Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction and summary for trading standardized OTC products, some of which
Derivatives have long been important tools for manag- seem “very close to the central limit order book oper-
ing risk. In particular, as Culp (2004) explains, “deriva- ated on exchanges.”1
tives can be used as a means of engaging in risk transfer, How are the terms of derivatives contracts deter-
or the shifting of risk to another firm from the firm whose mined? Bilaterally negotiated and customized derivatives
business creates a natural exposure to that risk” (p. xiv). contracts are hallmarks of OTC derivatives markets.
In this article, we discuss some recent developments These contracts are negotiated between counterparties
relating to the regulation of derivatives markets, spe- (typically, a pair of dealers or a dealer and a client) and
cifically the Group of Twenty (G-20) mandates, and are tailored to meet the counterparties’ specific needs
examine the infrastructure that supports derivatives and risk appetite. Some market participants may not
markets (including both the trade execution and post- require customized contracts. They may instead trade
trade clearing and settlement processes). Then we
identify some of the policy issues raised by the G-20
Ivana Ruffini is a senior policy specialist and Robert S. Steigerwald
market structure mandates. To provide a foundation is a senior policy advisor in the financial markets group of the
for that discussion, first we explain some key concepts Economic Research Department at the Federal Reserve Bank
and terms. of Chicago. The authors thank Ed Nosal, Lisa Barrow, Richard
Heckinger, Kirstin Wells, and David Marshall for helpful com-
ments and conversations.
Key concepts and terms
© 2014 Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago
What is a derivative? A derivative is a financial Economic Perspectives is published by the Economic Research
contract whose value is based on an underlying market Department of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago. The views
expressed are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect the views
factor, for example, a reference rate or index, commodi- of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago or the Federal Reserve
ty, or other asset that is used to manage risk or support System.
a particular profit-maximizing strategy. Charles L. Evans, President; Daniel G. Sullivan, Executive Vice
President and Director of Research; Spencer Krane, Senior Vice
How are derivatives traded? Derivatives contracts President and Economic Advisor; David Marshall, Senior Vice
may be traded over-the-counter (OTC), through swap President, financial markets group; Daniel Aaronson, Vice President,
execution arrangements (developed in response to post- microeconomic policy research; Jonas D. M. Fisher, Vice President,
macroeconomic policy research; Richard Heckinger, Vice President,
crisis legislation), or in listed markets on exchanges. markets team; Anna L. Paulson, Vice President, finance team;
OTC markets are characterized by the absence of a cen- William A. Testa, Vice President, regional programs; Lisa Barrow,
Economics Editor; Helen Koshy and Han Y. Choi, Editors; Rita
tralized trading mechanism and dependence on dealers Molloy and Julia Baker, Production Editors; Sheila A. Mangler,
as liquidity providers. By contrast, listed markets typi- Editorial Assistant.
cally use a central limit order book to aggregate the Economic Perspectives articles may be reproduced in whole or in
part, provided the articles are not reproduced or distributed for
trading interests of buyers and sellers. This permits commercial gain and provided the source is appropriately credited.
participants in listed markets to trade with each other in Prior written permission must be obtained for any other reproduc-
an auction environment. OTC and listed markets, how- tion, distribution, republication, or creation of derivative works
of Economic Perspectives articles. To request permission, please
ever, “do not represent a black-and-white dichotomy,” contact Helen Koshy, senior editor, at 312-322-5830 or email
but points along a continuum of trade execution arrange- Helen.Koshy@chi.frb.org.
