.
provide additional
They also liked

thinking and learning.

were 3. I am one of the Seven _______.
and board games Wonders of the Ancient
activities like dice World in Egypt. I am _________

communication skills.
4. The ancient Egyptian

practice.
civilization developed ________________.
popular too. 5. I was the sun god along my valley. I am
the __________________
of the ancient Egyptians. _______.
6. I founded the city I am __________________
of Alexandria. I am _________ _______.
Dress 7. I was a large building _________ _______.
d of two at Harappa and was used
Aryans consiste to store grains. I am the
The dress of the t was an
8. I was the first site of t
he Indus valley civiliza __________________
_______.
lower garmen tion to be unearthed. I
garments. The dhoti) tied 9. I am the founder of am _______________
of cloth (like a the Chinese state religion. __________.
unstitched piece t 10. I am a stupa-style I am __________________
The Nalanda university The upper garmen temple. I am a _________ _______.
Buddhist learning.
was a centre of
India reached the around the waist. turban-like
________________.
Medicine, astronom height of its power light shawl. A
grammar, philosoph y, glory under the rule and consisted of a men and women
y and Vedic literature of the Guptas. Politically worn. Both
, headgear was also silver and
Worksheet 2
were some of the other the country was united air
subjects taught at this under a strong and made of gold, g a yagna in open
university. stable government. wore ornaments Brahmanas performin

Discuss
was rich and prosperou
achieved extraordin
Economically, the country
s, and culturally, it
precious stones.
Think and Answe
r Word Search Map Practice1
Do and Learn
ary heights of artistic In the grid below, there do you
ed the of India. What steps
brilliance. It was, indeed, Religion Why do you think
the Aryans worshipp On the outline
Buddha. Look formap
are 15 words related
to the Vedic civilization Use your imagin
ation the prime minister
The Gupta rulers were
staunch ancient Indian history.
the Golden Age of
supreme thesegiven below,
words in themark
grid.and
s and the great preachers— r Ashoka has become today?
Youlabel Imagine that Empero the welfare of the Indian people

MAP PRACTICE
Hinduism, but they establishedfollowers of believed in one forces of nature? Mesopotam
These words ian
are:civilization, the Egyptian civilization
the four
can move ancient
upward, river valley
downward civilization
Mahavira and
the Nalanda The Aryans e. They , forward,
, the Indus Valley civilization s of the
backward world—the TP
think he would take
for
creator of the univers
University as a centre or diagonally.
and the Chinese civilization
power, i.e. the
of Buddhist learning.
Discuss what insights of nature as Class System
ARYANS GURUKUL . tion on (a) Kalinga
can be gained from this. different forces ARYAVARTA JAINISM
worshipped the god of rain BUDDHISM BRAHMAV Project work a PowerPoint presenta
ses. Indra, the ves according NIRVANA PRAKRIT ARTA VARNA AHIMSA tion and pictures
and make
gods and goddes god. The Aryans grouped themsel BRAHMANA ASHRAMA 1. Collect informa s dhamma translation
most important jobs. This

enhances map skills.

, was the performing certain
S VEDAS RAMAYAN
A MAHABHARATA TP s edicts (c) Ashoka’ (from the English
Values and Life Skills and thunder importance. to their skills in War (b) Ashoka’ the ideals of kingship Punch holes and join them
fire, was next in ment of four a’s views about
Agni, the god of to the develop R Z D T C
2. Find out Chanaky leaves and dry them. of Chanakya’s views on the
messages to eventually led C X J U A
A TP Collect some palm
A scientific outlook is that Agni carried in the Aryan society. A R Y A V B A S E of Arthashastra). ink pen to inscribe
some
the hallmark of a progressive It was believed Surya, the sun classes or varnas A R T A T cord. Use a black
society. It helps the society of smoke. and M R H A S together with a also a great
form the educated priests
Q B A N A
• What achievements to develop and grow. heaven in the the god Y A M A R ript. of India. You are
made during the reign of the Gupta god of water, Vayu, Š Brahmanas were ed religious rites
and A A I T M palm-leaf manusc to the prime minister a PowerPoint
outlook? rulers suggest that they god, Varuna, the Prithvi, the perform
A H U B R
V J R D A you are the chief adviser a and kingship. Prepare
had a scientific
the god of plants, scholars who Z H M P H 3. Imagine r Ashoka, his ideals
of dhamm ls and plans for the
of wind, Soma, goddess of on. V R S D F TP
admirer of Empero project proposa
imparted educati H A P S V explaining your . Share it
earth, Usha, the s who I M S X X the prime minister ideals of kingship
goddess of the were some were the warrior
L W Y J D
H N H Z A presentation for been based on Ashokan
the god of death, Š Kshatriyas attacks. M A A H P ent which have
dawn and Yama, the Aryans . from outside L U P A B present governm
worshipped by protected the tribe H R M N M
with the class.
of the other gods and S N E U T
Chandragupta I ascended
throne of Magadha.
the
goddes ses were supposed s were the farmers, traders Q D K A N
A I A X H
All these gods and Supreme Š
Vaishya
performed the
vital task Z I H U M I A T U G
Huns destroyed the Gupta Present day
forms of the one craftspeople who S V S A A
empire.
to be different of these and goods for all. B A K A R N B C M D
prayers in praise of providing food
bce
R F L M R
Being. People recited and served I D M W S
2000
for the birth of sons the labourers who M Q S G I
Š Shudras were
Worksheet

gods for good health,

1500
U G U Z B
did menial jobs.
1000 500 1 ce A R V Q X
three groups and
ce
500 1000 1500 H E D N P
2000
for cattle. the other society
R G Y N V
J A B R X
build temples ed division of H G P Y Z
people did not occupation-bas na D P I Y F
The Early Vedic air by This born in a brahma

VALUES AND LIFE SKILLS facilitate

R S H N J
ped gods in open
Golden Age of ancient S A D E V
Indian history
flexible. A child vice T O N Z N
or idols. They worship s (grain, was a kshatriya and P R A K R K O X Y H
and making offering family could become I T Q A O
chanting hymns performed period, this system M N W J Q
Important Words The yagnas were In the Later Vedic the caste 120
ghee and milk). took part versa. could not change
The entire family became rigid. One
by the brahmanas.
History

introspection and reasoning skills.

s ceremo nies. ‘born’ into.
religiou was
in yagnas and other one
Kalidasa was the most
famous Sanskrit poet
dramatist of the Gupta and Vaishnavas are the worshippers
period. of Lord Vishnu.
Navratnas means nine Bhakti movement
gems. This term was was a religious movement
refer to talented writers, used to believed that God could that
musicians, dramatists, be reached through intense 46
who were present in the etc. and true devotion and
king’s court. not through rituals.
Huns were barbarians Aryabhata was a
who invaded India. famous
Kumaramatyas were
officials who assisted astronomer who discovered mathematician and
the princes around the sun, and the that the earth moves
in governing the provinces.
reasons for lunar and
Vishyapatis were the eclipses. solar
History

DO AND LEARN contains:

officers who looked
after the Vagbhata wrote a book

INTERESTING INFORMATION
administration of districts on Ayurvedic medicine.
or vishyas.
Fresco is a picture that
is painted on a wall
plaster is still wet. while the

98

• Use your imagination which helps students to develop empathy for

Map Practice

History

DID YOU KNOW? provides others and to relate their learning to the outside world. It motivates 123
82

interesting snippets of them to go beyond the textbook and develop creative thinking skills.
information to pique the •  Project work which provides ample opportunities to extend learning
THERE WAS ONCE
A BOY WHO LIVED
CITY OF KOLKATA. IN THE
HIS BILEH AND HIS
CALLED HIM `BILEH'. FRIENDS FONDLY FRIENDS PLAYED
A LOT OF GAMES,
BUT THEIR
FAVOURITE WAS
TO SEE WHO
MEDITATE THE COULD
LONGEST.

Swami interest of students. beyond the classroom, and provides hands-on experience.
Vivekananda

STUDY
A COMPARATIVE
SM AND
ONE DAY, WHILE Did You Know? BETWEEN JAINI
BUDDHISM
MEDITATING…
AS SOON AS could join the sangha,
SNAKE, THEY
THE BOYS SAW
JUMPED UP IN
THE Buddha’s followers ity of Buddhists who
which was the commun

Each book of the series has a Teacher’s Manual, which includes

FEAR
rities
AND MOVED AWAY.
Buddha’s
It will bite you
Bileh! Run away! strictly followed
became monks and spread the teachings of
Simila
Bileh! Run! started their
teachings. The sangha spoke Buddha both
Mahavira and
There's a cobra
kingdoms. The monks and to the evil
Buddha to many ents as a reaction
next to you!

of the common people, reform movem in the

Pali, the language prevalent in society
practices that were

lesson plans, the complete answer key to the coursebook

monasteries. were the
lived in viharas or
ts to . The Upanishads
artists and architec name of religion s and
Buddhism inspired ce. Their basic concept
of cultural excellen source of their ideas.
achieve great heights Buddhist ideas were the same:
development of
It helped in the re of the

exercises, worksheets and term papers, a glossary, website

religious literatu full of misery.
literature. The as and Š The world is
again because
ed in the Tripitak born again and
Buddhists is contain Š A person is
BUT, BILEH CONTINUED
the Jatakas. of his/her karma.
TO MEDITATE.
s life was to
AND THEN…
goal of a person’
Š The highest

references, additional term papers with answer keys and

cycle of
freedom from the
AFTER THAT,
THE COBRA SLOWLY
attain moksha or
SLITHERED AWAY
FROM BILEH AND
DISAPPEARED.
HIS FRIENDS
birth and rebirth.
STUNNED. WERE
SUDDENLY…
ty of the
the absolute authori
Look! The snake Š They rejected

additional transactional processes.

is looking at
Vedas. God and
him!
the existence of
Š They ignored
s rites and rituals.
opposed all religiou
emphasized
of equality was
Š The principle
by both. values and
moral and ethical
period showing Š They upheld (non-violence).

The Teacher’s Manual is accompanied by digital teaching

from the Kushan
A stone relief carving being worshipped the concept of ahimsa
Features

the Bodhi tree and e of the

Buddha seated under d in the languag
History

by his disciples and

followers Š They preache
hism common people. by the
Decline of Budd were patroni zed
Both religions

and learning aids—Oxford Educate—and an interactive Test

for the Š
121 ly declined in India Mauryan rulers.
Buddhism gradual
:
following reasons .
sm was reformed and purified Differ ences
Š Hindui of
the founder

Generator. These resources help teachers in creating meaningful

sm.
patronized Hindui Buddha was
Š The Gupta kings who Š While was not founded
by
by the Huns Buddhism, Jainism
Š India was invaded was the 24th and
the last
st viharas. Mahavira. He
destroyed Buddhi

ILLUSTRATED STORIES use captivating

from India, ) of the Jains.
nearly wiped out tirthankara (teacher
History

learning-teaching experiences.
Buddhism was India of extreme
acceptance outside follows the path
but it found wide main religion of Š Jainism
physica l sufferin g that
to be the austerity and
and continues Tibet, by starvation.
Buddhism
in South-east Asia, includes death

narrative and vibrant artwork to bring to life

millions of people
63
China and Japan.

people and events from history.

7
 Contents
Preface 3
Syllabus 5
Key Features 7
History
Theme 1: A Period of Transition
1 The Beginning of the Modern World 9
2 The Industrial Revolution and the
Rise of Imperialism 20
Theme 2: The Growth of Nationalism
3 The Age of Revolution 30
4 The American Civil War 42
Theme 3: India in the 18th Century
5 Decline of the Mughal Empire 48
6 Rise of Independent Regional Powers 55
Theme 4: Traders to Rulers
7 Rise of British Power in Bengal 64
8 Expansion of British Power in India 75
Theme 5: British Policies and Impact
9 British Policies and Their Impacts 86
Theme 6: The Great Uprising of 1857
10 The Revolt of 1857 99
Theme 7: Socio-Religious Reforms
11 Indian Renaissance—Social and
Religious Reformers in India 110
Illustrated Story: Swami Vivekananda
121
Contents
8
Theme 8: India’s Struggle for Freedom
12 Rise of Indian Nationalism 123
13 The Indian National Movement
(1885–1916) 132
14 The Indian National Movement
(1917–34) 142
15 The Indian National Movement
(1935–47) 151
Illustrated Story: Babasaheb Ambedkar 158
Civics
Theme 1: The Three Main Organs of the
Indian Government: Legislature,
Executive and Judiciary
16 The Union Legislature 160
17 The Union Executive 168
18 The Judiciary 177
Theme 2: United Nations
19 The United Nations 185
20 Specialized Agencies of the UN 195
First Term Paper 201
Second Term Paper 204
Worksheets 1–4 207–210
Map Practice 1–4 211–214
Guidelines for Project Work 215
 Theme 1: A Period of Transition

1 The Beginning of the

Modern World
PERIODIZATION OF HISTORY
History in most countries is classified
into three periods—ancient, medieval
and modern. Each period has some
characteristics—political, economic, religious
and social—that sets it apart from other
periods. This classification helps to bring a
sense of order and continuity to the bewildering
array of historical events and processes that
A painting depicting the beginning of the British conquest
have taken place over centuries of evolution. of India in the Battle of Plassey, led by Robert Clive (inset)—
It helps to put the past into perspective and Modern Age in India began with the conquest of India by the
to see turning points and transition periods British.
with greater understanding and clarity. Some of the characteristic features of the
Modern Age are:
A PERIOD OF TRANSITION ŠŠ urbanization ŠŠ technological
ŠŠ democratic advancement
Historical periods differ from country
to country depending on the stage of institutions ŠŠ fundamental
development of that region. In Europe, the ŠŠ rationalism civil liberties
Modern Age started in the 15th century. In ŠŠ industrialization ŠŠ humanism
India, however, the Modern Age is generally
regarded as having begun in the mid-18th SOURCE MATERIALS
century.
The vast range and quantity of source
The major turning point in India’s transition, materials for the Modern Age in India helps
from the Medieval to the Modern Age, was us to study the history of this period in great
the conquest of India by the British. In the detail and with accuracy.
past, India had been invaded and conquered
The source materials for the Modern Age are
by foreigners. However, unlike the earlier
of two kinds—primary sources and secondary
conquerors, the British did not settle down
sources.
and adapt to an Indian way of life. For the
first time, India was ruled from outside by
Primary Sources
History

foreigners and subjected to an alien rule for

about 200 years. The sharp divide between Many of the primary sources of the Modern
the British rulers and the Indians was never Period have been preserved in archives and
bridged.
9
 museums. They include:
ŠŠ Original documents such as official records
of the British government in India
ŠŠ Literary works such as accounts of
European residents, visitors and Indian
officials, novels, plays, short stories and
poems by British and Indian authors of this
period
ŠŠ Historical works by contemporary
historians
ŠŠ Artistic works like paintings, sketches
engravings and drawings
ŠŠ Photographs, audio cassettes, films and
videotapes of incidents and interviews of
important personalities
ŠŠ Newspapers in both English and Indian A news report of the British newspaper, The Illustrated
languages London News, reporting a famine in India

ŠŠ Archaeological remains such as and the rights of the individual had become
monuments and artefacts stronger. Despite these changes, much of the
ŠŠ Oral history European continent still remained feudal in
the 16th century; eastern Europe remained
Secondary Sources backward till almost 18th century.

Secondary sources include books, reviews,

reports and articles written by historians and
scholars who study and research primary
source material, interpret evidence and arrive
at conclusions.
Since the Modern Age in India began with
the advent of the British rule, the roots of
the transition from the Medieval Period must
be traced back to Europe. To understand the
impact of British rule on Indian history, it is
imperative to understand the changes that
were taking place in Europe.
MODERN PERIOD IN EUROPE
Europe entered the Modern Age in the 15th
century. Important changes had occurred
History
THE RENAISSANCE
In the three centuries between 1300 and 1600,
a great movement of change and discovery
spread across Europe, that radically altered
the pattern of people’s lives and their way of
thinking.
This movement, representing a new spirit
in every field of life, is referred to as the
Renaissance. It is a French word which
means ‘rebirth’ or ‘revival’. The Renaissance
ushered in revolutionary changes in Europe
and marked the transition from the Medieval
to the Modern Age in Europe. The expansion
of trade, the voyages of discovery by Italian
merchants, their interaction with various

societies and their wealth and prosperity

by that time—feudalism had declined, new
were all important factors that contributed to
towns had developed, trade had increased
the beginning of the Renaissance.
10
Another important event with far-
reaching consequences was the capture of
Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine
empire (Eastern Roman empire) in 1453, by
the Ottoman Turks.
A painting showing the capture of Constantinople by the
Ottoman Turks in 1453
A large number of Greek scholars fled from
Constantinople (a great centre of classical
Greek and Roman learning) to Italy with rare
manuscripts. These scholars were patronized
and encouraged by the rulers, the scholars
and the rich Italian merchants of Rome,
Florence, Milan and Venice. Libraries were
set up and universities were established to
promote classical and modern learning.
Think and Answer
Think of the period between 1300 ce and
1600 ce in India. What do you think were the
major differences between India and Europe at
this point of time?
The Renaissance, or the revival of classical
Graeco-Roman learning, inspired and
encouraged people to question and challenge
long established ideas and institutions that
had been imposed on them by the Church and
their kings. They refused to blindly accept the
dictates of their rulers and the Church. They
demanded to know the truth based on logic
and reason and rejected everything that did
not fall within the yardstick of reason.
This new spirit of rationalism led to the
rise of a scientific temper and the spirit of
inquiry. This scientific temper and the desire
to inquire or seek the truth led to new and
varied developments in the fields of (i) art,
(ii) architecture, (iii) sculpture, (iv) painting,
(v) literature, (vi) science and technology,
(vii) explorations and (viii) discoveries.
Renaissance scholars and thinkers shifted
the focus from divine affairs to human
affairs. The spirit of humanism was central
to the new learning. Medieval preoccupation
with religion, afterlife, heaven and hell was
replaced with a deep and abiding interest
in human affairs—their joys and sorrows,
desires and fulfilment, freedom and creativity
in this life. The spirit of the Renaissance
period found expression in every aspect of
human life. This period saw a great outburst
of creativity and brilliance.
Discuss  TP
Which aspect of Renaissance thought do we still
follow in our lives? Discuss.
VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
The Renaissance also fostered a spirit of
exploration and discovery. This period bred
a spirit of adventure and the desire to explore
the unknown, which in turn led to exploration
and the discovery of many new lands.
In the mid-15th century, the Ottoman Turks
captured Asia Minor and cut off direct land
links between Asia and Europe. The Turks also
took control of the main ports of the eastern
Mediterranean Sea, raided European ships,
History
and imposed heavy taxes on goods passing
through their lands. This was a great blow to
European trade with the East. It gave rise to
11
 an urgent need to find an alternate sea route
to the East. Great voyages of explorations
were undertaken, leading to great discoveries
of new routes and new lands.
Important Discoveries
In the 15th century, a Portuguese prince, Henry
the Navigator, sent out several expeditions to
explore the west coast of Africa. He prepared
maps based on these explorations. In 1488, an
expedition led by Bartholomew Diaz reached
the southern tip of the African continent. This
later came to be known as the Cape of Good
Hope because the prospects of finding India
seemed bright.
In 1497, another Portuguese explorer, Vasco
da Gama, followed the same route and then
sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. He
crossed the Indian Ocean and reached Calicut
(present-day Kozhikode) on the west coast
of India in 1498. Vasco da Gama discovered
the sea route to India, which later became
an important trade route for other foreign
powers to reach India.
Did You Know?
The Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator,
had not set sail on an exploration himself. He
is referred to as 'the Navigator' because he had
taught many people how to sail, and sponsored
several expeditions, of which Bartholomew Diaz
was one.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian
sailor living in Spain, sailed westwards from
Europe with the aid of the king and the queen
of Spain. Columbus was sure that he could
reach the East if he sailed westwards from
Europe. After sailing westwards across the
History
Atlantic Ocean for 2 months, he landed on
the Caribbean Islands of Central America.
12
He undertook more voyages and discovered
several more islands in the Caribbean Sea
and along the coast of Venezuela. Until his
death, Columbus believed that he had found
a route to the East. Little did he know that
he had actually discovered America, a new
continent.
A painting showing European explorers discovering
new land
Spain and Portugal divided the newly
discovered lands in the East and the West
between themselves.
These discoveries led to a steady growth
of trade and commerce. A new class of
rich merchants emerged. These merchants
accumulated enormous wealth and helped
their rulers to build prosperous, strong and
stable states. The king’s dependence on feudal
lands gradually declined.
The wealthy merchants and the professional
class consisting of doctors, lawyers, teachers
etc. formed the middle class. The middle
class in general and the merchants in
particular became the most influential section
of society and contributed greatly to the
progress of humankind.
These discoveries also enriched people’s
knowledge of world geography, brought about
revolutionary economic changes in Europe
and set in motion the process of colonization
of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
REFORMATION
During the Medieval Period, religion was
central to human existence. The lives of
people in Europe revolved around the Roman
Catholic Church and its supreme head, the
Pope. The authority of the Pope was absolute
and could not be questioned or challenged.
People were taught to focus only on divine
and spiritual matters throughout their lives
and prepare for life after death. Blind faith
was propagated and people were conditioned
to believe that the only path to salvation was
through complete and total surrender to the
doctrines of the Church.
Christian monasteries became exclusive
centres of education. The monopoly of
education armed the Church with absolute
power and authority to increase its
stranglehold on society.
Opposition to the teachings of the Church
(heresy) would incur the wrath of the papacy
and often lead to terrible punishments.
Apart from spiritual powers, the papacy was
also deeply involved in the political affairs
of Christian European states. Rulers of these
states were appointed and dismissed by
the Pope and subjected to the doctrines and
regulations of the Church.
As the Church became increasingly wealthy
and powerful, clergymen and priests began
to lead a life of ease, luxury and opulence.
They became corrupt and immoral and lost
interest in the welfare of the people.
Meaning of Reformation
The Reformation was a protest movement
against the authoritarianism and evil practices
of the Roman Catholic Church. It was a revolt
against its orthodoxy, conservatism and blind
faith which were stifling and regressive, and
a stumbling block to the intellectual and
spiritual advancement of the people. It was
also known as the Protestant Movement.
Causes
Renaissance
The Renaissance had radically altered the
pattern of thinking and outlook of the people.
It had set in motion the advent of new and
powerful ideas of humanism, rationalism,
scientific spirit and the spirit of inquiry. These
revolutionary ideas unleashed unstoppable
forces that completely changed the way
people thought and behaved. It was like the
awakening of a sleeping giant.
People had finally found truthful and rational
answers to their questions and discovered
the real truth about themselves and their
environment. Everything based on blind faith
was questioned. The teachings of the Church
were rejected and its authority, challenged.
The invention of the printing press helped to
spread the ideas of the Renaissance thinkers
quickly and far and wide. The Bible was
translated from Latin to regional languages
and everybody learnt the real facts about the
teachings of the Bible.
Evil Practices of the Roman Catholic
Church
During the early Medieval Period, the Pope
and the clergy (priests) led pious, simple and
saintly lives dedicated to the service of the
people.
With the passage of time, the clergy, with
some exceptions, began to lead immoral
History
lives of luxury, wealth and comfort. The
monasteries owned nearly one third of the
13
 landed property in Europe. Religious duties
and services to humankind were largely
ignored or forgotten.
The Roman Catholic Church levied various
taxes such as ‘tithe’ and ‘Peter’s Pence’ on all
European Christians under their control. High
fees were charged for conducting religious
services.
Bribery and corruption became common.
Church offices were sold, bringing many
unworthy people into the Church.
The Church started the practice of selling
‘indulgences’ to those who had committed
sins. It was like a certificate of pardon by
God for their sins and a ‘passport to heaven’
without having to undergo any penance.
A picture showing the sale of indulgences by the Church
Writings of Eminent Scholars
Learned scholars like John Wycliffe and John
Huss exposed the evils of the Church through
their writings and suggested reforms. Their
ideas aroused the conscience of the people and
spread awareness about the real character of
the Roman Catholic Church.
Rise of Strong Rulers
History
With the decline of feudalism in Europe strong
rulers emerged. They defied the authority of
14
the Pope and refused to let him interfere in
their administrative affairs. They resented the
papal taxes and the drain of their wealth to
Rome in the form of papal taxes.
Rise of National Consciousness
As national consciousness began to take
shape in Europe, the people of nation states
wanted their own ruler so that they could be
independent and free from papal control.
They also wanted their own national churches.
The immediate cause of the Reformation was
a protest movement by Martin Luther.
Role of Martin Luther
Martin Luther was a German Christian monk,
preacher and a professor of theology at the
University of Wittenberg. A visit to Rome
and his observations of the Church left him
shocked and disillusioned. Enraged by the
sight of the sale of indulgences, he nailed on
the door of a local church, a list of objections
(95 Theses) for public debate.
By his attack on indulgences, which had
been issued by the Pope, Luther appeared to
be challenging the power and authority of
the papacy. He immediately found himself
in the eye of a religious storm that would
sweep throughout Europe, shake the very
foundations of the papacy, and set in motion
the Reformation Movement.
Luther publicly announced that the Bible,
not the Pope, was the final authority on
Christianity. Emboldened by the increasing
support for his views, he raised the pitch
of protest and savagely attacked Church
practices and position of the papacy.
A national German Church (Lutheran
Church) was established, free from the control
of the Roman Catholic Church. Luther was
condemned as a heretic and excommunicated
by the Pope. In a show of open defiance,
Luther publicly burnt the order issued by the
Pope.
Martin Luther was a German monk, preacher
and a professor of theology, who protested
against the evil practices of the Catholic Church.
The Pope directed the German emperor,
Charles V, to punish Luther for heresy. Luther
was ordered to withdraw all his anti-church
statements. He boldly, fearlessly and firmly
refused to do so, knowing fully well that his
life was now in grave danger.
The Duke of Saxony hid Luther in his castle
for about a year, during which time Luther
translated the Bible (New Testament) from
Latin to German. A large number of German
ruling princes supported Luther and broke
away from the Roman Catholic Church.
Lutheran churches were established in many
German states. Their followers came to be
known as Protestants.
A long and bloody civil war broke out between
the supporters of the Catholic Church in
Rome and Protestant Church in Germany.
By the end of the war (1555), Europe was
split into two camps—Roman Catholics and
Protestants. The seed of protest that Luther
had planted in a German principality within
the Holy Roman Empire flowered, bore fruit
and gave birth to some of the great Protestant
churches in northern and Western Europe.
Impact of Reformation
ŠŠ The church was split up permanently.
ŠŠ Civil wars broke out in many countries
between the Catholics and the Protestants.
ŠŠ Religious intolerance, hatred and
persecution of Protestants in Catholic
countries and Catholics in Protestant
countries became the order of the day, and
led to many wars in Europe.
ŠŠ Religious persecution of the Protestants
in England was a major reason for their
migration to and colonization of North
America (New England). By the end of the
18th century, the colonists would establish
the United States of America.
Counter Reformation
The Reformation had a positive impact on the
Roman Catholic Church. The Pope realized
that it was imperative to introduce reforms to
revive and revitalize the Catholic Church and
restore its lost position and prestige.
The reform movement within the Catholic
Church in response to the Protestant
Movement is known as the Counter
Reformation. The Catholic Church became
virtuous, liberal and compassionate, and
more tolerant of differing and opposing
views.
Rise of Nation States
History
The Protestants championed the cause of
independent and strong rulers, totally free
15
 from the control of the Catholic Church. Several
European rulers assumed power as head of
the Church as well as the government. The
loyalty of the people was now confined only
to their ruler (who was both their temporal
as well as spiritual leader) and no longer
divided between the Roman Church and
their government. This marked the beginning
of the evolution of nation states comprising
people bound by common ties of culture,
history, language and territory, united under
one government and one ruler.
Values and Life Skills
We should challenge and question every belief and idea that does not fall within the yardstick of reason.
We must be guided by a spirit of rationalism and should not accept all things blindly.
• What will you do if you are not convinced of certain beliefs that are imposed on you by your family
members?
Important Words
Modern Age started in Europe in the 15th century and in
India in the mid-18th century. The major turning point
in India’s transition from the Medieval to the Modern
Age was the conquest of India by the British.
Rationalism is a philosophy or belief that all behaviour,
opinions, etc. should be based on reason rather than
on emotions or religious beliefs.
Humanism is a system of thought that considers that
solving human problems with the help of reason is
more important than religious beliefs. It emphasizes
the fact that the basic nature of humans is good.
Middle class during the Renaissance in Europe comprised
the wealthy merchants and professionals, consisting
of doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc.
Primary sources are the original documents, official
records, literary works, works of art, photographs,
newspapers and archaeological monuments and
History
artefacts.
16
Economic Development
After the Reformation, the drain of wealth
from Christian countries to Rome came to an
end. The rulers of these nation states used their
improved financial resources to introduce
various reforms and improve the economic
conditions of the people. Trade, agriculture
and industry flourished. The welfare of the
people was a primary concern of the rulers
who won the loyalty and support of the
people and became strong and powerful.
Secondary sources include books, reviews, reports and
articles written by historians and scholars who study
and research the primary source material, interpret
evidence and arrive at conclusions.
Reformation was a protest movement against the evil and
authoritarian practices of the Catholic Church with a
view to reform the Catholic Church.
Theology is the study of religion and beliefs.
Counter Reformation refers to the reform movement
within the Catholic Church in response to the ideas and
actions of the Protestant Reformation.
Nation states were strong and independent countries,
in 14th century Europe. These nation states had a
common territory, with a well-defined boundary, its
people were bound by common ties of culture, history,
language and territory. They were also united under
one government/ruler.
 Preserved in archives and museums

