Course Manual Civil Engineering Materials

TRIVUBAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
COURSE MANUAL
ON
CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
CIVIL SECOND YEAR – FIRST PART
COURSE CODE: CE 506
PREPARED BY
Er. Anil Pokhrel
(B.E., M.Sc.)
Civil Engineering Materials (Civil II-I)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 1
1. INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL 1

1.1 SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT 1
1.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL #
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL #
1.4 PROPERTIES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL #
CHAPTER 2 #
2. BUILDING STONES #
2.1 INTRODUCTION #
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES #
2.3 SELECTION AND USE OF STONE #
2.4 DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF STONE #
2.5 NATURAL BED OF STONE #
2.6 DRESSING OF STONE #
CHAPTER 3 #
3. CLAY PRODUCTS #
3.1 INTRODUCTION #
3.2 CONSTITUENTS OF BRICK EARTH #
3.3 MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS #
3.4 GOOD QUALITIES OF BRICKS #
3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS #
3.6 STANDARD TEST FOR BRICKS #
3.7 TILES AND THEIR TYPE #
3.8 EARTHENWARE AND GLAZING #
CHAPTER 4 #
4. LIME #
4.1 INTRODUCTION #
4.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF LIME #
4.3 PROPERTIES AND USES OF POZZOLANIC MATERIAL #
CHAPTER 5 #
5. CEMENT #
5.1 INTRODUCTION #
5.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT #
5.3 INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT #
5.4 MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT (FLOW DIAGRAM) #
5.5 COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION OF CEMENT CLINKER #
5.6 STANDARD TEST OF CEMENT #
5.7 CEMENT WATER PROOFERS #
5.8 ADMIXTURES #
CHAPTER 6 #
6. MORTAR #
6.1 INTRODUCTION #
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MORTAR #
6.3 FUNCTION OF MORTAR #
6.4 SELECTION OF MORTAR #
CHAPTER 7 #
7. TIMBER #
7.1 INTRODUCTION #
7.2 GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF TREE #
7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TREE #
7.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER #
7.5 DEFECT OF TIMBER #
7.6 SEASONING OF TIMBER #
7.7 DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER #
7.8 COMMERCIAL PRODUCT OF TIMBER #
CHAPTER 8 #
8. METALS AND ALLOYS #

8.1 INTRODUCTION #
8.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF IRON #
8.3 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF STEEL #
8.4 HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS #
8.5 ALLOY OF STEEL #
8.6 NON-FERROUS METALS #
8.7 COMMERCIAL PRODUCT OF METALS #
CHAPTER 9 #
9. PAINTS AND VARNISHES #

9.1 FUNCTION, INGREDIENT, TYPE AND USES OF PAINTS AND VARNISHES #
9.2 DISTEMPER #
9.3 ANTI-TERMITE TREATMENT #
CHAPTER 10 #
10. ASPHALT, BITUMEN, TAR AND MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS #

10.1 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF ASPHALT, BITUMEN AND TAR #
10.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF GLASS #
10.3 PLASTIC MATERIALS #
10.4 INSULATING MATERIALS #
10.5 GYPSUM PRODUCTS #
10.6 COMPOSITE MATERIALS #
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
1.1 SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT

In simple terms, this subject is about the science dealing with the composition and the structure of the materials as
well as how these factors are related to their properties or behavior.
The basic concern of a civil engineer is the design, construction, supervision and maintenance of different types of
structures such as buildings, bridges, canals, tube wells, water tanks, roads etc. A key element in field practice is to
deal with different types of materials. This entails drawing up detailed specifications, selecting the materials, storage,
sampling and testing, maintaining material inventories etc. Therefore, a study of these aspects of materials and their
application in construction is very important.
Engineering materials have, of course, undergone continuing evolution and have improved considerably since the
early events. In fact, the development of materials used for engineering purposes has experienced unprecedented
growth over the last few decades, and engineering materials have truly become an essential part of modern science
and technology. For example, the transportation industry (land, sea and air) is rapidly becoming more reliant on
materials that exhibit high strength and light weight. These needs are satisfied by certain combination of engineering
materials called composites, such as fiberglass and other reinforced materials. In the construction industry,
skyscrapers and vast network of highways are visible testimony to the proper utilization of modern engineering
materials.
There are certain general factors which affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme. Perhaps the most
important of these is the climatic background. Obviously, different materials and forms of construction have
developed in different parts of the world as a result of climatic differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of
the choice of materials. The rapid advance of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools
and plants, and changes in the organization of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of
materials.
To develop products of greater economic efficiency, it is important to compare the performance of similar kinds of
materials under specific service conditions. Expenditures for running an installation can be minimized by improving
the quality of construction materials and products. Construction industry economists are thus required to have a good
working knowledge, first, of the construction materials, second, of their optimum applications on the basis of their
principal properties, and, third, of their manufacturing techniques, in order that the structures and installations may
have optimum engineering, economic performance and efficiency. Having acquired adequate knowledge, an
economist specializing in construction becomes an active participant in the development of the construction industry
and the manufacture of construction materials.
1.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

Followings are the criteria for selecting construction materials:
A) Properties of materials
The most important factor affecting selection of materials for engineering purposes is the properties of the materials
in relation to their intended use.
The properties of the material define specific characteristics of the material and form a basis for predicting behavior
of the material under different conditions.
The important properties of materials are:

1. Physical properties
2. Mechanical properties
3. Thermal properties
4. Chemical properties
5. Electrical properties
6. Magnetic properties
7. Optical properties
B) Performance requirements
The material of which a part is composed must be capable of performing the part’s function without failure. For
example, a component part to be used in a furnace must be of that material which can withstand high temperatures.
C) Materials reliability
A material in a given application must also be reliable. Simply stated, reliability is the degree of probability that a
product, and the material of which it is made, will remain stable enough to function in service for the intended life
of the product without failure. A material if it corrodes under certain conditions, then, it is neither stable nor reliable
for those conditions.
D) Safety
A material must safely perform its function, otherwise, the failure of the product made out of it may be catastrophic.
E) Physical attributes
Physical attributes such as configuration, size, weight, and appearance sometimes also serve functional requirements.
F) Environmental conditions
The environment in which a product operates strongly influences service performance. Humidity, water, or chemicals
can cause corrosion and subsequent failure of materials.
G) Availability
Obviously, a material must be readily available, and available in large enough quantity, for the intended application.
In times of materials scarcity, this constraint become significant.
H) Disposability and recyclability
These are the newest of the constraints and increasingly important factors in materials selection.
I) Economic factors
Cost, perhaps more often than any other constraint, is the controlling factor in a given materials application problem.
For, in every application, there is a cost beyond which one cannot go that prescribes the limit that can be paid for a
material to meet the application requirements. If it becomes apparent that this limit will be exceeded, the design will
be changed to alter materials requirements.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Civil engineering materials are classified in various ways:
A. Based on the existence: It is classified into two types:

i) Naturally existing engineering materials e.g. stone, iron, aluminium, timber etc.
ii) Artificially made engineering materials e.g. plastic, fiberglass, cement etc.
B. Based on metallurgy: It is classified into two types:

i) Metals (a) Ferrous e.g. steel (b) Non-ferrous e.g. aluminium
ii) Non-metals e.g. timber, stone, cement, plastic etc.
C. Based on use: It is classified into three types:

