= [ Mass, length, time, temperature, | electric current, luminous intensity r that are used to express Expression which shows how and which of the a nur it to the required degree of accuracy: base quantities represent the dimensions of a nor igits : physical quantity is called dimension formula. | and amount of substance have fundamental between two non-zero digits e.g: Force =[MLT= | | units. kilogram, metre, second, Kelvin, | ampere, candela and mol respectively. ‘number is less than 1, the zero(s) n the right of decimal point but to the eft of the non-digit zero are not significant. ee int ee unbee * Comparison wi The units which are derived from Sataignificant internati accepted reference| fundamental units are called eg >In 020342.010 io een derived units ; 0 : ; ‘Here 20342.01 has significant figure 7 measure physical quantities. |. Physical quantities like speed acceleration are derived units like mvs, mV/s" plane angle and radian and as units Does not change with time} Set of fundamental and derived units CGS ~ Centimeter, Gram, Second FPS — Foot, Pound, Second MKS- Metre, Kilogram, Second Haar BC, $1. - System International gpa) (Saas eemscE, 1D ajdwes S| Ise] YO (WE) JAP | Sedeq uonsen | -= Total change in veloc aa 7 Si = ances are traversed in me interval equal amount of time. Boy at Rate of change of velocity wart. time, _ 5 GSA Saget z When the magnitude or the direction] falling because o! of velocity changes wt. time. Earth's gravity (g= 9.8m") on neglectingairresistance.Itisa case of motion with uniform acceleration. e.g Apple falling fromatree. length of the path traversed by any object is called its distance | scalar quantity. | The shotest distance traversed by any | in called -ement a vector quantity. Acceleration @ v=v¢ at (@ x=vittat [Distance traversed/ime taken Scalar quantity Rate of change of position of an objectw-r.t time in given direction It in vector quantity > When object traversed different distances with different time. $4 S,t Sito Tatra + When object traversed different speeds in different time of intervals. Mh tvab tot @ Wore i) Yn = ve Total displacement Bisa s : =Total time taken In opposite direction, it will besum and jn same direction, it will be difference for the same frame of reference sdey PullLaw of Triangle Law of Pa Tt has zero magnitude and orbitary direction PO's 7d | nx R=iK J Position vector, F'= xi + yj} Displacement vector, AT’= 4x1 +Ay} I F= ait aj;a.-dv/dt &a,= dy, [aj vata? [Vectors having same magnitude ‘but opposite direction = eg, Ais a negative of B greater motion A=-B 5 {When an object follows a circular path at sare ‘a constant speed , the motion of the object is called uniform circular motion. | Vectors having, |common starting, ‘Angular velocity .0= @/t point. ‘Angular acceleration,d=Aa/At Motion of an object that eg- merry go around. is in flight after being thrown or projected. (A body in a circular motion acted upon by an acceleration directed towards centre of the circular motion. A ee “Quation of path of PO On atertime ae 'd Yonsano ajduies S| 3881 XO (ule) Jar |eeMsOEvery body continues tobe in its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by a non-ze external force. Also called law of Inertia. moving in rest Resistance to change rest or motion. ‘en emes [The rate of change of momentum lof a body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force lacts. dP py Pom: Baro roma where ‘a’ = acceleration Centrifugal force is ‘equal and opposite to centripetal force. ‘A push or pall which ‘changes or tends to change state of rest ‘or of uniform Product of mass and velocity of the body p=mv "To every action there is always] an equal & opposite reaction. 5 Fan = Fea § ‘Adbon & reaction acton two = different bodies 8 % tice is said 3 ‘ ‘A particle is said to “Total change in momentum [Oppose actual relative - Be i P be in equilibrium Impulse = force x time ing motion P Bot re when net external | [~The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles is conserved mjQig + Uy = MQ%y + TY force on the particle is zero. +R eR, <0 RnR ‘momentum, Maximum value of static friction sdew pulRate of doing work Equivalence of mass and Energy + Total energy and linear E=Ame! ‘momentum conserved. wart time + Kinetic energy not conserved. AHP=746watt IkWh=36 x 10 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another. 