ments (Culp, 2009, p. 5). Technological advances have ISSN 0164-0682
enabled the creation of a variety of electronic platforms
CCP
derivatives contracts that have standardized (vanilla) In the right panel of figure 1, a clearinghouse has
terms. Standardized contracts do not involve negotia- been substituted as the common counterparty to all
tion of terms other than price and quantity. clearing members (in this illustration, only the large
What is clearing and settlement? The term clear- financial institutions are direct clearing members of
ing generally refers to a series of operational and risk the CCP). Bilateral contracts between clearing members
management processes that occur after a trade is exe- are terminated and replaced by contracts between each
cuted and before the contract is settled. Settlement clearing member and the CCP. Bilateral contracts be-
involves the completion of all payments or transfers tween clearing members and their non-clearing member
(for example, of commodities or securities) in accor- counterparties (that is, the smaller financial institutions
dance with the contract’s terms. Settlement discharges and end-users) remain in effect. In this market structure,
the counterparties from their legal obligations under counterparty risk is aggregated in a central node, the CCP.
the contract. “Central counterparty clearing” refers to As we discuss later in this article, this centralization
an arrangement by which a central counterparty (or of risk can be both beneficial and a source of fragility.
CCP) is substituted as a principal to all cleared trades,
becoming the buyer to all sellers and the seller to all The new regulatory environment
buyers (CPSS–IOSCO, 2012, p. 9). As a result of coun- The Global Financial Crisis, generally acknowl-
terparty substitution, the bilateral contract between the edged as the worst financial meltdown since the Great
original buyer and seller is irrevocably terminated. Depression, crippled housing, credit, and equities markets
Figure 1 provides a stylized depiction of the struc- and highlighted the extent of interconnectedness among
ture of counterparty relationships in bilateral and cen- market participants, now widely recognized as a source
trally cleared markets. The left panel of figure 1 illustrates of systemic fragility. In particular, some participants
a network of bilateral counterparty relationships be- in OTC derivatives markets came under stress and
tween pairs of market participants. Some participants, one, AIG, required government intervention.
in particular, all of the large financial institutions at the The heads of state of some of the world’s largest
core of the market (in blue), have bilateral counterparty economies met in Pittsburgh in September 2009 to
relationships with each other. Others, such as smaller discuss ways to strengthen the international financial
financial institutions and end-users (in gray and peach), regulatory system. The Group of Twenty (G-20) summit
may trade with only one or two counterparties. There resulted in agreement on a broad program of regulatory
is no central node in this market structure, and counter- reform, including fundamental changes to the regula-
party risk is distributed through the network. tion of OTC derivatives markets. In particular, the G-20
reform program provides that, “where appropriate,”
FIGURE 2
OTC derivatives market, notional amounts outstanding ($trillions)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun. Jun.
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Source: Authors’ calculations based on data from the Bank for International Settlements.
800
2,500
700
2,000 600
500
1,500
400
1,000 300
200
500
100
0 0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May
2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014
Notes: The figure refers to the CFTC’s implementation of the new trading requirements from October 2013 through early 2014.
SEF indicates swap execution facility, as defined by the Dodd–Frank Act and CFTC rules; MAT indicates made available for
trading (as determined by the CFTC).
Source: ISDA (2014).
or overall position limits) on A. Clearly, B’s it is dependent, even if only indirectly. Unlike pre-trade
ability to do so depends upon whether B can and post-trade transparency, however, this has nothing
observe what A does. to do with the availability of information about the
The inability of a direct counterparty to fulfill its prices and cannot be addressed by centralized trade
obligations, as a result of bankruptcy or other circum- execution. Instead, this externality must be dealt with
stances, may disrupt the performance expectations of by enhancing trader commitment in some fashion. This
others in the credit chain. Market participants are thus is the classic role of post-trade clearing institutions.
dependent upon the ability and willingness to perform We turn next to the trade execution and central
of a party with whom they did not deal directly and clearing mandates to consider their implications for trans-
whose creditworthiness they may not be able to evaluate. parency and interdependency in derivatives markets.
