Steven Weinberg

Steven Weinberg (/ˈwaɪnbɜːrɡ/; May 3, 1933 – July 23,

2021) was an American theoretical physicist and Nobel
Steven Weinberg
laureate in physics for his contributions with Abdus Salam and
Sheldon Glashow to the unification of the weak force and
electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles.

He held the Josey Regental Chair in Science at the University

of Texas at Austin, where he was a member of the Physics
and Astronomy Departments. His research on elementary
particles and physical cosmology was honored with numerous
prizes and awards, including in 1979 the Nobel Prize in
physics and 1991 the National Medal of Science. In 2004, he
received the Benjamin Franklin Medal of the American
Philosophical Society, with a citation that said he was
"considered by many to be the preeminent theoretical physicist
alive in the world today." He was elected to the US National
Academy of Sciences, Britain's Royal Society, the American
Weinberg at the 2010 Texas Book Festival
Philosophical Society, and the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences. Born May 3, 1933
New York City, New York,
Weinberg's articles on various subjects occasionally appeared U.S.
in The New York Review of Books and other periodicals. He
served as a consultant at the U.S. Arms Control and Died July 23, 2021 (aged 88)
Disarmament Agency, president of the Philosophical Society Austin, Texas, U.S.
of Texas, and member of the Board of Editors of Daedalus Education Cornell University (A.B.,
magazine, the Council of Scholars of the Library of Congress, 1954)
the JASON group of defense consultants, and many other
Princeton University (Ph.D.,
boards and committees.[5][6]
1957)
Known for Electroweak interaction
Contents Weinberg angle
Weinberg–Witten theorem
Early life
Joos–Weinberg equation
Career and research
Other contributions Asymptotic safety
Axion model
Personal life
Politics Minimal subtraction scheme
Views on religion Technicolor
Honors and awards Unitarity gauge

Selected publications Spouse(s) Louise Goldwasser (m. 1954)

Bibliography: books authored / coauthored Children 1
Scholarly articles
Awards Heineman Prize (1977)
Popular articles
Elliott Cresson Medal (1979)
References Nobel Prize in Physics (1979)
External links ForMemRS (1981)[1][2]
National Medal of Science
(1991)
Early life Andrew Gemant Award
(1997)
Steven Weinberg was born in 1933 in New York City.[7] His
parents were Jewish[8] immigrants;[9] his father, Frederick, Breakthrough Prize (2020)
worked as a court stenographer, while his mother, Eva (Israel), Scientific career
was a housewife.[10][11] Becoming interested in science at age
Fields Theoretical physics
16 through a chemistry set handed down by a cousin,[12][10]
he graduated from Bronx High School of Science in 1950.[13] Institutions University of Texas at Austin
He was in the same graduating class as Sheldon Glashow,[11] University of California,
whose research, independent of Weinberg's, resulted in their Berkeley
(and Abdus Salam's) sharing the 1979 Nobel in physics.[14]
Massachusetts Institute of
Weinberg received his bachelor's degree from Cornell Technology
University in 1954. There he resided at the Telluride House. Harvard University
He then went to the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen,
Columbia University
where he started his graduate studies and research. After one
year, Weinberg moved to Princeton University, where he Thesis The role of strong
earned his Ph.D. in physics in 1957, completing his interactions in decay
dissertation, "The role of strong interactions in decay processes (http://www.worldc
processes", under the supervision of Sam Treiman.[3][15] at.org/oclc/81937779) (1957)
Doctoral Sam Treiman[3]
Career and research advisor
Doctoral Fernando Quevedo[3][4]
After completing his Ph.D., Weinberg worked as a students
postdoctoral researcher at Columbia University (1957–59) and Mark G. Raizen[4]
University of California, Berkeley (1959) and then was John Preskill[3][4]
promoted to faculty at Berkeley (1960–66). He did research in
Website web2.ph.utexas.edu
a variety of topics of particle physics, such as the high energy
/~weintech/weinberg.html (htt
behavior of quantum field theory, symmetry breaking,[16] pion
scattering, infrared photons and quantum gravity.[17] It was ps://web2.ph.utexas.edu/~we
also during this time that he developed the approach to intech/weinberg.html)
quantum field theory described in the first chapters of his book
The Quantum Theory of Fields[18] and started to write his textbook Gravitation and Cosmology, having taken
up an interest in general relativity after the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation.[10] He was
also appointed the senior scientist at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.[10] The Quantum Theory of
Fields spanned three volumes and over 1,500 pages, and is often regarded as the leading book in the field.[10]