i) Structural engineering materials e.g. stone, brick, cement, steel etc.
ii) Aesthetic engineering materials: these are used to exhibit beauty of the structure e.g. marble, chips,
colors, paints etc.
iii) Special need engineering materials: used for special need e.g. bathroom fittings.
D. Based on the physical and chemical characteristics: This is the most common way to classify engineering
materials. These are:
i) Metals
ii) Ceramics
iii) Polymers
iv) Composites
i) Metals
Metals are basically made of elements or groups of elements in the form of alloys. These types of engineering
materials can usually be distinguished from other categories by some of their obvious properties, such as reflectivity
of light, transmission of heat, conduction of electric current and very often, the ability to be deformed without
breaking (called malleability). Many of these elements also have the ability to mix or dissolve with each other in the
solid state, thus providing metallic alloys such as steel (a solid solution of iron and carbon). Alloys can exhibit
properties vastly different from the individual elements that constitute them, and fortunately, such properties can
usually be controlled by regulating the properties of the constituent elements.
The general properties of the metals are: malleability, ductility, hardness, toughness, opaqueness, luster,
conductivity, magnetism etc. Examples of metals are iron, steel, chromium, brass, bronze, copper, aluminium etc.
ii) Ceramics
The term ‘Ceramics’ generally means to hard, brittle objects of porcelain, china clay, glass etc. Source of the ordinary
materials of construction such as bricks, tiles and bathroom fixtures are also included in this category. In this case
we recognize ceramics as a hard, brittle material that exhibits glass like properties and break abruptly without
noticeable deformation.
The ceramic materials today are used in magnets, semiconductors, integrated circuits, high temperature engines and
rockets, nuclear fuel elements, fuel cells, high strength materials and so on.
The basic properties of ceramic materials are: brittleness, hardness, insulation, opaqueness, non-corrosiveness,
thermal resistance etc.
iii) Polymers
Polymers are the substances composed of large number of molecules joined together in chain like fashion. A
molecule is the basic repetitive chemical or structural unit of the polymer system. The majority of engineering
polymers are based on hydrocarbon molecules that consist of hydrogen and carbon atoms in various structural
arrangements.
Polymeric engineering materials consist of a large number of synthetics which are plastics in addition to many natural
polymers such as wood and rubber. Some examples of synthetics are vinyl, polyethylene, polystyrene, bitumen, tar,
PVC, glue and various types of rubber.
Nowadays, demand of engineering polymers has increased substantially. This is due to availability, economy,
convenience and technical advantages over other types of engineering materials for certain applications.
Hydrocarbon polymers, by their nature are less dense than metals or ceramics and although this may impair their
utilization in certain structural applications, it does qualify them as attractive candidates for application requiring
light weight materials. Additionally, polymers typically resist atmospheric and many other forms of corrosion,
therefore, they can eliminate many unsightly or potentially dangerous corrosion problems that would ordinarily occur
with metals.
The general properties of polymeric engineering materials are: non-corrosive, soft, ductile, insulation, malleable,
light weight and combustible.
iv) Composites
Composite engineering materials basically, are the combination of metals with ceramics or organic polymers. This
class of engineering materials illustrate that although many dissimilarities may exist between different materials,
they frequently can be utilized in conjunction to produce a material with unique properties and behavior.
Due to their unique properties and the fact that these properties may be tailored to satisfy a certain set of requirements,
composites are rapidly becoming a recognized class of engineering materials.
Composites have the advantage of having diverse characteristics such as high strength with non-corrosiveness,
strength with brittleness, compressive strength, tensile strength etc. The examples of composites are: reinforced
cement concrete (RCC), fiberglass, plastic, wired glass etc.
1.4 PROPERTIES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Properties of various materials should be known for the purpose of specifying them for particular use, classifying
them and testing them for acceptance. The properties of materials basically fall under these groups:
a) Physical properties
b) Mechanical properties (Strength)
c) Thermal properties
d) Other properties
a) Physical properties
These properties exhibit the physical status of the materials, some of which are:
1. Specific gravity: It is the ratio of the weight of material per unit volume to the weight of an equal volume of water
under standard conditions. This property is used to calculate the density and property of materials.
2. Density: It is defined as the mass of a material per unit of its volume.

3. Bulk density or unit weight: It is defined as the total weight including solids and voids of any granular material
per unit of its volume.
4. Porosity: It is the ratio of volume of voids in a material to the volume of granular material.
5. Water absorption: It is the property of material by virtue of which it absorbs water from the ambience or
surroundings when in contact. This property is important in case of stones, bricks etc.
6. Hygroscopicity: It is the property whereby a material absorbs water present in the atmosphere, as in the case of
salt, sugar etc. Timber is a hygroscopic material.
7. Permeability: It is the property whereby a material allows water to pass through its pores. It is important in the
case of soils.
8. Moisture resistance: It is the ability of a material to resist the deformative effect due to cyclic wetting and drying
by moisture. Moisture resistance becomes important when we have to deal with exposed surface materials.
9. Fire resistance: It is the ability of a material to resist fire. For example, petrol is an inflammable while others are
combustible. Timber is an example of combustible material but is not inflammable.
10. Frost resistance: It is the ability of a material to resist the action of repeated thawing and freezing of water in
the porous material. Dense, close pores are best in resisting the action of frost. However, frost resistance of porous
material can also be materialized provided the volume of moisture does not exceed by 85% of the total voids. Frost
resistance quality of building materials needs to be taken care in cold freezing places to avoid hair-like cracks.
11. Corrosion: It is the gradual destruction of a metal or alloy due to chemical processes as oxidation.
12. Durability: It is the resistance of a material to destruction by natural agencies.
13. Soundness: It is the resistance of a material to deterioration due to heat, alternate freezing and thawing etc. It is
important in case of cement, aggregate etc.
b) Mechanical properties
These refer to the properties whereby material resists various straining actions or forces. These are:
1. Strength properties: These are the abilities of engineering material to resist against any deformation being
subjected to an action of force. In structural materials, strength is of prime important factor.
a. Tensile strength: It is the maximum stress a material can withstand under a tensile load before failure.
b. Compressive strength: It is the maximum stress a material can withstand under a compressive load before failure.
a. Shear strength: It is the maximum stress at failure under a shearing load i.e. a load parallel to the cross section of
the member.
2. Elasticity: It is the property of a material by which it tends to regain its shape after the removal of the applied
load. It depends on the magnitude of the load. Some materials are not elastic even under small loads while some
others are able to withstand larger loads. The stress at the limiting point is known as elastic limit.
3. Plasticity: It is property of material by which it retains a change in shape or size after the removal of load. Plasticity
is important when the material has to be moulded in the different shapes.
4. Hardness: It is the ability of the material to resist the effect of wear and tear, indentation, scratching, cutting,
abrasion on the surface when localized force is applied. The quality of hardness becomes relevant where material
has to bear repeated abrasion.
5. Resilience: It is the ability of the material to store energy to resist shock, impact etc. In places where one needs to
have springing effect, the material must be resilient.
6. Toughness: It is the ability of a material to absorb energy due to straining actions undergoing plastic deformation.
7. Brittleness: It is the tendency of a material to shatter on receiving a shock. Brittle materials although hard in
quality, break easily under impact load or shock.
8. Ductility: It is the ability of the material to undergo large plastic deformation before actual failure. This property
allows the drawing of thin wire of a metal.
9. Fatigue: It is the form of deformation exerted by cyclically repeated stress over the material, thus reducing its
resilient quality. Fatigue stress must be taken into consideration in the materials used for gears, aeroplane body etc.
10. Creep: It is the property of a material by which it undergoes deformation with respect to time under a constant
load.
11. Malleability: It is the ability of a material to be beaten to thin sheets.
12. Abrasive resistance: It is the ability of the material to resist wearing due to contact with another surface moving
with respect to it. This is important in road surfaces, warehouse, floors etc.
13. Impact strength: It is the ability of the material to resist shock or impact load.
c) Thermal properties
These indicate the flow of heat across the material. These are important in the heating/cooling of rooms and in
designing suitable thermal insulation. These are:
1. Heat capacity: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the material
by one degree.
2. Thermal conductivity: It is the amount of heat transmitted in unit time through unit area over unit length
perpendicular to the direction of heat flow when the temperature gradient across the heat conducting unit is 10.
Thermal conductivity of a materials needs to be taken care when one has to deal with external walls, flooring, roofing,
heating system of the building, refrigeration etc. Thermal conductivity of a material depends upon:
- The density of material

