05 Rigid Body Advanced

Rigid Body: Advanced
ide
Sk Jahiruddin*
gu *Assistant Professor
Sister Nibedita Govt. College, Kolkata
ics
Author was the topper of IIT Bombay M.Sc Physics 2009-2011 batch
He ranked 007 in IIT JAM 2009 and 008 (JRF) in CSIR NET June 2011
He has been teaching CSIR NET aspirants since 2012

ys
Ph
1
©Sk Jahiruddin, 2020 Rigid Body: Advanced
Contents
1 Introduction 4
ide
1.1 Velocity and Acceleration in Rotating Frame . 5
1.2 Coriolis and Centrifugal forces . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1
gu
2 Moment of Inertia Tensor
MOI Tensor and Principle axis . . . . . . . . .

16
21
ics
3 Angular Momentum of Rigid Body 26
3.1 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ys
3.2 Different expressions of Rotational Kinetic En-

ergy of Rigid body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Ph
4 General motion of Rigid body 32
4.1 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Euler’s angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
jahir@physicsguide.in 2 Physicsguide
4.3 Angular velocity in terms of Euler’s angles . . 37
4.4 Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
ide
4.5 Force free motion of symmetric top . . . . . . 40
4.6 MOI ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
gu
ics
ys
Ph
1 Introduction
Rigid bodies, defined to be a collection of N points constrained
ide
so that the distance between the points is fixed. i.e
|ri − rj | = Constant (1.1)
for all i, j = 1, . . . , N. A simple example is a dumbbell (two
gu
masses connected by a light rod), or the pyramid drawn in
the figure. In both cases, the distances between the masses is
fixed.
ics
ys
Ph
Often we will work with continuous, rather than discrete,

P R
bodies simply by replacing i mi → drρ(r) where ρ(r) is
the density of the object. A rigid body has six degrees of
freedom
3 Translation + 3 Rotation
ide
1.1 Velocity and Acceleration in Rotating
Frame
gu
Any external coordinate system which is fixed in space is
called space fixed axis as shown in OXYZ axis in the fig-
ure. It is convenient to define a second set of axes which is
fixed with the body, i.e. it moves or rotates with the body.
ics
We denote this set of axes by Cxyz where C is the origin of
this body-fixed” system of coordinates. Frequently (but not
necessarily) C is chosen to be the centre of mass of the body
ys
Ph
Let us consider the situation where Cxyz axes rotate about

the OZ axis where the points O and C coincide. Our interest
will be to find the relationship between dynamical quantities
in the rotating frame of reference with those in the fixed frame.
ide
Let us consider what happens to a vector when it is rotated
about a fixed axis by an angle δϕ with an angular velocity Ω ~
.
gu
ics
ys
Under rotation let the vector

→
−
Ph
~r → ~r0 = ~r + δr (1.2)
→
− ~ and ~r
Clearly, δr is perpendicular to the plane containing Ω
and its magnitude is

→
− δϕ
| δr| = 2r sin ≈ rδϕ (1.3)
2
→
−
Thus, if we fix the direction of δr by the cross product, we
have,
→
− −
→
δr = δϕ × ~r (1.4)
ide
where δ ϕ
~ = δϕΩ. ~ Note that while the unit vectors of the Cxyz
system î, ĵ, k̂ do not change in the body fixed frame but they
change in the space fixed frame. For instance,
Thus we get
gu !
−
→
δ î = δϕ × î (1.5)
ics
dî d~
ϕ ~ × î
= × î = Ω (1.6)
dt dt
fixed
What we want to do is to relate the derivatives of a vector

~ in the fixed frame with the derivative of the same quantity
A
ys
with respect to the rotating frame.
Note that a vector is the same in both the frames though

Ph
its representation may differ from frame to frame. Consider a

vector A~ as seen from a rotating frame. Its derivative in the
rotating frame can be wrtten as
!
~
dA dAx dAy dAz
= î + ĵ + k̂ (1.7)
dt dt dt dt
rot
The derivative, as seen from the fixed frame is the sum of this
with a term which arises because the unit vectors themselves
change with time. Denoting î, ĵ, k̂ by x̂i with i = 1, 2, 3, we
have,
ide
!
~
dA X dAi X dx̂i
= x̂i + Ai
dt i
dt i
dt
fixed
gu =
=
~
dA
dt
~
dA
!
!rot
+
X
~
+Ω×
i
X
~
Ai Ω × x̂i
Ai x̂i

(1.8)
ics
dt i
!rot
~
dA
= +Ω~ ×A ~
dt
rot
ys
~ itself is frame independent.

