Name

Definition of terms

1. Cell membrane - is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside
environment (the extracellular space) which protects the cell from its environment. The cell
membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols (a lipid component) that sit between
phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. The membrane also contains
membrane proteins, including integral proteins that go across the membrane serving as
membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer (peripheral)
side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. The cell membrane controls the
movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles. In this way, it is selectively
permeable to ions and organic molecules. In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety
of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signaling and serve as the
attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, the carbohydrate
layer called the glycocalyx, and the intracellular network of protein fibers called the
cytoskeleton. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.
2. Chromosomes - The unique structure of chromosomes keeps DNA tightly wrapped around
spool-like proteins, called histones. Without such packaging, DNA molecules would be too long
to fit inside cells. For example, if all the DNA molecules in a single human cell were unwound
from their histones and placed end-to-end, they would stretch 6 feet. For an organism to grow
and function properly, cells must constantly divide to produce new cells to replace old, worn-out
cells. During cell division, it is essential that DNA remains intact and evenly distributed among
cells. Chromosomes are a key part of the process that ensures DNA is accurately copied and
distributed in the vast majority of cell divisions. Still, mistakes do occur on rare occasions.
Changes in the number or structure of chromosomes in new cells may lead to serious problems.
For example, in humans, one type of leukemia and some other cancers are caused by defective
chromosomes made up of joined pieces of broken chromosomes.
3. Cytoplasm - is a thick solution that fills each cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane. It is
mainly composed of water, salts, and proteins. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm includes all of
the material inside the cell and outside of the nucleus. All of the organelles in eukaryotic cells,
such as the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria, are located in the cytoplasm.
The portion of the cytoplasm that is not contained in the organelles is called the cytosol.
Although cytoplasm may appear to have no form or structure, it is actually highly organized. A
framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton provides the cytoplasm and the cell with
their structure.
4. Cytoplasmic particles - is isolated from a bioluminescent species of dinoflagellate that were able
to produce a flash of light in response to a decrease in pH. Cytoplasmic particles or scintillons
were first observed in L. polyedra by fluorescence microscopy, where they appear as small blue
dots close to the cell surface. This blue fluorescence is due to the presence of the
bioluminescence reaction substrate, a naturally fluorescent molecule called luciferin. When light
production is stimulated by addition of dilute acid to the cells under the microscope, the site of
light production corresponds to the location of the scintillons. Furthermore, the natural luciferin
fluorescence is reduced after the light producing reaction.
5. Bacterial cell wall - is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside the cell
membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. It provides the cell with both
structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. Cell walls are present
in most prokaryotes (except mollicute bacteria), in algae, fungi and eukaryotes including plants
but are absent in animals. A major function is to act as pressure vessels, preventing over-
expansion of the cell when water enters. The composition of cell walls varies between species
and may depend on cell type and developmental stage. The primary cell wall of land plants is
composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin. Often, other polymers
such as lignin, suberin or cutin are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls. Algae possess
cell walls made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides such as carrageenan and agar that are
absent from land plants. In bacteria, the cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan. The cell walls of
archaea have various compositions, and may be formed of glycoprotein S-layers,
pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls made of the N-
acetylglucosamine polymer chitin. Unusually, diatoms have a cell wall composed of biogenic
silica.
6. Glycocalyx - also known as the pericellular matrix, is a glycoprotein and glycolipid covering that
surrounds the cell membranes of some bacteria, epithelia, and other cells. In 1970, Martinez-
Palomo discovered the cell coating in animal cells, which is known as the glycocalyx. Most
animal epithelial cells have a fuzz-like coating on the external surface of their plasma
membranes. This coating consists of several carbohydrate moieties of membrane glycolipids and
glycoproteins, which serve as backbone molecules for support. Generally, the carbohydrate
portion of the glycolipids found on the surface of plasma membranes helps these molecules
contribute to cell–cell recognition, communication, and intercellular adhesion. The glycocalyx is
a type of identifier that the body uses to distinguish between its own healthy cells and
transplanted tissues, diseased cells, or invading organisms. Included in the glycocalyx are cell-
adhesion molecules that enable cells to adhere to each other and guide the movement of cells
during embryonic development.[2] The glycocalyx plays a major role in regulation of endothelial
vascular tissue, including the modulation of red blood cell volume in capillaries. The slime on the
outside of a fish is an example of glycocalyx. The term was initially applied to the polysaccharide
matrix coating epithelial cells, but its functions have been discovered to go well beyond that.
7. Flagella - is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell body of certain cells termed as
flagellates. A flagellate can have one or several flagella. The primary function of a flagellum is
that of locomotion, but it also often functions as a sensory organelle, being sensitive to
chemicals and temperatures outside the cell.[1][2][3][4]
8.
9. Flagella are organelles defined by function rather than structure. Flagella vary greatly among the
three domains of life, bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. All three kinds of flagella can be used
for swimming, but they differ greatly in protein composition, structure, and mechanism of
propulsion. The word flagellum in Latin means whip. The flagella of archaea have a special
name, archaellum, to emphasize its difference from bacterial flagella. An example of a
flagellated bacterium is the ulcer-causing Helicobacter pylori, which uses multiple flagella to
propel itself through the mucus lining to reach the stomach epithelium.[6] An example of a
eukaryotic flagellate cell is the mammalian sperm cell, which uses its flagellum to propel itself
through the female reproductive tract.[7] Eukaryotic flagella are structurally identical to
 eukaryotic cilia, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function or length.
Fimbriae and pili are also thin appendages, but have different functions and are usually smaller.
10. Pili - is a hair-like appendage found on the surface of many bacteria and archaea. The terms pilus
and fimbria (Latin for 'fringe'; plural: fimbriae) can be used interchangeably, although some
researchers reserve the term pilus for the appendage required for bacterial conjugation. All pili
in the latter sense are primarily composed of pilin proteins, which are oligomeric. Dozens of
these structures can exist on the bacterial and archaeal surface. Some bacteria, viruses or
bacteriophages attach to receptors on pili at the start of their reproductive cycle. Pili are
antigenic. They are also fragile and constantly replaced, sometimes with pili of different
composition, resulting in altered antigenicity. Specific host responses to old pili structure are not
effective on the new structure. Recombination genes of pili code for variable (V) and constant
(C) regions of the pili (similar to immunoglobulin diversity). As the primary antigenic
determinants, virulence factors and impunity factors on the cell surface of a number of species
of Gram negative and some Gram positive bacteria, including Enterobacteriaceae,
Pseudomonadaceae, and Neisseriaceae, there has been much interest in the study of pili as
organelle of adhesion and as vaccine components. The first detailed study of pili was done by
Brinton and co-workers who demonstrated the existence of two distinct phases within one
bacterial strain: pileated (p+) and non-pileated).
11. Spores - spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and
for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of
the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa. Bacterial spores are not part of a sexual
cycle but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions. Myxozoan
spores release amoebulae into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within the
hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the
amoebula. Spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the
sporangium of a diploid sporophyte. Under favourable conditions the spore can develop into a
new organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, which eventually
goes on to produce gametes. Two gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops into a new
sporophyte. This cycle is known as alternation of generations. The spores of seed plants are
produced internally, and the megaspores (formed within the ovules) and the microspores are
involved in the formation of more complex structures that form the dispersal units, the seeds
and pollen grains.