- The porosity of material
- The moisture content of material
- The temperature difference between the sides of the material
- The direction of flow of heat within the material
Heat flow is faster across the grain direction than along the grain direction.
3. Thermal stability: It is the ability of a material to resist the deformation due to thermal change. In materials,
which are subjected to high temperature, thermal stability must be taken care of. Asbestos, fire clay tiles offer good
example of thermal stability.
4. Thermal resistivity: It is the opposite of thermal conductivity and is defined as the time taken for a unit of heat
to be transmitted in unit time through unit area over unit length perpendicular to the direction of heat flow when the
temperature gradient across the heat conducting unit is 10.
d) Other properties
1. Chemical properties (chemical composition, acidity, alkalinity, corrosion etc.)

2. Electrical properties (resistivity, conductivity, dielectric strength etc.)
3. Magnetic properties (permeability, hysteresis etc.)
4. Optical properties (light transmission, colour, reflectivity etc.)
CHAPTER 2 – BUILDING STONES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Stone has been defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth material which are present in
rocks. Rock may be defined as the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite shape and structure. Almost all
rocks have a definite chemical composition and are made up of minerals and organic matter. Some of the rock-
forming minerals are quartz, felspar, mica, dolomite, etc. The various types of rocks from which building stones are
usually derived are granite, basalt, trap, marble, slate, sandstone and limestone.
Use of stone in building construction is traditional in the places where it is produced, although high cost imposes
limitations on its use. The conditions which govern the selection of stone for structural purposes are cost, fashion,
ornamental value and durability.
Stone has been used in the construction of most of the important structures since prehistoric age. Some of the
examples of stone construction are: most of the forts, the Krishna Mandir of Nepal, the Taj Mahal of India, the
famous pyramids of Egypt and the great wall of China. Stone has also been extensively used in almost all the elements
of building structures, as load carrying units as well as for enhancing the beauty and elegance of the structure. As
building material stone has gradually lost importance with the emergence of cement and steel. Other major factors
overshadowing its use are the difficulties in its transportation, dressing and consumption of lot of resources during
manufacture and construction.
Even today stones are preferred as building materials in the situation of water-logged areas as foundation; stone
packing in foundation for buildings, roads or other structures to enhance soil bearing capacity and it is the main
source of aggregates for concrete. Thus, stone is an important construction material that all civil engineers should be
familiar with.
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

Followings are the characteristics of a stone:
1. Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure free from cavities, cracks or
patches of soft or loose material. The stones with such texture are strong and durable.
2. Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The various factors contributing to durability of stone are
its chemical composition, texture, resistance to atmospheric & other agencies etc.
3. Toughness index: In impact test, if the value of toughness index comes below 13, the stone is not considered
tough. If it is between 13 and 19, the stone is said to be moderately tough and if it exceeds 19, the toughness of
stone is said to be high.
4. Percentage wear: In attrition test, if wear is more than 3%, the stone is not satisfactory and if equal to 3% then
it is tolerable. For a good building stone, the wear should be equal to or less than 3%.
5. Crushing strength: For good building stone it should be greater than 100 N/mm2.
6. Hardness: The coefficient of harness, under harness test, should be greater than 17 for a stone to be used in road
works. If it is between 14 & 17 then the stone is considered as medium hardness and below 14 it is considered of
poor harness quality which is not recommended to be used for road works.
7. Appearances: For exposed face work, it should have fine, compact texture; light coloured stones are preferred
as dark colour are likely to fade with time.
8. Fracture: The fracture should be sharp, bright and clean with grains well cemented together. A dull, chalky and
earthly fracture indicates sign of early future decay.
9. Specific gravity: It should be greater than 2.7 or more for good building stone. The heavy stones are more
compact & less porous so they can be used for important load bearing structures such as dams, weirs, retaining
walls, docks, harbor etc. Whereas, lighter weight stones are preferred to be used for domes, roof covering etc.
10. Seasoning: It should be well seasoned before the use. The freshly quarry obtained stones are easy to work on
(cutting, dressing, carving etc.) due to presence of sap. The stones should be dried or seasoned before they are
used. A period of 6 to 12 months is considered to be sufficient for seasoning of stone.
11. Water absorption: For a good quality stone, percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours of soaking should
not exceed 0.60. Porous stone seriously affect durability of stones. The rain diluted with pollution is absorbed by
porous stones and reacts with different constituents which may cause disintegration of stone. Similarly, in cold
regions, the water absorbed by porous stones can crack due to volume increase on freezing.
12. Weathering: A good building stone should possess better weathering qualities. It should be capable of
withstanding adverse effects of various atmospheric and external agencies such as rain, frost, wind, local pollution
etc. The best way to know the resisting power of a stone is to study the performance of the structure in the same
areas where more or less same type of stone structures are used. The stones having excellent weathering qualities
should only be used in the construction of important structures.
2.3 SELECTION AND USE OF STONES

SELECTION OF STONE
The conditions which govern the selection of stone for structural purposes are cost, fashion, ornamental value and
durability, although the latter property is frequently overlooked or disregarded. Cost is largely influenced by
transportation charges, difficulties in quarrying and cutting, the ornamental features, and the durability of stone. The
type of dressing of stone may make a difference to the cost, particularly with the stones derived from igneous rocks.
Another factor which should be considered is the suitability of the stone for the type of design. For example, for a
highly carved design if, by mistake, a harder stone such as granite is selected the cost will be affected. Colour,
arrangement and shape of mineral constituents greatly influence fashion and ornamental value. It is important that
the designer is aware about how the colour is likely to change after long exposure and in particular how it may vary
in polluted atmospheres.
Resistance to fire and weathering—factors which are largely influenced by the mineral constitution of the rock—are
the most important determinants of durability. It is very important to select a stone according to its exposure
conditions.
Limestones, sandstones and granites all tend to crack and spall when exposed to fire, and there is really little to
choose between them in this respect.
USE OF STONE
The use primarily depends upon the factors of cost, type of element, quality, availability etc. Followings are the type
of use based on the purpose:
Foundation & wall items Facings & architectural items Building items
Road construction items Railway construction items Monumental items
Underground structures & bridges Heat & chemically resistance items
2.4 DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF STONES