Note that Ω
This equation holds for any vector. It is most easily re-

Ph
membered as an operator. The rule is

d d
= +Ω×− (1.9)
dt fixed dt rot
1.2 Coriolis and Centrifugal forces
Applying (1.9) on a position vector r, we get
ide

dr dr
= +Ω×r (1.10)
dt fixed dt rot
or
vfixed = vrot + Ω × r (1.11)
dvfixed
dt
gu
Now applying (1.9) on velocity vector vf ixed , we get

fixed
=

dvfixed
dt

rot
+ Ω × vin
ics

d
= (vrot + Ω × r) + Ω × (vrot + Ω × r)
dt rot

dvrot dr
== +Ω× + Ω × (vrot + Ω × r
dt rot dt rot
ys

dvrot
= + 2Ω × vrot + Ω × (Ω × r)
dt rot
(1.12)
Ph
Expressing this in terms of the accelerations a fixed and a rot ,

we have
afixed = arot + 2Ω × vrot + Ω × (Ω × r) (1.13)
The acceleration viewed in the rotating system is
arot = afixed − 2Ω × vrot − Ω × (Ω × r) (1.14)
As viewed in a rotating coordinate system, the equation of

motion for mass m is
Frot = marot (1.15)
ide
From (1.14)
Frot = mafixed − 2mΩ × vrot − mΩ × (Ω × r) (1.16)
gu
Which we write as
Frot = F + F Coriolis + F centrifugal

= F + F fict
(1.17)
ics
where
Fcentrifugal = −mΩ × (Ω × r)
(1.18)
F Coriolis = −2mΩ × vrot
ys
are the fictious forces.

Ph
Example 1.1: Effective gravity on the earth’s sur-

face Consider a person standing on the surface of the
earth at a latitude λ, as shown in the figure. The cen-
ide
trifugal force is −mΩ~ × (Ω
~ × ~r).Ω
~ × ~r has a magnitude
Rω cos λ and is directed tangentially along the latitude
circle which has a radius of R cos λ.
gu
ics
ys
The centrifugal term is directed away from the rotation

Ph
axis of the earth and has a magnitude mRΩ2 cos λ . The

force of gravity is directed towards the centre of the earth.
Because of the centrifugal correction, the effective gravity is
slightly towards south in the northern hemisphere. By taking
the component of the centrifugal acceleration along the true
gravitational force direction, it can be seen that the accelera-
tion due to gravity gets reduced by an amount mω 2 R cos2 λ .

At the equator the centrifugal term is directly opposite to the
direction of m~g and it reduces the acceleration due to gravity
by about 0.3% . Note that at any other latitude there is a
ide
horizontal component of the centrifugal force with the mag-
nitude mω 2 R cos λ sin λ . As a result of this a plumb-line at
these places will not point towards true vertical but will de-
viate from it towards south in the northern hemisphere and
gu
towards north in the southern hemisphere.
ics
ys
Ph
Example 1.2: Person walking on the surface of a

rotating turn table
ide
gu
ics
A person attempts to walk on the surface of a rotat-
ing turn table moving from its edge towards the centre.
The turn table is rotating anticlockwise with an angular
speed ω when viewed from above. He will experience
ys
a Coriolis force F~c = −2m~ω × ~v , directed towards his

right. In order to be able to walk straight, he will have
to counter this with a frictional force of equal magnitude
Ph
to his left. How does this force arise?

~ ~ is the an-
The torque acting on the person is ddtL . where L
gular momentum of the person having a magnitude mr2 ω, ω
being the angular velocity of the person as viewed from the
laboratory frame which is equal to the angular speed of the
turn table. Since the person is moving towards the centre,

d~r
dt = −~v . Thus
dL dω
= −2mrωv + mr2
ide
dt dt
= −2mrωv
where we have assumed ω to be constant. Thus the torque

acting on the person is r times (−2mωv), the last expression
gu
being the tangential friction that is applied by the turn table
on the man. In case the man chooses not to apply frictional
force, in the rotating frame he will experience a tangential ac-
celeration 2ωv because of the Coriolis force. In the lab. frame
ics
too, this acceleration will be there since the two frames are
connected by angular velocity of the turn table which is in the
vertical direction. The reason for the tangential acceleration
ys
in the lab frame is that as there is no horizontal force acting

on the man, the angular momentum is conserved. In order
to keep the angular momentum conserved as the man tries
Ph
to decrease his distance from the centre of the turn table, he

will need to have a tangential acceleration which increases his
tangential speed
Example 1.3: Eastward deflection of a falling

body: An effect of the Coriolis force is that all bodies
which are dropped from a height are deflected eastward
ide
(in both hemispheres). To understand this consider a
body dropped from certain height at a latitude λ. We
take the outward (true) vertical at the place to be the
direction of the z-axis of the rotating coordinate system.
The direction towards north is taken as the x axis and
gu
the westward direction is the y-axis.
ics
ys
Ph
Now the angular velocity is