2 3 me i ee = [When force (F) and displacement () | OM grein same direction. z rene OP = é 8 ‘Work is said to be \st done when force produces [When force (F) and displacement (s) displacement along the ; = I “are intoppositeldirection. aac Rate. By virtue of velocity By virtue of position| | Wwill be (-ve) when = % <0 Blowing off the roofs during windstorm. eee | Opposing force between different layers of | | guid in relative motion a ree iS less than critical velocity, each particle of th = (liquid passing through a point travels along, For an incompressible, par) streamline irrotational flow of fluid, | the same path and same velocity asthe P+tpv"+pgh-constant | preceding particles. c eee ‘greater than critical velocity and particles follow zig-zag path. | capiltary rise or fall, h= 2 tes |. Excess Pressure inside a drop (liquid) 2s ro ee |- Excess Pressure inside a bubble (soap) as aS T Density = Sai (0) Voumets) Density = Density of water at4°Cie, | maximum density of water=L0x10° kg/m? | ; a ee Q ap] | x | G1 199 POW (WEI) AF |eemsE 4, a 4 = 5 Sen pee. Density or specific gravity= act waterat eC] | 2 ne ea ea ciel tS % 3. % a a 9 a | Difference between the absolute pressure at a point g ‘Pressure (atm) exerted by the atmosphere. [Total or actual pressure ata point. | and the atmospheric pressure. = Atsea level, 1 atm=pressure exerted by 0.76m. Absolute pressure= atmospheric pressure | pg=absolute pressure(P) — atmospheric pressure(Pa) 3 + gauge pressure=P, +hpg | ? 3 ‘of Hg=hpg—0.76x13.6x10x98=1013x10°Nm* sialic be S101(wine's constant)=2.9%10°mK [Energy per unit area (E)in given as o=5672 Js mk Fora perfectly black body, e=1 of energy, transferred between two systems by virtue of temperature @ Conduction : heat transfer through molecular collisions without any actual motion of matter (i) Convection : heat transfer by actual motion of matter within the medium. Land breeze, sea breeze, trade winds based on natural convection are some examples. (ii) Radiation : method of heat transfer requiring, no material medium. XG 5 ode of heat w30H Degree of hotness or coldness of a body or Specific heat capacity C = sQ Heat capacity s =—— at Molar specific heat capacity, device = Thermometer es Relation among different temperature scales T=32__G=W7335__ Joo-0 212-32 373.15 Tncrease in dimensions due metry to increase in temperature Increase of length of a solid on heating. Coefficient of linear expansion Jncrease in area of a solid on heating. Coefficient of superficial expansion ara LTT, sdew pun = —— ncrease in volume ofa solid on heating. Coefficient of cubical expansion. av __av v-¥, AT Vet WATT LbZl san Planck Statement Ttis the statement of ‘ess in possible whose of conservation of Energy; ‘AQ = AU + AW = AU+PAV (Here, AW=PAV) Kel = @ Extensive— indicate the size of the Te is impossible for an system. e.g. U, volume, total mass. wae (ii) Intensive ~ do not indicate size of the = system. e.g. , pressure & temperature engine working between eo = engine eres to extract | [Beat from a reserv | dete tema ASE - ee heat from a reservoir | [complete conversio = \[ wo systems are in thermal aan Chaatng then &B ar and convert completely | | heat into wor e equilibrium with each other = into work. if they have the © eaeaereea sole result in ature. n heat from a colder object toa ofa system Fa ‘Any process made to proceed in the Change in entropy 6S=—— reverse direction by changing its [conditions is called Reversible Process. /Any process which cannot be retraced in the reverse direction jexactly,is called Irreversible Process, Quasi-static process ‘An Ideal engine works on a reversible’ m mat & i & Alcea heat & temperature and their interconversion by ( isothermal expansion , o 2 3 Branch of Science which deals with concepts of 8 Infinity slow process such that systems remain thermodynamic process in thermal & mechanical equilibrium with tS) RO £ S om 7 m (ii) adiabatic expansion, 2, vale ir z (iii) isothermal compression, & Fee a POD the surroundings throughout. = 2 | (v)adiabatic compression. s He an aa 2 = & . 