Primary sources
Include original documents, literary works, historical works,
Source photographs, artistic works, audio cassettes, newspapers,
materials for archaeological remains, oral history, etc.
the study of
Modern Age in
Europe Secondary Include books written by historians and scholars, reviews, reports
sources and articles

Represented a new spirit of rebirth and revival

THE BEGINNING OF THE
MODERN WORLD

Greek scholars fled to Italy after the fall of Constantinople

and were patronized by rulers, scholars and rich merchants.
Renaissance
Rationalism led to the rise of a scientific temper and the spirit of
enquiry.

New developments in the fields of art, architecture, sculpture,

painting, literature, science and technology, exploration and
discoveries

Ottoman Turks took control of Asia Minor and Mediterannean

and cut off Europe's link to Asia.

Events that led

Voyages of Bartholomew Diaz reached southern tip of Africa in 1488,
to beginning of
discovery Christopher Columbus reached Central America in 1492, and
Modern Age in
Vasco Da Gama reached India in 1498.
Europe

This led to growth of trade and commerce, rise of the middle

class and enriched knowledge of geography.

Decadent life of the clergymen agitated people.

Renaissance, evil practices of the Roman Catholic Church,

writings of eminent scholars, rise of strong rulers and a national
consciousness slowly made the people question their blind faith in
the Catholic Church.

Reformation
Martin Luther protested against the Church. His 95 Theses and
translation of the Bible into regional languages weakened the
control of Church on the people.

It sparked Counter Reformation. Church amended its wrongful

History

practices. A Protestant Church was formed and there was rise

of nation states. Various reforms were introduced for economic
development.

17
 Exercises
A Fill in the blanks.
1. The Modern Age in India began with the conquest of India by the __________________.
2. India was ruled by the British for nearly __________________ years.
3. The two kinds of source materials for the Modern Period are __________________ sources
and __________________ sources.
4. The __________________ ushered in revolutionary changes in Europe and marked the
transition from the __________________ Age to __________________ Age.
5. The four characteristic features of the Renaissance period are _______________, __________
_________________ and __________________.
B Match the following.
A B
1. archaeological sources like monuments (a) humanism
2. Renaissance (b) primary source
3. Constantinople (c) Martin Luther
4. Reformation (d) taxes levied by Roman Church
5. tithe and Peter’s Pence (e) capital of the Byzantine empire

C Choose the correct answer.

1. In India, the Modern Period is generally regarded as having begun in the mid-15th/mid-18th/
mid-16th century.
2. The primary sources for the study of the Modern Period are preserved in archives/banks/
factories.
3. The wealthy merchants and the professional class consisting of doctors, lawyers, teachers,
etc. formed the upper class/middle class/lower class.
4. The invention of the printing press/telegraph/telephone helped to spread the ideas of the
Renaissance thinkers far and wide.
5. Martin Luther was an Italian/a German/a French Christian monk.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. The source materials of the Modern Period are of two kinds—primary and secondary.
2. Primary sources of history include books, reviews, reports and articles.
3. Renaissance scholars shifted the focus from divine affairs to human affairs.
4. The voyages of discoveries led to a decline of trade and commerce.
5. The Reformation was also known as the Protestant Movement.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. The history of most nations can be divided into a number of periods. Name them. [2]
History

2. What distinguishes one historical period from another? [2]

3. In what way is the classification of historical periods useful to us? [2]
4. When did the Modern Period begin in (a) Europe? (b) India? [2]

18
 5. Mention any four characteristic features of the Modern Period. [2]
6. Mention any two (a) primary and (b) secondary source materials of the Modern Period. [2]
7. Why is it important to study developments in Europe to understand the history of
Modern India? [2]
8. What is the meaning of Renaissance? [2]
9. What is meant by Reformation? [2]
10. What do you understand by nation states? [2]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. The capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks led to the beginning of Renaissance
in Europe. With reference to this statement answer the following questions:
(a) How did it lead to the revival of classical Greek and Roman learning in Europe? [3]
(b) What effect did it have on the outlook and attitudes of the people of Europe? [4]
(c) What effect did it have on trade? [3]
2. With reference to the causes of the Reformation, how did the following contribute to the
movement?
(a) Renaissance [3]
(b) Evil practices of the Roman Catholic Church [4]
(c) Rise of strong and powerful rulers [3]

G Picture study
This is a portrait of the German monk who opposed certain activities of
the Catholic Church.
(a) Identify the person in the picture.
(b) With which great religious movement is his name associated?
(c) Where was he born and in which country did he lead his movement?
(d) Mention any four effects of the movement started by him.

Do and Learn
Use your imagination
TP Imagine you are Martin Luther, teaching at the University of Wittenberg. Prepare a lecture
to give in class, explaining why you opposed the priests and challenged the power and
authority of the Catholic Church during his time.

Project work
TP 1. Collect pictures and information on the impact of the Renaissance and make a
scrapbook.
TP 2. Make a report to show how, in post-Reformation period, religion has affected the
political history of Europe.
TP 3. Make a PowerPoint Presentation on the importance of studying history through
various sources and the need to preserve them.
SI Computer Studies
History

TP 4. Make a collage of the voyages of discovery of the 15th century.

19
 Theme 1: A Period of Transition
2 The Industrial
Revolution and the Rise
of Imperialism
PRE-INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
During the Medieval Period, agriculture was
the main occupation of the people. Everybody
was associated with land, in some way or the
other. The needs of the villagers were simple
and few. Whatever they needed was made by
the artisans and craftspeople of the villages.
Every village was self-sufficient and had its
own weavers, blacksmiths, carpenters and
other skilled workers. Simple tools were
used and goods were made at home with
the help of family members. The finished
products were sold to the local communities.
This system of production was known as the
domestic system.
The exploration and discovery of new lands
led to an increase in overseas trade and
commerce. This in turn, led to the growth
of towns and cities and the emergence of
a wealthy middle class. The demand for
consumer and luxury items greatly increased.
The domestic system could not cope with
this growing demand. The methods of
production were inadequate and too slow.
An improved system became the need of the
hour. Initially, a modified and more effective
system evolved. It was called the putting out
system under which merchants ‘put out’ or
supplied the raw materials to the artisans
and later sold the finished products in distant
History
markets. The artisans worked either at their
own home or at a workshop outside their
20
home. The domestic workers received from
the merchant, the payment or wages for their
labour. This system was a precursor to the
factory system that followed.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
By the middle of the 18th century, a series
of remarkable inventions led to an economic
revolution in England which came to be
known as the Industrial Revolution. It
transformed the entire economy and society
of 18th century England, and other countries
subsequently.
This great and radical transformation in
industry which fundamentally altered all
the methods, techniques and organization of
production and distribution is known as the
Industrial Revolution.
Features of the Industrial
Revolution
The main features of the Industrial Revolution
were as follows:
ŠŠ The domestic system of production was
replaced by the factory system.
ŠŠ Manual labour was replaced by machines.
ŠŠ Small-scale production gave way to large-
scale production.
Large-scale mass manufacture of goods was
carried on in factories instead of the homes of
the artisans. Power-driven machines replaced
simple tools. These factories, including the
resources and the means of production,
were owned by rich merchants known as
capitalists, or people who owned the capital.
Causes of the Industrial
Revolution in England
There were a number of factors that paved the
way for the Industrial Revolution in England.
Surplus Capital
Economic growth and an increased overseas
trade led to accumulation of enormous wealth
in England. This surplus capital was used in
the development of new industries and in
setting up of new factories.
Stable Government
Political stability in England provided
conditions that were favourable for economic
growth.
Agricultural Revolution
There was an agricultural revolution that
preceded the Industrial Revolution. This was
due to the consolidation of landholdings
through the enclosures, improvement in
agricultural methods, such as rotation of
crops, and the introduction of new farming
machinery which increased agricultural
production.
Availability of Cheap Labour
The mechanization of agriculture led to
large-scale unemployment of farmers who
migrated to towns and cities in search of
jobs, and were ready to work in factories at
low wages.
The Enclosure Movement had led to the
takeover of land by rich landlords and so
the small landless farmers also migrated to
towns and cities in search of employment in
factories. They provided a readily available
pool of cheap labour.
Availability of Coal and Iron
Coal and iron—the two essential resources
necessary for the growth of industries were
available in abundance in northern England.
Many industrial towns and cities were located
in this region.
Major Inventions
Political and social stability in England
created conditions that were conducive to
creativity. The first phase of the Industrial
Revolution was based on mechanization
of the cotton industry, and Lancashire
(particularly Manchester) became the centre
of the cotton industry. This was followed by
further revolutionary inventions.
A painting showing machines making cotton thread at a
mill in Lancashire in 1835
New machines such as Hargreave’s Spinning
Jenny, John Kay’s Flying Shuttle, Arkwright’s
Water Frame, Cartwright’s Power Loom and
Eli Whitney’s Cotton Gin improved the textile
industry.
Newcomen’s Pump and James Watt’s Steam
History
Engine, using steam power, and Davy’s
Safety Lamp helped extract coal from the coal
21

A Spinning Jenny dating back to 1820
mines and increased the production of coal
and iron.
There was a need for better transport facilities
and communication. George Stephenson’s
Steam Locomotive, John Macadam’s road
building technique, Thomas Edison’s
Incandescent Lamp, Graham Bell’s
Telephone and Marconi’s Telegraph were
some inventions in this field.
A prototype of James Watt’s Steam Engine, one of the most
important inventions of the Industrial Revolution
Did You Know?
In the early 18th century, English iron maker
Abraham Darby discovered how to make iron
using coal, which was more easily available
than wood. This led to the rapid growth in the
production of iron which was used to make tools
History
and machinery. Darby’s son constructed the first
iron bridge over the river Severn in west Britain.
22
Naval Supremacy
Backed by a powerful navy, the strongest
in the world, England had acquired a large
number of colonies. These colonies were
used as suppliers of cheap raw material and
as ready markets for finished products. This
stimulated industrial growth.
The steamship HMS Warrior, the first ironclad warship in
the British navy
Spread of the Industrial
Revolution
The Industrial Revolution that began
in England was not a single event but a
continuing process which went through
different phases and spread to different
countries at different times.
Mechanized industries were introduced in
France, Germany, USA and Japan. Germany
made rapid progress after its unification (1871)
and became one of the leading industrial
nations in Europe. Britain gradually lost its
lead by the end of the 19th century.
The USA also surged ahead of Britain and
made major progress in the iron and
steel industry. It soon became one of the
leading industrial nations of the world.
Industrialization in Russia was very slow
but picked up after the Russian Revolution
(1917). Japan was the first Asian country to
become industrialized.
Impact of the Industrial
Revolution
The Industrial Revolution radically changed
the entire fabric of Western society. The
transformation was so profound that
conditions of life changed beyond recognition.
Economic Impact
Urbanization
The Industrial Revolution led to the growth
of many towns and cities where factories
were set up. People from the villages began to
migrate to these industrial towns and cities in
search of jobs. The shifting of the population
from rural to urban areas was an important
development of the Industrial Revolution.
Factory System
The Industrial Revolution led to the destruction
of the domestic system of production. Workers
went to work in factories and machine-
made goods were manufactured on a large
scale. The work was divided between people
according to their ability and capability.
Division of Labour
One of the characteristic features of the
industrial revolution was the division of
labour, i.e. each person or a group of people
performed a specialized task.
Capitalism and Economic Disparity
The Industrial Revolution led to the
concentration of wealth in the hands of the
capitalists—a few rich people who owned
the means of production (capital). The vast
majority of workers were employed by the
capitalists in their factories and worked under
them for wages. The workers were exploited
by the capitalists and lived in poverty and
misery.
There was a wide gulf between the rich
capitalists and the poor workers. The
capitalists were thus the haves, while the
workers were the have-nots. Economic
inequalities led to social inequalities which
eventually led to the growth of socialism.
The advent of machines led to a lot of people
losing their jobs as fewer people were required
to produce the same goods. Unemployment
gave rise to a general anger against machines.
Expansion of Trade and Commerce
Large-scale production of goods led to the
expansion of trade and commerce. Surplus
goods were sold to other countries. Increasing
profits made the industrialized nations
rich and prosperous. Trade also expanded
because steamships were being used, which
were superior to the earlier ships.
As production increased further, these
nations began to look for new markets for
the sale of finished products. This in turn
led to competition among the European
nations to acquire colonies in distant lands.
These colonies would be used not only as
ready markets for manufactured goods but
also as constant suppliers of raw material
for the industries. Colonial rivalry between
industrialized countries eventually led to the
First World War.
Socialism
Socialism was a reaction to the evils of
capitalism. Socialism is a system under which
there is no private ownership of capital.
People in a socialist set-up would not be
History
divided into rich and poor classes. The means
of production (capital) is owned by society
23
 as a whole, and everybody would work and conditions. The capitalists exploited the
share, equally, the profits, i.e. the fruits of their workers by forcing them to work for almost
labour. Thus, exploitation would be wiped 16 hours a day, without a break. They were
out and a classless society based on economic not allowed to go on strike.
and social equality would be established.
Women and
children were
Social Effects
employed in
Social Inequality large numbers
The economic disparity between the rich in deep and
capitalists and the poor workers led to gross dangerous coal
social inequalities. There was a wide gulf mines. They
between the social status of the capitalists and worked from
the workers. dawn to dusk
on extremely
Harsh Living Conditions of the low wages. No
A picture showing children working
Workers compensation in a factory
was paid to
The Industrial Revolution led to the
workers for injury or death due to accident in
migration of people from the villages to the
industrial towns in search of jobs. Cities grew mines and factories.
rapidly and without any proper planning. The extremely stressful working and living
As the population grew, the cities became conditions led to a decline of moral values
overcrowded and people were forced to live among the workers. Life became a struggle
in crowded homes in squalid surroundings for survival and community bonds broke
and without proper sanitation facilities. down amongst people.
A large number of slums sprang up. Black
smoke filled the air and, in the absence of basic Political Effects
amenities, the health of the workers broke
down. Disease and epidemics took a heavy
Rise of the Capitalists
toll of human lives. According to a report of Prior to the Industrial Revolution, landowners
a slum in Manchester, all the inhabitants had enjoyed great wealth, privileges and political
died due to a cholera epidemic in the early influence. The Industrial Revolution led to
1830s. the emergence of the wealthy and powerful
capitalist class as a dominant force in the
Exploitation of Workers British Parliament. Government policies were
The capitalists amassed enormous wealth influenced by the interests of the capitalist
at the expense of the workers, the majority class.
of whom were totally dependent on their
employers. Discuss
History

Workers had no job security and they could Are revolutions a thing of the past? Discuss and
be dismissed at any time. They worked on substantiate your answer.
very low wages and under extremely harsh

24
Trade Unions
The ruthless exploitation of the workers by
the capitalists led to protests. They united
and organized themselves into trade unions
to fight for their rights and better working
conditions. The trade unions faced strong
resistance from the employers. In many
countries, the clash between the trade unions
and the capitalists led to bloodshed.
The struggle of the trade unions was long and
arduous. The vast majority of workers did not
have the right to vote.
The determination and efforts of the trade
unions eventually bore fruit. The government
passed several factory laws to improve the
conditions of the workers and grant them
certain rights.
TP Think and Answer
Industrial Revolution was a mixed blessing. Do
you agree with this statement? Give reasons for
your answer.
THE RISE OF IMPERIALISM
Imperialism is a policy of extending a country’s
power and influence to other countries
through the use of military force, colonization
or other means. It generally refers to the policy
of takeover and domination of the political,
economic and cultural life of a weak overseas
nation by a powerful nation. Imperialism
implies colonialism, which is the method or
practice by which a powerful country acquires
control over another country, either partly or
wholly.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the power,
position and prestige of imperial European
nations depended on the extent and value
of their overseas possessions (colonies). The
Industrial Revolution sparked off a mad
scramble for colonies in Asia and Africa.
Industrial development depended on raw
materials and ready markets. Colonies could
be exploited to serve as (i) constant and
steady sources of raw materials for industrial
production and (ii) exclusive, captive markets
for their finished products. These colonies
could also be used as (iii) fields for investment
of surplus British capital.
By the end of the 19th century, the imperialist
nations of Europe had colonized almost
the whole of Asia and Africa. The scramble
for colonies led to intense rivalry, fierce
competition and numerous wars among
the imperial powers. These conflicts
eventually precipitated international
tensions and crises that became one of the
major causes for the outbreak of the First
World War in 1914.
In the 19th century, the British had started an
aggressive policy of conquering territories
in India. This need to acquire and expand
territorial possessions in India, was fuelled by
the desperate need to sustain rapid industrial
growth in Britain. By the middle of the 19th
century, the British had conquered almost the
whole of India. India became the ‘jewel in the
British Crown’ and Britain was transformed
into an international economic giant.
Thus, the Industrial Revolution set in motion
the multiple forces of imperialism in the
modern world. In the race for supremacy,
Britain surged ahead and emerged as the clear
winner and creator of the largest and most
powerful empire in the world—an empire on
which ‘the sun never set’.
In India, the British empire would unleash
potent forces of change in political
dynamics,  economic equations and cultural
influences, enslave a great nation with a
History
glorious legacy, and reduce it to a ‘colonial
economy’ for almost 200 years.
25
 Values and Life Skills
We should respect our domestic help and be kind to them. We should be sensitive to their needs and
provide them with a safe working environment. We should pay them good salary and ensure timely
payment to them. They should never be exploited and should always be given their due holidays.
• If you were the owner of a factory, how would you treat your workers?

Industrial Revolution A wave of colonial expansion

took place in England. took place.

ce ce

1700 1750 1800 1850 1900

The British followed a policy

of territorial conquests.

Manual labour was replaced with machines.

Features Domestic system of production was replaced by the factory system.

Industrial Revolution

Small-scale production gave way to large-scale production.

Surplus capital from trade and commerce used in setting up new industries.

Political stability led to economic growth.

Consolidation of landholdings, newer agricultural methods and new machinery

Causes sparked agricultural revolution.

Mechanization of agriculture and Enclosure Movement led to unemployment

AND THE RISE OF IMPERIALISM
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

and thus, availability of cheap labour.

Innovative new machinery such as Spinning Jenny and Steam Engine led to a rise
in production.

After the revolution in Britain,France, Germany, USA and Japan followed suit.
Spread USA surged ahead of Britain. Germany progressed after unification in 1870.
Russian industries came up after Russian Revolution in 1917.

Economic: Growth of towns and cities, growth of factories, rise of a labour class
that performed a specialized task, division of society into haves and have-nots

Social: Gap between rich capitalists and poor workers, bad living conditions in
Impact
city, workers were exploited, women and children employed in factories
Rise of imperialism

Political: Rise of influential capitalist class, formation of trade unions in response

to exploitation of workers
History

Industrial Revolution sparked off colonization in Asia and Africa. Colonies were to serve as sources of raw
materials, markets for finished products, fields for investment. India became a colonial economy of the
British in the 19th century.

26
 Important Words
Domestic system was the system of the production of
goods by craftspeople and artisans at home with the
help of their family members using simple tools.
Putting out system was a system under which merchants
'put out' or supplied the raw materials to the artisans
and later sold the finished products in the distant
markets.
Factory system was the system where the goods were
produced in factories on a large scale using machines
instead of simple tools.
Enclosures were large farm fields enclosed by fences or
hedges. The wealthy landlords bought and enclosed
land that was once owned by the poorer village
farmers.
Spinning Jenny was a spinning machine which enabled
one person to spin eight threads simultaneously. It
was invented by James Hargreaves and was named
after his wife.
Urbanization refers to the growth of towns and cities.
Capitalism is an economic system in which the industry
and business are controlled and run for profit by
private owners rather than by the government.
Socialism is a set of economic theories based on the
belief that everyone has an equal right to a share of
the country’s wealth and that the government should
control the main industries.
Trade union is an organization of workers, usually in a
particular industry, that exists to protect their interests,
improve conditions of work, etc.
Colonialism is a policy by which one nation acquires
control over another country, either partly or wholly.
The conquered country becomes the colony of the
conquering nation, known as the colonial power.

Exercises
A Fill in the blanks.
1. _____________________ and ________________ are the two basic resources essential for
industrial growth.
2. Colonies were used as ________________ of cheap raw material and _________________ for
finished products.
3. Socialism was a reaction to the evils of ____________________.
4. ________________ and _________________ were employed in large numbers in dangerous
coal mines.
5. The Industrial Revolution sparked off a mad scramble for ____________________ in Asia and
Africa.

B Match the following.

A B
1. Industrial Revolution (a) India
2. socialism (b) colonies
History

3. trade unions (c) factory system

4. imperialism (d) equal share of wealth
5. British colony (e) better working conditions for workers

27
 C Choose the correct answer.
1. The main occupation of the Europeans in the Medieval Age was agriculture/mining/fishing.
2. James Watt invented the Steam Engine/Safety Lamp/Power Loom.
3. The first Asian country to become industrialized was Japan/India/China.
4. The capitalists/landlords/workers organized themselves as trade unions to fight for their
rights.
5. By the end of the 19th century, the imperialist nations of Europe/North America/Australia
had colonized the whole of Asia and Africa.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. Manual labour was replaced by the machines during the Industrial Revolution.
2. Small-scale production flourished during the Industrial Revolution.
3. Capitalists were the have-nots.
4. There was a wide gulf between the capitalists and the workers.
5. Capitalism is a set of economic theories based on the belief that the government should
control the main industries.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. Explain the term ‘domestic system’. [2]
2. Define the term ‘Industrial Revolution’. [2]
3. Why were trade unions formed? [2]
4. What do you understand by imperialism? [2]
5. Give one example of each of the following: (a) a colony (b) a colonial power. [2]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, answer the following questions:
(a) Mention the three important features of the Industrial Revolution. [3]
(b) Given any four important reasons to explain why the Industrial Revolution started in
England. [4]
(c) Briefly discuss the spread of the Industrial Revolution. [3]
2. In the context of the economic impact of the Industrial Revolution, answer the following
questions:
(a) What effect did the Industrial Revolution have on the domestic system of production? [3]
(b) How did it create a wide gap between the rich and the poor? [4]
(c) What effects did it have on trade and commerce? [3]
3. With reference to the following points, explain the social effects of the Industrial Revolution:
(a) Social inequality [3]
(b) Harsh living conditions of workers [4]
(c) Exploitation of workers [3]
4. With reference to the Industrial Revolution, explain the following:
(a) The basic features of socialism [3]
(b) The growth of trade unions [4]
(c) The rise of imperialism [3]
History

28
G Picture study
This is a picture of a machine invented during the Industrial
Revolution.
(a) Identify the machine in the picture.
(b) Who invented it?
(c) Which industry did it revolutionize?
(d) Mention any four impacts of the Industrial Revolution.

