Gluconic acid Production

Gluconic acid (2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxy caproic acid, C6H12O7) is a noncorrosive,

nontoxic, mild organic acid with a brown clear appearance. It is very soluble in
water and has a mild and refreshing taste. It is a good chelator at high pH, with
better activity than commonly used chelators. Gluconic acid was discovered in
1870 by Hlasiwetz and Habermann, when glucose was oxidized with chlorine. In
1922 it was isolated from a strain of A. niger. Later, other filamentous fungi, such
as Penicillium, Scopulariopsis, Gonatobotrys, and Gliocladium, and also oxidative
bacteria, such as strains of Pseudomonas, Gluconobacter (Acetobacter),
Moraxella, Micrococcus, Enterobacter, and Zymomonas were found to produce
gluconic acid. Already in the 1940s it was possible to obtain good yields of
gluconic acid using A. niger by fermentation, neutralizing the accumulating acid
with calcium carbonate. The physiological functions of gluconic acid accumulation
for these organisms are not clear; one possibility is its contribution to the
competitiveness of the organism, removing glucose from the close environment. In
the case of P. expansum (a phytopathogenic fungus), it was demonstrated that
secreted gluconic acid contributed to the colonization and disease development of
apple tissues by this fungus. Gluconic acid is used in the manufacture of metal,
leather, and food. It has been accredited with the capability of inhibiting
bitterness in foods. Sodium gluconate is permitted in food and it has GRAS
(generally recognized as safe) status. This salt is also utilized as a sequestering
agent in many detergents, and added to cement to improve the hardening
process.

The formation of gluconic acid is different from most other organic acids, since
it is formed outside the cytoplasmic membrane, by the enzyme glucose oxidase.
This enzyme has been shown to be localized in the cell wall, at least for fungi
known to accumulate gluconic acid. Glucose in the medium is oxidized in a two-
step reaction to gluconic acid; first glucose oxidase oxidizes
β-D-glucopyranose to D-glucono-1,5 lactone with the formation of hydrogen
peroxide, acted upon by catalase to form water and oxygen. The hydrolysis of
the lactone is spontaneous in aqueous solutions, but occurs six times faster with
the enzyme gluconolactonase, resulting in gluconic acid.
The main route of gluconic acid production has been by fermentation, mainly
using A. niger in submerged fermentations. The two most important parameters
of the fermentation is a high concentration of dissolved oxygen, used directly in
the biosynthesis, and keeping pH 4.5–6.5, traditionally achieved by addition of
calcium carbonate as the neutralizing agent. Best results are obtained with a
high glucose concentration (110–250 g L-1), low concentrations of nitrogen and
phosphorus (<20 mmol L-1), and low concentrations of metal ions.
Fermentations with almost quantitative yield (>90% on a molar basis) are
completed in less than 24 h. The fact that the oxidation reactions occur outside of
the cells allows for reuse of the mycelium up to 14 times. In the current
industrial method, neutralization with NaOH allows for the use of higher initial
sugar concentrations (up to 350 g L-1) and the pH is then maintained close to 6.5.
Recently, enzymatic processes have been introduced by conversion of glucose
syrups with less formation of byproducts and resulting in fewer problems in
the downstream process.
There are alternative ways of gluconic acid production by chemical,
electrochemical, and bioelectrochemical routes, but with lower yields than the
fermentation processes. Bacteria, mainly Gluconobacter oxydans, are reported to
be used by industry. Recently, a process based on Acetobacter methanolicus was
developed. The process utilizes methanol as the carbon source for growth, with
the addition of glucose for its conversion to gluconic acid.