5 ay O is process, system 3 | | Efficiency of Carnot’ engine § rae \_ | returns to inital state i = q qe - Sab § a ®\_| fora cyclic process es 2g - a Qa ns S - AU = 0 (zero) a Temperature = Constant] ly insulated system | Volume = Constant] | Pressure = Constant| | The pressure (P) & temperator® ofthe] | — PV econstant= ner _ ||neither gains norlosesheat-|) Ps Constant ae environment can differ from those of the | | a ART 4, Eve, cenetnt T Ta system only infinitesimally. 3 Ly * erstant ae wy 2 WY : eae a resielisions of gases molecules are perfectly fordistomic E13 ik a aeons ces last 2 Bee eae ee Energy aszodated witheach degree of freedom permolecule= gh! i freedom Hence, fis the degree of ‘sdew Pu elPhase constant or Phase: angle (6) «# Itdepends upon velocity (x) and displacement ofparticle att = 0 Time varying, quantity(ot+¢) [ithe number of oscillations Iper second z Fe. ea after which the motion oie is repeated T 27 PS ITime period T = 27, CE nan fe Time poiodT 2 J Here k= = spring constant A gk ae x(t)= A cos(ot+$) ‘A= Amplitude i.e,maximu [simple Harmonic Motion is the simplest form of oscillatory motion 1m displacement of particles dull) _gAsin(ot+#) a(t) oscillatory. © Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but every periodic motion need not be To and fro motion repeatedly about a fixed point in a definite interval of time.| Kinetic Energy KE= mo?A°sin? (ot + 9) Potential Energy PES 3 ma? A? cos (ot +9) Total energy, T.E.=KE.+ P.E. =i kA’fcos *( ott 9) +sin“( ott ]= 5 KA} (Oscillation of a body whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time, ‘Damping force F,= -bv,b = damping constant Displacement of damped oscillator ——F x= x," sin(ott9),here,o'= xe — dnt xe xeon sili, Driving force, F(t) =F, cosa, t Displacement, x(t)=A cos (t+) ‘Amplitude, A=———§ ——> Force law equation for SHM Fe k(x), k=mo* . (When frequency of external force sonance pero to natural frequency ‘of oscillator. is dey Uonsano ajduies ¢| 188, 70 (WW) Sar |eeMSOStationary waves @ Instring; Fundamental Frequency, ve E Gi) In organ pipe: {@) Open at both ends, Fundamental freq, or [harmonic v = (b) Closed at one end v= \Gii) » In open organ pipe, higher harmonics, both odd & even. 's Inclosed organ pipe, higher harmonics, odd s 2 only. sound, 1%, = observer speed 2, = source speed 2, = medium speed| displacements then the net displacement of collective wave jis given. asY=y,+y.+ Yst-—t Yq ;Waves associated with particles like-electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms, molecules etc. lectromagnetic Waves_[.2! rs & = i, 2 & = s El Do not require any material ‘medium for their propagation eg, light waves sdey pul in Frequencies of two superposing Waves, Yius= Vir ¥%s | Speed of transverse wave ina stretched string] | V = [Z.1 = tension Sm = maseflength | ma Essential properties carp em] for propagati jum oscilla eect to the direction of propagation «Inertia lof wave Minimum friction along the direction of 5 ypagation of wave. for their propagation Speed of a longitudinal wave speed of sound, = a = =F toraiy= (EP srary=75a Conductors Insulators Sach a material Which | Such a material Vv Sey when placed in an in which electrons ane, —r, potential due to a [= Work done per unit test charge by electric field, the are tightly bound, system of charges an external agent in moving the test free electrons move | & when exposed in Jo Bees charge from reference point to the ina direction opposite | an electric fel eee is desired point S.. unit /C to the field. electrons donot —_| Gees a ss 3 Vp = Work done/charge move having no en nes © Electric field inside a conductor is zero Ato =0,V=—1 E {axial position} + Electric field is always perpendicular to 220e the charged surface ‘At,0 = 90°, V = 0 [equitorial position] «s Instatic state, there will be no additional charge in a conductor > Potential is same at all the points of