Coconut-based agroforestry for productive and protective

benefits

B. M. Kumar

Chapter 1

Introduction

Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resources management system that

integrates trees on farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production

for increased social, economic, and environmental benefits for land users at all levels (WAC

2006). Coconut (Cocos nucifera L, Family- Palmae), an important plantation crop in the

Asia-Pacific region, is amenable to a broad spectrum of such practices. The wide spacing

(7.6 m triangular pattern or 7.6 to 9 m square planting), intended to meet the resource

requirements of trees at maturity, and the sub-optimal utilization of site resources by palms at

maturity (Anilkumar and Wahid, 1988; Kumar et al., 2005) make this crop particularly

suitable for polycultural systems. Coincidentally, many annual, seasonal, and perennial crops

abound in the coconut-based smallholder farming systems of South and Southeast Asia, and

the Pacific islands (Nelliat et al., 1974; Nair, 1979; 1983; 1989; Reddy and Biddappa, 2000).

In particular, staple food crops including root and tuber crops [e.g., yam (Dioscorea spp.),

taro (Colocasia esculenta), cassava (Manihot esculenta)], banana (Musa spp.), island cabbage

(Abelmoschus spp.), and numerous tree species (Theobroma cacao, Myristica fragrans,

Syzygium aromaticum, Artocarpus altilis, Barringtonia edulis, etc.) are frequently

interplanted or under-planted in the coconut gardens (Nair, 1979; Liyanage et al., 1985;

Ahmed et al., 2004; Ginoga et al., 2004; Lamanda et al., 2006).

The choice of intercrop generally depends on factors such as age of the palms, local needs,

profitability, and agroecological situations. Although there is little tradition of systematic

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planting of dicot multipurpose (MPT) trees in the interspaces of coconuts, except cacao,

coffee, clove, and certain tree spices, many dicot trees are also grown either as scattered trees

or on farm boundaries for green manure and fodder purposes, or as support trees for trailing

pepper vines and the like. Gliricidia sepium, Erythrina indica, Pajanelia rheedii, and

Leucaena leucocephala are prominent in this respect (Liyanage et al., 1993; Kumar, 1999;

Gowda and Kumar, 2007).

Quite apart from diversified production and acting as an insurance against crop

failures, such systems ensure biodiversity conservation in managed ecosystems, which has

become a vital issue after the Convention of Biological Diversity (Secretariat of the

Convention of Biological Diversity, 2006). Carbon sequestration is yet another potential

benefit from such mixed species production systems (Kumar, 2006a). But there is little

empirical knowledge on the spatial pattern of planting and/or compatibility of the dicot

multipurpose trees grown in association with coconuts (Kumar and Kumar, 2002). Many

aspects of the functional dynamics such as system productivity, competitive interactions, and

the protective benefits associated with mixed species production systems are also little

known. More importantly, the farmers apprehend competition for resources such as light,

water, and nutrients among the various components such as coconut palms, inter planted

woody perennials, and the herbaceous understorey crops (Kumar et al., 1999). This paper,

based on available evidences, analyzes some of these concerns; i.e., whether dicot tree

interplanting is compatible with coconut production objectives. Do the interplanted

multipurpose trees adversely affect coconut or the system productivity, if so what causes such

yield reductions and what are the management options to overcome that? What are the

potential advantages of intercropping from a crop protection perspective?

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Coconut productivity

Few studies have included detailed investigations of the long-term impacts of interplanting

woody perennial dicot species in the coconut gardens although many such studies involving

seasonal and annual crops were conducted. Available reports on interplanting of dicot

multipurpose trees in the interspaces of coconut palms are summarised in Tables 1 and 2.

The 10 experimental studies do not reflect the full spectrum of species grown in coconut-

based agroforestry practices and Tables 1 and 2 are attempts to compare systems on which

comparative data are available. The results, therefore, can be generalized only within the

limits of the data presented. The studies depicted in Table 1, nevertheless, indicate that the

overall influence of interplanting a wide range of dicot trees including timber trees on

coconut yield may be complementary (+) or neutral (0)—depending on the nature and

planting density of the dicot tree components. Implicit in this is that coconut productivity

may not be adversely affected by planting other woody perennials in the interspaces of

coconut palms for a considerable part of their life cycle.