DETERIORATION OF STONE
There are various natural agents such as rain, heat, etc. and chemicals which deteriorate the stones with time.
Rain
Rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones. The physical action is due to the erosive and transportation
powers and the chemical due to the decomposition, oxidation and hydration of the minerals present in the stones.
Physical Action: Alternate wetting by rain and drying by sun causes internal stresses in the stones and consequent
disintegration.
Chemical Action: In industrial areas the acidic rain water reacts with the constituents of stones leading to its
deterioration.
Frost
In cold places frost enters the pores of the stones where it freezes, expands and creates cracks.
Wind
Since wind carries dust particles, the abrasion caused by these deteriorates the stones.
Temperature Variations
Expansion and contraction due to frequent temperature changes cause stone to deteriorate especially if a rock is
composed of several minerals with different coefficients of linear expansion.
Vegetable Growth
Roots of trees and weeds that grow in the masonry joints keep the stones damp and also secrete organic and acidic
matters which cause the stones to deteriorate. Dust particles of organic or nonorganic origin may also settle on the
surface and penetrate into the pores of stones. When these come in contact with moisture or rain water,
bacteriological process starts and the resultant micro-organism producing acids attack stones which cause decay.
Mutual Decay
When different types of stones are used together mutual decay takes place. For example when sandstone is used
under limestone, the chemicals brought down from limestone by rain water to the sandstone will deteriorate it.
Chemical Agents
Smokes, fumes, acids and acid fumes present in the atmosphere deteriorate the stones. Stones containing CaCO3,
MgCO3 are affected badly.
Lichens
These destroy limestone but act as protective coats for other stones. Molluses gradually weaken and ultimately
destroy the stone by making a series of parallel vertical holes in limestones and sandstones.
PRESERVATION OF STONE
Preservation of stone is essential to prevent its decay. For this purpose, the preservatives are applied on the stone
surface. An ideal preservative has the following properties:
- It doesn’t allow moisture to penetrate the stone surfaces

- It doesn’t develop objectionable colour
- It hardens sufficiently so as to resist effects due to various atmospheric agents
- It is easily penetrated in stone surface
- It is economical
- It is non-corrosive and harmless
- It remains effective for a long time after drying
- Its application on stone surface is easy
Followings are the preservatives which are commonly used to preserve the stones:
1. Coal Tar: It is one of the preservatives but the colour produces objectionable appearance and the surface
absorbs heat from the sun. Hence this preservative is not generally adopted because it spoils the beauty of
stones.
2. Linseed Oil: This may be used as raw or boiled linseed oil. The raw doesn’t disturb the original shed of the
stone however, it requires frequent renewal, usually once in a year. Though the boiled linseed oil lasts longer,
it makes the stone surface dark.
3. Paint: The application of paint serves as a preservative. The paint changes the original colour of stone. It is
applied under pressure, if deep penetration is required.
4. Paraffin: This preservative may be used alone or it may be dissolved in naphtha and then applied on stone
surface. It changes original colour of stone.
5. Solution of alum and soap: The alum and soft soaps are taken in proportion of about 0.75N and 0.50N
respectively & they are dissolved in a liter of water. This solution is applied on stone surface as preservative.
6. Solution of Baryta: A solution of barium oxide Ba (OH2) when applied on stone surface, acts as a
preservative. It is used when the decay of stone is mainly due to calcium sulphate (CaSO4).
2.5 NATURAL BED OF STONES

It is the original bed, plane or position occupied by a stone during its formation in a sedimentary rock. The stones
should be so placed that the load line is at right angles to the natural bed. In the case of metamorphic rocks, the plane
of foliation or the plane of cleavage is assumed to be its natural bed. It is very difficult to trace the natural bed in the
case of igneous rocks and the natural bed is not given due attention. The right placement of stones with regard to the
load line for a few cases is shown below:
2.6 DRESSING OF STONES

Dressing of stones is a process in which their surfaces are prepared to a form, fit to be used for any constructional
purpose. Dressing of stones is carried out according to the type of work and demand required.
PURPOSE OF DRESSING
➢ Generally, to give them neat/good appearances

➢ To provide horizontal and vertical joints in the masonry
➢ To make them fit, to be used for particular construction
The different types of dressing of stones are:
1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface

2. Rough tooled surface
3. Tooled Surface
4. Cut stone Surface
5. Rubbed Surface
6. Polished Surface
The details of types of dressing of stones are as follows:
1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface:

This is the roughest form of surface finish. Stone as removed from the quarry has large projections which are knocked
off with the quarry hammer and it is finally broken up into blocks of suitable size and shape. The faces of the blocks
are roughly planned and the stone is rendered suitable to be used in masonry.
2. Rough tooled surface:

In this type of surface finish, the projections of the stone block are removed by means of chisels and the surface is
nearly dressed correct in size. The corners and the edges are made accurate, chisel drafted margins, the side and bed
joints roughly treated to ensure proper bonding.
3. Tooled Surface:
In this type of surface finish continuous parallel chisel marks are produced throughout the width of the stone. The
parallel corrugations or chisel marks are made at closer intervals rendering the surface truly planned. Different types
of tooled finishes are obtained by use of different chisel and marking patterns.
4. Cut stone Surface:

In this type of surface finish, the surface is dressed by using a, sharp chisel using machine so that the chisel marks
are practically imperceptible. It is considered superior to tooled surface.
5. Rubbed Surface:
This type of surface finish is obtained by grinding or rubbing a cut stone surface by hand or machine until it gets
perfectly smooth face.
6. Polished Surface:
The rubbed surfaces of granite, marble of lime stones are polished to enhance their texture. Polishing may be done
by manual labour using sand and water, pumice stone etc. or by rubbing machine.
CHAPTER 3 – CLAY PRODUCTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Clay products are one of the most important classes of structural materials. The raw materials used in their
manufacture are clay blended with quartz, sand, chamatte (refractory clay burned at 1000–1400°C and crushed),
slag, sawdust and pulverized coal. Structural clay products or building ceramics (bricks, tiles etc.) are basically
fabricated by moulding, drying and burning a clay mass.
Normally, higher the bulk specific gravity, the stronger is the clay product. This rule does not hold good for vitrified
products since the specific gravity of clay decreases as vitrification advances. Bulk specific gravity of clay brick
ranges from 1.6 to 2.5.
According to the method of manufacture and structure, bricks, tiles, pipes, terracotta, earthenwares, stonewares,
porcelain, and majolica are well recognized and employed in building construction. Clay bricks have pleasing
appearance, strength and durability whereas clay tiles used for light-weight partition walls and floors possess high
strength and resistance to fire. Clay pipes on account of their durability, strength, lightness and cheapness are
successfully used in sewers, drains and conduits.
Typical structural clay products are building brick, paving brick, terra-cotta facing tile, roofing tile, and drainage
pipe. These objects are made from commonly occurring natural materials, which are mixed with water, formed into
the desired shape, dried and fired in a kiln in order to give the clay mixture a permanent bond. Finished structural
clay products display such essential properties as load-bearing strength, resistance to wear, resistance to chemical
attack, attractive appearance, and an ability to take a decorative finish.
3.2 CONSTITUENTS OF BRICK EARTH