the surface * Component of electric field _K = dielectric constant of jel to an equipotential medium es ou “jectric |e Adielectricis an electrical insulator that oe can be polarized by an applied electric field. (Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor IC=KeA/d, K= dielectric constant lo ‘Capacitance when material slab’ inserted between the plates (Capacitance, C == apacitance, C = @ It is negative of work done by the electric force as the configuration of the system changes. C= Ke,A/[Kd - x(K-1)] ea (al ‘where x = thickness of the slab «oe a 2) eae 4ne, \r, GU = pe sinddo ‘Capacitance of a spherical c ‘ = pe sini ‘apacitance of a spherical capacitor © Ifthe separation between charges is” If we choose P-E. of dipole to 1 O ‘ then U,, = 41:92 be zero when C= 4ne,/| —--— 0° “ter Rie 0 = 90° then Series grouping of efpacitors a Potential Diterence? by une (preside oe 1 a For isolated sphere Yet —_ grata’ = a hia Up = —PEcos®= -pxE ce. Parallel grouping of capacitors U, - U, = change in Potential Energy ies oote ee ee Fortwo, C= & ral C=Q4+6,4+C,4+----+C, e gua = Seca against the torqi for two, C=C,+C, oO uadeg UoNSAND ajdwes ¢| SAL POW (IEW) BAP JeemsQ |cy The algebraic sum ofall the potential . | difference along a closed loop is zero. EE=0 SG 4 P= = 2 ata |peae se TTT] R= resistance at ee ie en Comparison of emé, = =jt eres dts. (tas ae ¥ resistivity No current through G ae eee 1, hare lengths of null point sdew PY8 Pili “|where i = total current crossing the area bounded by closed curve. Tn Apa, 18: discovered wire can defle ‘compass needle, Tes aregion around a magnet or current caring conductor or a moving charge in which its magnetic effect can be felt © STunit is Tesla(T) = ‘weber/m* 1Gauss = 10% Tesla a nearby magneti > Magnetic filed at a point inside due toalong solenoid B= wri |. And at point on one end B = as where n = no. of turns per unit length along the length of solenoid. |e For @ = 0, F = Oalong the magnetic field le For 9 = 90°, ie. if charge’s velocity is perpendicular to field direction, Force is perpendicular to both field & velocity iNi__N-= totalno. of turns i= currentin toroid dF=idixB, F = il} F=qb= r [Magnetic Force on moving charge 1 = BY — radius of the circle in which 8 charge rotates Torque experienced by 21°F 2 uniform magnetic fiel4 iif two parallel wire kept 1 m apart, if F = 2 x 107, then current = 1A in each. Magnetic field due to| straight wire current Then, F = qvB sind And the charge particle will follow helical path whose my : 2nm s=—8G = BY and pitch = V,xT= tea SENET are idba Field due to a@ = 5.1 idixr a = ah areata Rea Pde Sains Ig hy idx Ba (cos0,— ra (cos®,— cos8,) dB-——s- [0 =angle between di and F] Eee irectic here 0, and @, are the angle corresponding uy idlsing Direction of field will be]! Here Aes 8 sponding 4p = Heitlsing| eependicular to plane||'® the lower and upper ends respectively ano ia containing current element, and the point of observation| anu99 310 2 Prony [Bisdey uonsano ajduies ¢1 101 x0W (UEW) dar IeeMSO ie. ford>>>a weit | | ayia? 2a°_ (Current loop of area A = xr carrying current i may be replaced by a magnetic idipole of dipole moment 1 = md = iA pole strength \d = separation between poles| 1 = radius of circular orbit je = charge on electron lv = speed of electron; 1L = angular momentum lm, = mass of electron [= End-on-position 4nd --—0 Metal >>>) Magnetic held Intensity, [* Broadside Position For d>>>1 B= Mix d? Uy = Uz — Uw = -MB cos = -M.B we take PE. at@=90°tobezero_| 0S /M = 2m) s 3 [Earth is a natural source of magnetic] field having geometric north and geometric south pole ‘Angle b/w magnetic meridian and geographical meridian. ‘Angle made by earth’s magnetic field with horizontal in the magnetic direction Bagatce=°S pte [Intensity of ‘magnetization By; (at pole) = 0 1B, (at equator) ismaximum| (Continuous imaginary lines which represent the direction of magnetic field "Tendency to increase the magnetic! field due to magnetization, eg. Al M(x, H, > 1) (Tendency of strong magnetization in the direction of magnetic field. e.g. Fe, Co, Nity,%e >>1) Tendency