In 1966, Weinberg left Berkeley and accepted a lecturer position at Harvard. In 1967 he was a visiting
professor at MIT. It was in that year at MIT that Weinberg proposed his model of unification of
electromagnetism and nuclear weak forces (such as those involved in beta-decay and kaon-decay),[19] with the
masses of the force-carriers of the weak part of the interaction being explained by spontaneous symmetry
breaking. One of its fundamental aspects was the prediction of the existence of the Higgs boson. Weinberg's
model, now known as the electroweak unification theory, had the same symmetry structure as that proposed by
Glashow in 1961: both included the then-unknown weak interaction mechanism between leptons, known as
neutral current and mediated by the Z boson. The 1973 experimental discovery of weak neutral currents[20]
(mediated by this Z boson) was one verification of the electroweak unification. The paper by Weinberg in
which he presented this theory is one of the most cited works ever in high-energy physics.[21]

After his 1967 seminal work on the unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions, Weinberg continued
his work in many aspects of particle physics, quantum field theory, gravity, supersymmetry, superstrings and
cosmology. In the years after 1967, the full Standard Model of elementary particle theory was developed
through the work of many contributors. In it, the weak and electromagnetic interactions already unified by the
work of Weinberg, Salam and Glashow, are made consistent with a theory of the strong interactions between
quarks, in one overarching theory. In 1973, Weinberg proposed a modification of the Standard Model that did
not contain that model's fundamental Higgs boson. Also during the 1970s, he proposed a theory later known
as technicolor, in which new strong interactions resolve the hierarchy problem.[22][23][24]

Weinberg became Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics at Harvard University in 1973, a post he held until
1983.[14] In 1979 he pioneered the modern view on the renormalization aspect of quantum field theory that
considers all quantum field theories effective field theories and changed the viewpoint of previous work
(including his own in his 1967 paper) that a sensible quantum field theory must be renormalizable.[25] This
approach allowed the development of effective theory of quantum gravity,[26] low energy QCD, heavy quark
effective field theory and other developments, and is a topic of considerable interest in current research.[27]

In 1979, some six years after the experimental discovery of the neutral currents—i.e. the discovery of the
inferred existence of the Z boson—but after the 1978 experimental discovery of the theory's predicted amount
of parity violation due to Z bosons' mixing with electromagnetic interactions,[28] Weinberg was awarded the
Nobel Prize in physics with Glashow and Salam, who had independently proposed a theory of electroweak
unification based on spontaneous symmetry breaking.[10][14]

In 1982 Weinberg moved to the University of Texas at Austin as the Jack S. Josey-Welch Foundation Regents
Chair in Science,[14] and started a theoretical physics group at the university that now has eight full professors
and is one of the leading research groups in the field in the U.S.[10]

Weinberg is frequently among the top scientists with the highest research effect indices, such as the h-index
and the creativity index.[29] The theoretical physicist Peter Woit called Weinberg "arguably the dominant
figure in theoretical particle physics during its period of great success from the late sixties to the early eighties",
calling his contribution to electroweak unification "to this day at the center of the Standard Model, our best
understanding of fundamental physics".[30] Science News named him along with fellow theorists Murray
Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman the leading physicists of the era, commenting, "Among his peers, Weinberg
was one of the most respected figures in all of physics or perhaps all of science".[31] Sean Carroll called
Weinberg one of the “best physicists we had; one of the best thinkers of any variety” who “exhibited
extraordinary verve and clarity of thought through the whole stretch of a long and productive life”,[32] while
John Preskill called him "one of the most accomplished scientists of our age, and a particularly eloquent
spokesperson for the scientific worldview".[32] Brian Greene said that Weinberg had an “astounding ability to
see into the deep workings of nature” that “profoundly shaped our understanding of the universe".[32] Upon
the awarding of the Breakthrough Prize in 2020, one of the founders of the prizes, Yuri Milner, called
Weinberg a “key architect” of “one of the most successful physical theories ever”, while string theorist Juan
Maldacena, the chair of the selection committee, said, “Steven Weinberg has developed many of the key
theoretical tools that we use for the description of nature at a fundamental level".[33]

Other contributions
Besides his scientific research, Weinberg was a public spokesman for
science, testifying before Congress in support of the Superconducting
Super Collider, writing articles for The New York Review of
Books,[34] and giving various lectures on the larger meaning of
science. His books on science written for the public combine the
typical scientific popularization with what is traditionally considered
history and philosophy of science and atheism. His first popular
science book, The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin
of the Universe (1977), described the start of the universe with the Big
Bang and enunciated a case for its expansion.[12]