The earth used for brick making consists mainly of silica (sand) and alumina (clay) mixed in such a proportion that
the clay earth becomes plastic when water is added to it. It also consists of small proportions of lime, iron, manganese,
sulphur, etc. The proportions of various ingredients are as follows:
Silica 50–60%
Alumina 20–30%
Lime 10%
Magnesia < 1%
Ferric oxide < 7% Less than 20%
Alkalis < 10%
Carbon dioxide
Sulphur trioxide Very small percentage
Water
FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS
Silica
➢ Enables to retain shape, imparts durability, heat resistivity, prevents shrinkage and warping
➢ The excess amount makes the brick brittle and weak on burning
Alumina
➢ It absorbs water and renders the clay plastic
➢ If alumina is present in excess of the specified quantity, it produces cracks in brick on drying
➢ Clays having exceedingly high alumina content are likely to be very refractory
Lime
Normally constitutes less than 10 per cent of clay. Lime in brick clay has the following effects:
➢ Reduces the shrinkage on drying.
➢ Causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
➢ In carbonated form, lime lowers the fusion point.
➢ Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and the brick looses its shape.
➢ Red bricks are obtained on burning at considerably high temperature (more than 800°C) and buff-burning
bricks are made by increasing the lime content.
Magnesia
➢ It affects the colour and gives yellow tint to the bricks; decreases shrinkage and warping; causes the clay to
soften at slower rate
➢ Excess amount leads to decay
Iron oxide
➢ Gives red colour on burning when excess oxygen is available and dark brown or black colour when oxygen
is insufficient, however, excess makes the brick dark blue.
➢ Improves impermeability and durability.
➢ Tends to lower the fusion point of the clay, especially if present as ferrous oxide.
➢ Gives strength and hardness.
HARMFUL INGREDIENTS IN BRICK EARTH
➢ Lime: when in excess in the form of stone gets converted into quick lime which readily absorbs water &
swells causing cracks
➢ Alkalis (Alkaline salts): lowers the fusion point of clay & causes brick to fuse, twist & warp during burning;
absorbs moisture & becomes damp; produces efflorescence spoiling the appearance
➢ Pebbles/gravel: it does not harm chemically but reduces workability & homogeneity of brick earth & may
create cracks
➢ Iron pyrite: tend to oxidize and decompose the brick during burn; the brick may split into pieces
➢ Vegetation & organic matters: it contains carbon & when burnt converts into carbon dioxide so creates void
after burning and makes brick inferior
3.3 MANUFACTURE OF BRICK

Followings are the different stages of brick manufacturing with their details:
(A) Preparation of clay
It consists of the following operations:
(i) Un-soiling: The soil used for making building bricks should be processed so as to be free of gravel, coarse sand
(practical size more than 2 mm), lime and kankar particles, organic matter, etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of the
earth, normally containing stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, etc., is removed after clearing the trees and vegetation.
(ii) Digging: After removing the top layer of the earth, proportions of additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk
ash, stone dust, etc. should be spread over the plane ground surface on volume basis. The soil mass is then manually
excavated, puddled, watered and left over for weathering and subsequent processing. The digging operation should
be done before rains.
(iii) Cleaning: The clay, as obtained in the process of digging, should be cleaned of stones, pebbles, vegetable matters
etc. Thus, those items should be screened and the lumps of clay should be converted into small particles through
crushers.
(iv) Weathering: Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and the soil is heaped on level
ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil is left in heaps and exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where
such weathering is considered necessary for the soil. This is done to develop homogeneity in the mass of soil,
particularly if they are from different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized. The soil should
be turned over at least twice and it should be ensured that the entire soil is wet throughout the period of weathering.
In order to keep it wet, water may be sprayed as often as necessary. The plasticity and strength of the clay are
improved by exposing the clay to weather.
(v) Blending: The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in suitable proportions to modify the
composition of soil. Moderate amount of water is mixed so as to obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass
is then mixed uniformly with spades. Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and
workability, but the addition of water should be controlled in such a way that it may not create a problem in moulding
and drying. Excessive moisture content may affect the size and shape of the finished brick.
(vi) Tempering: Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet or machines (pug mills) so as to make the mass
stiff and plastics (by plasticity, we mean the property which wet clay has of being permanently deformed without
cracking). It should preferably be carried out by storing the soil in a cool place in layers of about 30 cm thickness
for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure homogeneity in the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For
manufacturing good brick, tempering is done in pug mills and the operation is called pugging.
(B) Moulding
It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by
hand or by machines. The process of moulding may be the soft-mud (hand moulding), the stiff-mud (machine
moulding) or the drypress process (moulding using maximum 10% water and forming bricks at higher pressures).
(i) Hand moulding: Hand moulding is further classified as ground moulding and table moulding.
a) Ground moulding: The process consists of shaping in hands a lump of well pugged earth, slightly more than that
of the brick volume. It is then rolled into the sand and with a force it is dashed into the mould. The moulder then
gives blows with his fists and presses the earth properly in the corners of the mould with his thumb. The surplus clay
on the top surface is removed with a sharp edge metal plate called strike or with a thin wire stretched over the mould.
After this the mould is given a gentle slope and is lifted leaving the brick on the ground to dry.
(b) Table moulding: The bricks are moulded on stock boards having the projection for forming the frog. The process
of filling clay in the mould is the same as explained above. After this, a thin board called pallet is placed over the
mould. The mould containing the brick is then smartly lifted off the stock board and inverted so that the moulded
clay along with the mould rests on the pallet. The mould is then removed as explained before and the brick is carried
to the drying site.
(ii) Machine moulding (plastic clay & dry clay machines)
Plastic Method: The pugged, stiffer clay is forced through a rectangular opening of brick size by means of force.
Clay comes out of the opening in the form of a bar. The brick bars are cut by a frame consisting of several wires at
a distance of brick size. This is a quick and economical process.
Dry-press Method: The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a mechanically operated press, where it is
subjected to high pressure and the clay in the mould takes the shape of bricks. Such pressed bricks are more dense,
smooth and uniform than ordinary bricks. These are burnt carefully as they are likely to crack.
(C) Drying
Green bricks contain about 7–30% moisture depending upon the method of manufacture. The object of drying is to
remove the moisture to control the shrinkage and save fuel and time during burning. The drying shrinkage is
dependent upon pore spaces within the clay and the mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay reduces
shrinkage, increases porosity and facilitates drying. The moisture content is brought down to about 3 per cent under
exposed conditions within three to four days. Thus, the strength of the green bricks is increased and the bricks can
be handled safely.
The important terms to be remembered in connection with the drying is as follows:
- Artificial drying: Clay products can be dried in open air driers or in artificial driers. The artificial driers are
of two types, the hot floor drier and the tunnel drier. In both cases the heat or hot air is circulated in controlled
way to dry the green bricks. In artificial driers, temperature rarely exceeds 120°C. The time varies from one
to three days depending upon the temperature maintained in the dryer, quality of clay product etc.
- Circulation of air: The bricks in stacks should be arranged in such a way that sufficient space is left between
them for free circulation of air while drying naturally or artificially.
- Drying yard: For the drying purpose, drying yards are prepared. The yard should be slightly on higher ground
or elevated so as to prevent water/rain water entering the yard.
- Drying period: The time required for drying depend upon the moisture content of the clay product, weather
condition and method of drying. The period is usually 1~ 3 days under artificial drying and 3~10 days under
natural drying.
- Screens: Screens of different shades (% sun blocking) are used to avoid direct exposure to the wind and sun.
(D) Burning
(i) Clamp burning