to magnetise in a direction opposite to direction of magnetic field eg. Bi, Cu, Hg Ni. (Hete<1) [Magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Magnetic field disappears when current is turned off. B = Magnetic field sdeyy pun 6Lrie nn eae an area bounded by a closed in 1831, Michael Faraday discovered 4 =Mi electromagnetic induction and James ee SS ee an emf Clerk Maxwell mathematically described it. ea = Mit 4 Aha E SSCL |2-The emf is given by E= — Pu WN) eee Mn=vanmons — \ LETTE is the magnetic flux through the My, = Horn, mrt area. Emf induced in an AC generator, E = NBA sin ot [The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change that has induced it. d6|_ |, ax ar Pad E= Bly Ifa solenoid of N turns, the flux through. each each turn = $ = [B.ds emf induced between the ends il = E=-N— [Bas of coil = E=-Naf L= porters n = no. of turns per unit length = flux = (toni) mx r= radius of each loop of solenoid * Growth of current in LR Circuit T = resistance of rod moving with velocity v in uniform 2 magnetic field B Itis induced when magnetic flux linked with the conductor changes jE ; ee ge) =i -e%) * Decay of current Ea ge Magnetic force on the loop] i sie F=BPYR Thermal power developed| 5 ; = force required to move |/in the loop ie o ee stored in an Inductor the loop with constant Be us fue velocity (v) RFrdevice generating alternating current having elements magnet, ‘Armature and graphite Brushes emf induced through coil E=NBA@sinot E)=-NEVN ER=NBAasin oR j= NEN: * IfN, > Ny itis called step-up Transfomer "IN, > Ny itis called step-down Ta) = output power/input power 99% efficiency can easily achieved| Ttis used to obtain a /high AC voltage from a ‘The ratio of emfapplied and the ILow-voltage AC source| current produced in an AC circuit or vice-versa Z=Fa/iy Ohm ‘The hindrance offered by inductor or capacitor or both to the flow of AC (x) Alternating Curents Power in AC Circuit Part-2 z AC Circuits 1-CRareup = issn (1-2) [Phase difference b/w V&l, ¢ = */2 Power factor cos($)=0 lvoltage leads current by 1/2 P=0 9 i= igsin (or + = nRor-w2 cosp=0 Power(P) =0 Current leads the voltage by 7/2 P=Vp 2 Current & voltage both are in same phase Re + Power factor cos} = + Power factor = 0, Bither voltage q [R? +X? i = current leading. ee or current leading. |evoltage is leading sdey pull %If there exists an electric current as well as a changing electric field, they result into magnetic field & cause displacement current [The current due to flow of charge is often called cede: pens eo fin 1886 Henrich Hertz became the first person to transmit land received controlled| jradio waves Gauss’s Law (electricity) Di “placement Current fEds=d= & Gauss’s Law (magnetism) $Bds-0 ‘Combination of mutually Faraday’s Law perpendicular electric & magnetic fields is referred to as an electromagnetic wave| ee '* Radio wave 2. > 10*nm | Use : radio, TV signal * Micro wave 10° > 2. > 10°nm Use : micro wave oven, radar # Infrared 10° > 2. > 700.1nm Use : night vision | © Visible light 700 > 2. > 400 nm | Use : to observe world © UV rays 400 > 4 > 10nm Use : destroying bacteria | © X-rays 10 > 4 >0.01 nm | Use : detect bone break # yrays 0.01nm > % Use : to treat cancer 1 Us [a8 +5 (= energy per unit volume U,, over a long time (Characteristics of Electromagnetic waves © Do not need any material medium for propagation Travels with speed (v) = Ampere’s Law GBai= soit note=e 1 hae «Produced by accelerated charge Transverse in nature + Oscillating electric & magnet fields are in phase and their ratio is constant (C) = Eo/Bo 4 1B 2 Hy ib eras eee + 2 Be! ac 1, pe qiaks [25.6 = B MB & Hote = 185 2 Ho deg uonsano ajdwes | 1581 90 (WII) JAF IeeMSO |zs + Pole is taken as origin + Principle axis as the X-axis + All distance are measured from origin (or pole) [ Light scattered te. redirected | different paths when interacts with particle e.g, sunset, sunrise, colours, reflected ray and sdew pull + All distance measured in the direction are coplanar of incident ray are taken + ve. he ‘ blue colour of sky + All distance measured in the direction Sy aa [Sasa actee