Do and Learn
Use your imagination
TP Imagine you were a socialist leader invited to speak on television on the benefits and evils
of the Industrial Revolution. Prepare your speech and read it out in class.

Project work
TP 1. Make a report on the inventors of the period of Industrial Revolution along with
pictures of some of the machines. Include a timeline showing the major inventors as
part of your report.
TP 2. With the help of your teacher, organize a visit to a factory. Write a report on the kind of
goods produced and conditions of the workers and share it with the class.
TP 3. Make a PowerPoint presentation on imperialism and its impact and share it in class.
SI Computer Studies

History

29
 3
Theme 2: The Growth of Nationalism

The Age of Revolution

REVOLUTIONS IN AMERICA Causes of the American War of

AND FRANCE
The late 18th century was a period of
revolutions in America and France. The
American Revolution (1775–83) was a
momentous historical milestone which
inspired the people of other countries to
overthrow their colonial masters and paved
the path to democracy and self-government.
The French Revolution (1789–99) was another
pathbreaking historical landmark. It was
political, social and economic in nature and
ended the rule of hereditary kings. It also
strengthened and empowered the middle
class, gave hope to the poor and downtrodden
people of society and introduced democratic
ideas and ideals in France.
THE AMERICAN WAR OF
INDEPENDENCE
The American War of Independence or the
American Revolution was the first organized
political revolution in the history of the world
in which people asserted their right to rule
themselves. It led to:
(i) the birth of the United States of America
as a nation
(ii) the end of autocratic rule and
History
Independence
The discovery of the American continent—
the New World—was followed by the
establishment of permanent European
settlements in the 16th century. By the middle
of the 18th century, thirteen British colonies
had been established along the east coast of
North America.
Rigid Control over Economic Policies
These colonies were under the control of
the British government which gave them
considerable liberty to manage local affairs
but kept a tight control on economic policies.
The Government of England believed that
colonies existed for the benefit of the mother
country. This was greatly resented by the
colonists who were independent-minded
Britishers, who had left their homes in

A painting depicting the landing of the early British settlers,

(iii) the establishment of a democratic form
famously known as the Pilgrim Fathers, on the east coast of
of government America

30
England and settled in the New World in Social and Cultural Differences
search of freedom and a better life.
Socially and culturally, the American colonists
By the mid-18th century, these thirteen were different from the British. The colonists
colonies had developed into prosperous were simple and liberal, unlike the British
agricultural settlements, mainly in the south, puritans who were rigid and conservative.
with small but flourishing industries in the Over the years, the colonists had developed a
north and a thriving overseas trade. distinct identity of their own—an American
identity that aspired for freedom to grow and
Unjust and Exploitative develop as a separate independent nation.
Administration
No Representation in the British
Each colony had its own Assembly elected by
the people of the colony but the Governor of the Parliament
colony was appointed by As the mother country, Britain expected
the British government. THE COLONIES IN AMERICA
The Governor was e
nc
not answerable to the RUPERT’S LAND re

w
Hudson’s Bay Company

La
Assembly. He governed

St
the colony in the interest NOVA
G

SCOTIA
of Great Britain, the at OF 4)
re

La E 7
mother country, and not kes NC 7
O VI C (1 NEW
R E HAMPSHIRE
the colonists. This caused P EB
QU
great resentment among
MASSACHUSETTS
the American settlers who NEW YORK Boston
worked very hard but RHODE ISLAND
could not enjoy the fruits CONNECTICUT
PENNSYLVANIA
of their labour. Philadelphia
LOUISIANA NEW JERSEY
(Spanish territory)
DELAWARE
Heavy Taxation
ine

Ohio MARYLAND
LOUISIANA

VIRGINIA
n l

and Restrictions
atio

on Business and NORTH

AT L A N T I C
m

INDIAN a CAROLINA
Commerce
cl

RESERVE
Pr o

SOUTH
CAROLINA
OCEAN
The British government
collected heavy taxes
from them and imposed GEORGIA The thirteen colonies
WEST FLORIDA
many restrictions on their Boundaries of the
thirteen colonies, 1756
business and commerce. British North
America by 1775
These restrictions greatly Gulf of EAST FLORIDA
Indian Reserve
(returned to
hampered the economic Mexico Spain) in 1783 Boundary of the
History

United States, 1783

development of these Proclamation line
colonies. of 1763

31
 obedience. Matters came to a head when the
colonists demanded the right to have a say in
matters affecting them. The colonists argued
that the British Parliament had no right to tax
the colonists since they had no representatives
in the Parliament. ‘No taxation without
representation’ became the clarion call (a
clear message) of the colonists.

Influence of European Philosophers

The American revolutionaries were greatly
influenced by the ideas of European
philosophers like Locke, Voltaire and
Rousseau who inspired them to fight for
liberty.
Demand for Total Freedom
The demand for representation in the
British Parliament gave way to the demand
for total freedom from the British rule.
The colonies began to assert their right to
sovereign authority and argued that the right
to govern should be based on the consent
of the governed. The unjust, oppressive and
exploitative British government had forfeited
its right to govern the American colonists and
must, therefore, be overthrown.
The Boston Tea Party
The conflict eventually led to an open revolt
of the colonies. The revolt, known as the
American War of Independence, was sparked
off by an incident known as the Boston Tea
Party.
In 1773, a group of colonists, disguised as
native Americans, raided British ships in
Boston harbour and threw 340 crates of
tea into the sea. This incident was a protest
against the new taxes, including a tax on tea,
History
A painting showing the Boston Tea Party incident
The Beginning of War
The representatives of the colonies met in
Philadelphia in 1774 and appealed to their
British ruler, King George III, to withdraw all
unjust and oppressive acts. The king regarded
this as an act of rebellion and declared war
on the colonists. The British troops were sent
to suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts.
The colonists raised their own army. Fighting
broke out in Lexington and Concord in April
1775. The colonists chose George Washington
as commander-in-chief of their troops.
In 1776, the representatives met again in
Philadelphia to sign the Declaration of
Independence, which clearly stated that
the American colonists had the right to
free themselves from the oppressive and
exploitative British government and form
their own government.
The Declaration of Independence contained
revolutionary ideas and proclaimed that
all men are born equal and are endowed
with certain fundamental rights such as the
rights to life and liberty and the pursuit of
happiness.
Birth of the United States of

imposed on the colonies. The Boston Tea

Party was seen as an act of open defiance of America
the colonists against British authority.
The war ended in 1781 with the defeat of the
32

The signing of the Declaration of Independence
British forces. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris
was signed between the British government
and the colonists. According to this treaty,
the British government recognized the
independence of the thirteen colonies which
came to be known as the United States of
America.
In about 200 years, the United States of
America transformed itself into the most
powerful country in the world. It is the
unchallenged superpower in the world today.
The 4th of July is celebrated as the American
Independence Day.
Results of the American War
of Independence
ŠŠ The American War of Independence ended
British rule in the American colonies and
led to the emergence of the United States
of America.
ŠŠ A written Constitution was framed.
ŠŠ A federal, democratic, republican
government was set up.
ŠŠ The new government guaranteed to all its
citizens the rights to freedom of speech,
press, religion and justice under the law.
ŠŠ The country would be ruled by an elected
President who would govern according to
the laws written down in the Constitution
and not according to his personal whims
and fancies.
ŠŠ In 1789, George Washington was
unanimously elected the first President of
the United States of America.
Did You Know?
George Washington’s perseverance and grit
kept his army going in the American War of
Independence. Often his troops were famished
and sometimes they went barefoot in the snow.
In 1789, when he was unanimously elected as
the first President of the United States of
America, he accepted the job, and was re-
elected in 1792, but he refused a third term.
America’s capital city was named in his honour.
The Constitution of the United States of
America has served as a model and an
inspiration to several countries, including
India. The framers of the Indian Constitution
adopted various features like the federal
form of government, the incorporation of
Fundamental Rights like the American Bill of
Rights and the system of checks and balances.
Discuss TP
The American Declaration of Independence
proclaimed that all men are born equal and have
certain birthrights, such as the rights to life and
liberty, and pursuit of happiness. Discuss your
views on this.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
The French Revolution of 1789 was a milestone
and a major turning point in human history.
It revolutionized the social, economic and
political fabric, not only of France but of all
History
Europe and subsequently of almost the entire
world.
33
 Causes of the French Revolution especially for the poor peasants who had to
pay additional taxes to their feudal lords.
An Unequal, Unjust Social Order
Growing Power of the Middle Class
To understand the nature of this momentous
The French merchants, traders, manufacturers,
event, we must examine the features of the
lawyers, doctors, teachers and other
Ancien Regime—the then existing feudal
professionals had acquired great wealth
society in France.
and became economically powerful in the
The French society was essentially feudal in 18th century. However, they were denied
nature. It was divided into three main classes, social equality and political rights. This
called Estates. caused great resentment among them. They
ŠŠ The First Estate consisted of the clergy used their economic power to overthrow the
(church officials). Ancien Regime.
ŠŠ The Second Estate consisted of the nobles Influence of New Ideas
and their families.
The revolutionary writings and ideas of great
ŠŠ The Third Estate was composed of 95
political philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau
per cent of the population. It included
and Montesquieu created an intellectual
the peasants, artisans, workers and the
ferment in France. The middle class was
middle class (consisting of merchants,
greatly inspired by the revolutionary ideas
manufacturers and professionals such as
of liberty, equality, fraternity and popular
lawyers, doctors, teachers, etc.).
sovereignty.
The First and Second Estates enjoyed
Through their writings, the philosophers
numerous privileges. They owned practically
exposed the evils of French society and
all the land in France but did not have to pay
any taxes. They were very wealthy and led
comfortable and luxurious lives.
The Third Estate, on the other hand,
shouldered the entire burden of taxation
but was not entitled to any of the privileges
enjoyed by the clergy and the nobles. Taxes
were imposed on everything including basic
necessities like salt. Life was very hard, French Philosophers, Voltaire (left) and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (right)
The social structure under the Ancien Regime in France

First Estate Second Estate Third Estate

ŠŠ Clergy (church officials) ŠŠ Nobles and their ŠŠ Peasants, artisans, workers, middle class
ŠŠ Wealthy families (lawyers, doctors, teachers, merchants,
ŠŠ Wealthy manufacturers)
ŠŠ Privileged
ŠŠ Privileged ŠŠ Oppressed and poor (peasants and workers)
History

ŠŠ Did not pay any taxes

ŠŠ Did not pay any ŠŠ Exploited
taxes ŠŠ Taxed heavily

34
government and inspired the people to revolt
and fight for their rights.
An Autocratic, Absolute Monarchy
The French king was an autocrat. He enjoyed
absolute powers and his will was law.
There was no check on his powers by any
Parliament. He ruled by Divine Right and was
answerable to God and not to the people.
Inefficient, Corrupt Administration
The administration was corrupt and
inefficient. The officials were selfish and
unconcerned about the welfare of the people.
King Louis XVI was pleasure-loving and
extravagant. He was completely ignorant
of and indifferent to the sufferings of the
common people and was greatly influenced
by his beautiful and ambitious wife, Marie
Antoinette. Together, they wasted money
on festivities and pleasures and emptied the
royal treasury.
The economic bankruptcy was further
aggravated by French involvement in useless
wars against England. The rich, privileged
classes which could afford to pay taxes,
continued to be exempted from it, while the
poor were crushed under heavier taxation.
Influence of the American
Revolution
The French generals and soldiers, who
had fought in the American Revolution,
returned to France with revolutionary ideas
and inspired the people to fight against their
unjust, despotic government. The success
of the American revolutionaries enthused
the French people and encouraged them
to rebel.
The Outbreak—the Storming of
the Bastille
On 17 June 1789, the members of the Third
Estate declared that the Third Estate would
constitute itself as the National Assembly.
On 20 June 1789, the members of the Third
Estate met at a tennis court and took an oath
not to separate until a new constitution was
drawn up for France. This is known as the
Tennis Court Oath.
On 14 July 1789, a great mob attacked Bastille,
the state prison for political prisoners and a
much hated symbol of the Ancien Regime.
The prisoners were freed and they joined the
revolutionaries.
The storming of the Bastille symbolized the
victory of the people of France and the fall
of monarchy. It marked the beginning of the
revolution. 14 July is celebrated as a national
holiday in France.
The newly formed National Assembly,
consisting of the representatives of the Third
Estate, took over the control of the affairs of
France. It adopted the famous Declaration of
the Rights of Man and Citizen—a landmark
in the history of human progress. By 1791, a
new Constitution was drawn up for France.
History
A painting depicting a French mob attacking the prison of
Bastille
35
 Louis XVI and the Queen tried to escape to
Germany but were captured and later publicly
executed. Monarchy was abolished. France
became a democratic republic.
Results of the French Revolution
ŠŠ The Declaration of the Rights of Man
and Citizen established the following
principles:
(i) All men are born free and have equal
rights. Everyone is equal in the eyes
of the law.
(ii) Every citizen is entitled to freedom of
speech and expression, religion and
a fair trial.
ŠŠ Liberty, Equality, Fraternity—the battle
cry of the Revolution—became the guiding
principles of the French republic.
ŠŠ The Revolution of 1789 marked the end of
absolute monarchy and paved the way for
the establishment of a republic.
ŠŠ The revolution laid the foundation of a
democratic government, i.e. a government
based on the consent of the governed.
ŠŠ Feudalism and serfdom were abolished,
and the power of the Church was brought
under the control of the government.
ŠŠ ‘Happiness for all’ was proclaimed as
the ultimate goal of the government. New
reforms were introduced and the condition
of the people improved.
Napoleon Bonaparte
The central figure during the revolutionary
war in France was Napoleon Bonaparte. He
was a brilliant and ambitious general in the
French army. After seizing political power in
History
France in a coup in 1799, he crowned himself
36
the Emperor of France in 1804. By 1810, he
had become the master of all of Europe and
unified it.
When Napoleon and his armies invaded
other European countries, they carried with
them the revolutionary ideas of liberty and
equality. Napoleon overthrew despotic
governments, liberated the people from
their hereditary rulers and set up republican
governments based on the French model.
Unfortunately, the liberator soon turned into
a tyrant and forcibly imposed French systems
and culture on these liberated nations. The
unification of Europe was thus based, not on
consent but on force. By 1814, the people of
Europe, inspired by a spirit of nationalism,
rose in rebellion against Napoleon. In 1815,
Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of
Waterloo and exiled to the lonely island of St
Helena, where he died in 1821.
Napoleon was dead but his legacy lived
on. It was an enduring legacy that would
dramatically impact the future of Europe, Asia
(including India) and Africa in the century
that followed.
Influence of the French
Revolution outside France
The revolutionary ideas of the French
Revolution spread to all European countries.
The slogans of liberty, equality and fraternity
became the guiding principles of the people
all over the world. Oppressed people in
Europe rose in revolt against their tyrannical,
hereditary rulers and established new social
and political systems based on popular
sovereignty. It inspired mass movements
all over the world and instilled the spirit of
nationalism among people.

TP Think and Answer
The ideals of the American and French
Revolutions inspired many nations, including
India to achieve their independence. To what
extent are these ideals being followed in India
today?
In the middle of the 19th century, the
revolutionary principles of liberty, equality
and fraternity had an impact on India as
well. Indian nationalists imbibed these
principles and developed a democratic and
nationalist outlook. A national movement for
freedom was launched, culminating in India’s
independence from British rule in 1947.

TP Values and Life Skills

All the citizens of India are guaranteed certain rights and freedom by the Constitution. As responsible
citizens it is our duty to see that no one in the country is denied social equality and political rights. If
we feel that our freedom is threatened and the government is being oppressive and exploitative, then
we should protest against the government and ensure that our voice is heard.
• If you were a wealthy teacher/lawyer/merchant/doctor living during the Ancien Regime in France, would
you have revolted against the government?

American War of
Thirteen British colonies were established in Independence
North America by this time.
French Revolution

ce ce

1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800

Boston Tea Party Treaty of Paris

Declaration of Independence

Important Words
No taxation without representation was the clarion
call of the American colonists.
Boston Tea Party was an incident which sparked off the
American Revolution in 1773. A group of American
colonists, disguised as native Americans, raided
British ships in Boston harbour and threw 340 crates
of tea into the sea.
Declaration of Independence was adopted by
American colonists in Philadelphia in 1776. It clearly
stated that American colonists had the right to free
themselves from the oppressive and exploitative
First Estate in French society consisted of the clergy.
Second Estate in French society consisted of the nobles
and their families.
Third Estate in French society consisted of the peasants,
artisans, workers and the middle class (merchants,
manufacturers and professionals).
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity was the battle cry of the
French Revolution and also became its guiding
principles.
Coup is a sudden illegal, often violent, taking of
History

government power, especially by part of an army.

British government and form their own government.

37
 The thirteen colonies resented the control of the British government on their economy. They had
their own Assembly but the Governor was appointed by the British government, and thus was not
answerable to them.

Inspired by the ideas of Rousseau, Voltaire and Locke, these thirteen colonies wanted to fight for
liberty. They refused to pay taxes without being able to vote.
The American
Revolution

In 1774, the representatives appealed to King George III to withdraw his oppressive acts. This was
regarded as an act of rebellion. The British sent its troops to suppress the rebellion and the colonists
appointed George Washington as the commander of their army.
THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS

The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776 in Philadelphia. By 1781, the war had ended
and the British recognized the independence of the thirteen colonies under the Treaty of Paris.

Society was divided into three Estates under Ancien Regime. The First and Second Estates enjoyed
numerous privileges and a luxurious lifestyle. This caused resentment within the Third Estate.

Influenced by Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu, as well as the American Revolution, the Third
Estate members took the oath on 20 June 1789 to form a constitutional government. On 14 July,
The French
Revolution

the prison in Bastille was stormed and the Ancien Regime was overthrown.

Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette tried to escape but were captured and executed. The Revolution
spread the ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity across the world. The Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen was adopted.

It had an impact on several colonized countries across the world in the 19th century, including India,
which was inspired to fight for its independence.

Exercises
A Fill in the blanks.
1. The American War of Independence was the first ______________ political revolution in the
history of the world.
2. The discovery of the American continent was followed by the establishment of
_____________ European settlements in the 16th century.
3. The colonists argued that the British Parliament had no right to tax the colonists because
they had no ______________ in the ______________.
4. _____________ was chosen as the commander of the American troops in the war against the
British.
History

5. In 1776, the representatives of the colonists met at Philadelphia and adopted a

_________________________________.

38
 6. In about 200 years, the United States of America transformed itself into the most
______________ country of the world.
7. The Constitution of the United States has served as a ______________ and an
_______________ to several countries.
8. French society was divided into three main classes, namely ______________,
_______________ and ______________.
9. The revolutionary writings of political philosophers like ______________, ______________
and ______________ greatly influenced the middle-class intellectuals in France.
10. The French administration was _____________ and ______________.
11. The central figure during the revolutionary war in France was __________________.

B Match the following.

A B
1. Boston Tea Party (a) 1789
2. Declaration of Independence (b) protest against new taxes
3. Treaty of Paris (c) middle class
4. French Revolution (d) 1776
5. Third Estate (e) British government and the colonists

C Choose the correct answer.

1. By the mid-18th century, eleven/thirteen/nineteen British colonies had been established on
the east coast of North America.
2. 4 July/14 July/17 June is celebrated as American Independence Day.
3. The Second Estate consisted of the clergy/peasants/nobles.
4. Marie Antoinette was the Queen of England/France/Austria.
5. 14 July/4 July/20 June is celebrated as a national holiday in France.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. By mid-18th century eleven British colonies had been established along the east coast of
North America.
2. The American colonists were rigid and conservative.
3. The American revolutionaries were greatly impressed by the ideas of European philosophers.
4. George Washington was the first elected President of the United States of America.
5. The French Revolution laid the foundation of a democratic government.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. Which particular incident sparked off the American War of Independence? What is the
importance of this event? [2]
2. Name any two European philosophers whose ideas inspired and influenced the American
History

revolutionaries. [2]
3. What is the significance of the 4th of July in American history? [2]

39
 4. In what way did the American Revolution influence the Indian Constitution? [2]
5. Why is the French Revolution of 1789 considered a turning point in human history? [2]
6. Mention the role of the political philosophers in the overthrowing of the French monarchy. [2]
7. Mention two characteristic features of the French monarchy. [2]
8. What effect did the American Revolution have on the French people? [2]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. The American War of Independence was the first organized political revolution in
the history of the world. In this context, answer the following questions:
(a) How was an American colony governed? Why were the colonists resentful? [3]
(b) How did the American colonists differ from the British? [3]
(c) Why did the American colonists refuse to pay taxes imposed by the British
Parliament in London? Give an account of the Boston Tea Party incident. [4]
2. The British monarch King George III, refused to withdraw the unjust and oppressive acts
imposed on the colonists and declared war on them. In this context, discuss:
(a) The revolutionary principles and ideas in the Declaration of Independence in 1776. [3]
(b) The terms and long-term impact of the Treaty of Paris. [3]
(c) The important features of the newly established United States of America. [4]
3. The French Revolution of 1789 was a milestone and a major turning point in human
history. In this context, discuss the following causes:
(a) An unjust, unequal social order of the Ancien Regime [4]
(b) The growing power of the middle class [3]
(c) An inefficient, corrupt administration [3]
4. With reference to the French Revolution, discuss the following:
(a) The Tennis Court Oath [3]
(b) The storming of the Bastille [3]
(c) The adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and its fundamental
principles. [4]
5. With reference to the consequences of the French Revolution, answer the following:
(a) Mention any four revolutionary changes that took place in France after the Revolution
of 1789. [4]
(b) What effect did the French Revolution have on the rest of Europe? [3]
(c) What impact did the French revolutionary principles have on political development
in India in the middle of the 19th century? [3]

G Picture study
This picture depicts a very important event in
world history wherein a great mob is shown
attacking a state prison.
1. Mention the event.
2. In which country did it take place and when?
3. What is the significance of this event?
4. Give a brief account of the developments that
followed this event.
History

40
 Do and Learn 
Use your imagination
TP Imagine you are the daughter/son of British immigrant parents who have arrived in
Boston in search of a better life. Write a letter to your friend in Britain describing your
observations, experiences, and emotions during the first few months after your arrival.

Project work
TP 1. Dramatize the Boston Tea Party incident in class.
TP 2. Compare the important features of the American Constitution with those of the Indian
Constitution.
TP 3. Recreate the important events of the French Revolution with the help of charts,
paintings, models (using cardboard, clay or thermocol) and organize a group
presentation in the class.
SI Arts Education

History

41
 Theme 2: The Growth of Nationalism
4 The American Civil War
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN USA
The first half of the 19th century saw great
changes taking place in the United States of
America. The two major developments that
took place during this period were:
(a) the great westward expansion
(b) industrial growth and development
THE BACKGROUND
While the northern states developed as
manufacturing and shipping centres, the
southern states developed great plantation
industries, the most important being the
cotton-growing industry. Much of this cotton
was shipped to the cotton mills in Lancashire
in England, where the Industrial Revolution
had created a huge demand for raw material.
The cotton-growing industry gave rise to
serious problems in the United States. As the
plantations increased, so did the demand
for labour. The only available source of
labour in those days was the slaves brought
in from Africa and living in America. The
issue of slavery would eventually turn into
an explosive problem that would threaten the
very existence of the American Union.
By the middle of the 19th century, slavery
had been abolished throughout the British
empire. Perceptions of slavery also changed
History
in other countries, where it was now looked
upon as an evil. An anti-slavery movement
began in the northern states of America
42
demanding abolition of slavery in the United
States of America.
The industrialized northern states did not
need slave labour in their industries and, on
the whole, did not approve of slavery. The
southern states on the other hand claimed
that they needed slaves for their cotton and
sugar plantations. Thus, slaves who provided
cheap labour were considered a ‘necessity’
in the predominantly agricultural southern
states.
The southerners were often needlessly cruel
and harsh in their treatment of slaves. This
outraged many northerners and the tension
between the slave states of the South and the
abolition states of the North began to grow.
A painting showing slave labour loading sacks of cotton on a
cart to be taken for dressing and ginning, in southern states
of America
In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe published
her famous book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin which
highlighted and exposed the horrors of slavery
and the miseries of the slaves. This book had a
profound influence on the northern states and
their anti-slavery campaign began to gather
momentum. The southern states threatened
to secede or break away from the Union and
form a Confederacy of their own.
ABRAHAM LINCOLN
Abraham Lincoln became the 16th President
of the United States in 1861. During this
time the country was passing through a
very critical phase, sharply divided over the
burning issue of slavery.
Lincoln’s views on
slavery were well
known. He thoroughly
despised slavery,
which he believed
was a vicious and
brutal system. He was
uncompromisingly
opposed to slavery.
Human bondage was A portrait of Abraham
a negation and gross Lincoln, the 16th
violation of democracy. President of the US
The foundations of democracy rested on the
premise that ‘all men are created equal’. He
would not allow any extension of slavery in
the newly created states in the West.
The southern states seceded from the
Union and formed the Confederate States
of America. Jefferson Davis was appointed
President of the Confederacy.
Lincoln was determined to save the Union
at all costs—at the cost of war, if necessary.
Civil war broke out in 1861. In 1863, Lincoln
abolished slavery in the South. He remains
enshrined in the hearts of free men as the
‘Great Emancipator’.
THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS
In the famous Gettysburg address in 1863,
Lincoln justified the abolition of slavery on
grounds of the cherished principles of liberty
and equality of the founding fathers of the
United States of America. ‘Four score and
seven years ago,’ he declared, ‘our fathers
brought forth upon this continent a new
nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated
to the proposition that all men are created
equal... It is rather for us to be here dedicated
to the great task remaining before us… that
this nation, under God, shall have a new
birth of freedom and that government of the
people, by the people, for the people, shall not
perish from the earth.’
A painting depicting President Lincoln reading out the
Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves as
free people
The American Civil War (1861–65) was one
of the most bitter civil wars in history; nearly
7 lakh people lost their lives. The Civil War,
however, was not fought over the issue of
slavery. It was fought because the southern
states had left the Union, i.e. on the issue of
secession. According to Lincoln, no state had
the right to secede from the Union. Therefore,
the Confederacy had to be defeated and the
Union restored.
TP Think and Answer
History
Do you think wars should be avoided at all
costs? Give reasons for your answer.
43
 Did You Know? Discuss
Abraham Lincoln, gave to the world the concept Abraham Lincoln defined democratic
of the democratic principle of ‘Government of the government as a ‘government of the people,
people, by the people and for the people.’ Lincoln by the people and for the people’. Does this
is remembered and revered today as America’s definition apply to the Indian government? Give
prophet of democracy. His views on democracy reasons for your answer.
and definition of the American government have
come to be universally accepted as the briefest
yet most comprehensive definition of democracy Gradually, however, the North with
itself. its superior resources wore down the
Confederacy. Lee surrendered to the Union
The southerners fought with determination General, Ulysses Grant, in April 1865. The
and courage. They had brilliant generals like Civil War came to an end. It had established
Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson, under the fact that the American federation was an
whose leadership they initially won a number indestructible Union of States and no state
of victories. had the right to secede.
THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR The war had been fought
Free states
mainly in the South
Slave states and had resulted in the
Territories open to slavery as a result
of the Dred Scott Decision 1857
impoverishment of the
Confederate states southerners. Lincoln
Date when slavery was abolished
IND INDIANA made plans to repair the
damages of the war and
heal the wounds of the
South. Unfortunately for
the United States, ten days
after the victory of the
Union, Abraham Lincoln,
INDIAN the greatest American
TERRITORY
President since the birth
of the American Republic,
was shot dead by John
Wilkes Booth, an actor, in a
Washington theatre.