Acharya and Bisin (2010) call this form of interdepen- The trade execution mandate
dency a “counterparty credit risk externality.” The primary justification for the trade execution
This externality has an obvious informational mandate is that it “… can potentially increase trade
component—namely, that traders only know and can transparency, particularly pre-trade transparency, and
assess (however imperfectly) the creditworthiness of ... provide trade transparency more efficiently than
their direct counterparties. No market participant has OTC markets” (IOSCO, 2011, p. 35). Centralized
a complete view of the credit relationships upon which
3
The capital and trade reporting requirements are important. However, Hasbrouck (2007), and Duffie (2012).
a thorough analysis of these requirements is outside the scope of
this article. 15
As Duffie (2012) also notes, however, “[s]ome OTC markets have
special intermediaries known as brokers that assist in negotiations
4
The Financial Stability Board coordinates the work of national between buyers and sellers, conveying the terms of one investor to
financial authorities and international standard-setting bodies to another, usually without revealing the identities of the counter-parties
foster global financial stability through the development and implemen- to each other” (p. 1). Consequently, some OTC markets may not be
tation of effective regulatory, supervisory, and other financial policies. pure dealer markets. For a discussion of interdealer trading in OTC
More details and a list of institutions represented are available at markets, see Hasbrouck (2007).
www.financialstabilityboard.org/about/overview.htm.
16
For example, Hasbrouck (2007) notes that “[a] dealer may make
5
This discussion is intended as a description of economic attributes, continuous trading possible when the natural customer-supplied
not legal and regulatory characteristics. liquidity in the book would not suffice” (Hasbrouck, 2007, p. 16,
emphasis added).
6
We exclude from our discussion employee stock options, which
are a form of contingent compensation, not risk transference Most member jurisdictions plan to implement the central clearing
17
8
Market makers are a good example—they aim to have a hedged MAGD explains that it examined the following direct costs to
18
portfolio, but also provide liquidity to the market through speculation. market participants as a result of the G-20 reforms:
For further details, see Heckinger et al. (2014). (i) the cost of increased collateral required by CCPs and
by bilateral margining rules; (ii) the cost of increased reg-
9
See, for example, DTCC (2014). We do not consider margining ulatory capital required by Basel III; and (iii) other direct
arrangements for derivatives markets in detail in this primer. For costs of reform. The sum of these costs, when compared
additional information, see ISDA–CSC (2010) and Johnson (2007). to the pre-reform costs of trading OTC derivatives, gives
an estimate of the extra costs of using OTC derivatives
10
When one or more reference entities in a CDS index fails to once reforms have been fully implemented. We estimate
perform its contractual obligations, the ISDA Credit Derivatives the change in annual global costs as between €15 billion
Determinations Committee may declare a credit event—triggering and €32 billion, with a central estimate of €20 billion
payment to protection buyers. Following a credit event, the CDS (table 10) (BIS, MAGD, 2013, p. 37).
index would be revised to replace the defaulting reference entity. MAGD also notes that its estimates were not intended to be
comprehensive.
11
The U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC, 2013)
defines an SEF as a “trading system or platform in which multiple 19
Addressing only the clearing mandate, Milne (2012, p. 1) argues
participants have the ability to execute or trade swaps by accepting that the costs of the mandate “are not so large as some commentary
bids and offers made by multiple participants in the facility or system, has suggested, at least provided that mandatory clearing is applied
through any means of interstate commerce, including any trading only to widely traded standardized contracts.”
facility, that (A) facilitates the execution of swaps between persons;
and (B) is not a designated contract market” (pp. 33476–33481).
SpeechesTestimony/opagiancarlos-1.
Company USA enters into a contract with Company Italy b. Company USA enters into a forward contract
to purchase 650,000 square feet of 9 cm. thick-honed with a bank. The bank delivers euros as agreed,
Italian Carrara Bianco marble slabs for €1 million to be but Company Italy is bankrupt and fails to de-
delivered in three months on September 30, XXXX. The liver the marble. Company USA can “close out”
terms of the contract stipulate the payment in full (in euros) the FX forward or exchange euros back to U.S.
at the time of delivery. Company USA will need to con- dollars at the prevailing exchange rate. Company
vert U.S. dollars to euros to meet its settlement obligation. USA would incur a loss if the U.S. dollar appre-
To mitigate the exchange rate risk exposure, Company ciated against the euro.