The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each
brick tier consists of 4–5 layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free circulation of fire and hot air.
The top and sides of the clamp are plastered with mud mixed with a coat of cow-dung, which prevents the escape of
heat. Clamp is allowed to burn for a period of about one to two months and same period is required for cooling. This
process yields about 60 per cent first class bricks. It is local method requiring lower level of skills which can yield
chimney made bricks and is economical but quality of bricks are not uniform.
(ii) Kiln burning
The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, e.g. Bull’s trench kiln or overground, e.g. Hoffman’s kiln.
These may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape. When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is
known as continuous kiln, e.g. Bull’s trench and Hoffman’s kilns. On the other hand, if the process of burning bricks
is discontinuous, the kiln is known as intermittent kiln.
1. Intermittent kilns (Intermittent Up-draught kilns & Intermittent Down-draught kilns)
After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading is done. Since the walls and
sides get cooled during reloading and are to be heated again during next firing, there is wastage of fuel and
production time duration is longer.
2. Continuous kilns (Bull’s Trench kiln & Hoffman’s kiln on Flame kiln)
The examples of continuous kiln are Hoffman’s kiln and Bull’s trench kiln. In a continuous kiln, bricks are
stacked in various chambers wherein the bricks undergo different stages of treatments at the same time.
When the bricks in one of the chambers is fired, the bricks in the next set of chambers are dried and preheated
while bricks in the other set of chambers are loaded and in the last are cooled. This method can produce the
bricks continuously.
Example – Clamp Burning
Example – Kiln Burning

3.4 QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICKS

Followings are the characteristics of good bricks
The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in crushing, regularity in size, a low water
absorption ratio and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view.
Size & Shape: The bricks should have uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with parallel sides & sharp straight
edges.
Colour: The brick should have a uniform deep red or cherry colour as indicative of uniformity in chemical
composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick.
Texture & compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to cause slipping of mortar. The brick should have
compact and uniform texture. A fractured surface should not show fissures, holes, grits or lumps of lime.
Hardness & Soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger nail no impression is made.
When two bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be produced.
Water absorption: It should absorb water not more than 15% of its dry wt. when kept immersed in water for 24 hrs.
Crushing strength: It should not be less than 10 N/mm2.
3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

There are different methods of classifications which are follows:
Based on the process of making they can be classified as:

- Chimney made bricks (local bricks widely available)
- Machine made bricks (Chinese bricks with limited availability)
Based on the burning process:

- Sun dried bricks: dried under sun – called Kacho Itta. Used in cheap and temporary type of construction &
should not be used exposed to heavy rains
- Burnt bricks: The bricks are ready after burning dried bricks
Based on qualities (strength, shape, size, finishing, porosity, harness, colour) they can be classified as:
First class brick (Class ‘A’) Second class brick
Third class brick Over burnt brick
First class brick

It is quality brick with following characteristics:
- Well burnt bricks with uniform colour, sharp edge, uniform & smooth faces, may get slight efflorescence,
very less cracks or flows
- Crushing strength of 10 N/mm2
- Absorbs less water (12%-15% when immersed in water for 24 hours) and can’t be scratched with fingernail
- When two bricks are struck together they give a metallic or ringing sound
Uses:
- All permanent type of works
- Used as fair face exposed brickwork with pointing
- Used in flooring and in reinforced brickwork
- Used as cladding, carving, in arch structures & as decorative items
Second class brick
They are same quality as 1st class but have somewhat irregular shape or size, have slightly less strength (crushing
strength 7 N/mm2), slightly rough surface & higher water absorption (16%-20% of wt of brick when soaked for 24
hrs).
Uses:
Plastered face brickworks, brick ballast in RCC work & in lime concrete
Third class brick
These are slightly under-burnt bricks with lighter colour, soft and emit dull sound when struck together.
Uses:
Use for temporary construction not subjected to heavy loads or heavy rains
Under-burnt bricks
They don’t get sufficient heat but slightly better than sundried bricks & can be used for same purposes.
Overburnt bricks
These are closer to fire & fused loosing their shape. They are used as aggregate for concrete, road metal, structure
foundation, inferior structures, filling materials.
3.6 STANDARD TEST FOR BRICKS
About fifty pieces of bricks are taken at random from different parts of the stack to perform various tests. For the
purpose of sampling, a lot should contain maximum of 50,000 bricks.
1) Water Absorption
The existence of minute pores confers marked capillary properties on brick ceramics. In particular all bricks absorb
water by capillary action. Normally, three bricks are selected randomly which represent the brick stack well.
Cold water test: The water absorption is obtained by calculating percentage of water absorption by brick when
immersed in water for 24 hours at 280C.
W2 – W1
Water absorption % = ------------ X 100
W1
W1 – Wt. of dry brick (dried in oven for 24 hrs. under 1100C ± 50C)
W2 – Wt. of water-soaked brick (24 hours at 270C ± 20C)
Hot water test: The procedure is same except the specimen is immersed in the water and boiled for five hours,
followed by cooling down to 27° ± 2°C by natural loss of heat within 16–19 hours. Then the wet weight is taken.
2) Hardness
It can be estimated with the help of scratch of the finger nail. If no impression is left on brick surface, it is considered
sufficiently hard.
3) Structure
The broken surface should be homogeneous, compact & free from any defects such as holes, lumps etc.
4) Shape and Size Test

The brick should be of standard size and its shape should be truly rectangular with sharp edges. For this, 20 bricks
of standard size (190mm X 90mm X90mm) are randomly selected & stacked along the length, width and height. The
permissible limit for good quality brick:
Length: 3680mm to 3920mm (single brick length: 184mm~196mm)

Width: 1740mm to 1860mm (single brick width: 87mm~93mm)
Height: 1740mm to 1860mm (single brick height: 87mm~93mm)
5) Soundness
When striking two bricks against each other or by a light hammer, a good quality brick should emit metallic or
ringing sound. It is also tested by dropping the brick flat on hard ground from a height about 1 m – a good/sound
brick should not break.
6) Crushing Strength
The frog of selected bricks are filled with mortar and left immersed in water for 24 hours. After taking out, it is wiped
and wrapped with damp jute bag and stored for 3 more days before testing. It is then tested under compression testing
machine by covering piece of plywood above and below the brick.
Maximum Load at failure (N)

Crushing strength (N/mm2) = ----------------------------------------
Average area of bed faces (mm2)
7) Presence of Soluble Salt

The ends of bricks are immersed in 25mm deep water (200 – 300 C) till the entire water is absorbed or evaporated &
water is filled again. The presence of efflorescence is classified as:
Nil – No presence Slight – covers surface <10% Moderate – Surface covers between 10~50%
Heavy – When >50% & deposit doesn't powder or flake away the brick surface
Serious - When the deposit is heavy & it powders or flake away the brick surface
3.7 TILES AND THEIR TYPES