Values and Life Skills

Wars have devastating impact on countries and people. We should ensure peaceful solutions through
negotiations and talks and avoid violence. We should also be sensitive and develop a sense of empathy
for victims of war and other human rights violations.
History

• Do you agree that war was the only solution to prevent southerners from seceding? Give reasons
for your answer.

44
 Abraham Lincoln became the 16th President
of the United States of America.
American Civil War

ce ce

1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900

Slavery was abolished throughout

the British empire.
Lincoln abolished slavery in America.

Northern states of America developed as industrial centres while

southern states developed plantation industries. The South needed a
slave labour force for their plantations.

An anti-slavery movement started in the northern states and they came

Background
into conflict with the southern states for the abolition of slavery.

The southerners treated their slaves badly and this caused a lot of
resentment in the northern states.

He became the 16th President of the United States of America. He

THE AMERICAN
despised slavery and believed in the principle of democracy which rested
CIVIL WAR
on the premise that all men are created equal.

After the southern states seceded, Lincoln wanted to save the Union at
all costs. Civil War broke out in 1861, and by 1863 Lincoln had abolished
slavery in the southern states.

Contributions of
Abraham Lincoln
In the famous Gettysburg Address of 1863, Lincoln justified the abolition
of slavery as it violated principles of equality and liberty and reminded
the people of the dream of the Founding Fathers of the United States of
America

The southerners fought bravely under Robert E. Lee and Stonewall

Jackson, but eventually surrendered to the superior forces of Ulysses
Grant in 1863. The South was improverished due to the war and Lincoln
made plans to heal and repair the damages of the South.

Important Words
Slave states were those states of the southern part
of United States of America who were in favour of
slavery, as they claimed they needed slaves for their
sugar and cotton plantations.
Abolition states were those states of the northern part
of United States of America who were not in favour
of slavery and wanted its abolition.
and won it. He also abolished slavery in America.
American Civil War (1861–65) was one of the most
bitter civil wars in history, in which 7 lakh people lost
their lives. It was fought to restore the American
Union, as the southern states had seceded from the
Union.
Secession The fact of an area or group becoming
History

Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United independent from the country or larger group that
States of America who led the American Civil War it belongs to.

45
 Exercises
A Fill in the blanks.
1. In the first half of the 19th century, the only available source of labour in the United States of
America was ______________.
2. The issue of ______________ posed a serious threat to the integrity of the American nation.
3. The famous book, ______________, was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe.
4. Abraham Lincoln, who became the President of the United States of America in
______________ was determined to ______________ at all costs.
5. The American Civil War was fought on the issue of ______________.

B Match the following.

A B
1. abolition states (a) President of the Confederacy
2. Robert E. Lee (b) 1861–65
3. President Jefferson Davis (c) assassinated by John Wilkes Booth
4. American Civil War (d) General of the Confederacy
5. Abraham Lincoln (e) northern states

C Choose the correct answer.

1. The anti-slavery movement began in the northern/southern/eastern states of the United
States of America.
2. The book Uncle Tom’s Cabin exposed the horrors of slavery/war/famine.
3. Jefferson Davis/Abraham Lincoln/Stonewall Jackson was appointed President of the
Confederate States of America.
4. Abraham Lincoln/Jefferson Davis/Ulysses Grant abolished slavery in America.
5. The northern/southern/eastern states decided to break away from the Union and form a
Confederacy of their own.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. The southern states of America began an anti-slavery movement.
2. Abraham Lincoln became the 14th President of the United States of America in 1861.
3. The Civil War was fought over the issue of slavery.
4. The American Civil War (1861–65) was one of the most bitter wars in the history of humankind.
5. After the American Civil War, Lincoln made plans to repair the damages of the war and heal
the wounds of the South.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. What were the two major developments that took place in the United States of America in
the first half of the 19th century? [2]
History

2. Why was raw cotton from the southern states in America sent to Lancashire in England? [2]
3. Why were slaves considered a ‘necessity’ in the southern states of America? [2]

46
 4. Why is Abraham Lincoln described as the ‘Great Emancipator’? [2]
5. Why did Lincoln declare war on the southern Confederacy? [2]
6. Why was the southern Confederacy defeated? [2]
7. What fact was permanently established as a result of the Civil War? [2]
8. Why had the Civil War impoverished the southerners? [2]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. One of the great changes that took place in the United States of America in the first half of
the 19th century was industrial growth and development. In this context, discuss:
(a) The serious problems arising from the cotton-growing industry in the southern states [3]
(b) The anti-slavery movement leading to the growing tensions between the slave states
and the abolitionist states [4]
(c) The impact of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s famous book on the north-south conflict [3]
2. Abraham Lincoln became the President of the United States during a very critical phase of
American history. In this context discuss:
(a) Lincoln’s views on slavery [4]
(b) The Gettysburg Address in 1863 [3]
(c) The secession of the southern states and its consequence [3]
3. With reference to the American Civil War answer the following questions:
(a) Explain briefly the nature and fundamental cause of the Civil War. [3]
(b) Give a brief account of the course of the Civil War. [3]
(c) State the positive and negative results of the war. [4]

G Picture study
This is a portrait of the 16th President of the United States of America.
1. Name the President.
2. Discuss his views on the institution of slavery.
3. How did he define democracy?
4. Why did he not want the southern states to secede? What did he do to
prevent it?

 Do and Learn

Use your imagination
TP Read an abridged version of Uncle Tom's Cabin. Imagine you were a slave in a cotton
plantation in the United States of America and describe a typical day in your life.

Project work
TP 1. Divide the class into two groups, representing the slave states and the abolitionist
states. Organize a debate in class on the topic, ‘Slavery was a necessary evil in the
southern states.’
2. Read an abridged version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Write a brief review of the book.
TP 3. Make a PowerPoint presentation on Abraham Lincoln's role as 'Great Emancipator'.

SI Computer Studies
History

TP 4. Have a class discussion on the impact of the American Civil War. Make a small report
and share it in class.

47
 5
Theme 3: India in the 18th Century

Decline of the Mughal

Empire
A PERIOD OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE: INDIA BY THE END OF THE 17TH CENTURY

TRANSITION KABUL
Peshawar
Ind
us Extent of the
Mughal empire

The transition from the Medieval lum

Ch
ena
b
Present international
boundary of India
Jhe
to the Modern Period began with Lahore
i Amritsar
Rav j
the decline of the Mughal empire Multan Sat
lu SIKHS
s
in the first half of the 18th century. In
du
Delhi
G
Tsangpo

JATS Kosi
This was followed by the English RAJPUTS
Y ang
Mathura amun a
a
Gh
agh utra
Agra ara map
East India Company’s territorial Jodhpur Ajmer
Gwalior Allahabad Patna
Brah
ASSAM
conquests and the beginning of the BUNDELAS
Benaras Ganga

political domination of India in

Ahmadabad
I N D I A BENGAL
Narmada
Calcutta Chittagong
the middle of the 18th century. The Tapi Mahanad
i
Surat
Aurangabad
Modern Period in India is generally Bombay MARATHAS Godavari BAY OF
regarded as having begun in the ARABIAN
Poona BENGAL

mid-18th century. SEA Kri

shn
a
Golconda

Goa Bijapur
During the first half of the 18th

And
Vellore
century, the great Mughal empire

ama
LA

Chandragiri
KS

decayed and disintegrated. The

n and Nic
L a k s h a IA)

HA

Kav
eri
DW

(I N D I A
Mughal emperors lost their power ANDAMAN
(I N D

EE

SEA
PS

and glory and their vast empire

dw

EA

ob
)
ee

finally shrank to a few square

r I
p

I N D I A N O C E A N
la

miles around Delhi. The unity and s

nd

stability of the Mughal empire had

already been shaken during Aurangzeb’s THE LATER MUGHALS
long reign of about 50 years. The death of (1707–1857)
Aurangzeb, the last of the great Mughals, 1. Bahadur Shah (1707–12)
was followed by a war of succession among 2. Jahandar Shah (1712–13)
his three sons. Bahadur Shah eventually 3. Farrukhsiyar (1713–19)
ascended the throne in 1707 at the age of 4. Muhammad Shah (1719–48)
65. He became the first in a line of emperors 5. Ahmad Shah (1748–54)
referred to as the Later Mughals. 6. Alamgir II (1754–59)
History

7. Shah Alam II (1759– 1806)

8. Akbar II (1806–37)
9. Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837–57)
48

A portrait of Bahadur Shah Zafar—the
last Mughal emperor
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
Several factors were responsible for the
disintegration and eventual collapse of the
once-powerful and mighty Mughal empire.
Politics in the Mughal Court
There were four groups of nobles in the
Mughal court—Iranis, Turanis, Afghans
and Hindustanis. The Iranis hailed from
Persia, the Turanis from Transoxiana, and the
Afghans came from the mountainous border
regions across the river Indus. The Mughal
court was a house sharply divided from
within. This resulted in a constant struggle
for power among these groups. Their mutual
jealousies and rivalries caused great harm to
the Mughal administration and undermined
the prestige and authority of the Mughal
emperor.
Jagirdari Crisis
In addition to the competition for political
power and influence, there was a scramble
for the best and most profitable jagirs among
rival nobles. The Mughal officers were given
jagirs as payment for their services. Towards
the end of the 17th century, there were very
few jagirs left. To satisfy the demands of the
newly recruited officers, crown lands were
converted to jagir lands and given to the
nobles. This led to a loss of revenue for the
royal treasury and a further decline in the
power of the emperor.
Weak Military Organization and
Administration
To maintain absolute power and control of
the Mughal army, Akbar had reorganized it
on the basis of the mansabdari system. This
system, which worked well under Akbar,
began to break down towards the end of the
17th century. Under this system, mansabdars
had to maintain a fixed number of troops.
They were given jagirs as the payment for
doing so.
Later, an increase in the number of mansabs
and a shortage of jagirs led to corruption and
inefficiency in the system. The mansabdars
did not maintain their quota of troops and
adopted corrupt methods. This led to a
decline of the military strength of the Mughal
empire.
The Mughal army also failed to keep pace with
the times. The Mughal rulers did not have a
navy and made no efforts to establish one.
Their equipment and techniques of warfare
were obsolete and ineffective. Nothing was
History
done to reform, modernize and strengthen
the army.
49
 Wars of Succession Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaign was a
financial disaster that ruined the empire and
The death of a Mughal ruler was generally made its collapse inevitable.
followed by wars of succession among rival
claimants to the throne. These civil wars
proved very costly and destructive. They
drained the resources of the empire, caused
frequent political upheavals and made the
empire unstable and weak.

Aurangzeb’s Policies
Aurangzeb was not very successful as an
emperor. He failed to realize that the progress
and stability of such a vast empire depended
on a policy of religious tolerance and the
support and unity of the people. His policy of
religious intolerance shook the foundations
of the empire and resulted in the following:
ŠŠ The costly, long-drawn and ruinous
Deccan campaign
ŠŠ Numerous wars with the Sikhs, the
Marathas, the Jats and the Rajputs A portrait of the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, whose
Deccan campaign was a financial disaster
ŠŠ Loss of support of the loyal Rajputs who
had earlier contributed greatly to the
stability of the Mughal empire but now Foreign Invasions
became bitter foes
The invasions of Nadir Shah, the ruler of
Persia (Iran), and Ahmad Shah Abdali, the
Economic Bankruptcy ruler of Afghanistan, shattered the power
and prestige of the Mughals. Nadir Shah
A major cause of the disintegration of the
looted and plundered Delhi and carried away
Mughal empire was its economic bankruptcy.
valuable treasures, including the priceless
The enormous sums of money spent by Shah
Kohinoor Diamond and the Peacock Throne.
Jahan on magnificent monuments like the
Ahmad Shah Abdali plundered northern
Taj Mahal had drained the royal treasury.
India repeatedly.
Discuss TP
What religious policy did Akbar follow? If Akbar
Weak Successors
was alive, what advice would he have given Aurangzeb ruled over a vast empire which
History

to Aurangzeb to prevent the collapse of the

he controlled with an iron hand. His
Mughal empire?
successors were pleasure-loving, weak and

50
inefficient. They were puppets in the hands
of powerful, ambitious nobles who controlled
the administration. The provincial governors
took advantage of the weak government at the
centre and set up independent kingdoms in
the Mughal provinces. This led to the break-
up and collapse of the empire.
All hopes of the revival of the Mughal empire
ended when the British decided to challenge
the authority of the Mughals. They took full
advantage of its weaknesses and began to
pursue their plan of establishing control over
India. Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last of the
Mughals, assumed leadership of the rebels
in the Revolt of 1857 against the British. He
was defeated and exiled to Rangoon where
he died. The Mughal empire came to an
inglorious end.
TP Think and Answer
There were many causes responsible for the
decline of the Mughal empire. Do you think the
empire would have survived if Aurangzeb had
not reversed Akbar’s Rajput policy? Why?
Did You Know?
The Kohinoor Diamond is one of the largest
and the most valuable diamonds in the world.
The word Kohinoor means ‘Mountain of Light’.
Earlier, the Kohinoor Diamond belonged to
different rulers of India. During Shah Jahan’s
reign, it was mounted on the Peacock Throne,
the Mughal throne of India. Later it was taken
away by Nadir Shah to Persia in 1739. It was
brought back to Punjab in 1813, when the
deposed ruler of Afghanistan, Shah Shuja
Durrani, gave away the diamond to Ranjit Singh,
the founder of the Sikh empire. In return, Ranjit
Singh helped him get back the Afghan throne.
The British acquired the Kohinoor Diamond
after they conquered Punjab in 1849. Today, it
belongs to the British royal family and is a part
of the crown jewels.
The Mughal empire had lasted for over 3
centuries. Its decline in the first half of the
18th century led to intense rivalry among
various ambitious powers to fill the political
vacuum. The struggle ended with the victory
of the British who would rule India for nearly
200 years. This marked the beginning of the
Modern Period in Indian history.

Values and Life Skills

We are citizens of a multi-faith society and should accept what is good in all religions. We must live and
respect people of different religions. In this way, different cultures coexist in harmony. This helps in the
progress and development of a country.
• What would you say to people who are intolerant of other people’s religious beliefs?

The Later Mughals in power

ce ce

1600 1700 1800 1900

Mughal empire
History

began to decline.
Modem Period
began in India.

51
 There were four groups of nobles in the Mughal court—Iranis, Turanis,
Afghans, Hindustanis.
Politics in
Mughal court
Mutual jealousies between noble groups undermined the emperor's
authority.

There were very few jagirs left by the time of Aurangzeb's rule, so crown
Jagidari crisis
lands were converted to jagirs, reducing the revenue of the state.

Increase in mansabs and decrease in jagirs led to corruption.

Weak military
organization and
Corruption and inefficiency of the mansabdari system, outdated
administration
equipment and techniques of warface and lack of a navy led to the
decline of the military strength of the empire.

Wars of Wars of succession drained resources and made the empire unstable .
succession
DECLINE OF
THE MUGHAL
EMPIRE His religious intolerance alienated the Rajputs.

Aurangzeb’s
policies His Deccan campaign and wars with Jats, Sikhs, Marathas and Rajputs
destabilized the empire.

Economic Royal treasury was drained by spending lavishly on magnificent

bankruptcy monuments by Shah Jahan and by Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaign.

Invasions by Nadir Shah, who plundered Delhi and Ahmad Shah Abdali,
Foreign invasions who plundered north India repeatedly, led to further decline of the
empire.

Aurangzeb’s successors were weak and pleasure-loving.

Weak successors

The British took advantage of the weaknesses of the successors.

Important Words
Iranis, Turanis, Afghans and Hindustanis were the
four groups of nobles in the Mughal court.
Transoxiana is the old name used for the portion
of Central Asia corresponding with present-day
Uzbekistan, and parts of Turkmenistan, Tajikistan
and Kazakhstan.
History
Nadir Shah was the ruler of Iran who invaded India in
1739, looted and plundered Delhi and carried away
enormous treasures.
Kohinoor Diamond is one of the most precious
diamonds in the world. It was taken away by Nadir
Shah when he invaded India.

Crown lands were the lands belonging to the king and Peacock Throne was a magnificent throne and a
the revenue went directly to the royal treasury. valuable treasure of India, which was taken away by
Nadir Shah when he invaded India.

52
 Exercises
A Fill in the blanks.
1. During the first half of the _____________ century, the great Mughal empire _____________
and _____________.
2. The Mughal emperors who ruled India after the death of Aurangzeb are known as the
_____________ Mughals.
3. There were _____________ groups of nobles in the Mughal court.
4. Nadir Shah looted and plundered _____________. He carried away immense treasures
including the _____________ _____________ and the _____________ _____________.
5. _____________, the ruler of Afghanistan, repeatedly plundered northern India.
6. The last Mughal emperor, _____________, was defeated in the Revolt of 1857 and exiled to
Rangoon by the British.

B Match the following.

A B
1. Bahadur Shah (a) mansabdari system
2. Akbar (b) financial crisis
3. Shah Jahan (c) Nadir Shah
4. Kohinoor Diamond (d) exiled to Rangoon by the British
5. Bahadur Shah Zafar (e) first of the Later Mughals

C Choose the correct answer.

1. Aurangzeb/Akbar/Shah Jahan followed a policy of religious tolerance.
2. The military campaign in the Deccan led by Shah Jahan/Aurangzeb/Akbar ruined the Mughal
empire financially.
3. The invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan/Persia/Iraq shattered the
power and prestige of the Mughal empire.
4. The Mughal empire lasted for over 3/5/6 centuries.
5. The British ruled over India for nearly 100 years/200 years/300 years.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. Bahadur Shah ascended the throne after the death of Aurangzeb.
2. The Mughal court was united and stable.
3. The Mughal officers were given jagirs as payments for their services.
4. The Mughal rulers did not have a navy.
5. The successors of Aurangzeb were very strong and efficient.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. When did the transition from the Medieval to the Modern Period begin in India? [2]
History

2. Name the first and the last emperors in the line of the Later Mughals. [2]
3. Name any two rival groups of nobles in the Mughal court. [2]
4. Mention any two reasons for the failure of the mansabdari system. [2]

53
 5. What was the economic impact of the Mughal wars of succession? [2]
6. How did Aurangzeb’s religious policy affect the relationship between the Mughals
and the Rajputs? [2]
7. What led to the drain on the royal treasury during Shah Jahan’s reign? [2]
8. Which Mughal emperor assumed leadership of the Revolt of 1857? What happened
to him after the Revolt? [2]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Several factors were responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire. In this context, answer
the following questions:
(a) How did court politics undermine the authority and prestige of the Mughal empire? [4]
(b) To what extent was the jagirdari crisis responsible for a further decline of the power of
the emperor? [3]
(c) How did the wars of succession destabilize the Mughal empire? [3]
2. With reference to the decline and disintegration of the Mughal empire discuss the following:
(a) The breakdown of the mansabdari system [4]
(b) The weaknesses of the Mughal army [3]
(c) Aurangzeb’s religious policy [3]
3. To what extent were the following factors responsible for the eventual collapse of the
Mughal empire?
(a) Economic bankruptcy [4]
(b) Foreign invasions [3]
(c) Weak successors [3]

G Picture study [5]

This is a portrait of the last of the Later Mughals.
1. Identify the Mughal emperor represented in this picture.
2. What part did he play in the Revolt of 1857?
3. What happened to the Mughal empire after his death?
4. Mention any four reasons for the decline of the Mughal empire. Explain any
two reasons.

H Map Work SI Geography   TP

On an outline map of the Indian subcontinent, mark the area under the Mughal empire by the
end of the 17th century.

 Do and Learn

Use your imagination
TP Imagine you were Aurangzeb’s chief adviser. What advice would you give him to prevent
the decline of the Mughal empire and restore its former glory and stability?