Although still teaching physics, in later years he turned his hand to the
history of science, efforts that culminated in To Explain the World: Steven Weinberg in December 2014
The Discovery of Modern Science (2015).[35] A hostile review[36] in
the Wall Street Journal by Steven Shapin attracted a number of
commentaries,[37] a response by Weinberg,[35] and an exchange of views between Weinberg and Arthur
Silverstein in the NYRB in February 2016.[38]

In 2016, Weinberg became a default leader for faculty and students opposed to a new law allowing the
carrying of concealed guns in UT classrooms. He announced that he would prohibit guns in his classes, and
said he would stand by his decision to violate university regulations in this matter even if faced with a
lawsuit.[39] Weinberg never retired and taught at UT until his death.[10]

Personal life
In 1954 Weinberg married Louise Weinberg, who went on to become a law professor at the University of
Texas. They had a daughter, Elizabeth.[13][40]

Weinberg died on July 23, 2021, at age 88, at a hospital in Austin, where he had been treated for several
weeks.[40][41]

Politics

Weinberg identified as a liberal.[42] He was also known for his support of Israel, which he characterized as
"the 'most exposed salient' in a war between liberal democracies and Muslim theocracies."[43] He wrote an
essay in 1997 entitled "Zionism and Its Adversaries" to explain his views on the issue.[44][42]

In the 2000s, Weinberg canceled trips to universities in the United Kingdom because of the British boycotts of
Israel. At the time, he explained:

Given the history of the attacks on Israel and the oppressiveness and aggressiveness of other
countries in the Middle East and elsewhere, boycotting Israel indicated a moral blindness for
which it is hard to find any explanation other than antisemitism.[45]

Views on religion

Weinberg was an atheist.[46] He stated his views on religion in 1999:

 Frederick Douglass told in his Narrative how his condition as a slave became worse when his
master underwent a religious conversion that allowed him to justify slavery as the punishment of
the children of Ham. Mark Twain described his mother as a genuinely good person, whose soft
heart pitied even Satan, but who did not doubt the legitimacy of slavery, because in years of living
in antebellum Missouri she had never heard any sermon opposing slavery, but only countless
sermons preaching that slavery was God's will. With or without religion, good people can behave
well and bad people can do evil; but for good people to do evil—that takes religion.[47]

Before he was an advocate of the Big Bang theory, Weinberg stated:[48]

The steady-state theory is philosophically the most attractive theory because it least resembles the
account given in Genesis.

Honors and awards

Honorary Doctor of Science
degrees from eleven institutions:
University of Chicago, Knox
College, University of Rochester,
Yale University, City University of
New York, Dartmouth College,
Weizmann Institute, Clark
University, Washington College,
Columbia University, Bates
College.[49]
American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, elected 1968[49]
Fellow of the American Physical
Society, elected 1971[50]
Queen Beatrix meets Nobel laureates in 1983. Weinberg is third
National Academy of Sciences, from the left of the photo
elected 1972[49]
J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial
Prize, 1973[51][52][49]
Richtmyer Memorial Award (1974)[49]
Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, 1977[49]
Steel Foundation Science Writing Award, 1977, for writing The First Three Minutes[49]
Elliott Cresson Medal (Franklin Institute), 1979[49]
Nobel Prize in Physics, 1979[13]
Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1981[1][2]
Elected to American Philosophical Society (1982)[49]
James Madison Medal of Princeton University, 1991[49]
National Medal of Science, 1991[49]
President of the Philosophical Society of Texas, 1992[53]
Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science, 1999[54]
Humanist of the Year, American Humanist Association, 2002[55]
 Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences, American
Philosophical Society, 2004[56]
James Joyce Award, University College Dublin, 2009[57]
Breakthrough Prize, 2020[58][59]

Selected publications
A list of Weinberg's publications can be found on arXiv[60] and Scopus.[61]

Bibliography: books authored / coauthored

Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity
(1972)
The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe (1977, updated with new
afterword in 1993, ISBN 0-465-02437-8)
The Discovery of Subatomic Particles (1983)
Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures (1987; with
Richard Feynman)
Dreams of a Final Theory: The Search for the Fundamental Laws of Nature (1993), ISBN 0-09-
922391-0
The Quantum Theory of Fields (three volumes: I Foundations 1995, II Modern Applications
1996, III Supersymmetry 2000,[62] Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-67053-5, ISBN 0-
521-67054-3, ISBN 0-521-66000-9)
Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries (2001, 2003, HUP)
Glory and Terror: The Coming Nuclear Danger (2004, NYRB)
Cosmology (2008, OUP)
Lake Views: This World and the Universe (2010), Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
ISBN 0-674-03515-1.
Lectures on Quantum Mechanics (2012, second edition 2015, CUP)
To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science (2015), Harper/HarperCollins
Publishers, ISBN 978-0-06-234665-0
Third Thoughts (2018), Belknap Press, ISBN 978-0-674-97532-3
Lectures on Astrophysics (2019, CUP, ISBN 978-1-108-41507-1)
Foundations of Modern Physics (2021, CUP, ISBN 978-1-108-84176-4)