ω
~ = ω cos λx̂ + ω sin λẑ
since the deflection is small, we take the velocity ~v ≈ −gtẑ.
We then have,
−2~ω × ~v = −2ωgt cos λŷ
ide
Thus the Coriolis acceleration is towards east and is time de-
pendent. It is straightforward to integrate it and obtain east-
ward deflection d. The eastward speed varies with time as
follows: Z t
gu v(t) =
0
= 2ωg cos λ
The eastward deflection is given by

a(t)dt
Z
0
t
tdt = ωg cos λt2
ics
Z t Z √2h/g
d= v(t)dt = ωg cos λ t2 dt
0 0
3/2
(2h/g)
ys
= ωg cos λ
3
The deflection calculated by this formula is small but is mea-
surable being about 15 mm when dropped from a height of
Ph
100 m
2 Moment of Inertia Tensor

Let us return to the discussion of rigid body. Once again we
look at the body fixed and space fixed frames shown below (we
have used a slightly different notation here in that the vectors

with respect to the body fixed frames are written without the
primes)
ide
gu
ics
ys
Ph
We had seen that the velocity of a particle in the fixed frame ~v

velocity as observed from the body fixed frame is given by
~vf = V~ + Ω
~ × ~r (2.1)
~ is the angular velocity of the body about the instan-
Here Ω
taneous axis of rotation passing through the origin C of the
body-fixed system, which itself moves with a velocity V~ with

respect to the origin O of the space fixed system. Let us
obtain an expression for the kinetic energy of the body with
respect to the inertial frame.
ide
Using (2.1) we have, if ~vi represents the velocity of the i−
th particle with respect to the inertial frame,
X1 X1 h i2
Tf = 2
mi vi = ~ ~
mi V + Ω × ~ri
2 2
gu i
where ~ri is the position of the i− th particle in the body-fixed

frame. note that V~ = (Vx , Vy , Vz ) which is the velocity of C
with respect to O does not depend on the index i Further
ics
~ = (Ωx , Ωy , Ωz ) is also independent of i . Using
Ω
~ × ~r)2 = Ω2 r2 − (Ω
(Ω ~ · ~r)2
we get
ys
1 2 1 X ~ 2 X
~

~

Tf = M V + mi Ω × ~ri + mi V · Ω × ~ri
2 2 i i
2 X
1 2 1 X
2 2

~ ~

~

= MV + mi Ω ri − Ω · ~ri + mi Ω · ~ri × V
Ph
2 2 i i
(2.2)
P
where M = i mi . Note that
2
Ωi · ~ri = (Ωx xi + Ωy yi + Ωz zi )2
~
= Ω2x x2i + Ω2y yi2 + Ωz zi2 + 2Ωx Ωy xi yi + 2Ωy Ωz yi zi + 2Ωz Ω

(2.3)
Further ri2 = x2i + yi2 + zi2 . Substituting these in (2.2) we get

1 1X 2 2
Tf = M V 2 + mi Ωx ri − x2i + Ω2y ri2 − yi2 + Ω2z ri2 − zi2

2 2 i
ide
X X
− mi [Ωx Ωy xi yi + Ωy Ωz yi zi + Ωz Ωx zi xi ] + ~
mi Ω · ~ri ×
i i
P (2.4)
~ ( mi~ri ) × V~ .
Now the last term of (2.4) can be written as Ω· i
If we make C coincide with the centre of mass of the body, the
P
gu
term i mi~ri = 0, being M times the location of the position
of the centre of mass with resoect to the centre of mass itself.
The last term of (2.4) is therefore dropped.
ics
We define moments of inertia by
X X
mi ri2 − x2i = mi yi2 + zi2

Ixx =
ys
i i
X X
mi ri2 yi2 mi zi2 + x2i

Iyy = − =
i i
X X
mi ri2 − zi = 2
mi x2i + yi2

Izz =
Ph
i i
and the products of inertia by

X
Ixy = − mi xi yi = Iyx
i
X
ide
Iyz = − mi yi zi = Izy
i
X
Izx = − mi zi xi = Ixz
i
More compactly, we call these as components of a second rank
Iαβ = gu
Intertia Tensor whose matrix elements are given by
X
mi ri2 δαβ − riα riβ
Zi

ics
dd rρ(~r) r2 δα,β − rα rβ

= (for a continuous body)
(2.5)
In the last formula dd r is a differential volume element in d
dimensions. so that the matrix representation can be written
ys
in three dimension as
 