Project work 
TP Find out more about the Kohinoor Diamond and the Peacock Throne. Make a chart with
History

pictures or drawings. Make a replica of the crown of the British monarch using wire, wool,
satin cloth, golden paper, artificial stones, etc.  SI Arts Education

54
 7
Theme 4: Traders to Rulers

Rise of British Power in

Bengal
THE ADVENT OF THE BRITISH Queen received a share of the Company’s
profits.
IN INDIA
The English East India Company set up
The British first came to India as traders in
its first factory in Surat in 1612 ce. It was a
the 17th century. However, by the middle
trading settlement consisting of a warehouse
of the 19th century, the British succeeded in
for goods, an office for keeping records
eliminating all their rivals and established
and residential quarters for the servants
an all-India empire. In their scramble for
(employees) of the Company. Nothing was
political power, the conquest of Bengal
manufactured in these factories.
proved to be an important milestone for the
British. It set the stage for further conquests By 1623 ce, the British had established
and the establishment of the British as the factories in Surat, Broach, Ahmadabad, Agra
rulers of India. and Masulipatam. Sir Thomas Roe, the
British ambassador to the court of Jahangir,
had obtained many trade concessions for the
THE ENGLISH Company from the Mughal emperor.
EAST INDIA In 1639 ce, Madras (now Chennai) was given
COMPANY to the British by a local ruler. They established
a trading settlement which they fortified and
In 1600 ce, a
named it Fort St George.
company popularly
known as the In 1688 ce, Charles II gave the Company, at a
English East India nominal rent of 10 pounds per year, the island
Company was of Bombay (which he had received as dowry
established by a when he had married a Portuguese princess).
small group of In course of time, Bombay became the chief
British merchants. settlement of the British on the western coast.
The Queen of In 1690 ce, a British trading settlement was
A portrait of Queen Elizabeth I
England, Elizabeth I, established and fortified in Calcutta. It was
granted the Company exclusive right to trade named Fort William.
with the East.
Madras, Bombay and Calcutta became the
The Company made enormous profits by
History

headquarters of the British settlements in

buying Eastern goods and then selling them the southern, western and eastern regions,
at high prices in the European market. The respectively. Each of these headquarters,

64
known as Presidencies, was placed under the
charge of a Governor.
By the beginning of the 18th century, several
British trading companies had joined together
and formed one company called the United
Company of Merchants of England Trading
to the East Indies.
THE FRENCH EAST INDIA
COMPANY
The French East India Company was formed
in 1664 ce. Its headquarters in India was
based in Pondicherry (now Puducherry). It
also established trade settlements in Surat,
Masulipatam, Chandernagore and Mahe.
When the French arrived in India, the British
were already well settled along the coastal
regions.
ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY
By the 18th century, the two major European
powers in India were the British and the
French. The Portuguese, by the beginning
of the 17th century, had lost their influence
as well as their monopoly over Indian trade.
The Dutch had also been edged out of the
competition by the British and the French.
The French and the British were both equally
determined to establish trade monopoly in
India. An intense competition followed. They
became arch-rivals in trade and this rivalry
eventually led to wars. A power struggle
became inevitable as their commercial rivalry
intensified and the French tried to secure and
use political influence to ruin British trade.
The commercial rivalry between the British
and the French in India was aggravated by
the fact that these two countries were political
rivals in Europe as well. Taking advantage
of the decline of the Mughal power and the
unstable political conditions in the country,
they fought three wars in India to establish
their supremacy. These wars are referred
to as the Carnatic Wars. (Carnatic was the
name given to the Coromandel Coast and its
hinterland.)
The outcome of the three Carnatic Wars saw
the British establish their political influence
over the Carnatic. The Third Carnatic War
shattered French dreams of building an
Indian empire. Freed of all European rivals,
the English East India Company, with the
help of the army and its vast resources in
India, now set out to conquer India.
RISE OF BRITISH POWER IN
BENGAL
Bengal in the 18th century was the richest and
the most fertile province in India. Known as
‘the paradise of the earth’, the province of
Bengal attracted traders from Holland, France
and England. European trading companies
from these countries established trading
settlements in Bengal, which became a
profitable base for their trade and commerce.
The largest and the most prosperous of
these European settlements was the British
settlement at Calcutta. In 1717, the Mughal
emperor, Farrukhsiyar, issued a farman,
granting the English East India Company the
right to carry on duty-free trade in Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa (now Odisha). This meant
that the Company could export and import
goods from and to these provinces without
paying any taxes to the government. They
were given the right to issue passes or dastaks
for the free movement of their goods.
The employees of the Company were
History
permitted to carry on private trade but they
were not entitled to the Company’s privilege
65
 of duty free trade. They had to pay taxes like
other Indian merchants.
The Company made enormous profits.
In course of time, the Company began to
interfere in the local politics of the Indian
rulers. By supporting one ruler against
another, they made territorial, monetary and
political gains. Their interference soon turned
into active involvement and they established
the foundations of British rule in Bengal by
the middle of the 18th century.
BATTLE OF PLASSEY (1757)
In 1756, the nawab of Bengal, Alivardi Khan,
died and was succeeded by his grandson,
Siraj-ud-Daulah, who
wanted to curb the
growing power of the
British.
Siraj-ud-Daulah’s task
was not an easy one,
since he had many
enemies both within
and outside his court, A portrait of Siraj-ud-
and that made his Daulah, the young
position insecure and Nawab of Bengal
unstable.
Siraj ordered the British to pay taxes to him
like all other Indian merchants. The British
refused to do so. This angered the young
nawab.
In anticipation of a war with the French, who
had a trading settlement in Chandernagore,
the British began to fortify Calcutta. This
amounted to an attack on the nawab’s
sovereignty.
Siraj was willing to let the Europeans stay in
History
his kingdom as traders but certainly not as
masters. He ordered both the British and the
French to dismantle their fortifications and
66
not fight their private wars on his territory.
The French agreed. The British refused.
Siraj-ud-Daulah was enraged. The British had
openly challenged his authority and he was
determined to teach them a lesson.
Capture of Calcutta
Siraj marched towards Calcutta with a large
army and captured Fort William in June 1756.
Recovery of Calcutta
Robert Clive, the hero of Arcot, arrived
from Madras with a strong military force
and reconquered Calcutta by January 1757.
The nawab was compelled to restore trading
privileges and possessions to the East India
Company and concede the right to fortify
Calcutta.
Siraj-ud-Daulah had given in to all the
demands of the British Company. The British,
however, were not satisfied. They had greater
ambitions. Their objective was to replace
Siraj-ud-Daulah with a puppet ruler.
Conspiracy to Replace Siraj-ud-
Daulah
Robert Clive now hatched a plot with some
of the influential men in the nawab’s court to
overthrow Siraj-ud-Daulah. Mir Jafar, the
commander-in-chief of the nawab’s forces,
would be made the nawab of Bengal in return
for a large amount of money and important
trading privileges.
When the negotiations with Mir Jafar were
finalized, a secret treaty was signed and the
British presented Siraj-ud-Daulah with an
impossible set of demands. War became
inevitable.
Battle of Plassey
Robert Clive led the British forces to Plassey
(near Murshidabad, the capital of the nawab
of Bengal). Siraj-ud-Daulah also advanced at
the head of a large army of 50,000 men.
The Battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June
1757. A major part of the nawab’s army under
the command of Mir Jafar did not take any
part in the battle. Realizing that he had been
betrayed, the nawab fled from the battlefield.
He was captured and put to death. Mir Jafar
was proclaimed the nawab of Bengal.
Results
ŠŠ The English East India Company was
granted the undisputed right to free trade
in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
ŠŠ The Company was given the zamindari of
the 24 Parganas.
ŠŠ Mir Jafar paid the Company and its official
over 300 lakh rupees.
Importance
The Battle of Plassey was a major turning
point in the history of India.
ŠŠ It paved the way for the establishment of
British rule in Bengal and, eventually, the
rest of India.
ŠŠ It transformed a trading company into a
political power.
ŠŠ The nawab of Bengal was reduced to a
puppet in the hands of the British, who
became the virtual rulers of Bengal.
ŠŠ It placed at the disposal of the British the
vast resources of Bengal. These resources
helped them to win the Third Carnatic War
and finance military expeditions in other
parts of India in the future.
Mir Jafar was a weak ruler. He had the
responsibility of ruling Bengal but virtually
no power to do so. The British used their
control over the nawab to drain the wealth of
Bengal. The Company and its officials openly
and shamelessly plundered Bengal.
When Mir Jafar was unable to meet the
demands of the British, they deposed him
and made his son-in-law, Mir Qasim, the
new nawab of Bengal in 1760. Mir Qasim
rewarded the Company by granting it the
zamindari of the districts of Burdwan,
Midnapur and Chittagong. A British trading
company had successfully transformed itself
into kingmakers.
Think and Answer
Do you think the history of India would have been
different if Mir Jafar had not betrayed Siraj-ud-
Daulah? Why? What conclusions can you draw
about Mir Jafar’s character from his actions in the
conspiracy and the Battle of Plassey?
BATTLE OF BUXAR (1764)
Mir Qasim was a competent and efficient
ruler, determined to free himself from foreign
control. He soon came into conflict with the
British.
To strengthen his position, he improved the
financial position of Bengal and raised a
modern, disciplined and well-equipped army
trained by the Europeans. This made the
British increasingly hostile.
The employees of the Company misused
their trade privileges. They sold their duty-
free trade permits to Indian merchants who
also used them to carry on duty-free trade.
This deprived the nawab of large revenues
History
and was unfair to those local merchants who
had to pay heavy duties.
67
 To put an end to the corrupt practices of the
British, Mir Qasim abolished all duties on
internal trade. This made the British furious.
They refused to accept an equal status with
the Indian merchants.
In 1763, war broke out between Mir Qasim
and the British. The nawab was defeated. Mir
Jafar was reinstated on the throne.
Mir Qasim was determined to recover his
throne. He escaped to Awadh, where he
formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daulah,
the nawab of Awadh and the Mughal emperor,
Shah Alam II.
The combined forces of the three allies
clashed with the Company’s troops at Buxar
in 1764 and were decisively defeated by the
British.
Importance
INDIA IN 1765
Did You Know?
Robert Clive had made a fortune in India—his
jagir yielded an annual income of $40,000.
This helped to raise his social standing and he
was made a Peer! Robert Clive had to face a
Parliamentary enquiry when he returned to
England for abuse of power in Bengal. However,
this charge was rejected.
ŠŠ Awadh was returned to Shuja-
ud-Daulah. However, the two districts of
Kora and Allahabad were taken away
from the nawab.
ŠŠ The nawab of Awadh had to pay a war
indemnity of 50 lakh rupees to the
Company.
ŠŠ The British agreed to defend the nawab
of Awadh against his enemies. The nawab
would have to pay for the cost of the British
troops. Awadh became a buffer state

ŠŠ The victory of the British in the Ind British territory

Kabul us
Battle of Buxar firmly established Nizam’s territory
Peshawar
them as masters of Bengal, Bihar um
KASH M I R C H I N A Mysore territory
Jhel henab Maratha territory
and Orissa. Lahore
C
i Satluj Present international
Rav PUNJAB boundary of India
ŠŠ It gave them the political influence Panipat T I B E T
s
and control over Awadh and the du MUGHALS Tsangpo
In
Delhi Rohilkand N E
AWAD H P A Kosi
Yam

Mughal emperor. R AJ PU TAN A Jaipur

Agra Gh
L
BHUTAN hmaputr
a
u

agh
na

Jodhpur ara Bra

Lucknow
ŠŠ It laid the foundation of British Ajmer Gwalior Patna
Ganga ASS A M
Allahabad BI H AR
rule in India. M AR ATH A BEN G AL
T

Baroda TER R I TO R Y Chandernagore (Fr.)

RA

ŠŠ At this time, Robert Clive INarmadaN D I A Calcutta

JA

Nagpur
GU

Ta
Surat pi
returned to India as Governor of
SA
IS

Diu (Port.) Daman (Port.) Ma Cuttack

OR

han
Bengal. Bassein N adi
Goda
vari R BAY OF
Bombay E S
TH AR
Poona N I ZAM ’ S
Satara R C
BENGAL
ARABIAN
DOMINION NO IR
The Treaty of Allahabad Kri C
shn Hyderabad Yanaon (Fr.)
SEA a
Goa (Port.) Masulipatam
(1765)
ATIC

M YSO R E Madras
Andaman and Nicob

Mysore
In 1765, Clive signed the Treaty of
CARN

Mahe (Fr.) Pondicherry (Fr.)

Ft. St David
L a k s h a IA)

Allahabad with Shuja-ud-Daulah Calicut Kav

eri Devikota (Br.)
History

(INDIA
TRA

Karaikal (Fr.) ANDAMAN

(IND

and Shah Alam II. According to the

VAN

SEA
dw

)
CEY

ar I

terms of this treaty:

COR
ee

sla
LO
p

I N D I A N O C E A N
nd
E

s
N

68
 between the British possessions in Bengal
and the Marathas. Governors of Bengal
ŠŠ The British gave Shah Alam II, the districts ŠŠ 1757–60 Robert Clive
of Kora and Allahabad and an annual ŠŠ 1760–65 Henry Vansittart
pension of 26 lakh rupees. In return, the ŠŠ 1765–67 Robert Clive
Mughal emperor Shah Alam II (the nominal ŠŠ 1767–69 Harry Verelst
head of the Mughal empire) granted the ŠŠ 1769–72 Cartier John
Company the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and ŠŠ 1772–73 Warren Hastings
Orissa, i.e. the right to collect revenue from
Governors General of India
these provinces and judge civil cases. The
Company’s control over Bengal was made ŠŠ 1773–85 Warren Hastings
legal. ŠŠ 1785–86 Sir John Macpherson
ŠŠ 1786–93 Lord Cornwallis
ŠŠ 1793–98 Sir John Shore
ŠŠ 1798–1805 Lord Wellesley
ŠŠ 1805–07 Sir George Barlow
ŠŠ 1807–13 Lord Minto
ŠŠ 1813–23 Marquess of Hastings
ŠŠ 1823–28 Lord Amherst
ŠŠ 1828–35 Lord William Bentinck
ŠŠ 1836–42 Lord Auckland
ŠŠ 1842–44 Lord Ellenborough
ŠŠ 1844–48 Lord Hardinge
ŠŠ 1848–56 Lord Dalhousie

nawab. The nawab was given an allowance

A painting depicting the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II,
granting the Diwani of Bengal to Robert Clive, the Governor
of the provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
The puppet nawabs of Bengal continued to sit
on the throne but they had no military and
administrative powers.
After Mir Jafar’s death in 1765, his son was
made the nawab of Bengal. He had to sign a
treaty with Clive, according to which he had
to disband most of his army. He also had
to transfer the ‘Nizamat’ powers (general
administration and criminal justice) to a
of 53 lakh rupees which was subsequently
reduced. Thus, the English East India
Company became the real ruler of Bengal
from 1765.
DUAL GOVERNMENT IN
BENGAL (1765–72)
Clive introduced Dual Government in Bengal
in 1765. Bengal now had two masters—the
nawab and the Company.
The nawab was responsible for general
administration, maintenance of law and order
History

deputy nawab appointed by the British. The and justice (i.e. criminal cases). The Company
deputy nawab could not be dismissed by the had military power and the right to collect and

69
 use the revenue of Bengal. This arrangement
Nawab (Nizamat English East India
was known as Dual Government.
powers) Company (Diwani
The Company enjoyed power without any powers)
responsibilities. The nawab, on the other 1. General 1. Collection of
hand, was burdened with the responsibility administration revenue
of administration without the resources 2. Maintenance of 2. Justice (civil
necessary for running it efficiently i.e. law and order cases)
responsibility without power. 3. Justice (criminal 3. Defence and
cases) military power
The revenue was collected by Indian officials 4. The nawab had 4. The financial
appointed by the Company. The greed, the responsibility resources
corruption and oppression of these officials of administration were in the
reduced the peasants to conditions of utter without the hands of the
financial resources Company that
misery. The Company took no interest in the
necessary to run it did not have any
welfare of the people. efficiently. responsibility.
The conditions of the people worsened when
Bengal was hit by a terrible famine in which Discuss
one third of the population perished. Nobody
The dual system of government in the Mughal
cared, neither the Company nor the nawab,
provinces worked very successfully during
who in any case had neither the authority Akbar’s reign. Why, in your opinion, did the Dual
nor the resources to lessen the miseries of the Government introduced by Clive fail?
people. The Company, through its power to
nominate the deputy nawab, only interfered in End of Dual Government (1772)
the general administration without assuming
any responsibility. Warren Hastings abolished the Dual
Government, and Bengal was brought
The evils of the Dual Government began to under the direct and complete control of
manifest themselves. The administration the Company. The nawab was deposed and
and economy collapsed. In 1772, the Court pensioned off. The treasury was shifted from
of Directors of the Company appointed Murshidabad to Calcutta, which now became
Warren Hastings as Governor of Bengal. In the capital of Bengal, and later, of India.
1773, by the Regulating Act, he was made
Warren Hastings was a competent
the Governor General of British territories
administrator. He introduced many reforms
in India. The Governor General was now the
in the administration and laid the foundations
most important functionary of the East India
of an organized system of government in
Company.
Bengal.

Values and Life Skills

We should always be honest and trustworthy. Being honest means we must not tell lies or cheat others.
History

Dishonesty can lead to greed and corruption which might hamper the progress of the society.
• What are the ways in which you can create a corruption-free society?

70
 The Mughal emperor issued a farman Warren Hastings became the Governor
to the English East India Company to General of Bengal and abolished
carry on duty-free trade in Bengal. Dual Government in Bengal.

ce ce

1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800

Battle of Dual government in

Plassey Bengal was introduced.
Battle of Buxar

The English East India Company was founded in 1600. The French East India Company
was founded in 1664, with Pondicherry as its headquarters in India. The French East
India Company was determined to compete with the English East India Company for
Anglo-French monopoly of trade in India.
rivalry
Commercial rivalry between the English East India Company and the French East India
Company was aggravated by political rivalry back in Europe as well. The decline of
the Mughal empire led to the French army fighting the English for dominance of the
Carnatic. The French were soundly defeated in the Third Carnatic War.

Refusal to pay taxes by the British angered Siraj-ud-Daulah. He eventually came in

conflict with the British and was defeated by Robert Clive in 1757. He had to give into
all the demands of the British.

Robert Clive wanted to replace Siraj-ud-Daulah with Mir Jafar who would cooperate
Battle of Plassey with the British. They gave Siraj-ud-Daulah a set of impossible demands. War became
(1757) inevitable and the Battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757 and Siraj-ud-Daulah
RISE OF BRITISH POWER IN BENGAL

was defeated.

The Company gained undisputed right to trade in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The
nawab had become the puppet of the Company. Eventually Mir Jafar was replaced by
Mir Qasim and this strengthened British position in Bengal.

Mir Qasim wanted to free himself from British control. He improved Bengal's financial
position and abolished all duties on internal trade. In 1763 the British fought Mir Qasim
and defeated him.

Mir Qasim fled and allied with Shuja-ud-Daulah in Awadh and Shah Alam II. Their
Battle of Buxar
combined forces clashed with the British in Buxar in 1764 and were defeated. The
(1764)
British were firmly established as masters of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

The Treaty of Allahabad was signed between the Company and Shuja-ud-Daulah
and Shah Alam II in 1765. Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah while Kora and
Allahabad were taken away. The nawab had to pay 50 lakh rupees as war indemnity.
The nawabs of Bengal were reduced to mere puppets of the British.

Introduced by Clive, Bengal had two masters, the nawab and the Company. The
nawab was responsible for general administration, law and order and justice. Company
had military and revenue powers. The revenue was collected by British-appointed
Dual Government Indian officials which worsened the condition of Indian peasants.
in Bengal
History

(1765-72) Eventually the Court of Directors of the Company appointed Warren Hastings as
Governor General of Bengal. He abolished the Dual Government. Bengal was brought
under direct Company control. The nawab was deposed and pensioned off and the
treasury shifted from Murshidabad to Calcutta.

71
 Important Words
Farman was a licence which granted the English East
India Company the right to carry on duty-free trade
in Bengal Bihar and Orissa, to export goods from and
import them into these provinces without paying any
taxes to the government.
Buffer state is a small state between two powerful states
that helps keep peace between them.
Diwani is the right given to collect revenue of a particular
area.
Dual Government was a form of government introduced
in Bengal by Robert Clive in 1765, wherein there were
two masters of the state.

Exercises
A Fill in the blanks.
1. ___________, ___________ and ____________ became the headquarters of the British
settlements in the southern, western and eastern regions, respectively.
2. The French East India Company was established in ______________.
3. The British and the French fought the ______________ Wars in India to establish their
monopoly in trade.
4. In 1717, the Mughal emperor granted the English East India Company the right to carry on
duty-free trade in ______________, ______________ and ______________.
5. Bengal in the 18th century was the ____________ and the most __________ province in India.
6. In___________, Robert Clive recovered Calcutta which had been captured by Siraj-ud-Daulah
in ____________.
7. Mir Jafar was deposed because he was unable to meet the demands of the __________.
8. In 1765, Awadh was returned to __________ but __________and __________were taken away
and given to ________________.
9. Shah Alam II granted the Company the __________of __________, __________ and
__________ in 1765.
10. Warren Hastings deposed and pensioned off the Nawab of Bengal and brought Bengal under
the __________ and __________ control of the Company.

B Match the following.

A B
1. Carnatic Wars (a) Warren Hastings
2. farman (b) duty-free trade
3. Robert Clive (c) Siraj-ud-Daulah
History

4. Battle of Plassey (d) reconquered Calcutta

5. Battle of Buxar (e) Anglo-French rivalry
6. Governor of Bengal (f) Mir Qasim

72
C Choose the correct answer.
1. The English East India Company was established in the year 1600/1700/1800 ce.
2. The English East India Company set up its first factory in Surat/Agra/Broach.
3. The largest and the most prosperous European settlement in Bengal was the British
settlement at Calcutta/Burdwan/Murshidabad.
4. Alivardi Khan was succeeded by Mir Qasim/Siraj-ud-Daulah/Shuja-ud-Daulah.
5. Robert Clive hatched a plot with Mir Jafar/Mir Qasim/Alivardi Khan to replace
Siraj-ud-Daulah.
6. The Battle of Plassey was fought in 1757/1764/1772.
7. The Dual Government in Bengal was introduced by Robert Clive/Warren Hastings/Lord
Cornwallis.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. The Carnatic Wars were fought between the British and the French.
2. The employees of the Company were entitled to both private trade as well as duty-free trade.
3. The English East India Company was given the right to issue passes or dastaks for the free
movement of their goods.
4. The British army was defeated in the Battle of Buxar.
5. The Treaty of Allahabad was signed between the English East India Company and Mir Qasim.
6. Warren Hastings laid the foundations of an organized system of government in Bengal.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. Who granted the English East India Company the exclusive right to trade with the East? [2]
2. Name the British trading settlements in (a) Madras (b) Calcutta. [2]
3. What important right did the Mughal emperor, Farrukhsiyar, grant the English East India
Company? [2]
4. Why were European traders attracted to the Bengal province in the 18th century? [2]
5. What privileges did the farman of 1717 confer on the English East India Company? [2]
6. Why did the farman of 1717 become a bone of contention between the nawabs of
Bengal and the English East India Company? [2]
7. Why did the British fortify their trade settlement in Calcutta? [2]
8. Why did Siraj-ud-Daulah attack Calcutta in 1756? [2]
9. What important trading right was granted to the English East India Company after
their victory in the Battle of Plassey? [2]
10. State the political significance of the Battle of Buxar. [2]
11. Name the Indian signatories of the Treaty of Allahabad. [2]
12. In which year was the Dual Government abolished and by whom? [2]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. The Battle of Plassey was a major turning point in the history of India. In this context, answer
the following questions:
(a) Give an account of the events leading from the conspiracy to replace Siraj-ud-Daulah
to his eventual defeat in the Battle of Plassey. [4]
(b) State the results of the Battle of Plassey. [3]
History

(c) Why is this battle considered a major turning point in the history of India? [3]
2. Mir Qasim was a competent ruler, determined to free himself from foreign control. In this

73
 context answer the following questions:
(a) What steps did Mir Qasim take to strengthen his position? Why did he abolish all duties
on internal trade? [4]
(b) Trace the events from the outbreak of war (1763) between Mir Qasim and the
British up to the Battle of Buxar in 1764. [3]
(c) Explain the importance of the Battle of Buxar. [3]
3. With reference to the Treaty of Allahabad and its impact, answer the following questions:
(a) Mention the terms of agreement between Robert Clive and Shuja-ud-Daulah in this
treaty. [3]
(b) Explain how the treaty between Robert Clive and the Mughal emperor, Shah
Alam II, legalized the English East India’s Company’s control over Bengal. [3]
(c) Give an account of the events that followed the death of Mir Jafar leading to the
establishment of the Company as the real ruler of Bengal. [4]
4. With reference to the establishment of Dual Government in Bengal (1765–72)
answer the following questions:
(a) Why was the government introduced in Bengal by Robert Clive referred to
as ‘Dual Government’? [3]
(b) What were the advantages and disadvantages of this system for the Company
and the nawab respectively? [4]
(c) The evils of the Dual Government led to the collapse of the administration and the
economy. Explain. [3]

G Picture study
This picture portrays a momentous event in 1765, involving a British
Governor and a Mughal Emperor wherein the Mughal Emperor is
conveying the grant of the Diwani to the Governor.
1. Identify the Mughal Emperor and the British Governor.
2. What is the significance of this grant of the Diwani?
3. Give a brief account of the battle that preceded this event. When did
it take place?
4. What is the importance of this battle?

H Map work  SI Geography

On an outline map of the Indian subcontinent, mark and label the British
territories in India in 1765.

Do and Learn
Use your imagination
TP Imagine yourself to be a peasant living in Bengal under the Dual Government. Describe a
day in your life.

Project work
TP Dramatize the conflict between (i) Siraj-ud-Daulah and the English East India Company,
and (ii) Mir Qasim and the English East India Company. The class can be divided into
History

groups. Each group can be assigned a specific responsibility, e.g. script, dialogue,
costumes, acting, narration, music, etc.