Scholarly articles
Weinberg, S (1967). "A Model of Leptons" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120112142352/http://
astrophysics.fic.uni.lodz.pl/100yrs/pdf/12/066.pdf) (PDF). Phys. Rev. Lett. 19 (21): 1264–1266.
Bibcode:1967PhRvL..19.1264W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967PhRvL..19.1264W).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.19.1264 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.19.1264). Archived
from the original (http://astrophysics.fic.uni.lodz.pl/100yrs/pdf/12/066.pdf) (PDF) on January 12,
2012.
Weinberg, S. & G. Feinberg. "Law of Conservation of Muons" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
90222101122/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3d1f/ccc40cf6e6ecfa52a0e37e1a150d07379e71.
pdf), Columbia University, University of California-Berkeley, United States Department of
Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (Feb. 1961).
 Pais, A., Weinberg, S., Quigg, C., Riordan, M., Panofsky, W.K.H. & V. Trimble. "100 years of
elementary particles" (https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc717142/), Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center United States Department of Energy, Beam Line, vol. 27, issue 1, Spring
1997. (April 1, 1997).
Weinberg, S (2010). "Pions in Large N Quantum Chromodynamics". Phys. Rev. Lett. 105 (26):
261601. arXiv:1009.1537 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1009.1537). Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105z1601W
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhRvL.105z1601W).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.261601 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.105.261601).
PMID 21231642 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21231642). S2CID 46210811 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:46210811).
Weinberg, S (2012). "Collapse of the State Vector". Phys. Rev. A. 85 (6): 062116.
arXiv:1109.6462 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1109.6462). Bibcode:2012PhRvA..85f2116W (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PhRvA..85f2116W). doi:10.1103/physreva.85.062116 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1103%2Fphysreva.85.062116). S2CID 119273840 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:119273840).

Popular articles
A Designer Universe? (http://www.physlink.com/Education/essay_weinberg.cfm), a refutation of
attacks on the theories of evolution and cosmology (e.g., those conducted under the rubric of
intelligent design) is based on a talk given in April 1999 at the Conference on Cosmic Design
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington, D.C. This and
other works express Weinberg's strongly held position that scientists should be less passive in
defending science against anti-science religiosity.
Beautiful Theories (http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/7992), an article
reprinted from Dreams of a Final Theory by Steven Weinberg in 1992 which focuses on the
nature of beauty in physical theories.
The Crisis of Big Science (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/may/10/crisis-big-sci
ence/), May 10, 2012, New York Review of Books. Weinberg places the cancellation of the
Superconducting Super Collider in the context of a bigger national and global socio-economic
crisis, including a general crisis in funding for science research and the provision of adequate
education, healthcare, transportation, and communication infrastructure, and criminal justice
and law enforcement.

References
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3. Steven Weinberg (https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=105655) at the Mathematics Genealogy
Project
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d.edu/abs/1960PhRv..118..838W). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.118.838 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FP
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Bibcode:1964PhRv..133.1318W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhRv..133.1318W).
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S. (1964). "Feynman Rules for Any spin. II. Massless Particles". Phys. Rev. 134 (4B): B882–
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W). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.134.B882 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.134.B882).;
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21. INSPIRE-HEP: Top Cited Articles of All Time (2015 edition) (http://inspirehep.net/info/hep/stats/
topcites/2015/alltime.html)
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700) indexed by the Scopus bibliographic database. (subscription required)
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02-00944-8.pdf) (PDF). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.). 39 (3): 433–439. doi:10.1090/s0273-
0979-02-00944-8 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0273-0979-02-00944-8).

External links
Steven Weinberg (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/115) on Nobelprize.org including the
Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1979, "Conceptual Foundations of the Unified Theory of Weak
and Electromagnetic Interactions"
Appearances (https://www.c-span.org/person/?stevenweinberg) on C-SPAN
"Model physicist" (https://cerncourier.com/a/model-physicist/). CERN Courier.

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