USA enters into a forward contract to lock in an exchange c. Company USA enters into a forward contract
rate of 1 euro = 1.30 U.S. dollars. with Company Italy. Company Italy is bankrupt,
Parties to the forward contract are exposed to the fails to deliver the marble, and also defaults on
counterparty risk: the forward currency contract. Company USA
a. Company USA enters into a forward contract has no exchange rate risk exposure (but, of course,
with a bank. The bank fails. Company Italy delivers may suffer a loss replacing the undelivered marble).
the marble and Company USA needs to pay euros
to Company Italy. Company USA exchanges
U.S. dollars for euros at the prevailing exchange
rate. Company USA would incur a loss if the
U.S. dollar depreciated against the euro.
Pays fixed 5%
BANK BANK
A B
Pays floating 3-month LIBOR
3-month
Payment Fixed Fixed LIBOR Floating
PMT # Reset date date rate payment rate payment Net cash flow
(percent) (dollars) (percent) (dollars) (dollars)
1 1/1/XXXX 4/1/XXXX 5.000 125,000.00 4.302 107,550.00 17,450.00 Fixed (Bank A) pays
2 4/1/XXXX 7/1/XXXX 5.000 125,000.00 4.403 110,075.00 14,925.00 Fixed (Bank A) pays
3 7/1/XXXX 10/1/XXXX 5.000 125,000.00 4.745 118,625.00 6,375.00 Fixed (Bank A) pays
4 10/1/XXXX 1/1/XXXX+1 5.000 125,000.00 4.872 121,800.00 3,200.00 Fixed (Bank A) pays
5 1/1/XXXX+1 4/1/XXXX+1 5.000 125,000.00 5.581 139,525.00 (14,525.00) Floating (Bank B) pays
6 4/1/XXXX+1 7/1/XXXX+1 5.000 125,000.00 5.468 136,700.00 (11,700.00) Floating (Bank B) pays
7 7/1/XXXX+1 10/1/XXXX+1 5.000 125,000.00 5.460 136,500.00 (11,500.00) Floating (Bank B) pays
8 10/1/XXXX+1 1/1/XXXX+2 5.000 125,000.00 5.058 126,450.00 (1,450.00) Floating (Bank B) pays
Total 1,000,000.00 997,225.00 2,775.00
Acharya, Viral V., 2013, “A transparency standard Depository Trust and Clearing Corporation, 2014,
for derivatives,” Financial Stability Review, Banque “Trends, risks and opportunities in collateral manage-
de France, No. 17, April, available at www.banque- ment: A collateral management white paper,” New York,
france.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/banque_de_france/ January, available at www.dtcc.com/~/media/Files/
publications/Revue_de_la_stabilite_financiere/ Downloads/WhitePapers/CollateralMGMT_
2013/rsf-avril-2013/9-ACHARYA_Viral_V.pdf. WhitePaper.pdf.
Acharya, Viral V., and Alberto Bisin, 2010, Duffie, Darrell, 2012, Dark Markets: Asset Pricing
“Counterparty risk externality: Centralized versus and Information Transmission in Over-the-Counter
over-the-counter markets,” paper, June, available Markets, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1573355 and
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1573355. Duffie, Darrell, Nicolae Gârleanu, and Lasse
Heje Pedersen, 2005, “Over-the-counter markets,”
Bank for International Settlements, Committee on Econometrica, Vol. 73, No. 6, November, pp. 1815–1847,
Payment and Settlement Systems, and Technical available by subscription at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.
Committee of the International Organization of com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0262.2005.00639.x/pdf.
Securities Commissions, 2012, Principles for Financial
Market Infrastructures, Basel, Switzerland, April, Duffie, Darrell, Ada Li, and Theo Lubke, 2010,
available at www.bis.org/publ/cpss101a.pdf. “Policy perspectives on OTC derivatives market
infrastructure,” Federal Reserve Bank of New York,
Bank for International Settlements, OTC Deriva- staff report, No. 424, revised March 2010, available at
tives Coordination Group, and Macroeconomic www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr424.html.