Ixx Ixy Ixz
I =  Iyx Iyy Iyz  (2.6)
Ph
 
Izx Izy Izz

The unit vector representing a given coordinate direction is
given by  
cos α
n̂ =  cos β  (2.7)
 
cos γ
with cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1. The moment of inertia about

a given direction n̂ can be written as
↔
In = nT I n (2.8)
ide
where the double headed arrow over I has been used to rep-
resent a tensor, which is briefly introduced below.
2.1
gu
MOI Tensor and Principle axis
A tensor is a generalization of a vector. Just as a vector
consists of 3 quantities, which under rotation of coordinate
ics
system transform in a way that each new component is ex-
pressible as a linear combination of the three old components,
under rotation, the components of a tensor get expressed as
linear combination of 9 components. A tensor of n th rank
ys
has 3n components. A symmetric second rank tensor has only

6 independent components. A cross product of two vectors
can be regarded as giving rise to an antisymmetric tensor of
Ph
rank 2. One can form a vector by multiplying a tensor with

a vector X
bα = Tαβ aβ
β
By pre-multiplying with a row vector, we can get a scalar.

Thus at T b is a scalar where a and b are column vectors. since
T is represented by a 3 × 3 matrix, the eigen vectors of T are
expressible as a 3×1 column vector. Thus one can diagonalize

T in a basis which defines three orthogonal spatial directions.
Doing so would make the kinetic energy to be given by
ide
1X
Trot = Ii Ω2i (2.9)
2
where Ii are called the Principal Moments of Inertia and the
basis in which it is diagonalized are special directions within
gu
the rigid body known as the Principal Axes. The principal
axes are a set of three directions in which the momentum of
inertia tensor is diagonal. In a coordinate system whose axes
are aligned with the principal axes, quantities such as the
ics
angular momentum, the kinetic energy etc. take particularly
simple form.
Let n̂ be a unit vector about which the rigid body rotates.
Let the direction cosines of n̂ relative to the principal axes be
ys
(cos α, cos β, cos γ). The moment of inertia of the rigid body
about this axis is
Ph
I = nT In = I1 cos2 α + I2 cos2 β + I3 cos2 γ (2.10)
where we have used the fact that the moment of inertia tensor
is diagonal in the principal axes. We know that the angular
velocity vector ω
~ points in the same direction as the axes of
rotation. Thus
  
I1 0 0 ω1
↔
~ = I ·~ω = 
L  0 I2 0   ω2 
 
ide
0 0 I3 ω3
  (2.11)
I1 ω1
=  I2 ω2 
 
I3 ω3
gu
If ê1 , ê2 , ê3 be unit vectors along the principal axes, then
~ =
L
i
X
ei Ii ωi (2.12)
ics
Similarly, the kinetic energy of rotation about the axis can be
written as
1 ↔ 1
Trot = ω T I ω = I1 ω12 + I2 ω22 + I3 ω32

(2.13)
2 2
ys
Suppose you have MOI tensor

 
a b c
Ph
I=d e f 
 
g h i
If you diagonalise it you get

 
λ1 0 0
0
I =  0 λ2 0 
 
0 0 λ3
These λ1 , λ2 , λ3 are called principle moment of inertia. And

the corresponding eigenvectors represent the principal axis.
Well suppose you get the eigenvectors, (1, 1, 0), (1, −1, 0) and
(0, 0, 1). What does it mean? it means if you write the eigen-
ide
vectors in columns after normalization like.
 1 1 
√
2
√
2
0
 √1
 2 − √12 0 

gu 0 0 1
Then this matrix represent the orthogonal transformation

matrix (may it be a rotation, or reflection ar combination
ics
of both )whose columns represents the direction of principle
axis. So for this problem the principle axes are √12 (1, 1, 0),
√1 (1, −1, 0), (0, 0, 1)
2
ys
Read Orthogonal Similarity transformation from M. L. Boas

and Riley Hobson Bence
Ph
Example 2.4: Three equal point masses m are located

at (a, 0, 0), (0, a, 2a), and (0, 2a, a). Find the principal
moments of inertia about the origin and a set of prin-
cipal axes.
Solution: By using the formulas for various components
of inertia tensor, one can easily calculate it to be

 
10ma2 0 0
I= 0 6ma2 −4ma2  (2.14)
 
ide
0 −4ma2 6ma2
on setting up the characteristic polynomial
det(I − λ1) = 0
leads to eigenvalues λ = 2ma2 , 10ma2 , 10ma2 , last two of
gu
which are degenerate. You can show that the corresponding
eigenvectors are
   
0 1

0

ics
1     1 
√  1  ,  0  , and √  1 

2 2
1 0 −1
leading to principle axes directions û1 = √1 (ĵ + k̂), û2 = î,

2
ys
and û3 = √1 (ĵ − k̂)