However, competitive (–) interactions, both for above- and below-ground resource

capture, are probable in such multi-strata systems, especially when the dicot tree canopy

shades the palms either partially or completely or when the roots systems overlap (Kumar et

al., 1999). The age at which competitive interactions begin also may vary with the initial

stocking and growth rates of individual trees (Kumar et al., 2001a). Apparently, all

intercropping studies reported in Table 1, were designed to impose minimal risks on coconut

yield and the size-density combination of the dicot tree components have been maintained

typically below that which coconut palms can tolerate and increase income generation and

land use efficiency. Conversely, in situations where shading the principal crop is a concern

(e.g., multistrata systems), pruning and thinning of the associated dicot trees are viable tree

management options to limit competition and encourage temporal complementarity in

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resource use.

Performance of intercrops

In a recent paper, Kumar (2006b) summarised the research concerning understorey

productivity of herbaceous crops in agroforestry mixtures. While species such as ginger

(Zingiber officinale), Kaempferia galanga, and upland rice (Oryza sativa) generally showed

higher productivity in agroforestry combinations (over sole crops), fodder plants and many

other grain crops showed relatively lower yields. That is, of the 67 cases, 16 showed positive

effects, 12 depicted neutral effects, and another 39 illustrated negative trends. The relative

superiority is probably dependent on species/circumstances, and is not amenable to sweeping

generalizations; i.e., the effect may be positive, negative, or neutral. In general, a wide range

of understorey crops in coconut plantations provide yields equal to or greater than that of the

open as the understorey photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) levels are sufficient for

the production of certain field corps even under a multistrata coconut+dicot tree production

system (e.g., Kumar et al., 2005). Yield reductions, however, may occur when shade

intolerant crops [e.g., many fodder species, cereals, and legumes such as soybean (Glycine

max)] are grown in association with tree species especially after canopy closure.

Likewise, differences in growth and productivity of woody perennial intercrops are

probable, which mirror the genetic differences and variations in shade tolerance. Kumar and

Kumar (2002) tested the hypothesis that growth of interplanted dicot trees under mixed

species system is lower than that of monospecific stands. Comparisons of Ailanthus triphysa

growth between monospecific and coconut-based mixed species systems, however, showed

higher mean annual height and basal stem diameter increments for the mixed stand. Faster

growth rates observed under mixed species production systems was explained based on

micro-environmental changes characteristic of intercropping situations, which favoured

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ailanthus growth. That is, given the micro-environmental modifications associated with

intercropping, incidence of two major insect pests of ailanthus (Atteva fabriciella;

Lepidoptera - Yponameutidae and Eligma narcissus; Lepidoptera - Noctuidae) was reduced.

Higher pest incidence under monospecific situations can be explained based on the higher

probability of adult insects bumping into a potential target tree in a solid stand, than in mixed

species stand. Jactel et al. (2005) evaluating the insect pest incidence in single-species vs.

mixed forest plantations found three probable factors that predispose mixed stands, and by

extension similar agroecosystems, less prone to insect attack. First, the physical or chemical

barriers provided by other associated plant species that could reduce access of herbivores to

the large concentration of food resources. Second, the abundance or diversity of natural

enemies often observed in mixed plantations can result in biological control of pest insects.

The third explanation is the potential of a diversion process, i.e., the disruption effect on pest

insects resulting from the presence in the same stand of another more palatable host tree

species.

Pest and disease incidence of coconut palms in agroforestry

Favourable effects as described in the previous paragraph (e.g., relatively lower pest

incidence on inter-planted ailanthus compared to monospecific stands) are probable for the

main crop (coconut) also, especially for the root (wilt) affected palms of Kerala. Consistent

with this, Maheswarappa et al. (2003) reported that high-density multi-species gardens

exerted a positive impact on system productivity of root (wilt) affected gardens. The

interplanted trees also may act as barriers to movement of insects, mask the odours emitted

by other components of the system, and shelter natural enemies. However, clear

experimental evidences on such interactions are rare, despite the fact that the relevance of

pest and disease interactions with agroforestry measures has been recognized for long (Rao et
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al., 2000; Schroth et al., 2000). Agroforestry also may increase pests if trees in the system

increase and extend food availability to insects by serving as alternate hosts (‘resource

concentration hypothesis’). Interactions among component species of a system also may alter

the physiological status of one or more species, making them either vulnerable to or robust

against insect attack (‘host plant physiology hypothesis’; Rao et al., 2000).