tae - opposite to the incident ray aretaken - ve. D M=1+— [image at near point] i oS 1 Ry M=D/f [image at infinite] teral Magnification neal FA {normal adjustment) Sm Hs ule sinr vy, Ah 2 (De (ae px Tee depth ip Bee ‘apparent depth For final image at least distance / 1 Ar=| 1-— |= image shift (jew | se ve Ae) [image at near point] vynunoy, pete Su97 When ray passes from optically > denser to rarer medium, if incident é angle (j) further increased till (@). & critical angle, entire light is then reflected back to the denser medium again, this process is called TLR. It is used in optical fibre. M= aa [image at infinite] «Incident angle (8) for which angle : ee of refraction is 90° tual -h| Ufu= mst =1 (air)] aa . sin8, =1/ h f RR j in'( 2 et [For Combination of lens a= ele 11} (ens formula) en # fouvuw When ray passes from optically Licimeunauere 22 denser to rarer medium. aa W €Wave frony [Each point on the prim: | wavefront is the eel od ofa secondary wavelets ‘Two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater or lower or same amplitude. For spherical wavefront] 1=(Jn+Jb)=(A+4,) pet *For constructive Interference ‘ A=A,+A, ase For destructive interference A=(A,—A;) r pres at 8 ule bsin 0 = na (dark fringe) Linear width of central maxima) D Width of central maxima a B==A fYoung’s Double = caaeeeDal a Slit Experiment aa jis a distance between Ronen a Reaoraereeet 5 7 sind =2n+l) > right or dark fringes {estricting the vibration cr , of light in a particular (formaximalbrieht fines), i direction perpendicular £ to the direction of Distance between g| 2 -@ | Propagation of wave Hetan Op nth bright fringe § € *S @,, = angle of polarisation | and central fringe 3 5 %. * Polariod used in lab _7aD S % a to analyse plane isa, @. 2, 3, polarised light D= distance between a % + used to eliminate the source and screen q head light glare in Two sources of light are ‘motor cars said to be coherent if the| TFor bright fringe | _ [initial phase difference " [Distance between nth dark| | gana between the waves lfringe and central fringe Seehaeenee lemitted by the sources (2n-1)aD 1 remains constant in Baa do=|n+ }4 time, otherwise they Resolving power ofl = wpa tte i are called Incoherent = 2nsind/A source of light. leg uOASAND a|dules 6) 189] POW (IEW) Bar IeeMSO |+ Light has both wave character as '» Interference can be explained eS oats by wa ‘+ When light isof sufficiently low wavelength, it behaves as particle * Light particles having definite energy and definite! Tinear momentum are called "photons" Energy of each photon = hy = Momentum ofeach photon = he Wa = Be wavelength p = momentum h ee mv h am Kmax Einstein's Photoelectric equation ‘A beam of electrons emitted by electron gun is made to fall on pee articular angle Scattered beam trons is received by detector. Results : 4 = de Broglie’s wavelength =hp = 1227/Vv nm = 1227/J54 nm = 0.167 nm = 167A This experiment verifies the wave nature of electrons & relation with de-Broglie wavelength. * When light of sufficient small wavelength is incident on metal Bec ue PerieSeeeees Esta "=-§, j= stopping potential | Kix. = Oe. from the metal, the phenomenon Kmax = maximum kinetic energy 5 Vea may just come out, eee 3 Boctcelecinic effect: = | of elected electrons %o * Ejected electrons are called eh use ieE <> hotoelectro A 1 ee ea a dg = Threshold Wavelength a ao pv come oat Minimum energy work is function ($) must be given to do= My = Wh sees i an electron so as to bring it 40 = Threshold frequency oh = ieeareat oe = out of the metal eee ean i ae sdew; P'~ a particle bombarded on thin gold foil «Most of a~ particle passed undeviated or with a small ang = Lout of 8000 a_particles were deflected by scattering ar Given by En =-136 Where n = 1,2,3... [a — particle scattering Impact parameter | experiment pe Zecote/2 | ) | An( Erne? | | | 2 Contribution called energy levels. + When electron jumps from level to lower energy level energy. nergy: ce AE = E,-E, = 13.6| 53-77 |Z eV releases [* Atoms have a central, massive, ‘* Doesn't explain the positively charged core called stability of atom nucleus