2
Example 2.5: The moment

 of inertia
 tensor of a rigid
8 0 −4
Ph
body is given by I =  0 4 0 . The magnitude

 
−4 0 8
√
of the moment of inertia about an axis n̂ = is ( 2 , 23 , 0)
1
[GATE 2008]
(a) 6 (b) 5 (c) 2 (d) 83
Solution: If you are given a MOI matrix and any direction

n̂ and asked to evaluate the MOI about the axis, you need to
apply the formula
I = n̂T I˜n̂
ide
So the ans for this prob is
  
1
√ 8 0 −4 2
  √3 

1 3
I = 2 2 0  0 4 0  2  = 5

gu −4 0 8 0
Do the multiplication yourself and get the ans I = 5

ics
3 Angular Momentum of Rigid Body
3.1 Angular Momentum

ys
The angular momentum of the rigid body about the inertial

axis can be expressed as
Ph
ide
gu
ics
ys
X
~f =
L mi~ri0 × ~vi0
i
X
= mi ~ ~
R + ~ri × V + Ω × ~ri
Ph
i
!
X X X X
= ~ × V~ + R
mi R ~× ~ ×
Ω mi ri + mi~ri × V~ + m
i i
(3.1)
In the above, the primed quantities are with respect to the
inertial frame and the unprimed quantities are with respect
to the body-fixed frame. If we choose C to be the centre of
mass of the
P body, the second and the third terms drop out
i mi~
ri
because is the location of the centre of mass of the
M
body with respect to the centre of mass itself. We are then
ide
left with
X X
~f =
L ~ × V~ +
mi R Mi~ri × (Ω × ~ri )
i
X
~ cm × V~ +
= MR mi ~
ri2 Ω ~
− ~ri ~ri · Ω (3.2)
gu ~ cm × V~ + I ·Ω
= MR ~
↔
i
The last relationship may be obtained by realizing that I

↔
ics
P
being a tensor of rank two, Iαβ Ωβ is α component of a
vector. Ignoring the first term which represents the angular
momentum of the centre of mass about the fixed origin, we
have, suppressing the suffix f for fixed frame.
ys
 
X X
Lα = mi ri2 Ωα − ri,α ri,β Ωβ 
Ph
i β (3.3)
X X
ri2 δα,β − riα riβ Ωβ

= mi
i β
The first term on the right is clearly the angular momentum

of the centre of mass about the fixed origin while the second
term is the angular momentum of the body about an axis
passing through C. In matrix form

  
Ixx Ixy Ixz Ωx
↔
~ =  Iyx Iyy Iyz   Ωy 
I ·Ω
  
(3.4)
ide

Izx Izy Izz Ωz
~ is not necessarily parallel to the Ω

This also shows that L
axis.
Example 3.6: A rigid body consists of three point
gu
masses of 2kg, 1kg, and 4kg, connected by massless
rods. These masses are located at coordinates (1, −1, 1),
(2, 0, 2) and (−1, 1, 0) in meters, respectively. Compute
ics
the inertia tensor of this system. What is the angular
momentum vector of this body, if it is rotating with an
angular velocity ω = 3î − 2ĵ + 4k̂ ?
ys
Solution: We calculate the components of MOI

Ixx = i mi yi2 + zi2 = 2(1 + 1) + 1(0 + 4) + 4(1 + 0) = 12
P
Ph
P
Ixy = − i mi xi yi = −2(−1) − 1(0) − 4(−1) = 6 = Iyx
P
Ixz = − i mi xi zi = −2(1) − 1(4) − 4(0) = −6 = Izx
P
Iyy = i mi yi zi = −2(2) + 1(8) + 4(1) = 16
P
Iyz = − i mi yi zi = −2(−1) − 1(0) − 4(0) = 2 = Izy

Izz = i mi x2i + yi2 = 2(2) + 1(4) + 4(2) = 16
P
So write I  
12 6 −6
I =  6 16 2 
 