Tiles are thin slabs of fine brick earth burnt in kiln. The tiles are prepared carefully as it is thinner than bricks and
might easily get cracks or warping in drying and burning. So the earth used to make tiles should be made pure and
carefully prepared.
Types of Tiles
Depending upon the surface treatment it can be classified as:
1) Glazed tiles: A thin transparent film is coated over the surface of tile to improve their appearance & protect against
chemical attacks. The desired surface of a burnt tile is dipped in glazing solution (common salt, lead oxide, boric
acid, quartz, china clay etc.) and fired to fuse the glazing material which produces a shining lustrous surface.
2) Non-glazed tiles: The tiles which are not treated with glazing fall under this category.
The tiles can be classified into the following 4 categories depending upon the use:
1) Roofing Tiles: These are manufactured in different sizes & shapes with main purpose to provide safe & leakage
proof roof and protection from sunlight. Ex.- plain tiles, pot tiles, pan tiles, jhingati etc.
2) Flooring Tiles: These are glazed or non-glazed thick flat slab; coloured for better appearance; manufactured in
different shapes & sizes used as flooring materials in residential or commercial building or outside of the building
as footpath.
3) Wall Tiles: These are flat thinner slab; glazed on exposed side; coloured for better appearance; manufactured in
different shapes & sizes used as cladding materials on walls in residential or commercial building inside or outside
of the building.
4) Drain Tiles: These are long curved or semi-circle; glazed or non-glazed used for draining out wastewater or
rainwater.
3.8 EARTHENWARE AND GLAZING

Earthenware
They are made by burning the ordinary clay at low temperature & cooling slowly. To avoid shrinkage, sand &
crushed pottery are mixed with clay. This increases the toughness, hardness & strength of the ware also.
Characteristics
1. Soft, porous and weak.
2. Glazed earthenware becomes resistant to weathering action.
Uses
Earthenware is used for manufacturing drain pipes, lavatory fittings and light weight partition walls.
Glazing
Bricks, tiles, earthen/stonewares are glazed by an impervious film to protect the surface from chemical attack &
other weathering agencies.
The different types of glazing in use are as to follow:
Transparent Glazing
Among many methods salts glazing is the most commonly used to make the surface impermeable. This is done by
spraying sodium chloride in kiln while burning at peak of 1200-13000C.
Lead Glazing
After burning, the product is dipped in a solution of lead oxide and tin oxide adhering the particles into the clay item.
This product is burnt in the kin making the adhered particle melt resulting in transparent coat.
Opaque Glazing
Borax, kaolin, chalk & colouring matter is fired with total or a part of felspar, flint, and lead oxide. The resulting
molten glass is poured into water to give shattered frit which is later ground. This is made into cream in which the
product is dipped and burnt in kiln for fusion to produce final glazed product.
CHAPTER 4 – LIME
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Until invention of cement, lime was used as the chief cementing material in the building construction both for mortar
& plasters. Lime is being used as cementing materials since ancient times. It is used for many types of structures-
palaces, forts, temples, gumba, monuments which are still existing. Even though, cement is remarkable material &
has replaced lime to great extent, lime has some peculiar advantages e. g. good workability & plasticity, less
shrinkage on drying and durability.
Composition: Lime is composed of higher percentage of calcium oxide, some percentage of silica and alumina. The
percentage of constituents vary depending upon the type of lime.
Manufacturing
There are 2 principal stages of manufacturing:
a) Calcination or burning: It is the process of heating the material to redness in the presence of atmospheric air
to drive carbon-dioxide out. This converts into quicklime which has great affinity for moisture (water).
CaCO3 (Limestone) + Heat CaO (Lime) + CO2 (Carbon-dioxide)
b) Hydration or slaking: The quick lime coming out from kiln is known as lump lime. Adding sufficient water
to quick lime is known as slaking. During slaking it swells and cracks & converts into hydrated lime
generating lot of heat.
CaO (Quicklime) + H2O (Water) Ca (OH)2 (Hydrated lime)
The hydrated or slaked lime obtained in the form of dry powder is packed in the bag to be sold in the market.
4.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF LIME

Stone has been defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth material which are present in
rocks. Rock may be defined as the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite shape and structure. Almost all
rocks have a definite chemical composition and are made up of minerals and organic matter. Some of the rock-
forming minerals are quartz, felspar, mica, dolomite, etc. The various types of rocks from which building stones are
usually derived are granite, basalt, trap, marble, slate, sandstone and limestone.
Limes are usually divided into three classes as:
1. Fat, Rich, Pure, High Calcium or White Lime

2. Poor or Lean Lime
3. Hydrated Lime
1. Fat Lime: It slakes vigorously and volume is increased about 2 to 3 times original volume. It contains about
95% Calcium Oxide & about 5% other materials as impurities after burning. Setting of this lime depends
upon absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere which is converted into CaCO3 which is quite hard & insoluble
in water. Setting and hardening process of this lime is very slow.
Properties
➢ Setting & hardening actions are slow
➢ Slakes vigorously with hissing sound & generation of lot of heat
➢ Swells 2 to 3 times original volume of quick lime after slaking
➢ Has very high degree of plasticity
➢ Soluble in water
➢ It is milky white in its purest form
Uses
White washing Manufacture of artificial hydraulic lime
Lime plastering Lime surkhi mortar
Lime sand mortar Lime cement mortar
2. Poor Lime: When the clay content is more than 30%, the lime is known as poor lime. It slakes very slowly.
It doesn’t dissolve in water but forms thin paste with water. It has poor binding property therefore used for
inferior works. It is also called impure lime.
3. Hydraulic Lime: It is the lime containing small quantities of silica, alumina and/or iron oxide which are in
chemical combination of calcium oxide. It has property to set & hard under water in the absence of air.
Depending upon clay content hydraulic lime is classified as:
a) Feebly HL: 5~15% clay; slakes slowly; small increase in volume & used for inferior masonry works.
b) Moderately HL: 16~25% clay; slakes very slowly; very small increase in volume & used for good type of
masonry works.
c) Eminently HL: 26~30%; better quality than above two.; resembles very much to Portland cement in chemical
composition; slaking is hardly noticeable & used for structural & under water.
Properties
➢ Increased % of clay renders lime more hydraulic and makes slaking more difficult
➢ It can set under water & in damp conditions
➢ It can set under situations where free air can’t reach
➢ It is not perfectly white
➢ It doesn’t dissolve in water but forms thin plastic paste with water
Types of Lime
Comparison between Fat Lime & Hydraulic Lime