around which electron wee es ‘* Doesn't explain the atomic spectra + Size of nucleus ~1 fermi = 10m postulates, [e Eledronrevolvesaround | | the nucleus in stationary orbits ‘Angular momentum of electron | h mvr, = 1x5 orbits is ee heated in a sealed tube Hydrogen gas emits radiation which passes through, prism components of different wavele- ngth appear Wavelength in each series given by > 7, Lyman series [U.V. region] n=1n= 23 A. ok, dmax = 2164 Balmer series [visible region] te damn = 3648 A , ‘Imax = 6563 A Paschan series [I-R region] | n=3 y= 45,60 | ymin = 8208 A, Rina = 18761 A || Brackett series [1 R region] n=t y= 5,6, 7. : | Amin = 14592 Domax = 40533 A P-fund [I R region] | n=5 1 =6,7,8 Amin =23850A max = 74618 A 2x n= Integers. It is also known. « Fails to explain spectrum of as principle Quantum Number pace soar of multi a electron system peas * Doesn't explain Zeeman's =22x 10° Z ms n ladeg Uoasano ajdwies ¢| 159) x20/W (WEIN) Bar [2250Finstein showed that massis | ananother form of energy and | gave showeda relation E = mc] ‘> Nudlei consist of protons and neutrons. ‘* Total No. of protons & neutrons in the nucleus is called nucleons 2X, A=Z+N=MassNumber A= Atomic Number N= No. of neutrons sdew Puy AM = [Zm, +(A -Z)m,]-M | 1m, = mass of proton, m , = mass of neutron | M = mass of nucleus = BE =4Me =[Zm, +(A —Z)m,—M] x ¢) ¢ BE. per nucleon = B.E/A a > Splitting of heavy nucleus into two or more | lighter nuclei. | 0g, Ut on! > Balt! + Ki? Syn! +200 mev | Ce ~@ Combining two lighter nuclei to form a | heavy nucleus + Same mass No.(A) * Different atomic No.(Z) eg CNY ‘Atoms whose nudei having same number eg, ]H+}H-> 7H+ e*+v+ 0.42 MeV (energy) of neutron (N) 2 Ms e.g. nNa®, 2g" > isa heavy doubly ionized helium ion + least penetrating power + highest ionizing power R=RA® + decay of 1 a particle cause decrease | | R,=12x 105m Radioactivity in atomic no. by 2and mass no. by + | | ArSneEN > isan electron + moderate penetrating pow: | VER Disintegration of heavy elements (100 a eeaene Eee | 3 ~ into comparatively lighter elements : cel | a eet by emission of a ,B and y radiations + less ionizing power than a —particle aaa + one B particle decay cause increase} | ‘Voc A (mass no.) jin atomic no. by 1 and mass no. | remains uncharged. p= ~ volume of nucleus =] Anslisioae TA wave having high frequency having no mass, pax d2xtony — pat E, =veryhigh~7eV [ca] gs Rt Sior Ge doped with trivalent (B, Al) elements |* Electrons are minority carriers Holes are majority carriers) deg uonsano ejdwies ¢| 3881 ¥OW (WEIN) Ar |2eSOsmitter antenna radiates EM. waves, ‘c waves travel through space & reach ‘ving antenna at other end. __ == Transmitter Antenna [Receiver Antenna Sir Tim Burn’ invented the world-wide web (www) in 1989 ‘Transmitter ‘Transmitted signal + Tonosphere plays major role in sky wave propagation. In ionosphere ionization occurs due to the absorption of UV rays coming from the sun by the air molecule. Communication system e In this layer bending of EM. wave occurs so that they are diverted towards the earth which is helpful in sky wave propagation. Radio waves (1710 K HZ to 40 MHZ) are propagated in sky wave propagation. Terefers to the data carrying capacity of | channel ormedium| To transmit the information signal of low frequency, itis super imposed on high frequency wave as a carrier wave called modulation. Signal Band width ‘Mobile phone 896 - 901 M Hz 840 - 935 M Hz. Satellite 5.9-64G Hz ‘Communication 3.7-42G Hz + Space waves travel in straight line from transmitter antenna to receiver antenna. Signal Band width speech/voice | 300 Hz - 3100 Hz + It is used for line of sight communication as TV broadcast or satellite communication. AM 540-1600 kHz. ‘Music signals | 20 Hz— 20 K Hz eal FM 88 - 108 MHz leo signal | 42 MHz The process of retrieval j i i i TVsignals | 6MHz a eae ef info gphtion fame ieee = eo = oe cs carrier wave at the receiver is| a x » (both voice (V HF) 76-216 MHz termed as demodulation. h, = height of transmitter antenna & video) 420 - 890 M Hz Itis reverse of modulation h, = height of receiver antenna. sdew Pu!