−6 2 16
ide
Given angular velocity can be expressed as
 
3
ω =  −2 
 
gu
We know that, in the matrix
Lx
 
 Ly  =  Iyx
  
Ixx
form, one can
Ixy Ixz

Iyy Iyz  

write
ωx

ωy 

ics
Lz Izx Izy Izz ωz
Thus, for this case
      
Lx 12 6 −6 3 0
ys
 Ly  =  6 16 2   −2  =  −6 
      
Lz −6 2 16 4 42
or
Ph
L = −6ĵ + 42k̂
3.2 Different expressions of Rotational Ki-

netic Energy of Rigid body
Now we consider the rotational KE only. We can get two
useful expressions.
1.
1X
Krot = mi ṙ02
i (3.5)
2 i
as
ide
ṙ0i = ω × r0i
we get
1X
Krot = mi ṙ0i · (ω × r0i )
2 i
gu 1
= ω·
2
1
= ω·
2
X
i
X
(r0i × mi ṙ0i )
(r0i × p0i )
(3.6)
ics
i
1
= ω·L
2
2. If we align our coordinate axes with the principal axes
of the rigid body, the inertia tensor becomes diagonal, and we
ys
obtain
L = I1 ω1 î + I2 ω2 ĵ + I3 ω3 k̂ = L1 î + L2 ĵ + L3 k̂ (3.7)
Ph
So as
ω = ω1 î + ω2 ĵ + ω3 k̂
L1 L2 L3 (3.8)
= î + ĵ + k̂
I1 I2 I3
Substituting last two equations in the expression of KE

1 L1 L2 L3
Krot = î + ĵ + k̂ · L1 î + L2 ĵ + L3 k̂,
2 I1 I2 I3
(3.9)
ide
L21 L22 L23
= + +
2I1 2I2 2I3
4 General motion of Rigid body
4.1
guRotation
2-dimensional rotation is specified by a 2 × 2 matrix
ics
ys
Ph
! ! ! ! !
0 0 0
x cos θ sin θ x i ·i i ·j x
= ==
y0 − sin θ cos θ y j0 · i j 0 · j y
(4.1)
What happens in 3D rotation?
Position vector r is represented in x − y − z and x0 − y 0 − z 0

as
ide
r = xi + yj + zk = x0 i0 + y 0 j0 + z 0 k0 (4.2)
Look at the figure
gu
ics
ys
Use angles θij between two axes
x0 = r · i0 = xi · i0 + yj · i0 + zk · i0
Ph
= cos θ11 x + cos θ12 y + cos θ13 z

y 0 = cos θ21 x + cos θ22 y + cos θ23 z
z 0 = cos θ31 x + cos θ32 y + cos θ33 z
Writing as a matrix equation

    
x0 cos θ11 cos θ12 cos θ13 x
 0  
 y  =  cos θ21 cos θ22 cos θ23   y  (4.3)
 
ide
z0 cos θ31 cos θ32 cos θ33 z
We transform the names of the axes as
(x, y, z) → (x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) → (x01 , x02 , x03 ) (4.4)
gu
So the rotation can now be expressed as
0
xi =
X
cos θij xj =
j
X
aij xj = aij xj
j
(4.5)
ics
Where we have used Einstein convention: Implicit summation
over repeated index.
So We got 9 parameters aij to describe a 3 − d rotation,
ys
among which Only 3 are independent. Why? The reason is

Rotation cannot change the length of any vector, so
r2 = xi xi = x0i x0i (4.6)

Ph
Using the transformation matrix we get
x0i = aij xj → x0i x0i = aij xj aik xk
Hence (
1 (j = k)
aij aik = δjk ≡ (4.7)
6 k)
0 (j =
So 6 conditions reduces free parameters from 9 to 3. We write

the matrix as  
a11 a12 a13
A =  a21 a22 a23  (4.8)
 
ide
a31 a32 a33
As A keeps length invariant and have the conditions aij aik =
δjk , the matrix A is orthogonal
AT A = 1
gu
det(A) = 1 represent a rotation matrix and det(A) represent
a reflection matrix. We will limit our discussion on rotation
ics
matrix only. Now how do we choose the three parameters
in the A matrix? Euler Angles provide one such convenient
parameterisation
ys
Ph
4.2 Euler’s angle
ide
gu
ics
ys
The transformation matrices are

    
cos φ sin φ 0 1 0 0 cos ψ
D =  − sin φ cos φ 0  C =  0 cos θ sin θ  B =  − sin ψ
    
Ph
0 0 1 0 − sin θ cos θ 0
 (4.9)
cos ψ cos φ − cos θ sin φ cos ψ sin φ + cos
A = BCD =  − sin ψ cos φ − cos θ sin φ cos ψ − sin ψ sin φ + cos

sin θ sin φ − sin θ c
(4.10)
You must know that the definition of Euler angles is some-

what arbitrary. The convention may rotate around different
axes in different order and there are many conventions ex-
ist. We have taken the most used convention. The three
ide
angles ϕ, θ and ψ are known as the Euler Angles. If a coordi-
nate x0 , y 0 , z 0 is obtained from (x, y, z) by an arbitrary rotation
about an arbitrary axis passing through the origin, one can
find a unique set of (ϕ, θ, ψ) such that the coordinate of an
gu
a arbitrary point in both frames are related by this transfor-
mation. It may be mentioned that the three rotations defined
in terms of the Euler angles are independent because rotation
ics
about any of the axes cannot be obtained by combination of
rotations about the other two and each of the rotations can
be varied independently of the other two. These triad of Eu-
ler angles, therefore, is a very appropriate set of generalized
ys
coordinates.
4.3 Angular velocity in terms of Euler’s an-

