CONTENTS

Page No

Guide Certificate i

Self Declaration Certificate ii

Acknowledgement iii-iv

Preface v-vii

Chapter 1: Introduction: The Formation of Deep Ecology 1-48

1.1 Ecology, Ecosystem, Environment 3

1.2 Environmental Philosophy and Environmental Ethics 7

1.3 Anthropocentrism 12

1.4 Ecocentrism, Radical Ecology 18

1.5 Historic forebears of Deep Ecology 21

1.5.1 Buddhism 23

1.5.2 Spinoza (1632-1677) 24

1.5.3 Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) 27

1.5.4 MK Gandhi (1869-1948) 29

1.5.5 Aldo Leopold (1887-1948) 30

1.5.6 Rachel Carson (1907-1964) 33

1.6 Problems and Objective of the Study 37

1.7 Methodology 37

1.8 Review of Literature 38

Chapter 2: Deep Ecology of Arne Naess 48-119

2.1 Deep versus Shallow Ecology 51

viii
 2.2 Intrinsic Value of Nature 60

2.3 Bio-spherical Egalitarianism 65

2.4 Self-Realization 77

2.4.1 Identification 85

2.5 Platform Principles of Deep Ecology 92

2.6 Ecosophy 102

2.6.1 Ecosophy T 110

2.7 The Apron Diagram 112

Chapter 3: Critiques of Deep Ecology 120-173

3.1 The Critics: A brief Introduction 122

3.1.1 Social Ecology 122

3.1.2 Ecofeminism 125

3.1.3 The Third World Critiques 128

3.2 Critique of Deep Ecology 131

3.2.1 The problem with vocabulary 132

3.2.2 The problem with the conceptual framework 138

3.2.3 Misanthropy 144

3.2.4 Biocentric Egalitarianism is problematic 149

3.2.5 Absurdities of Ecosophy and Self-realization 156

3.2.6. The concept of wilderness is problematic 163

Chapter 4: Naess’ Response to the Critics 174-212

4.1 Critiquing the Critics 175

4.2.1 Response to Social Ecology 177

4.2.2 Response to Ecofeminism 183

ix
 4.2.3 Response to the Third World Critics 191

4.3 Moving towards the defensive position 200

Chapter 5: Conclusion 213-251

5.1 Revisiting Deep Ecology 213

5.2 Iconic class of Naess 221

5.2.1 Coinage of the term “deep ecology” 221

5.2.2 Introducing Ecological Self 222

5.2.3 Developing Total World-view 225

5.2.4 Respect of plurality of thought 226

5.3 Contradictory stands of Naess 227

5.4 Convergences and inter-dialogues 230

5.5 Biocentrism Reasserted 237

5.6 In Defense of Deep Ecology 244

Bibliography 252-268

Appendix: Timeline of Naess 269-273