74
 Theme 4: Traders to Rulers
8 Expansion of British
Power in India
BRITISH STRATEGIC POLICIES
The English East India Company, which had
started out as a trading company in 1600, had
by 1773, become one of the major contenders
for supreme power in India. The British also
realized that fighting wars with the different
regional rulers to expand their power was
not always feasible. Wars were usually
expensive and added severe strain on the
British resources. To avoid fighting wars, the
British devised strategic policies that would
help them eliminate all their rivals one by
one and establish an all-India empire. They
fought wars only when the peaceful ways of
annexing a territory failed. Thus, the British
policy of expanding power in India was based
on a two-pronged strategy of (i) peaceful
annexation and (ii) military conquests. The
British also annexed some territories under
the pretext of (iii) maladministration, or
misgovernment.
SUBSIDIARY
ALLIANCE
The Subsidiary
Alliance system was
a method perfected
by Lord Wellesley, the
Governor General of
India, from 1797 until
1805, to subjugate
A portrait of Lord Wellesley
Indian powers without the cost and bother
of war.
Any Indian ruler whose security was
threatened was encouraged to seek help from
and enter into an alliance with the British,
who promised to protect the ruler from
external attacks and internal revolts. The
Indian ruler had to accept certain terms and
conditions. This arrangement was known as
the Subsidiary Alliance. The conditions were
as follows:
ŠŠ British troops (for the protection of the
Indian ruler) would be permanently
placed in the territory of the subsidiary
state.
ŠŠ The Indian ruler would have to pay for the
maintenance of the troops. Payment could
be made in cash or in kind, i.e. by ceding
part of his territory.
ŠŠ He had to keep a British official (Resident)
at his court.
ŠŠ He could not employ any Europeans
(except the British) in his service or dismiss
those who were already there.
ŠŠ He could not form an alliance with any
other power or declare war against any
power without the permission of the
British.
He would acknowledge the British Company
History
as the paramount power.
75
 Effects
The Subsidiary Alliance proved very
advantageous for the British:
ŠŠ The British maintained large armies at the
expense of the Indian rulers.
ŠŠ The British acquired valuable territories
as subsidiary payment. This led to the
expansion of the British empire in India
and an increase in its resources.
ŠŠ The influence of European rivals, especially
the French, was excluded from the courts
of the Indian rulers.
ŠŠ The British controlled the foreign policy
of the subsidiary states.
Disadvantages for the Indian
Rulers
The Subsidiary Alliance had disastrous effects
on the Indian states:
ŠŠ The Indian rulers of subsidiary states lost
their independence. They virtually became
puppets in the hands of the British.
ŠŠ The payment of huge subsidies led to a
heavy drain on their resources and the
impoverishment and decay of the states.
The administration collapsed.
ŠŠ When the administration collapsed, the
British used it as an excuse for annexing the
kingdom on grounds of misgovernment.
ŠŠ The Indian rulers were fully protected by
the British against external and internal
enemies. They lost interest in the welfare
of the people and neglected them as they
were no longer afraid of revolts. The
people suffered untold miseries under
irresponsible and oppressive rulers.
ŠŠ The Subsidiary Alliance aided the British
History
in subjugating the powerful kingdom of
the Marathas.
76
SUBJUGATION OF THE
MARATHAS
The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was a
major turning point in the history of India.
The defeat of the combined forces of the
Mughals and the Marathas at the hands of the
Afghan ruler, Ahmad Shah Abdali, proved
disastrous for the country. It left India drained
and fragmented.
The Maratha empire broke up into five
virtually independent states. The power of
the Peshwa, the former head of the Maratha
empire, had declined. The four other centres
of Maratha power were the Gaekwad family
of Baroda in Gujarat, the Bhonsle family of
Nagpur in Berar, the Sindhias of Gwalior
and the Holkars of Indore. Maharashtra was
under the Peshwa, who was based in Poona.
The Marathas, who controlled most of
western and central India, made a remarkable
recovery after the Third Battle of Panipat.
Despite being a house divided, the Marathas
proved to be formidable rivals. It took the
British 43 years (1775–1818) and three wars to
bring the Marathas under their control.
The First Anglo-Maratha War
(1775–82)
The First Anglo-Maratha War broke out
between the Marathas and the British
during the Governor Generalship of Warren
Hastings.
Causes
In 1773, Peshwa Narayan Rao was murdered.
A civil war broke out over the issue of
succession between the supporters of Madhav
Rao II, the infant Peshwa (the son of Narayan
Rao) and the supporters of Raghunath Rao
(Raghoba), one of the contenders for the the dominance of British influence and
throne. control in Indian politics. The Treaty of
Raghunath Rao appealed to the British in Salbai is an important landmark in the
Bombay for help. They readily agreed to do history of India. It gave the British 20 years
so with the hopes of getting valuable territory of peace with the Marathas—a period
and some political influence in Maratha affairs. utilized by the Company to strengthen its
In return for Salsette and Bassein (which position in Bengal and subjugate Mysore.
would serve as important naval bases), the
British sent an army to support Raghunath The Second Anglo-Maratha War
Rao. (1803–05)
Events Causes
All the Maratha chiefs
Peshwa Madhav Rao II died in 1796 and was
were united under
succeeded by Peshwa Baji Rao II, a weak and
the able leadership
indecisive ruler.
of Nana Phadnavis,
the guardian and With the death of Nana Phadnavis, the great
supporter of the infant statesman and pillar of Maratha unity, the
Peshwa. They defeated Maratha chiefs were consumed by conflicting
the British army sent A portrait of Nana ambitions and mutual rivalries. This was a
from Bombay. Warren Phadnavis, the guardian dangerous development because the British
Hastings sent an army of the infant Peshwa had revived their policy of aggressive
from Bengal to recover the lost prestige and imperialism. The lack of unity among the
position of the British. Maratha chiefs and the power struggle
between them proved to be their undoing.
The war dragged on for 7 years. Neither side
was able to win a decisive victory. Meanwhile, Blind to the real danger of the rapidly
the British became involved in their second advancing foreigners, the Maratha chiefs
war with Mysore and were facing problems frittered away their energies in a fierce
having to deal with two strong rivals at the struggle to control the Peshwa and establish
same time. their influence at Poona.
In 1802, Peshwa Baji Rao II, supported by
Results Sindhia, was defeated by Holkar. Baji Rao II
The Maratha War was brought to an end by fled to Bassein where he signed the Subsidiary
the Treaty of Salbai in 1782. Treaty as a price for British protection and
support. He was escorted back to Poona by
ŠŠ The British acknowledged Madhav Rao II
British soldiers.
as the Peshwa and were allowed to retain
Salsette. Lord Wellesley, the Governor General,
assumed that all the other Maratha chiefs
ŠŠ Raghunath Rao was pensioned off. The
History

would automatically accept the terms and

First Maratha War brought little material
conditions of the Subsidiary Treaty, since it
rewards for the British, but it established

77
 had been signed by the Peshwa, BRITISH AND MARATHA TERRITORIES INDIA IN 1805

the nominal head of the Marathas. Ind

us British territory
He was wrong. The Marathas Peshawar Attock Maratha territory
KASHMIR
would not give up without a Rawalpindi Towns
m
Jhelu SIKH
struggle. STATES Satluj
Present international
boundary of India
i
Multan Rav

Events s Panipat

Yamun
du Tsangpo

Ganga
In Delhi
RAJPUTANA Kosi
Sindhia and Bhonsle declared

a
MARATHA Jaipur Agra Lucknow tra
pu
TERRITORY hma
war against the British in 1803. SIND Ajmer Gwalior
AWADH Patna
Bra
ASS A M
MALWA
The combined forces of Sindhia Allahabad BIHARGanga

T
I NIndore D I A

RA
and Bhonsle were defeated. BENGAL

JA
Baroda

GU
Kathiawar Chandernagore
ada
Narm Calcutta
Surat Ta p i
Nagpur
Results
Ma Cuttack
Diu (Port.) Daman (Port.) han BURMA
adi
Bassein God
avar
Bombay i BAY OF
Both these families had to ARABIAN
NIZAM’S ER
N
TH ARS BENGAL
DOMINION R
NO IRC
accept the Subsidiary Alliance, SEA Kris
hna Hyderabad C

surrender large tracts of valuable Goa (Port.)

Yanam (Fr.)

territory and acknowledge the

Andam
IC
MYSORE
British as their overlords. British Madras

NAT
Mysore
MA

Mahe (Fr.) CAR

troops and Residents were posted Pondicherry (Fr.)

an and Nic
L a k s h a I A)

LA

Calicut Kav
BA TRAV

eri
Karaikal (Fr.)
R ANC

(I N D I A
in their territories.
(I N D

Cochin ANDAMAN
SEA

o
dw

bar
OR

Holkar took up arms against the

)
E
ee

SRI

Isl
I N D I A N O C E A N
p

an
British. While the war was still LANKA

ds
on, Wellesley was recalled from
India because the government in England
The Third Anglo-Maratha War
was unhappy with the enormous expenditure
involved in his policy of wars and expansion. (1817–18)
Wellesley’s successor, George Barlow, signed Causes
a peace treaty with Holkar and returned his
Peshwa Baji Rao II began to resent the stifling
territories. The Company once again reverted
and rigid control of the British Resident. He
to the policy of non-intervention.
was completely at the mercy of the British.
The defeat in the Second Anglo-Maratha War He was forced to sign another humiliating
was a severe blow to the power and prestige treaty, surrender more territory and renounce
of the Marathas. all claims to the headship of the Marathas.
Peshwa Baji Rao II decided to make one last
TP Think and Answer attempt to recover his independence.
The First Anglo-Maratha War was a long-
drawn-out war in which neither side won. What Events
conclusions can you draw from this? Why do
History

you think the Second Maratha War was won With the support of the Bhonsle and the
decisively and easily by the British? Holkar, the Peshwa took up arms against

78
the British. The Peshwa attacked the British
Residency at Kirkee near Poona and burnt it.
The British, however, struck back and
decisively defeated the Peshwa, Bhonsle
and Holkar. The Marathas were completely
subjugated.
Results
ŠŠ Peshwa Baji Rao II was deposed and exiled
to Bithur (near Kanpur) as a pensioner of
the British.
ŠŠ His territories were annexed.
ŠŠ A small state, Satara, was carved out from
his territories and a descendant of Shivaji
was placed on the throne.
ŠŠ Bhonsle and Holkar ceded large parts of
their territories to the British.
ŠŠ Holkar accepted the Subsidiary Alliance.
ŠŠ The Maratha power was finally
extinguished.
MILITARY CONQUESTS
The British had to resort to fighting wars to
subjugate some independent regional powers
like Mysore and the Sikhs. Hyder Ali, the
ruler of Mysore, was a powerful and fiercely
independent ruler. The Sikhs, under Ranjit
Singh, had also developed into a strong state
that was fiercely protective of their freedom.
Subjugation of Mysore
Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore, was a brilliant
general, an efficient administrator and a
shrewd diplomat. A man of remarkable
courage and ambition, he extended his
kingdom up to the Krishna River. He
strengthened his position by introducing
various reforms and setting up a sound
administrative system. The administration
was strict, but efficient, and the kingdom was
united and strong.
His son, Tipu Sultan, was also an extremely
gifted soldier and efficient ruler. The British
considered Mysore a major threat to the
establishment of their supremacy in India.
As a result, they fought four wars, first with
Hyder Ali and following his death, with Tipu
Sultan, over a span of 32 years (1767-99), to
crush the power of Mysore.
Annexation of the Sikh
Kingdom
The Sikh kingdom became a very powerful
and independent state under the leadership
of Ranjit Singh. However, after his death, the
Sikh kingdom was torn by internal strife and
a struggle for power. The British used this
opportunity to strike against the Sikhs and
fight two wars, known as Anglo-Sikh Wars
(1845–49). The Sikhs fought fiercely to retain
their freedom but suffered a decisive loss.
The Anglo-Sikh Wars ended in the complete
annexation of Punjab by Lord Dalhousie, the
then Governor General of India.
With the annexation of Punjab in 1849, the
conquest of India was complete. India now
consisted of (i) British Indian provinces under
direct British rule and (ii) the subordinate
states (e.g. Awadh) indirectly controlled by
the British. Dalhousie decided to bring the
subordinate states under direct British rule.
DALHOUSIE’S POLICY OF
EXPANSION
Lord Dalhousie, the Governor General of
History
India from 1848-56, adopted a number of
methods to give the final touches to the work
79
 of empire-building in India. The methods he
adopted were:
ŠŠ War—Punjab
ŠŠ Doctrine of Lapse—Satara, Jhansi and
Nagpur
ŠŠ Annexation on the grounds
maladministration—Awadh
As we have studied earlier, Dalhousie
subjugated the Sikhs in the Second Anglo-
Sikh War and annexed Punjab in 1849.
Doctrine of Lapse
The policy of Doctrine of Lapse was
formulated by Lord Dalhousie as a peaceful
way of annexing subordinate Indian states
and bringing them under the direct rule of the
Company.
Governor General Lord Dalhousie was a great imperialist
who annexed several states on the basis of the Doctrine
of Lapse.
According to the Doctrine of Lapse, all
History
subordinate states (subsidiary states and
states created by the British) where the rulers
80
Did You Know?
In Himachal Pradesh, there is a British hill
station called Dalhousie. This hill station is a gift
from the Governor General, Lord Dalhousie, to
the state of Himachal Pradesh. It is located on
the western edge of the Dhauladhar Range, east
of
of river Ravi.
died without a natural male heir would
automatically ‘lapse’, i.e. pass into the hands
of the British. Rulers without heirs could not
adopt sons, according to the age-old Hindu
and Islamic traditions, without the permission
of the Company.
Dalhousie applied the Doctrine of Lapse to
these states which included Satara, Jhansi
and Nagpur. The families of the former rulers
were pensioned off and their territories
annexed.
The annexation of these states caused
widespread resentment among the Indian
rulers and became a potent factor responsible
for the outbreak of the Revolt of 1857.
This policy was also applied to titles and
pensions of subordinate rulers without heirs.
This was a great blow to their pride and dignity.
Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji
Rao II, inherited his father’s personal property
but was not given the pension that had been
paid to his father. Nana Saheb became one of
the important leaders of the Revolt of 1857.
Maladministration
Dalhousie also annexed some subordinate
states on the grounds of maladministration.
Awadh was a subsidiary state, which was
annexed under this pretext. Even though
it helped in the expansion of British power,
policies such as this created a lot of resentment
against the British. These unjust policies
would also become one of the most BRITISH TERRITORY IN INDIA IN 1856

important reasons for the Revolt of Kabul

Ind
us British territory
1857. KASHMIR Subordinate states
Peshawar Present international
um
Jhel enab
boundary of India
Annexation of Awadh Ch
JAB
PURNavi Satluj
Multan
The Subsidiary Alliance which the Patiala

Ganga
s
du Tsangpo

Yamu
nawab of Awadh had signed with
In Delhi
Kosi
AWADH

na
RAJPUTANA Jaipur
Wellesley had protected the nawab Agra
Lucknow
Gha
gha Bra hma
putr
a
ra ASSAM
SIND Jodhpur Ajmer
from external invasions and internal MALWA Gwalior wa Allahabad
Bet
BIHAR
Patna Ganga
rebellions. It made the nawabs I N D Son
REWA
I A BENGAL
Indore
complacent and unconcerned about GUJARAT
Baroda
Narm
ada
Chandernagore (Fr.)
Calcutta
Nagpur
the affairs of the state. The payment Surat Tapi

SA
IS
Diu (Port) Ma
Daman (Port.) han Cuttack

OR
of annual subsidies to the Company Goda
vari
RN
adi
BAY OF
Bombay Poona HE RS
exhausted the state treasury. ARABIAN Satara
NIZAM”S
Hyderabad
T
R A
NO IRC
BENGAL
SEA Kri
shnDOMINION
C
When the administration was a Yanaon (Fr.)
Masulipatam
on the verge of collapse, Lord

ATIC
MYSORE
Dalhousie struck. He brought Mysore

Andaman and Nicob

CARN
Madras
Tellicherry (Fr.)
charges of misgovernment or
L a k s h a I A)

Mahe (Fr.) Kav Pondicherry (Fr.)

eri
TRA

maladministration against the Calicut Karaikal (Fr.)

(I N D I A
(I N D

VAN

nawab. On those grounds, he Cochin

dw

OREC

ar I
)
deposed the nawab and annexed
ee

sla
I N D I A N O C E A N
p

nd
Awadh in 1856.

s
Many changes were introduced in the ŠŠ Lack of organized and efficient
administration. This was greatly resented by administration in Indian states
the people who preferred to be ruled by their ŠŠ Superior military resources of the Company
own nawabs, than by foreigners. Awadh ŠŠ Superior economic resources of the
became one of the main centres of the Revolt Company
of 1857. ŠŠ Naval supremacy of the British
The weaknesses of the Indian states were
INDIA IN 1856 fully exploited by the Company. Backed by
By 1856, the English East India Company had superior resources—political, economic and
brought the whole of India under its control. military—the Company transformed the
The parts of the country that were nominally British empire in India into the British empire
under Indian rulers were effectively under of India.
the control of the British. The British had
eliminated all their rivals and established Discuss  TP
themselves as the paramount power in India.
By 1856, the English East India Company had
The factors responsible for the success of the transformed ‘the British empire in India into the
History

British were: British empire of India.’ Discuss your views in the

light of this statement.
ŠŠ Lack of unity among Indian rulers

81
 Values and Life Skills
National unity is important for a country’s growth, peace and progress. In times of crisis, such as war or
economic emergency, we should put aside conflicting ambitions and mutual rivalries and come together,
to resolve the issue in the best interests of the country.
• Do you think the history of India would have been different if all the Maratha powers were united in
their struggle against the British? Why? What lessons can we learn from them?

Second Anglo-Maratha War

The Third Battle Punjab was annexed.
of Panipat

ce ce

1750 1800 1850 1900

First Anglo- Third Anglo- Awadh was annexed.

Maratha War Maratha War

Under this method, Indian rulers could seek help from British army when their security was
threatened. They had to pay for the maintenance of the troops and have a British official in the
court at all times.

Subsidiary Effects: British maintained large armies at the expense of the Indian rulers. British controlled the
Alliance foreign policy of the Indian rulers.

Disadvantages for Indian rulers: The rulers became puppets of the English East India Company
and there was heavy drain of their resources to maintain the British troops.

First Anglo-Maratha War happened between the Marathas (under the leadership of Nana
Phadnavis) and the British (under Lord Wellesley). Neither side won, and the Treaty of Salbai
was signed.
EXPANSION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA

Peshwa Baji Rao II was defeated by the Holkars in 1802 and went on to seek help from the British
Subjugation
by signing the Subsidiary Treaty at Bassein. They defeated the Sindhias and Bhonsles in 1803 in
of Marathas
the Second Anglo-Maratha War, and they had to accept Subsidiary Alliance.

Peshwa Baji Rao II allied with Sindhia and Holkar and battled the British in the Third Anglo-
Maratha War. They were defeated and Peshwa Baji Rao II was deposed and exiled to Bithur.
Bhonsle and Holkar ceded large parts of territories.

Hyder Ali of Mysore posed a great threat to British power in south. He strengthened his position
by introducing various reforms and forming an efficient administration. Four wars were fought in
Military a span of 32 years to annex the kingdom of Mysore.
conquests
After the death of Ranjit Singh, the Sikh kingdom was in disarray over succession. The British took
advantage of this and annexed the Sikh kingdom through two Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-49).
History

Doctrine of Lapse: If a kingdom did not have a natural-born male heir, the kingdom fell under the
hands of the British. The Doctrine of Lapse was applied to the states of Jhansi, Satara and Nagpur.
Dalhousie's
policy of Maladministration: Awadh was a subsidiary state annexed under this pretext. The nawabs had
expansion signed Subsidiary Alliance for protection and became complacent and the administration almost
82 collapsed and Lord Dalhousie took advantage of this.
 Important Words
Subsidiary Alliance was a method perfected by Lord
Wellesley to subjugate Indian powers without the cost
and bother of war.
Nana Phadnavis was the able leader of the Marathas and
the pillar of Maratha unity against the British.
Policy of non-intervention was a policy of the British
which entailed the avoidance of involvement and
interference in Indian affairs.
Doctrine of Lapse was the policy of expansion adopted
by Lord Dalhousie, according to which all subordinate
states where the ruler died without a natural male heir
would automatically lapse or pass into the hands of the
British administration.
Subordinate states were those Indian states that were
indirectly controlled by the British.
Nana Saheb was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II,
who became one of the important leaders of the
Revolt of 1857.

Exercises
A Fill in the blanks.
1. The five centres of Maratha power were:
(a) _______________ of Gwalior (b) _______________ of Indore
(c) _______________ of Nagpur (d) _______________ of Baroda
(e) _______________ of Poona (Pune)
2. The Governor General during the First and Second Anglo-Maratha Wars were
______________ and _______________, respectively.
3. The Second Anglo-Maratha War was a severe blow to the _______________ and
______________ of the Marathas.
4. _______________ adopted three methods to make the British the paramount power in India.
5. Jhansi was annexed by Dalhousie on the basis of the _______________.
6. Dalhousie annexed Awadh on the grounds of _______________.

B Match the following.

A B
1. Subsidiary Alliance (a) ruler of the Sikh kingdom
2. Hyder Ali (b) paramount power in India by 1856
3. Ranjit Singh (c) ruler of Mysore
History

4. Doctrine of Lapse (d) Lord Wellesley

5. English East India Company (e) Lord Dalhousie

83
 C Choose the correct answer.
1. The First Anglo-Maratha War was fought during the Governor-Generalship of Lord
Cornwallis/Lord Wellesley/Warren Hastings.
2. The Maratha chiefs were united under the leadership of Nana Phadnavis/Baji Rao II/Madhav
Rao II during the First Anglo-Maratha War.
3. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the British placed a descendant of Shivaji on the throne
of Nagpur/Satara/Jhansi.
4. Punjab was annexed by Lord Minto/Lord Dalhousie/Lord Wellesley in 1849.
5. The widespread resentment against annexations expressed itself in the Revolt of
1849/1861/1857.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. After Hyder Ali’s death, his son Tipu Sultan continued the Anglo-Maratha Wars.
2. The Subsidiary Alliance system was used by the British to bring Indian rulers under British
control without any war.
3. The Subsidiary Alliance proved very advantageous for the Indians.
4. The adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II was denied the pension that his father used to get
from the British.
5. By 1856, the English East India Company had brought the whole of India under its control.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. What was the main objective of the Subsidiary Alliance system? [2]
2. What happened when the administration of a subsidiary state collapsed? [2]
3. Why did Peshwa Baji Rao II sign the Subsidiary Alliance? [2]
4. Why was Wellesley recalled from India during the Second Anglo-Maratha War? [2]
5. How did the Subsidiary Alliance impact the (a) economy (b) administration in Awadh? [2]
F Answer the following questions briefly.
1. With reference to the Subsidiary Alliance System, answer the following questions:
(a) Why did Indian rulers sign the Subsidiary Alliance? State two important military terms
and conditions imposed on the Indian rulers by this treaty. [4]
(b) The Subsidiary Alliance proved very beneficial for the British. Explain. [3]
(c) Discuss the disastrous effects of the Subsidiary Alliance on the Indian states. [3]
2. Dalhousie was a great expansionist and adopted a number of methods to build an all-India
empire. In this context, answer the following questions:
(a) Mention the various methods adopted by Dalhousie and the territories annexed on the
basis of these methods. [3]
(b) Under what circumstances did a subordinate state automatically ‘lapse’ and pass into
the hands of the British? How did the rulers react to this policy? [4]
(c) Why did Nana Saheb become one of the leaders of the Revolt of 1857? [3]
3. With reference to the annexation of Awadh, discuss the following:
(a) The effects of the Subsidiary Alliance on the administration in Awadh [4]
(b) The political scenario in India by 1856 [3]
(c) Any three factors responsible for the success of the British over their Indian rivals [3]
History

84
G Picture study
This is the picture of a British Governor General.
1. Name the Governor General.
2. What was the method adopted by him to subjugate the Indian
territories?
3. Mention the terms and conditions under this method.
4. Did this method have any advantage for the Indian rulers? Why?

H Map work  SI Geography

1. On an outline map of the Indian subcontinent, mark and label:

(a) the Maratha territories in 1805 (b) the British territories in 1805
2. On an outline map of the Indian subcontinent, mark and label the territories controlled by
British in 1856.

Do and Learn
Use your imagination
TP Imagine you lived in Calcutta during the British period. You had gone to visit your relative
in Awadh which is a subsidiary state. What are your impressions of Awadh? Is the situation
similar to or different from the conditions in Bengal?

Project work
TP 1. Write an imaginary dialogue between:
(a) Lord Wellesley and the ruler of a subsidiary state.
(b) Lord Dalhousie and the Rani of Jhansi during the annexation of Jhansi.
TP 2. Draw a timeline to show the expansion of British power in India.

History

85
 9
  Theme 5: British Policies and Impact

British Policies and

Their Impacts
INDIAN ECONOMY BEFORE THE
BRITISH
Indian economy, before the advent of the
British, was largely a rural economy. More
than 95 per cent of Indians lived in the villages.
The rest lived in towns which were either the
political capitals of their kings or important
centres of trade, industry and commerce.

TRADITIONAL INDIAN The traditional Indian economy was primarily a rural one.

ECONOMY in the royal treasury. The zamindars were

The Indian villages were self-sufficient, primarily collectors of land revenue.
small economic units. Agriculture was the
chief source of livelihood, supplemented
BRITISH REVENUE SYSTEM
and supported by the handicraft industries.
The peasants, the potters, the weavers, (1765–93)
the carpenters, and other artisans and By the Treaty of Allahabad, the Mughal
craftspeople produced whatever was emperor, Shah Alam II, granted the English
required by the village community and some East India Company, the right to collect
for outside markets. Their dependence on revenue from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
items from outside their village was minimal
Initially, the company officials followed the
and their only link with the government was
traditional methods of revenue collection.
the annual payment of revenue. The revenue
However, they fixed the revenue at a higher
was collected mainly in kind (i.e. part of the
rate and collected the payments in cash only.
agricultural produce) and sometimes in cash.
Since revenue payments had to be paid in
The revenue was collected either directly
cash, the peasants began to grow cash crops
by the tax officials of the ruler or indirectly
like jute, cotton, sugar cane, etc. which could
through zamindars. These zamindars
be sold for ready cash in the markets. The
generally did not own land. They collected
History

production of food crops like wheat and rice

the taxes on behalf of the rulers, kept a part of
dropped sharply, leading to shortage of food
it as their commission and deposited the rest
supplies and semi-starvation conditions.

86
The methods of revenue collection by the ŠŠ Raw materials for England’s growing
company officials and agents were often industries were bought with revenues
oppressive and cruel. Sometimes, especially from Bengal.
when the rains failed, the peasants had to ŠŠ The Company did not spend any money
borrow money at high rates of interest from on the general welfare of those who paid
the moneylenders to pay the revenue. In some the revenue.
cases, they had to mortgage or sell off their
Since land tax formed the main source
lands to make the revenue payments.
of revenue for the Company, it became
The Bengal famine of 1770, one of the most imperative to introduce a regular and efficient
terrible famines in human history, devastated system of revenue collection.
the countryside. One third of the population
perished. The Company’s revenue collection Warren Hastings,
suffered a severe setback. the Governor of
Bengal, introduced
the system of
auctioning the right
to collect revenue
from a particular
area to the highest
bidder for a period
of 5 years. The
experiment was
A portrait of Warren Hastings
a dismal failure.
The new zamindars, unsure of retaining the
contract at the next auction, had no permanent
interest in the land and did nothing to
improve it. The peasants were forced to meet
the revenue targets.
A painting showing starving people of Bengal praying to the
bull god, Nandi, for relief during the famine
The Permanent Settlement
Utilization of Land Revenue (1793)
ŠŠ A large share of the revenue collected from To remove the defects of the revenue system
the territories conquered by the Company and ensure a steady and stable inflow of
had to be paid to the British government as revenue, Lord Cornwallis, the next Governor
‘home charges’. From 1767, the Company of Bengal introduced the system known as the
had to pay 400,000 pounds annually. Permanent Settlement of Bengal. The system
ŠŠ The revenue from Bengal was also used to had two special features:
cover (i) military and (ii) administrative ŠŠ Permanent ownership of land
History

costs (e.g. salaries of government officials).

ŠŠ Fixed revenue
ŠŠ It was used to finance the trading activities
of the Company.