Assessment Group on Derivatives, 2013, Macro-
economic Impact Assessment of OTC Derivatives Financial Stability Board, 2013, OTC Derivatives
Regulatory Reforms, Basel, Switzerland, August, Market Reforms: Fifth Progress Report on Implemen-
available at www.bis.org/publ/othp20.pdf. tation, Basel, Switzerland, April 15, available at
www.financialstabilityboard.org/publications/
Cecchetti, Stephen, G., 2013, “Assessing the macro- r_130415.pdf.
economic impact of OTC derivatives regulatory
reforms,” lunch remarks at the Emerging Markets __________, 2010, Implementing OTC Derivatives
Dialogue on OTC Derivatives, Johannesburg, Market Reforms, Basel, Switzerland, October 25, p. 10,
South Africa, September 12, available at available at https://www.financialstabilityboard.org/
www.bis.org/speeches/sp130912.pdf. publications/r_101025.pdf.
Council of Financial Regulators, 2011, “Central French, Kenneth R., Martin N. Baily, John Y.
clearing of OTC derivatives in Australia,” discussion Campbell, John H. Cochrane, Douglas W. Diamond,
paper, Sydney, June, available at www.rba.gov.au/ Darrell Duffie, Anil K Kashyap, Frederic S. Mishkin,
publications/consultations/201106-otc-derivatives/ Raghuram G. Rajan, David S. Scharfstein, Robert
pdf/201106-otc-derivatives.pdf. J. Shiller, Hyun Song Shin, Matthew J. Slaughter,
Jeremy C. Stein, and René M. Stulz, 2010, The
Culp, Christopher L., 2009, “The Treasury Depart- Squam Lake Report: Fixing the Financial System,
ment’s proposed regulation of OTC derivatives Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
clearing and settlement,” University of Chicago,
Booth School of Business, Center for Research in Gai, Prasanna, Andrew Haldane, and Sujit Kapadia,
Security Prices, working paper, No. 09-30, July 6, 2011, “Complexity, concentration and contagion,”
available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1430576 or Journal of Monetary Economics, Vol. 58, No. 5, July,
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1430576. p. 453–470, available at http://ac.els-cdn.com/
S0304393211000481/1-s2.0-S0304393211000481-
__________, 2004, Risk Transfer: Derivatives in Theory main.pdf?_tid=9e938ce4-04ff-11e3-a7d8-
and Practice, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. 00000aab0f26&acdnat=1376498347_e39fc7f-
4811455b81522653a44c026b6.
Hasbrouck, Joel, 2007, Empirical Market Microstruc- Jordan, James V., and George Emir Morgan, 1990,
ture: The Institutions, Economics, and Econometrics of “Default risk in futures markets: The customer-broker
Securities Trading, New York: Oxford University Press. relationship,” Journal of Finance, Vol. 45, No. 3, July,
pp. 909–933, available at www.jstor.org/stable/2328799.
Heckinger, Richard, David Mengle, Robert
Steigerwald, Ivana Ruffini, and Kirstin Wells, Kaniel, Ron, and Hong Liu, 2006, “So what orders
2014, Understanding Derivatives: Markets and do informed traders use?,” Journal of Business, Vol. 79,
Infrastructure, available at www.chicagofed.org/ No. 4, pp. 1867–1913, available at http://apps.olin.
webpages/publications/understanding_derivatives/ wustl.edu/faculty/liuh/papers/limit_vs_market.pdf.
index.cfm.
Kaya, Orcun, 2013, “Reforming OTC derivatives
International Organization of Securities Commis- markets: Observable changes and open issues, Current
sions, Technical Committee, 2011, “Report on Issues: Global Financial Markets, Deutsche Bank,
trading of OTC derivatives,” No. FR03/11, Madrid, DB research paper, August 7, available at https://
Spain, February, available at www.iosco.org/library/ www.dbresearch.com/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_
pubdocs/pdf/IOSCOPD345.pdf. EN-PROD/PROD0000000000318054.pdf.