Ph
gles
Euler’s Theorem: An arbitrary rotation may be expressed
as the product of 3 successive rotations about 3 (in general)
different axes.
A general rotation with angular velocity ω
~ can be consid-
ered as three successive and independent rotations, first with

an angular velocity ϕ̇ about the z axis, followed by an angular
velocity of θ̇ about the ξ 0 axis and finally an angular velocity
of ψ̇ about the z 0 axis. We can use the matrices that we de-
ide
fined to express these in terms of the unit vectors of the body
fixed frame S3 .
Consider the motion of a rigid body in an infinitesimal time
dt during which
gu (ψ, θ, φ) → (ψ + dψ, θ + dθ, φ + dφ)
From the definition of the Euler angles, the angular velocity

ics
must be of the form
ω = nz φ̇ + nξ θ̇ + nz ψ̇ (4.11)
ys
Ph
We want to express ω in x0 −y 0 −z 0 . After some calculations
we get
 
φ̇ sin ψ sin θ + θ̇ cos ψ
ω = nz φ̇ + nξ θ̇ + nz ψ̇ =  φ̇ cos ψ sin θ − θ̇ sin ψ  (4.12)
 
ide
φ̇ cos θ + ψ̇
4.4 Euler Equations

~
We have seen in equation that for any arbitrary vector A
gu dA~
dt
!
=
~
dA
dt
f
!
~
+ (~ω × A)
rot
Note that the first term on the right is calculated in the body-
ics
fixed system and ω is the angular velocity of the rigid body
about an axis in the body fixed system. Consider a rigid body
which is not subject to any external torque, we then have for
the angular momentum vector L ~
ys
! !
~
dL dL~
= +ω ~ ×L ~ =0 (4.13)
dt dt
f rot
Ph
If there are external torques acting on the system, the right

hand side of the above equation would be equal to the applied
torque. In terms of the principal moments of inertia (ignoring
the translational motion and taking C and O to coincide)
↔ X
~ = I ·~ω =
L Ii ωi (4.14)
i
Equation (4.13) can be written as

!
~
dL ~
= −~ω × L
dt
ide
rot
Taking the components, we get

~ 1 = ω3 L2 − ω2 L3
I1 ω̇1 = −(~ω × L)
= ω3 I2 ω2 − ω2 I3 ω3
gu = ω2 ω3 (I2 − I3 )
The set of equations (for free particles) is then given by

ics
I1 ω̇1 = ω2 ω3 (I2 − I3 )
I2 ω̇2 = ω3 ω1 (I3 − I1 ) (4.15)
I3 ω̇3 = ω1 ω2 (I1 − I2 )
ys
These equations are known as the Euler Equations for a free

rigid body. If there are external torques, we would need to
add to the right hand side of each of the equations above with
Ph
the respective component of the torque acting on the body.
4.5 Force free motion of symmetric top

Consider a symmetric top for which I1 = I2 = I and I3 = Is (6=
I). In this case we have, Is ω̇3 = 0 so that ω3 is constant. How-
ever, ω1 and ω2 are not constants and can be calculated from
the Euler equations. Define a constant having the dimension

of angular velocity
Is − I
Ω = ω3 (4.16)
I
ide
we have, from the first two of Euler equations (4.15)
(I2 − I3 )
ω̇1 = ω2 ω3 = −Ωω2
I3
and
gu ω̇2 = Ωω1
Take derivative of both the equations
ω̈1 = −Ωω˙2 = −Ω2 ω˙1

ics
and
ω̈2 = Ωω˙1 = −Ω2 ω˙2
ys
These two equations are of linear harmonic oscillator equa-

tions and have solutions
ω1 = ω0 cos(Ωt)
Ph
ω2 = ω0 sin(Ωt)
where ω0 is a constant. Since ω3 is constant, the total angular

p p
velocity ω = ω12 + ω22 + ω32 = ω02 + ω33 is constant. This
shows that in the inertial frame, the angular velocity vector ω
~ with an angular velocity
describes a circle of radius ω0 about L
Ω. This is known as the angular velocity of precession.
ide
gu
The precession of the spin: the direction of precession de-
ics
pends on whether the object is short and fat (I3 > I1 ) or tall
and skinny (I3 < I1 ) as shown in the following figure.
ys
Ph
Example 4.7: The Earth’s Wobble: The spin of the

earth causes it to bulge at the equator so it is no longer
a sphere but can be treated as a symmetric top. It is an
ide
oblate ellipsoid, with I3 > I1 , and is spherical to roughly
1 part in 300, meaning
I1 − I3 1
≈− (4.17)
I1 300
gu
Of course, we know the magnitude of the spin ω3 : it is
ω3 = (1 day )−1 . This information is enough to calculate the
frequency of the earth’s wobble; from (4.16) it should be
ics
1
Ωearth = day−1 (4.18)
300
ys
Ph
Recent measurements place the frequency at 435 days, with
the discrepancy between the predicted 300 days and observed