87
 Permanent Ownership of Land
ŠŠ The zamindars, collectors of land revenue,
were made permanent legal owners of the
land from which they collected the land
tax. The tax collector became the landlord.
ŠŠ The zamindar’s ownership rights became
hereditary and he was given the freedom
to sell or mortgage his land.
ŠŠ The cultivators of the land became the
tenants of the zamindar and lost their
ancestral rights. They had to pay a rent to
the zamindar who could increase the rent
as and when they wanted to.
Fixed Revenue
ŠŠ The land revenue was fixed on a permanent
basis. The Company could not make any
further demands on the zamindars.
ŠŠ The zamindar had to pay the land revenue
once a year on a specific date. If he failed
to pay on time, his lands were confiscated
and sold.
The Permanent settlement was introduced
in Bengal and Bihar and later extended
to Orissa, the coastal districts of Andhra
Pradesh and to the north-west provinces.
Advantages
ŠŠ The Company was assured of a fixed
revenue at a fixed time even during natural
calamities.
ŠŠ The collection of revenue was simpler and
cheaper. The zamindars replaced hundreds
of paid tax officials.
ŠŠ The British won the support and loyalty
of the powerful and privileged class of
zamindars that they had created.
History
ŠŠ As permanent owners of the lands, the
zamindars took several steps to increase
88
agricultural production whose benefits
they would enjoy.
Disadvantages
ŠŠ The cultivators were left at the mercy of the
zamindar, who exploited and oppressed
them, increased their rents and evicted
them from the land when they were
unable to pay the high rents. This led to
widespread poverty and misery of the
cultivators.
ŠŠ Since the revenue was fixed, the government
would not get a share of increasing returns
from the land.
ŠŠ This system gave rise to a class of absentee
landlords. These zamindars preferred to
live in cities and towns and sublet their
land to tenants at high rates. These tenants
in turn sublet it to other tenants. As this
process continued, the rent rates increased
with each successive layer. The entire
burden of paying the enhanced rates had
to be borne by the actual cultivator—the
last tenant.
ŠŠ The absentee landlords did not take any
interest in their land and did very little
to improve conditions and promote
agriculture. On the contrary, they invested
their money in other activities like trade or
banking or even on personal luxuries and
a lavish lifestyle.
Discuss  TP
Do you agree that the British created a new
class of faithful allies in the zamindars? Why
did they not make land revenue arrangements
directly with the peasants?
The Ryotwari system
The Ryotwari System was introduced in the
Madras Presidency. Its features were:
ŠŠ The cultivator (ryot) was recognized as the
 owner of his land as long as he paid the exporter of handmade industrial goods. She
land revenue. was also a major supplier of various goods
ŠŠ The revenue was paid directly by the like coarse silk, muslin, etc.
cultivator to the revenue officials.
ŠŠ The revenue was fixed for 30 years after
which it could be revised.
ŠŠ The revenue was fixed at about half the
total produce.
ŠŠ Collection of revenue was rigid. There was
no remission of revenue even when the
crops failed.

The Mahalwari System

The Mahalwari system was introduced in
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and parts of Madhya
Pradesh.
‘Mahal’ means a group of villages. Under this
system, land was collectively owned by the
villagers. The revenue settlement was made
with the village as a whole. The talukdar or
head of the mahal collected the revenue and
handed it over to the British collectors.
The Zamindari and Ryotwari systems
introduced fundamental changes in the
traditional land systems of the country.
Land became a commodity—a new form of
property—which could be bought, sold and
mortgaged as and when the need arose. The
stability and continuity of the Indian villages
were shaken and the traditional structure of
rural society began to disintegrate.
COMMERCIAL POLICY
(1773–1857)
A picture of a traditional Indian artisan
Before the advent of British rule, the Indian
craftspeople operated at two levels.
At the rural level, the craftspeople produced
goods on a small scale to meet the needs
of the villagers. At the urban level, the
craftspeople and artisans produced goods in
bulk to meet the demands of the Indian and
European buyers. These craftspeople were
highly specialized and were usually engaged
in hereditary professions (e.g. weavers,
goldsmiths, silversmiths). They lived in
towns which became renowned centres of
their craft. There was a great demand for
‘Decca’ muslin and ‘Banarsi’ silk in England.
An English author observed that Indian cloth
had ‘crept into our houses, our closets, our
bed chambers, curtains, cushions, chairs and
at last beds themselves were nothing but
calicos or India stuffs’.

India, in the 17th and 18th centuries, though The Indian textile industry was the finest
primarily an agricultural country, enjoyed and largest in the world. Till the end of the
History

a prominent position in the field of trade 18th century, the quality of Indian steel was
and industry. It was a major producer and of superior quality to English steel. Cities like

89
 Vishakhapatnam, Surat, Goa were famous
centres of a flourishing shipbuilding industry.
Other urban centres specialized in gold and
silver ornaments, copper and brass ware and
other items of high quality.
Most craftspeople were organized in guilds,
which protected their interests and kept
a check on prices and quality of goods.
They were patronized by their rulers who
received a share of the profits which became
an important source of revenue for the royal
treasury.
The English merchants bought large quantities
of Indian products and paid for them in gold
and silver.
Decline of Indian Crafts and
Industries
The first century of British rule resulted in the
decay and destruction of traditional Indian
trade and industry.
ŠŠ At the beginning of the 18th century, the
British and other European countries
passed laws which prevented the entry
of cotton and silk textiles from India even
though there was a demand for it. Thus
foreign markets for Indian goods virtually
disappeared.
ŠŠ After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the
company used its political power to
destroy the Indian handicraft industry
and promote British industries. The Indian
weavers were forced to sell their products
to the Company at very low prices. To add
to their miseries, they were compelled to
buy inferior raw cotton at high prices from
the Company officials who bought it from
the Indian farmers at low rates.
History
ŠŠ With the growth of the Industrial
Revolution in England, Indian markets
90
were flooded with cheap, machine-made
textiles. India became a dumping ground
for products manufactured in England.
Indian handloom textiles could not
compete with the cheaper textiles of British
mills.
ŠŠ With the establishment and expansion of
the British empire in India, the royal courts
and the nobility of the ruling dynasties,
(including the Mughals) collapsed one by
one. The craftspeople and artisans were
deprived of royal patronage and Indian
handicrafts suffered a severe setback.
ŠŠ The members of the British Civil Service
and the army were not interested in Indian
goods. They only used articles and goods
made in England. The newly educated
Indian middle class was greatly influenced
by British culture. They developed a
marked preference for European goods.
This dealt a severe blow to manufacturers
of luxury items.
ŠŠ To eliminate competition, the British
transformed India into a supplier of
raw materials and a market for British
products. This policy led to the ruin of
India’s traditional industries.
ŠŠ The British government also obstructed
the growth of modern Indian industries
to keep the country underdeveloped
and economically backward. Almost
everything of daily use like needles,
pins, sewing machines, thread, soaps,
biscuits, cycles, medicines, paper, etc. were
imported from England.
The new class of Indian capitalists received
no support from the government. The trade,
tariff, taxation and transport policies were
stumbling blocks to the development of
modern industries. It was only as late as 1851,
that a cotton mill was set up in Bombay by a
Parsee.
By 1850, India, which was earlier a major
exporter of textiles to world markets, became
a major importer of English textiles, importing
about one fourth of the textiles produced in
England.
Drain of Wealth
Dadabhai Naoroji, one of the early
nationalists of India, described British rule
as an ‘everlasting... foreign invasion that was
utterly, though gradually, destroying the
country’. The exploitation of Indian economy
led to continuous drain of wealth to England
in various forms.
Dadabhai Naoroji criticized British economic policies for the
ways in which they drained wealth out of India.
ŠŠ A greater part of the salaries of British
officials and employees of the Company
(paid out of Indian revenues) was deposited
in England as savings.
ŠŠ Material resources like cotton, jute,
indigo, tea, coffee, etc. were transported to
England.
ŠŠ Goods purchased in India with revenues
drawn from the country were sent to
England.
ŠŠ Huge sums of money which the officials
received as bribes and gifts were sent out
of the country.
The Drain of Wealth Theory
Cheap, factory-produced goods were shipped to India to
be sold in the captive market of the British colony.
GREAT
BRITAIN
INDIA
Raw materials, salaries of British officials, payments
under the Subsidiary Alliance and profits from sale of
cheap, factory-produced British goods comprised the
wealth that British drained from India.
This map is for representation purposes only. It does not reflect actual shipping routes
The drain of wealth from India to Britain
Transport and Communication
The transport and communication system in
India in the 18th century was very backward.
The British realized the importance of
developing proper communication facilities
to consolidate their position in India and
promote their industrial and commercial
growth.
Steps were taken to link all the major cities,
ports, agricultural centres and markets
through an elaborate network of roads, canals
and railways. Metalled roads, steamships and
trains were introduced.
The first railway line was inaugurated in 1853
from Bombay to Thane by Lord Dalhousie.
The Post and Telegraph department was
also opened in the same year. The Grand
Trunk Road (from Calcutta to Peshawar) was
reconstructed.
While Indian cottage industries and
craftspeople were adversely affected by
British rule, the Indian merchants enjoyed
the benefits of Dalhousie’s measures. They
imported manufactured goods from Europe
History
and exported cash crops like cotton, jute,
indigo, etc. Indian merchants and bankers also
91
 made substantial profits and became wealthy.
This group of wealthy Indians would form
the nucleus of the capitalist class in India.
The vastly improved communication system
was established to serve British interests
and geared to suit colonial needs. The
railways ensured quick transfer of troops
and ammunition during revolts and other
disturbances and the easy transportation of
raw materials and manufactured goods.
The transport and communication system,
however, would ultimately benefit Indians in
unexpected ways. Besides stimulating trade
and commerce, it would bring the people
of India closer to one another and infuse in
them a sense of unity and nationalism—a
development that would have far-reaching
effects on India’s future.
Did You Know?
On 16 April 1853, a train with 14 railway
carriages, 3 locomotives Sind, Sultan and Sahib,
and 400 guests left Bombay at 3:35 pm. This
was India’s first rail run. The train left from Bori
Bunder for Thane with a 21-gun salute and the
Governor’s band to see it off. The journey was
completed in 1 hour and 15 minutes.
EDUCATIONAL POLICY
For more than half a century of its rule, the
English East India Company—a trading,
profit-making Company—made no efforts
to change the Indian system of education.
Education was mainly religious and the
privilege of the rich upper classes of society.
Charter Act of 1813
The Charter Act of 1813 directed the Company
History
to spend 1 lakh rupees on the education of
Indians. This was the first step taken by the
92
British rulers towards the encouragement of
the study of literature and science in India.
The Charter Act, however, did not lay down
any specific guidelines. The money sanctioned
for the education project lay untouched for
two decades while a great controversy raged
over the content and medium of education.
The Great Debate
One group favoured the promotion of
traditional Indian learning through the
medium of classical (Sanskrit and Persian)
and regional languages. This group was
known as the Orientalists. The other group,
led by Lord Macaulay (Law Member of the
Governor General’s Council) insisted that
Western education should be introduced and
imparted through the medium of English.
This group was called Anglicists.
William Bentinck
supported Macaulay’s
views. In 1835, the
government passed a
resolution outlining its
new education policy.
The government would
utilize its educational
funds on teaching William Bentinck
Western science and literature through the
medium of the English language.
Introduction and Spread of
Western Education
The government began to set up English
medium schools and colleges for the
education of a limited number of Indians. In
1844, English became the official language
and the government announced that Indians
educated in British schools would be given
jobs in government services. This helped the
spread of English education in India.
Wood’s Despatch
In 1854, Sir Charles Wood (President of the
Board of Control) sent a despatch (official
report) outlining a comprehensive plan
for the education of the Indians. This plan,
known as Wood’s Despatch, introduced
further changes in the system of education.
Sir Charles Wood
Purpose of Western Education
ŠŠ The primary motive of the British
government behind the introduction of
Western education in India was to create
a class of persons, Indian in blood and
colour, but British in taste, opinions,
morals and intellect. This class of
Anglicized Indians could be employed, on
low salaries, as clerks in the Civil Service.
ŠŠ This would greatly reduce the heavy
expenditure involved in running the
administration. Employing the British
in these posts was both expensive and
difficult.
ŠŠ Westernized Indians, it was hoped,
would create a demand for British goods
and promote the interests of British
manufacturers.
ŠŠ Western education would inculcate in the
Indians a sense of admiration and respect
for British rule. This would strengthen the
foundations of the British empire in India.
Effects of Western Education
ŠŠ The British system of education produced
English-speaking Indian graduates who
helped their British masters to run the
empire.
ŠŠ It also created a class of Indians who were
westernized to the extent that they rejected
Indian culture and patronized anything
and everything that was British, including
British goods.
Western education, however, impacted
Indian society in a way the British could
never have imagined.
ŠŠ It aroused in them an awareness of the evil
effects of foreign rule.
ŠŠ The teachings of modern European
philosophers instilled in them an
admiration for democratic institutions.
ŠŠ Knowledge of contemporary nationalist
movements in Europe fired the Indians
with an intense desire to build a new
India—progressive, strong, prosperous
and united. In course of time, the best
among them became leaders of the national
movement.
To build a nation, it was imperative to establish
History
bonds of unity. Once again the imposition
of English in the Indian educational system
proved to be a boon in disguise.
93
 ŠŠ English became the medium of
communication and exchange of ideas
TP Think and Answer
between Indians from diverse regions Do you think progress is not possible without
speaking diverse languages. the knowledge of the English language? Give
reasons for your answer.
ŠŠ English broke down regional barriers
and united educated Indians. A spirit of
nationalism began to take shape.

Values and Life Skills

We should learn to be compassionate and show sympathy towards people who work for us. We should
not be oppressive and cruel in dealing with them. We should be sensitive to their needs and provide a
conducive work environment for them.
• How can you show your domestic workers that you care for them?

Permanent Settlement of Bengal

introduced by Cornwallis Wood's Despatch

ce ce

1700 1750 1800 1850 1900

Charter Act of
1813
First railway line from
Bombay to Thane

Important Words
Cash crops are crops such as jute, cotton, sugar cane,
etc. which can be sold for ready cash in the market.
Bengal Famine of 1770 was one of the most terrible
famines in human history which devastated the
countryside.
Home charges were a large share of revenue collected
from territories conquered by the Company which
had to be paid to the British government.
Permanent Settlement was a system introduced
by Lord Cornwallis to remove the defects of the
History
revenue system and ensure a steady and stable
inflow of revenue.
Ryotwari system was a system introduced in the
Madras Presidency wherein the cultivator was
recognized as the owner of his land as long as he
paid the land revenue.
Mahalwari system was the system under which land
was collectively owned by the villagers.
Capitalists are people who own or control a lot of
wealth and use it to produce more wealth.

94
 Shah Alam II granted revenue rights to the British in 1765. Initially traditional methods
of revenue collection were followed. The revenue was used to cover military and
administrative costs, finance trading activities and purchase raw materials.

Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal. Zamindars were

made the permanent landowners of the land and the cultivators became tenants of
the zamindar. Revenue was fixed on a permanent basis. It had a number of advantages
British revenue and disadvantages.
system
The Ryotwari system was introduced in the Madras Presidency. The cultivator was
recognized as the owner of the land and the revenue was paid directly to the official.
Revenue was fixed for 30 years at about half of the total produce and the collection
was rigid.

The Mahalwari system was introduced in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and parts of Madhya
Pradesh. Mahal meant group of villages and land was owned collectively by villagers.
The head of the mahal (talukdar) collected the revenue and gave it to the officials.

India was a major producer and exporter of handmade industrial goods. The century of
BRITISH POLICIES AND THEIR IMPACTS

British rule resulted in decay and destruction of traditional Indian industry. Laws were
passed to prevent entry of cotton and silk in Britain and other European countries.
British industries were promoted and cheap machine-made goods flooded Indian
markets after Industrial Revolution.

Dadabhai Naoroji brought out the Drain of Wealth theory. Wealth was drained to
Commerical
England in the form of salaries for British officials, transport of material resources, etc.
policy
sums of money offered as bribes and gifts, etc.

The British linked important centres and towns with elaborate networks of roads,
canals, etc. Railway line was inaugurated in 1853. The British rule led to the decline of
Indian craftspeople but rise of the Indian merchant class which exported cash crops
and imported British goods.

1 lakh rupees was to be spent on education of Indians under Charter Act of 1813.
It intiated a debate between Orientalists (teaching through classical and regional
languages) and Anglicists (teaching Western Education). A resolution outlining new
education policy was passed in 1835.

The primary motive was to create a class of clerical workers to be employed in the
Educational Civil Service. It would greatly reduce the expenditure in running the administration.
policy Demand for westernized goods would increase and admiration and respect for British
rule would grow.

Western education awoke an awareness in Indians of the evils of foreign rule. The
knowledge of contemporary nationalist movements in Europe sparked nationalist
History

sentiments. The teaching of modern European thinkers instilled admiration for

democratic institutions.

95
 Exercises
Fill in the blanks.
A
1. The ______________ famine of 1770 was one of the most terrible famines in human history.
2. A large share of revenue collected by the Company in India had to be paid to the British
government as ______________ ______________.
3. Under the Mahalwari system the revenue settlement was made with the ______________.
4. Before the advent of the British the Indian craftspeople operated at two levels—the
___________ and the ______________ levels.
5. Before the advent of the British the Indian textile industry was the ______________ and the
______________ in the world.
6. After the Battle of Plassey the Company used its political power to ______________ the
Indian handicraft industry and ______________ British industries.
7. With the spread of the Industrial Revolution in England, Indian markets were flooded with
______________ ______________ of British mills.
8. To eliminate competition from India’s traditional industries, the British transformed India
into a ______________ and a ______________.
9. By 1850, India became a major ______________ of ______________ textiles.
10. ______________ introduced the railway system in India in 1853.
11. The Grand Trunk Road from ______________ to ______________ was reconstructed by the
British in the 19th century.

Match the following.

B

A B

1. Permanent Settlement (a)  encouraged education of Indians

2. shipbuilding industry (b)  Lord Dalhousie

3. transport and communication development (c)  fixed revenue

4. Charter Act of 1813 (d) Anglicist

5. Lord Macaulay (e) Vishakhapatnam

C Choose the correct answer.

1. The Treaty of Allahabad/Madras/Benaras granted the English East India Company the right
to collect revenue from Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
History

2. To remove the defects of the revenue system Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent
Settlement/Ryotwari system/Mahalwari system in 1793.

96
 3. The Ryotwari system of revenue collection was introduced in Madras/Calcutta/Bombay
Presidency.
4. The first railway line was from Bombay to Poona/Thane/Calcutta.
5. The Charter Act of 1813 directed the Company to spend 1/10/15 lakh rupees on the education
of Indians.

State whether the following are true or false.

D
1. Before the advent of the British more than 95 per cent of Indians lived in villages.
2. The Indian peasants were satisfied with the Company’s revenue collection methods.
3. The Permanent Settlement assured the Company a fixed revenue at a fixed time even during
natural calamities.
4. The development of transport and communication systems did not benefit Indians in any
way.
5. Lord Macaulay insisted that Western education should be imparted through the medium of
vernacular languages.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. Why did the Indian peasants begin to grow cash crops? [2]
2. How did the Company utilize the revenues from Bengal? [2]
3. What were the drawbacks of Warren Hastings’s 5-year revenue settlement? [2]
4. How would the improved transport and communication system benefit the Indians
later? [2]
5. Which section of Indians gained from the British commercial policies? [2]
6. What was the significance of the Charter Act of 1813 in the context of British educational
policy in India? [2]
7. In what way would westernized Indians help to promote the interests of British
manufacturers? [2]
8. How did knowledge of contemporary nationalist movement in Europe inspire the
Indians? [2]
9. Mention any two positive effects of the introduction of English in the Indian educational
system. [2]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. In the context of Permanent Settlement of Bengal, answer the following questions:
(a) Explain the special features of the Permanent Settlement. [4]
(b) What are its advantages? [3]
(c) Briefly describe its disadvantages. [3]
2. With reference to Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems, answer the following questions:
(a) Explain the features of the Ryotwari system. [4]
(b) What were the features of the Mahalwari system? [3]
(c) What were the fundamental changes introduced by these two systems in the
traditional land system of the country? [3]
3. The first century of British rule resulted in the decay and destruction of traditional Indian
trade and industry. Explain this statement with reference to the following questions:
History

(a) Political powers of the Company [3]

(b) Collapse of ruling dynasties and ruling courts [3]
(c) Decline of modern Indian industries [4]

97
 4. With reference to the transport and communication system in India, answer the following
questions:
(a) Why and how did the British develop proper transport and communication facilities
in India? [3]
(b) How did the railways serve the interests of the British? [3]
(c) Explain how the improved transport and communication system proved beneficial
for the Indians. [4]
5. The Charter Act of 1813 passed by the British Parliament was the first major step to introduce
changes in the Indian system of education. In this context, discuss:
(a) The general directives issued to the Company in the Charter Act of 1813 and
its inherent weakness. [3]
(b) The Great Debate over the content and medium of education. [4]
(c) The introduction and spread of Western education [3]
6. Wood's Despatch introduced further changes in the Indian education system.
With reference to the above statement, answer the following questions:
(a) What was the purpose behind the introduction of Western education in India? [3]
(b) How did the introduction of Western education benefit the British? [3]
(c) Explain how (i) Western education and (ii) the English language led to the rise of
a spirit of nationalism among the Indians. [4]

G Picture study
This is the picture of an Indian nationalist.
1. Identify the person.
2. What did he think about the British rule in India?
3. Explain any three ways in which he felt that the Indian economy
was being exploited by the British.

 Do and Learn

Use your imagination
TP Imagine you are a passenger on the first train on its maiden run from Bombay to Thane in
1853. Write an account of your experiences and adventures and feelings during that event.

Project work
TP 1. Visit any handicraft fair/industry/emporium and note your observations. Make a report
and share it in class.
TP 2. In groups of five, make a PowerPoint presentation on the impact of British colonial
policies on peasants and craftspeople.  SI Computer Studies
History

98
 16
Theme 1: T
 he Three Main Organs of the Indian Government:
Legislature, Executive and Judiciary
The Union Legislature
THE INDIAN GOVERNMENT
India has a parliamentary form of
government, both at the centre as well as in
the states. The President of India, who is the
Head of State or Chief Executive, is only a
nominal (in name only) head. He/she carries
out the functions of a President on the advice
of the Prime Minister and his/her Council
of Ministers. Under normal circumstances,
the President does not have the power to act
independently.
The power to govern the country is actually
in the hands of the Prime Minister. He/she
is the most important and powerful political
leader in India. The Prime Minister is the
head of the government in India or the real
chief executive.
PARLIAMENTARY FORM OF
GOVERNMENT 
According to the Constitution, the powers and
functions of the government are divided into
three branches—the legislature, the executive
and the judiciary.
The powers and functions are distributed
among these branches in a manner that makes
them equally balanced.
India is a parliamentary democracy. The
Parliament, which is composed of the elected
Civics
representatives of the Indian people, is
vested with supreme power. It is the highest
160
Government
Legislature Executive Judiciary
(makes laws) (enforces laws) (interprets laws)
Organs of the government
law-making body and it makes laws for the
entire country. Thus, the Indian people enjoy
supreme power through their representatives
in the Parliament.
In a parliamentary form of government,
there is a very close relationship between the
legislature (Parliament) and the executive
(Council of Ministers).
After the general elections, the elected
representatives of the people form the Lok
Sabha. The President appoints the leader of
the majority party or the single largest party
or group of parties within the Lok Sabha as
the Prime Minister. Generally, the Prime
Minister chooses his/her Council of Ministers
from among the elected members of the Lok
Sabha. He/she may also choose a Rajya Sabha
member as a minister.
The Lok Sabha (legislature) exercises control
over the Council of Ministers (executive)
which is responsible and answerable to
the Lok Sabha for all its policies, decisions
and actions. This makes the Parliament the
supreme authority in the government because
it has the final authority to accept or reject the
 Distribution of Power between
Union and State Legislatures
The Constitution provides for three lists—the
Union list, the State list and the Concurrent
list, which divide the subjects for legislation
between the central and the state governments.

THE UNION PARLIAMENT

The Parliament House in New Delhi is the building from
where the legislative branch of the government of India
works.
decisions of the executive.
As India is a vast country, it is not possible
for one central government to take care of the
specific needs of people living in different
parts of the country. Therefore, the country has
been divided into different units, which are
called states. Each state has a state government
and the powers of the government are shared
by the central government and the state
governments.
The law-making body of the central
government is the Parliament. The Parliament
has two Houses—the Lok Sabha or the
House of the People and the Rajya Sabha or
the Council of States. Thus, it is a bicameral
legislature. The President is an integral part of
the Parliament.
The Lok Sabha (Lower House)
Composition
ŠŠ The maximum strength of the Lok Sabha
can be 552 members.

UNION LIST (97) CONCURRENT LIST (47) STATE LIST (66)

Law and order

Defence Police
Education
Foreign affairs Public health and
Forests
Communication sanitation
Marriage
Banking Hospitals
Electricity
Railways State transport
Wildlife
Currency and Roads
Labour
coinage Agriculture
Citizenship Land revenue

• M atters of national • M atters of national and • M atters of regional

importance regional importance importance
• Only the Union • Both central and state • The state legislatures
Parliament can make legislatures can make can make laws on
Civics

laws on these subjects. laws on these subjects. these subjects.

Distribution of subjects for making laws between union and state governments

161
 ŠŠ A maximum of 530 members can be Universal Adult Franchise
elected directly by the people of India
All Indian citizens, 18 years of age or above,
from different territorial constituencies.
have the right to vote.
ŠŠ A maximum of 20 members can be elected
from the union territories.
ŠŠ The President can nominate 2 members
from the Anglo-Indian community.
The 17th Lok Sabha consists of 545 members.

Basic Qualifications of the Members

of the Lok Sabha
A member of the Lok Sabha:
ŠŠ Should be a citizen of India
ŠŠ Should be at least 25 years of age
Indelible ink is put on a voter’s finger to ensure that they
ŠŠ Should be a registered voter cannot vote twice in the same election.