Belowground interactions

Root systems of different components in integrated coconut+dicot tree production

systems may overlap with implications on productivity (negative by deduction). In

particular, asymmetric competition (resource acquisition at differential rates) and thereby

resource pre-emption by the dominant component of a competing mixture is a crucial

concern. However, only few studies have explicitly addressed aspects such as belowground

competition of woody perennials in coconut-based mixed species systems at different stages

of stand development and/or under differing resource levels (Gowda and Kumar, 2007).

Managing competitive interactions and regenerating fertility of the degraded sites, therefore,

assume special significance. This can be accomplished through proper pruning and thinning

of the inter planted woody perennial components. Spatial isolation of the interplanted tree

root systems can be achieved through periodic trenching, which reduces competition for

below ground resources in mixed species systems involving woody perennials.

Higher root-length density associated with species mixtures also may reduce nutrient

leaching and facilitate recycling of subsoil nutrients. In certain cases, the proximity of trees

to one another determines the magnitude of subsoil-nutrient recovery. For example, Kumar
32
and Divakara (2001) found that in bamboo-based multi-strata systems in Kerala, India, P

uptake from the subsoil was greater when the bamboo clumps (Bambusa arundinacea) and

dicot trees (Tectona grandis and Vateria indica) were close to one another. By extension, in
6
managed multistrata systems where the tree components are closely integrated, there is a

substantial potential for “capturing” the lower leaching nutrients. On-site nutrient

conservation also may be realized through the interlocking root systems (root grafts and/or

mycorrhizal connections), which essentially act as multipliers of the “root systems’ reach.”

In addition, horizontal transfer/sharing of nutrient ions between the rhizospheres of the

neighbouring plants is probable. That is, the tree roots may release, leach out, and/or exude

mineral and organic materials into the rhizosphere of neighbouring plants, provided they

interact with one another (Kumar et al., 1999).

Soil attributes

Complementary effects of interplanted trees on coconut yield are generally explained

based on improvements in soil organic matter status and nutrient/water availability (Table 2).

Indeed, a number of authors have reported improved soil organic matter status and moisture

relations in coconut+dicot tree mixtures. For example, soil moisture retention was better in

the cacao+coconut intercrop systems than in the cacao+G. sepium system (Osei-Bonsu et al.,

2002). Low organic matter inputs into the soil and the consequent decline in mineralization

of organic nutrients is generally a problem in monospecific stands. Furthermore, because of

global warming and the resultant accelerated soil organic matter (SOM) oxidation,

degradation of these nutrient-poor tropical soils will be faster; however, such problems are

seldom manifested in multistrata production systems. Consequently, nut yield, which was

initially low on a poor site, increased following inter planting of dicot trees in coconut

plantations (Kumar and Kumar, 2002). Improvements in soil quality attributes (Table 2) can

be explained based on the dynamics of litter production and decomposition, which plays a

fundamental role in maintaining higher soil organic matter and water relations in such

systems (Kumar, 2007).

Although leguminous cover crops are widely used in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), oil
7
palm (Elaeis guineensis), and cacao (Theobroma cacao) plantations of the tropics (Nair,

1989), use of woody legumes as a source of N 2 nourishment to coconut plantations has been

scarce (Kumar et al., 1998; Arachchi and Liyanage, 1998; 2003; Srinivasan, 2006). These

authors have reported favourable influence of N 2 fixing trees on other coconut palm and other

intercropped species. The implicit assumption in such studies is that the N 2 fixing tree

species may improve the environment (facilitative production principle) and/or

complementary resource use.

Conclusions

As a rule, dicot tree intercropping in coconut-based production systems in the tropics would

only be acceptable, if coconut yields were little affected and that the inter planted trees form a

valuable system component. Available evidences indicate that most of the dicot trees

evaluated exert either a complementary or a neutral effect. This pattern of resource use

observed in many experimental studies, however, may change with the development of larger

crowns and emergence of the trees above the palms; belowground interactions are also

important. Intercrops should be chosen considering the understorey light availability, their

relative shade tolerance and/or competitive/complementary interactions. Typically, shade

tolerant species/varieties with N2 fixing ability are suited for such situations. Pruning is a

viable management option to limit competition and encourage temporal complementarity in

resource use. Spatial isolation of the MPT root systems can be accomplished through

trenching, which reduces competition for below ground resources in mixed species systems

involving woody perennials.

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