435 days due to the fact that the Earth is not a rigid body, but
is flexible because of tidal effects. Less well understood is why
these same tidal effects haven’t caused the wobble to dampen
ide
and disappear completely. There are various theories about
what keeps the wobble alive, from earthquakes to fluctuating
pressure at the bottom of the ocean.
4.6
gu
MOI ellipsoid
For any direction n̂, I = n̂T · In̂ = ni Iij nj . Now If we express
n̂ using principal axes x0 − y 0 − z 0 , then
ics
I = Ii n2i = I1 n21 + I2 n22 + I3 n23 (4.19)
Consider a vector ρ̂ = √n̂

I
ys
1 = Ii ρ2i = I1 ρ21 + I2 ρ22 + I3 ρ23 (4.20)
This is called MOI ellipsoid. Inertia ellipsoid represents the

Ph
moment of inertia of a rigid body in all directions.
ide
gu
MOI ellipsoid has many implications in the motion of rigid
body, but that is outside of the scope of the course.
ics
ys
Ph

05 Rigid Body Advanced

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

05 Rigid Body Advanced

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rigid Body: Advanced

He has been teaching CSIR NET aspirants since 2012

1.2 Coriolis and Centrifugal forces . . . . . . . . . 9

MOI Tensor and Principle axis . . . . . . . . .

3.1 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.2 Different expressions of Rotational Kinetic En-

4 General motion of Rigid body 32

4.2 Euler’s angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.3 Angular velocity in terms of Euler’s angles . . 37

4.4 Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.6 MOI ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Rigid bodies, defined to be a collection of N points constrained

|ri − rj | = Constant (1.1)

for all i, j = 1, . . . , N. A simple example is a dumbbell (two

Often we will work with continuous, rather than discrete,

Let us consider the situation where Cxyz axes rotate about

Under rotation let the vector

What we want to do is to relate the derivatives of a vector

with respect to the rotating frame.

Note that a vector is the same in both the frames though

its representation may differ from frame to frame. Consider a

~ itself is frame independent.

This equation holds for any vector. It is most easily re-

membered as an operator. The rule is

1.2 Coriolis and Centrifugal forces

Applying (1.9) on a position vector r, we get

Expressing this in terms of the accelerations a fixed and a rot ,

afixed = arot + 2Ω × vrot + Ω × (Ω × r) (1.13)

The acceleration viewed in the rotating system is

arot = afixed − 2Ω × vrot − Ω × (Ω × r) (1.14)

As viewed in a rotating coordinate system, the equation of

Frot = marot (1.15)

Frot = mafixed − 2mΩ × vrot − mΩ × (Ω × r) (1.16)

Frot = F + F Coriolis + F centrifugal

are the fictious forces.

Example 1.1: Effective gravity on the earth’s sur-

The centrifugal term is directed away from the rotation

axis of the earth and has a magnitude mRΩ2 cos λ . The

tion due to gravity gets reduced by an amount mω 2 R cos2 λ .

Example 1.2: Person walking on the surface of a

a Coriolis force F~c = −2m~ω × ~v , directed towards his

to his left. How does this force arise?

turn table. Since the person is moving towards the centre,

where we have assumed ω to be constant. Thus the torque

in the lab frame is that as there is no horizontal force acting

to decrease his distance from the centre of the turn table, he

Example 1.3: Eastward deflection of a falling

Now the angular velocity is

−2~ω × ~v = −2ωgt cos λŷ

The eastward deflection is given by

2 Moment of Inertia Tensor

have used a slightly different notation here in that the vectors

We had seen that the velocity of a particle in the fixed frame ~v

body-fixed system, which itself moves with a velocity V~ with

where ~ri is the position of the i− th particle in the body-fixed

= Ω2x x2i + Ω2y yi2 + Ωz zi2 + 2Ωx Ωy xi yi + 2Ωy Ωz yi zi + 2Ωz Ω

Further ri2 = x2i + yi2 + zi2 . Substituting these in (2.2) we get

and the products of inertia by

More compactly, we call these as components of a second rank

Izx Izy Izz

with cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1. The moment of inertia about

has 3n components. A symmetric second rank tensor has only

rank 2. One can form a vector by multiplying a tensor with

By pre-multiplying with a row vector, we can get a scalar.