Voting by Secret Ballot

Term of the Lok Sabha
The Indian Constitution provides for election
The Lok Sabha is elected for a 5-year term.
by secret ballot. For the purpose of elections,
However, the President may dissolve it
the country is divided into a number of
before the expiry of its term if the party in
electoral constituencies. The people in each
power loses the support of the majority. Its
constituency elect one candidate of their
life can be extended for 1 year at a time in case
choice through the system of secret ballot, i.e.
of a national emergency.
the voter’s choice is not revealed publicly.

Did You Know?

Members of the Lok Sabha are elected during
the general elections, which take place every
5 years. The entire country is divided into
constituencies and one member is elected
from each constituency. People cast their votes
through secret ballot. In most places, people
cast their votes on Electronic Voting Machines
(EVMs). Each EVM has a list of the names of the
candidates contesting the election from that
particular constituency. Next to each candidate’s
name is the symbol of the political party to
which he/she belongs. Voters cast their vote by
A woman casting her vote through an electronic voting
pressing the button next to the name of their
machine—it helps keep voters’ choices a secret.
Civics

chosen candidate.

162
 TP Think and Answer
Why do you think it is necessary to keep a
voter’s choice of candidate a secret?
The Speaker
The Speaker is the presiding officer of the Lok
Sabha. He/She:
ŠŠ Conducts the meetings of the Lok Sabha
ŠŠ Maintains discipline
ŠŠ Supervises the work of the House
Om Birla, the speaker of the 17th Lok Sabha
The Rajya Sabha (Upper House)
Composition
ŠŠ The maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha
can be 250 members.
ŠŠ 238 members represent the states and the
union territories. Seats are allotted to each
state according to its population. These
members are elected indirectly by the
elected members of the State Legislative
Assemblies.
ŠŠ Twelve members are nominated by the
President from among persons who have
distinguished themselves in the fields of
art, literature, science or social service.
Chairperson
ŠŠ The Vice-President is the presiding officer
of the Rajya Sabha.
Basic Qualifications of the Members
of the Rajya Sabha
Members of the Rajya Sabha:
ŠŠ Should be citizens of India
ŠŠ Should be at least 30 years of age
ŠŠ Should be registered voters
Term of the Rajya Sabha
The Rajya Sabha is a permanent House. It
cannot be dissolved by the President. Each
member is elected for a period of 6 years.
One third of its members retire every 2 years.
Members can be re-elected.
Functions of the Parliament
Law-making Functions
ŠŠ The Parliament can frame new laws or
modify existing ones on any subject in the
Union or Concurrent lists.
ŠŠ No money can be raised or spent by the
government without the approval of the
Lok Sabha. A money bill (such as the
annual budget) can only be introduced in
the Lok Sabha.
ŠŠ In some cases, the Parliament can also pass
laws on subjects under the State List.
ŠŠ Only the Parliament can introduce a bill to
amend the Constitution.
The Budget
The budget is an estimate of the annual
income and expenditure of the government
Civics
of India.
163
 The government presents the budget to the
Lok Sabha every year. The budget has to be
passed by the Parliament. The Lok Sabha has
the power to suggest a cut to the budget or
even reject it altogether.
Discuss
What is the purpose of asking the questions to
the ministers in Parliament?
of public importance which requires
immediate and urgent attention from the
government, for instance, natural disasters
such as earthquakes and unforeseen
situations such as police firing or terrorist
attacks, etc.

A press conference on the union budget of 2019
Control Over the Executive
ŠŠ The Parliament keeps a watch over the
government. The Council of Ministers is
directly responsible and answerable to
the Lok Sabha for its policies and actions.
ŠŠ The Council of Ministers has to resign
immediately if a vote of no-confidence is
passed against it by the Lok Sabha.
ŠŠ The Members of Parliament can discuss
government policies and question the
ministers. Hence, they can exercise a check
on the working of the government.
ŠŠ The Parliament can move an adjournment
motion to discuss and focus on any matter
Judicial Functions
The Parliament can impeach or remove the
President, the Vice-President and judges of
the Supreme Court and High Courts if any of
them violate the Constitution or misuse their
authority.
Elective Functions
The Parliament plays an important role in
the election of the President and the Vice-
President.
Sessions of the Parliament
ŠŠ The Parliament meets at least twice a year.
ŠŠ For a session to take place, at least 10 per
cent of the total membership has to be
present. This is called the quorum.

Values and Life Skills

We must understand the great power and responsibility vested in us by the Constitution to actively
participate in the formation and functioning of our government. We must vote judiciously and in an honest
manner. We should make informed choices about our leaders and not be influenced by anyone.
Civics

• If you were given the right to vote, what qualities would you look for in your leader?

164
 The maximum strength of Lok Sabha is 552 members. 530 are elected from territorial
consituencies, 20 are elected from union territories, 2 from the Anglo-Indian community.

A Lok Sabha member should be a registered voter, should be minimum 25 years of age,
and be a citizen of India.

Lok Sabha
For the purpose of elections, the country is divided into constituencies, and voting is done
through secret ballot. Voters must be at least 18 years of age.

The term of the Lok Sabha is 5 years, but President can dissolve it before the term expires
if the party in power loses the support of the majority.
Parliament
Houses of

The Speaker is the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha.

Its maximum strength can be 250 members—238 members from the states and union
territories, 12 members elected by President.
THE UNION PARLIAMENT

Rajya Sabha

The Vice-President is the presiding officer of the Rajya Sabha.

Members must be 30 years of age, should be registered voters and be citizens of India.

It is a permanent House. Each member is elected for 6 years, one third of the members
retire every 2 years.

It can frame new laws and modify existing laws. Money bills are approved by the
Parliament. It can introduce a bill to amend the Constitution.
Functions of the
Parliament

It passes the budget (annual income and expenditure) for every financial year.

It has control over the Council of Ministers who have to resign if a no-confidence vote is
passed against it by the Lok Sabha. It can also discuss policies.

It can impeach or remove the President, Vice-President and judges of the courts.

Important Words
Parliamentary form of government is a system where
the executive is a part of the legislature and is
answerable to the legislature.
Legislature makes the laws of the country.
Executive enforces the laws made by the legislature.
Judiciary defines and interprets the laws of the land and
tries to prevent any person from violating the laws
of the Constitution.
Lok Sabha is the Lower House of the Parliament and is
also known as the House of the People because the
people elect its members directly.
Rajya Sabha is the Upper House of the Parliament and
is also known as the Council of States.
Bicameral means a legislative body having two
chambers.
Secret ballot is the system of voting where the voter’s
choice is not revealed.
A money bill is a bill that is solely about monetary
matters.
Budget is the financial statement stating the estimated
income and expenditure of the country in the
ensuing year.
A bill is a written suggestion for a new law that is
presented to the legislature so that its members can
discuss it.
Vote of no-confidence is a move in the Lok Sabha
to express a lack of confidence in the Council of
Ministers. If such a motion is passed, then the
Council of Ministers has to resign.
Quorum refers to the minimum number of members
Civics

required to be present to conduct a meeting.

Electoral constituency is an area whose voters elect
one member to a legislative body.

165
 Exercises
A Fill in the blanks. 
1. The functions of the government are divided into three branches, namely, the
________________, the ________________ and the ________________.
2. Subjects for legislation are divided into three lists—the ________________ List, the
________________ List and the ________________ List.
3. The Union Parliament has two Houses—the ________________ and the ________________.
4. The Parliament is a _______________ legislature.
5. The ________________ is a permanent House. It cannot be dissolved.

B Match the following.

A B
1. the President (a) is the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
2. the Speaker (b) is a permanent House
3. the Vice-President (c) nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha
4. the Parliament (d) is the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha
5. the Rajya Sabha (e) can introduce a bill to amend the Constitution

C Choose the correct answer.

1. The President carries out his/her functions on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Lok
Sabha/ the Council of Ministers/the Rajya Sabha.
2. Both the central and the state governments can make laws on the subjects in the Union List/
State List/Concurrent List.
3. The Lok Sabha/Rajya Sabha/Vidhan Sabha is also known as the Council of States.
4. The President can nominate 2/10/12 members from the Anglo-Indian community to the Lok
Sabha.
5. The maximum strength of the Lok Sabha consists of 545/552/525 members.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. The State List includes subjects of national importance.
2. A member of the Lok Sabha should be at least 30 years of age.
3. The Rajya Sabha is a permanent House and cannot be dissolved by the President.
4. A money bill has to be introduced in the Rajya Sabha.
5. The Vice-President is the presiding officer of the Rajya Sabha.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. Who is the nominal executive head of the government of India? [1]
2. How do we know that the Parliament has supreme authority in the government? [1]
3. Which branch of government interprets and defines laws? [1]
Civics

4. What is the minimum age qualification of an Indian voter? [1]

5. Who conducts the meetings of the Lok Sabha? [1]

166
 6. How are the members of the Rajya Sabha elected? [1]
7. What is meant by the term ‘budget’? [1]
8. What happens when a vote of no-confidence is passed against the Council of Ministers? [1]
9. Explain the meaning of the term ‘quorum’. [1]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. In the context of the parliamentary form of government, answer the following questions:
(a) What are the main features of a parliamentary form of government? [4]
(b) Name the three branches of government and state their respective functions. [3]
(c) Why are powers distributed between the central and the state governments? [3]
2. Give an account of the Lok Sabha with reference to:
(a) Its composition [4]
(b) Basic qualifications of its members [3]
(c) Its term [3]
3. Give an account of the Rajya Sabha with reference to:
(a) Its composition [4]
(b) Basic qualifications of its members [3]
(c) Its term [3]
4. With reference to the functions of the Parliament, explain the following:
(a) Law-making functions [4]
(b) Control over the executive [3]
(c) Judicial functions [3]

G Picture study
This is the picture of an important government building
in India.
1. Identify the building.
2. Which branch of the government functions in this
building?
3. Who are the members of this branch of the
government?
4. What are the basic qualifications of the members?
5. What is their primary function? Mention any two other important functions.

Do and Learn
Use your imagination
TP With the help of your teacher, organize a mock Parliament in your class or school
auditorium. Discuss and debate (on the model of parliamentary procedures) a bill dealing
with a current topic of national concern/interest. Put the bill to vote and record the result.

Project work
TP Make a list of the people who have been elected from your state or union territory to the
Parliament in the last election. Find out what steps he/she has taken for the welfare of his/
Civics

her constituency. Make a report and share it in class.

167
 Theme 1: T
 he Three Main Organs of the Indian Government:

17
Legislature, Executive and Judiciary

The Union Executive

THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH

The legislative branch of the government
makes the laws of the country. The executive
branch of the government performs the task
of enforcing these laws. THE PRESIDENT

The Union Executive consists of the President,

the Vice-President, the Prime Minister and
the Council of Ministers. The executive is
helped by a large workforce that includes THE VICE-PRESIDENT

civil servants who implement government

policies and the police force which ensures
that citizens follow the law.

THE PRESIDENT 
The President is the constitutional head of the
government of India. But in a parliamentary
form of government, the President is a nominal
or symbolic head. The administration of the
country is carried out in his name. The actual THE PM AND THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

power is vested in the Prime Minister and the
Council of Ministers who advise the President
in the exercise of his/her functions. He/she is
bound to follow this advice.
The basic qualifications for a candidate to be
the President are:
ŠŠ He/she must be a citizen of India.
ŠŠ He/she must be at least 35 years of age.
ŠŠ He/she must have all the qualifications
Civics
The union executive comprises the President,
the Vice-President and the Prime Minister with
his council of ministers.
Election and Termination
The President is elected indirectly. An
electoral college elects the President. The
electoral college consists of the following
members:
ŠŠ The elected members of both Houses of

necessary to be a member of the Lok Parliament

Sabha. ŠŠ The elected members of the State
Legislative Assemblies
168
 Ram Nath Kovind, the 14th President of India
The President is elected for a period of 5
years. The President can be impeached by
the Parliament. Impeachment is a procedure
by which the Parliament can remove the
President if he/she is found guilty of violating
the Constitution, of treason or of corruption.
Did You Know?
The official residence of the President of India is
Rashtrapati Bhavan. It has a large and beautiful
garden called the Mughal Garden, with many
exotic plants and flowers. Visitors are allowed
inside to see the garden every year in February.
Powers
Executive Powers
ŠŠ The President appoints the Prime Minister
who is the leader of the majority party or
coalition parties or the single largest party
in the Lok Sabha.
ŠŠ The President appoints the Union
Ministers on the advice of the Prime
Minister.
ŠŠ The President appoints the state governors
and other high officials such as the
Comptroller and Auditor General and the
Attorney General.
ŠŠ The President appoints the judges of the
Supreme Court and the High Courts and
the ambassadors to other countries.
The Rashtrapati Bhavan—the official residence of the
President of India
Military Powers
ŠŠ The President is the Supreme Commander
of the Defence Forces. He/she can declare
war or conclude peace.
ŠŠ All important treaties and contracts are
made in the President’s name.
Legislative Powers
ŠŠ The President can summon or prorogue the
Parliament. He/she addresses the opening
session of the Parliament every year. The
President’s address is a statement of the
government’s policy.
ŠŠ The President can also dissolve the Lok
Sabha and order fresh elections.
ŠŠ He/she can call a joint session of both
Houses of Parliament if there is a deadlock
regarding a bill.
ŠŠ Each bill passed by the Parliament has to
receive the President’s assent in order to
become a law. The President may send the
bill back to the Parliament if he/she does
not approve, but if it is passed a second
time, he/she is obliged to sign it and give
his/her assent.
ŠŠ The President nominates twelve members
Civics
to the Rajya Sabha and two Anglo-Indian
members to the Lok Sabha.
169
 ŠŠ When the Parliament is not in session, the
President can issue ordinances (executive
orders). Ordinances are like laws but
they are valid for only 6 weeks after the
Parliament meets again.
Financial Powers
ŠŠ The budget is presented to the Parliament
in the name of the President.
ŠŠ All money bills are introduced in
the Parliament with the President’s
permission.
ŠŠ The President can grant an advance from
the Contingency Fund in case of an
unforeseen expenditure.
Judicial Powers
ŠŠ The President has the power to grant
pardon and reduce or suspend the sentence
of a person who has been found guilty. He/
she can also pardon a death sentence.
ŠŠ He/she is not answerable to any court of
law for his/her actions, except if he/she is
impeached by the Parliament.
Emergency Powers
The President can declare an emergency in
the country under the following conditions:
ŠŠ If the security of the country is threatened
by external aggression or armed rebellion,
National Emergency is declared.
ŠŠ If the government of a state cannot function
according to the laws in the Constitution,
President’s Rule is imposed in that state.
ŠŠ If the financial stability of the country is
threatened, a Financial Emergency can be
declared.
However, the President cannot declare an
emergency without the approval of the
Civics
Parliament. Hence, we see that though the
President has a wide range of powers, they are
170
all limited and exercised strictly according to
the advice given by the Prime Minister and
the Council of Ministers.
Discretionary Powers
When no political party wins a clear majority
in the Lok Sabha, and a coalition cannot be
formed, the President can select a member of
his/her choice as the Prime Minister. However,
the selected candidate has to prove his/her
majority in the Lok Sabha.
THE VICE-PRESIDENT
The qualifications of
the Vice-President are
the same as those of the
President, except that a
Vice-President should be
eligible for membership
to the Rajya Sabha.
The term of the Vice-
M. Venkaiah Naidu, the
President is 5 years.
13th Vice-President of
India
Functions of the Vice-President
ŠŠ The Vice-President is the ex officio
Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
ŠŠ He/she takes over the functions of the
President in his/her absence. In case of a
vacancy in the office of the President, the
Vice-President discharges his/her functions
till a new President is elected.
THE PRIME MINISTER
The Prime Minister is the head of the Council
of Ministers, which is the most powerful
political institution in India. The President of
India is bound to act in accordance with the
advice of the Prime Minister and the Council
of Ministers.
Position and Functions of the
Prime Minister
The parliamentary system of government
makes the Prime Minister the real head of the
Indian government. It is the Prime Minister
who actually exercises all the powers vested
in the President (except for discretionary
powers). This is because of the following
reasons:
ŠŠ The Prime Minister is the elected head of
the country.
ŠŠ The Prime Minister is the leader of the
majority party or the largest coalition in
the Parliament.
ŠŠ The Prime Minister is the link between the
President, the people and the Parliament.
ŠŠ The Prime Minister advises the President
in the discharge of his/her functions and
informs him/her about the decisions taken
by the Council of Ministers. The advice
of the Prime Minister is binding on the
President.
ŠŠ The Prime Minister selects the members of
the Council of Ministers.
Narendra Modi, who was re-elected as the Prime Minister of India in 2019, with his Council of Ministers
ŠŠ He/she distributes portfolios among the
ministers and presides over the meetings
of the Council of Ministers.
ŠŠ He/she coordinates the working of the
different departments and is the vital link
between the President and the Council of
Ministers.
ŠŠ He/she can expand the Council of Ministers
and also demand the resignation of any
minister.
Thus, we see that the Prime Minister is the
real head of the nation. He/she has to answer
for the success or failure of the government.
The Prime Minister is regarded as the leader
of the nation. On Independence Day, the
Prime Minister addresses the nation from the
Red Fort in Delhi.
Discuss  TP
Since India is a parliamentary democracy, the
real executive is the Prime Minister. What do
you think can happen if the President does not
follow the advice of the Prime Minister and
decides to act independently? Should the office
of the President be abolished? Why?
Civics
171
 Council of Ministers
The general elections to the Lok Sabha take
place once every 5 years. After the elections,
the President appoints the Prime Minister,
who is generally the leader of the majority
party in the Lok Sabha. If there is no single
party holding a majority in the Parliament,
then two or more parties usually agree to
work together and form the government. This
is known as a coalition government.
The Prime Minister then selects a number
of ministers according to his/her preference
and submits a list to the President. When
the President approves and appoints the
ministers on the list, the Council of Ministers
is formed.
The Council of Ministers has three ranks
within it: (i) Cabinet Ministers, (ii) Ministers
of State and (iii) Deputy Ministers.
All ministers of the Council have to be
members of either House of Parliament. In
case a non-member is selected, he/she has to
be elected to either House within 6 months
from the date of appointment.
The Prime Minister allots each minister in the
Council a separate department or portfolio to
handle. This is called allotment of portfolios.
Hence, we have a Minister of Defence, Finance,
Communication, Agriculture, Foreign Affairs,
etc.
The Cabinet
The Cabinet is the inner core of the Council
of Ministers. The Cabinet Ministers hold the
most important portfolios and make the
most important decisions and policies. The
Cabinet Ministers hold the highest ranks and
have the greatest responsibility. The Cabinet
holds the real executive power of the Indian
government and is collectively responsible
to the Lok Sabha.
The Cabinet can remain in office as long as
it enjoys the confidence of a majority in the
Lok Sabha. If a vote of no-confidence is
passed against any one Cabinet Minister,
the whole Council of Ministers has to resign
immediately. The entire Council has to
answer for the shortcomings or failure on the
part of any one minister.
TP Think and Answer
Why is it important for the Council of Ministers
to be responsible for the legislature?
CIVIL SERVANTS
Civil servants are government employees who
do not belong to any political party. They can
be appointed in the Indian Administrative
Service (IAS), the Indian Foreign Service
(IFS), the Indian Police Service (IPS), etc.
Civil servants are selected on the basis of the
Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
examination and interviews. Successful
candidates are trained and can work at both
central and state levels.

TP Values and Life Skills

As citizens of India we have some fundamental duties towards our country. We must abide by the
law and cooperate with the government to achieve its goals in the interest of the nation. We must
encourage the government to work smoothly and should not hinder its policy-making decisions
through unnecessary protests and agitations.
Civics

• If you were made the Prime Minister of your country for a day what is the most important step that
you will take in the interest of the nation?

172
 He/She must be a citizen of India, must be at least 35 years of age and must have all the
qualifications to be a member of a Lok Sabha. He/She is elected by an electoral college.

He/She has executive powers to appoint Prime Minister, state governors and judges of
the Supreme Court and the High Courts and other high officials.

The President He/She can summon the Parliament, elect members in the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha
and can issue ordinances when Parliament is not in session.

The budget is presented in the President's name and all money bills are introduced with
his/her permission. He/She is also Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces.

He/She has the power to declare National Emergency, President's Rule in a state and
Financial Emergency, if required.
THE UNION EXECUTIVE

He/She must be eligible to be a member of Rajya Sabha. He/She is the ex officio

The Vice-President Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha and takes over the functions of the President in his/her
absence.

He/She is the link between the President, the people and the Parliament.

He/She advises the President in the discharge of his/her functions. He/She can select
The Prime Minister and expand the Council of Ministers and demand the resignation of any minister in the
Council.

He/She allots portfolios to each minister in the Council such as defence, finance,
communications, etc.

They are government employees and do not belong to any political party. They can be
Civil servants appointed in the Indian Administrative Service, Indian Foreign Service, Indian Police
Service, etc.

Important Words
Impeachment is a procedure defined by the
Constitution through which the Parliament can
remove the President, if found guilty of violating the
Constitution, of treason or of corruption.
Summon means to arrange an official meeting.
Prorogue means to discontinue a session of the
Parliament without dissolving it.
Ordinances are executive orders which are issued when
the Parliament is not in session.
Contingency Fund is a fund maintained by the
government so that the President can grant funds
Pardon means an official decision not to punish
somebody for a crime, or to say that somebody is
not guilty of a crime.
Coalition government means that two or more parties
agree to work together and form the government.
This happens when there is no single party holding a
majority in the Parliament.
Portfolio means the particular area of responsibility of
a government minister, e.g. defence, transport, etc.
Allotment of portfolios is when the Prime Minister
allots each minister in the Council a separate
Civics

from it to be used in unforeseen circumstances. department or portfolio to handle.

173
 Exercises
A Fill in the blanks. 
1. The President can be removed from office by a procedure known as ________________.
2. The President appoints the judges of the _______________ Court and the ______________
Courts.
3. The President can call a ________________ session of the Parliament if there is a deadlock
regarding a bill.
4. The Cabinet is the ________________ of the Council of Ministers. The Cabinet Ministers hold
important ________________.
5. The Prime Minister is the link between the ______________, the people and the
______________.

B Name the following.

1. The current Prime Minister of India: ______________________________
2. The current ex officio Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha: ______________________________
3. The current Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces: _____________________________
4. The current ministers in charge of (a) Defence: ____________________ (b) External Affairs:
____________________ (c) Finance: ____________________ (d) Health: __________________

C Choose the correct answer.

1. The President/Prime Minister/Vice-President is the nominal head of the government of India.
2. The President is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Administrative Service/Defence
Forces/ Indian Foreign Service.
3. The Vice-President is the ex officio Chairperson of the Lok Sabha/Rajya Sabha/Vidhan Sabha.
4. After the elections, the President appoints the leader of the majority party as the Vice-
President/ Speaker/Prime Minister.
5. The Council of Ministers is the real executive, but the administration is carried on in the name
of the Prime Minister/President/Vice-President.

D State whether the following are true or false.

1. The President is elected for a term of 4 years.
2. The President can pardon a death sentence.
3. The President can declare war or conclude peace.
4. The Prime Minister chooses the Cabinet Ministers.
5. Civil servants belong to the majority party in the Parliament.

E Answer the following questions in one or two words/sentences.

1. Who is the real executive head in a parliamentary form of government? [1]
2. Name the body that elects the President of India. [1]
3. Name any two officials appointed by the President. [1]
4. What is an ordinance? [1]
Civics

5. What can the President do when the security of the country is threatened by external
aggression or armed rebellion? [1]

174
 6. Whose advice is the President bound to follow in carrying out his/her functions? [1]
7. Who is the head of the Council of Ministers? [1]
8. When two or more political parties form the government, what is it called? [1]
9. What is meant by allotment of portfolios? [1]
10. What happens when a vote of no-confidence is passed against any one Cabinet Minister? [1]

F Answer the following questions briefly.

1. In the context of the President of India, answer the following questions:
(a) Mention the qualifications required for the post of the President. [4]
(b) How is the President elected? [3]
(c) How can the services of the President be terminated? [3]
2. With reference to the powers of the President, discuss:
(a) Any four executive powers [4]
(b) Military powers [2]
(c) Any four legislative powers [4]
3. The President is an integral part of the Parliament. In this context explain the following:
(a) The financial powers of the President [4]
(b) The judicial powers of the President [3]
(c) The emergency powers of the President [3]
4. With reference to the functions of the Parliament, explain the following:
(a) Law-making functions [4]
(b) Control over the executive [3]
(c) Judicial functions [3]
5. Discuss the powers and position of the Prime Minister with reference to his relationship
with the following:
(a) Parliament [3]
(b) The President [3]
(c) The Council of Ministers [4]
6. In the context of the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, explain the following:
(a) Appointment of the Prime Minister [3]
(b) Formation of the Council of Ministers [3]
(c) The Cabinet [4]

G Picture study
Until 1950, the building in the picture was
known as ‘Viceroy’s House’, and served as
the residence of the Governor General of
India.
1. Identify the building. Whose official
residence is it now?
2. How is he/she elected?
3. What is his/her term of office?
4. Mention two powers each held by this
person with reference to the following:
Civics

(a) Financial powers (b) Judicial powers

175
 Do and Learn
Use your imagination
TP If you are appointed the Prime Minister, which former Prime Minister would you consider
your role model? Why? Mention any two progressive/radical policies that you would
implement during your tenure and explain how they would transform India into a global
superpower.

Project work
TP 1. Select any five Presidents of India. Collect their pictures and find out their important
achievements. Compile your findings in the form of a PowerPoint presentation.
SI Computer Studies
TP 2. Collect pictures and information from newspapers and magazines showing the current
Prime Minister performing his/her functions in India and abroad. Present your material
in the form of a scrapbook, chart or class presentation. You may include his/her
personal interests, talents and achievements in areas of music, sports, literature, if any.
Civics

176