International Swaps and Derivatives Association, Kiff, John, Jennifer Elliott, Elias Kazarian, Jodi
2014, “Revisiting cross-border fragmentation of Scarlata, and Carolyne Spackman, 2009, “Credit
global OTC derivatives: Mid-year 2014 update,” derivatives: Systemic risks and policy options,”
research note, New York, July, available at www2. International Monetary Fund, working paper,
isda.org/functional-areas/research/research-notes/. No. WP/09/254, November, available at www.imf.
org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp09254.pdf.
__________, 2012, “ISDA publishes mid-year 2012
market analysis: Compression continues to impact Kohn, Meir, 2004, Financial Institutions and Markets,
notional amounts outstanding; FRA clearing increas- 2nd ed., New York: Oxford University Press.
es significantly,” press release, New York, December
20, available at www2.isda.org/news/isda-publishes- Lee, Ruben, 1998, What Is an Exchange? The Automa-
mid-year-2012-market-analysis. tion, Management, and Regulation of Financial
Markets, New York: Oxford University Press.
__________, n.d., “Frequently asked questions,”
webpage, New York, available at www.isda.org/
bigbangprot/bbprot_faq.html#cdi1 and www.isda.org/
educat/faqs.html.
McDonald, Robert L., 2012, Derivatives Markets, Shirakawa, Masaaki, 2012, “Issues facing the futures
3rd ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. markets and the industry,” remarks delivered at the
Futures Industry Association Japan conference, Japan
Mengle, David, 2009, “Transparency and over-the- Conference, Tokyo, July 26, available at www.boj.or.jp/
counter derivatives: The role of transaction transpar- en/announcements/press/koen_2012/ko120726a.htm.
ency,” International Swaps and Derivatives Association,
research note, No.1, Winter, available at www.isda. Smyth, Nick, and Anne Wetherilt, 2011, “Trading
org/researchnotes/pdf/isda-research-notes1.pdf. models and liquidity provision in OTC derivatives
markets,” Quarterly Bulletin, Bank of England, Vol. 51,
Miller, Merton H., 1998, “Financial markets and Fourth Quarter, pp. 331–340, available at www.
economic growth,” Journal of Applied Corporate bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Documents/
Finance, Vol. 11, No. 3, Fall, pp. 8–15, abstract quarterlybulletin/qb110404.pdf.
available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/
j.1745-6622.1998.tb00498.x/abstract. Steigerwald, Robert S., 2014, “Central counterparty
clearing and systemic risk regulation,” in Anastasios
Milne, Alastair, 2012, “OTC central counterparty G. Malliarais and William T. Ziemba (eds.), The World
clearing: Myths and reality,” Journal of Risk Manage- Scientific Handbook of Futures Markets, World Scientific
ment in Financial Institutions, Vol. 5, No. 3, June, Handbook in Financial Economics Series, Vol. 5,
available at http://henrystewart.metapress.com/app/ Singapore: World Scientific, forthcoming.
home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,
11,12;journal,6,24;linkingpublicationresults,1:120853,1. U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, 2013,
Public Roundtable on Futurization of Swaps, Washing-
Murphy, David (ed.), 2013, OTC Derivatives: Bilateral ton, DC, January 31, available at www.cftc.gov/ucm/
Trading and Central Clearing: An Introduction to groups/public/@swaps/documents/dfsubmission/
Regulatory Policy, Market Impact and Systemic Risk, dfsubmission13_013113-trans.pdf.
New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 2004,
Nosal, Ed, and Robert Steigerwald, 2010, “What is Rule 6: Options Trading: Rules Principally Applicable to
clearing and why is it important?,” Chicago Fed Letter, Trading of Option Contracts/Business Conduct: Applica-
Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, No. 278, September, bility, Definitions and References, No. SR-PCX-2004-08,
available at www.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/ Exhibit A, available at https://www.sec.gov/rules/sro/
publications/chicago_fed_letter/2010/cflseptember2010_ pcx/34-49451_a6.pdf.
278.pdf.