4.3 PROPERTIES AND USES OF POZZOLANIC MATERIAL

Pozzolana is a volcanic powder first obtained at Pozzuoli, near Mount Vesuvius in Italy from where it derives its
name. It contains about 80% clay along with lime, magnesia, iron oxide. It doesn't have cementing value on itself,
but when mixed with lime produces cementing properties, which is more resistance to chemical attacks and hardens
slowly. It has slow rate of heat evolution & thus has long curing period to gain strength. About 70% by weight of
ordinary cement clinker is mixed with 30% by weight of pozzolana which are grinded to get Pozzolana Cement. It
is cheaper than OPC.
Pozzolanas are classified into two types as:
Natural: These are naturally available materials. The examples are: clays, shales, diatomaceous earth,
opaline cherts, volcanic tuffs & pumicites, Rhenish & Bavarian trass etc.
Artificial: These are made artificially or by-product of other materials. The examples are: fly ash, blast-
furnace slag, silica fume, surkhi, rice husk ash etc.
Properties
➢ Even though it doesn’t have cementing property independently, but when mixed with lime produces
cementing property.
➢ It has more resistance to chemical attacks.
➢ It slows setting and hardening time of cementing materials avoiding cracks
➢ It reduces permeability of concrete by filling the pores in concrete
➢ It reacts with free lime converting the mass into dense product
➢ Adding this converts fat lime into hydraulic lime
➢ It has low rate of heat evolution which requires long period of wet curing for better strength
➢ It is cheaper than cement
Uses
Due to reduced rate of hydration, slower gaining of strength and improved workability, it is suitable for mass
concreting works. It is also popularly used for masonry works, plastering and foundation concreting.
Examples: dams, retaining walls, pavement concreting, wharf walls, breakwaters, harbor works and massive
foundations etc.
CHAPTER 5 – CEMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Cement in a general sense is adhesive and cohesive material which is capable of bonding together particles of solid
matter into a compact durable mass. It is an important engineering material widely used as binding & strength
resisting material in the form of mortar, PCC, RCC, slurry, grout etc. It is used in almost all types of civil engineering
works such as building, road, bridge, tunnel, dams, water retaining structures etc. The most commonly used cements
are OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) and PPC (Pozzolana Portland Cement). However, other types of cements are
also used for specific conditions with property of quick setting, high plasticity, workability, moisture resistance, acid
resistance, early gain of strength etc.
Today (year 2018), there are around 50 cement industries are in Nepal. Of all the factories in Nepal, about 15%
industries produce clinker locally and the rest purchase clinker domestically or from India. Of the total demand 70%
clinker is produced in Nepal and rest is imported from India. Almost 90% of total cement demand is fulfilled by
cement produced in Nepal and rest is imported mostly from India. The imported cements are for some specific
projects, e.g. Hydropower, road, housing etc. Total cement demand in Nepal now is around 15 million tonnes per
year. There are seasonal variations in demand of cement in Nepal: 1st half of Nepali month almost 65% and 2nd half
the rest. The high demand of cement is around Chaitra-Asar (45~50%) and lowest around Dashain-Chaitha.
5.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT

Cements are mainly classified into two types: Natural and Artificial
Natural: It is manufactured by burning and then crushing the natural cement stones containing 20~40% argillaceous
matter (clay) and remaining calcareous material (calcium carbonate). The examples are: Roman cement, Pozzolana
Cement, Medina Cement etc.
Artificial: This type of cement is most popular product in the world which is manufactured artificially under
controlled conditions in cement factories. The examples are ordinary Portland and other types of commercial
cements.
Cement can also be classified as hydraulic and non-hydraulic.
The hydraulic cement sets and hardens in water and give a stable product, e.g. Portland cement. The non-hydraulic
cement does not set and harden in water/or is unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris.
Properties of good cement
➢ It provides strength to the structure

➢ It hardens early
➢ It is easily workable
➢ It is an excellent binding material
➢ It possesses good plasticity
➢ It is good moisture resistance
Type of cement, its properties and uses

Depending upon their chemical composition & practical application the cement can be classified as:
Ordinary Portland Cement

It is common type of cement. It has medium rate of strength development and medium rate of heat generation. It has
30 minutes of initial setting and 10 hours of final setting time. It possesses sufficient resistance against dry shrinkage
& cracking but less against chemical attack. It is used in almost all type of construction.
High Alumina Cement
It is a type of rapid hardening cement manufactured by fusing the limestone & bauxite at high temperature. It contains
about 35% alumina and has chocolate colour. It possesses high resistance against sulphate attack, fire and acid. The
initial setting time of this cement is 2.5~3 hrs and final setting time is 4~5.5 hrs. It gains high strength in short time
as final setting is quick with faster heat generation. It is expensive than OPC and is unsuitable for mass concreting.
It is used for under water construction, cold working temperature, chemical plants and furnaces.
Portland Slag Cement

It is prepared by mixing slag from the blast furnace with cement clinker and gypsum and grinding to make final
product. It has lesser heat of hydration and better resistance to acid & other corrodent environment. The rate of
strength development is slightly lower than OPC. It is cheaper than OPC as it is mixed with slag. All other properties
are similar to that of OPC. It is generally used in mass concrete and marine works.
Rapid Hardening Cement

It provides strength faster than OPC though its initial & final setting time is similar to that of OPC. It contains more
Tricalcium Silicate – responsible for rapid hardening of cement. It is finer in size and lighter than OPC. The curing
period is short. It is used where strength should be gained earlier and formwork should be removed earlier.
Low Heat Cement

It is so called as it produces lesser rate of heat production. Tricalcium Silicate is responsible for rapid hydration (heat
production) resulting in rapid hardening but hydration of Dicalcium Silicate is slower; so, decrease in the % of
Tricalcium Silicate & increase in % of Dicalcium Silicate produces how heat cement. It possesses less amount of
compressive strength and used for mass concreting works.
Quick Setting Cement

Gypsum, which retards the setting of cement, is reduced in the cement and some aluminium sulphate is added to get
the initial setting time to less than 5 minutes and final setting time less than 30 minutes. The fineness also accelerates
the setting of cement. It is used when concreting work is to be carried out under water or in running water to set the
cement as quick as possible.
White Cement
It possesses same strength as OPC but has greater aesthetic value. It is clear white color which is due to absence of
iron oxide & magnesium oxide in cement. To avoid contamination, it is heated in oil fuel kiln instead of coal and
special care is taken while grinding the clinker. It is much expensive than OPC. It is used for finishing works on
floor finish, tile joint mortar, aesthetic precast works etc.
Coloured Cement
It is obtained by adding 5 to 15% of suitable colouring compound before grinding of cement. Iron oxide, magnesium
oxide, chromium oxide, or cobalt oxide is added to obtain red, yellow, green or blue colour in the cement. It is
expensive than OPC. It is used for aesthetic works such as floor finish, windowsill, staircase etc.
Portland Pozzolana Cement

The pozzolana contains about 80% clay along with lime, magnesia, iron oxide. It doesn't have cementing value on
itself, but when mixed with lime produces cementing properties, which is more resistance to chemical attacks and
hardens slowly. It has slow rate of heat evolution and thus needs long curing period to gain strength. About 70% by
weight of ordinary cement clinker is mixed with 30% weight of pozzolana which are grinded to get Pozzolana
Cement. It is cheaper than OPC. It is used for mass concreting ex. dams, retaining walls, pavement concreting, wharf
walls, breakwaters, harbor works and massive foundations.
5.3 INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT

The main constituents of cement are calcareous and argillaceous materials. The ordinary cement mainly consists of
3 ingredients predominantly: clay or alumina, silica and lime. Approximate composition of raw materials is:
a) Calcium Oxide [Lime (CaO)] 60~65%
b) Silica (SiO2) 20~25%
c) Alumina [Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)] 4~8%
d) Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 2~4%
e) Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1~3%
f) Sulphur Trioxide 1~3%
g) Alkalis (Soda & Potash) 0.2~1%
h) Calcium Sulphate [Gypsum (CaSo4)] 3~5%
The functions of various ingredients of OPC are as follows:
1. Lime (CaO)
• If in excess, it makes cement unsound and causes expansion & disintegration
• If deficient, the strength of cement is decreased and the cement sets quickly
• With right proportion, cement becomes sound and strong
2. Silica (SiO2)
• Imparts strength due to formation of dicalcium and tricalcium silicate
• In excess, it provides greater strength and prolongs its setting time
3. Alumina (Al2O3)
• Imparts quick setting quality to cement
• Act as a flux and lowers the clinkering temperature
• In excess, it reduces the strength of cement
4. Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) - Gypsum
• It helps increase/decrease the initial setting time of cement
5. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
• Provides colour, hardness and strength to the cement
• Helps fusion of raw materials during manufacturing of cement
6. Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
• If present in small amount, imparts hardness & colour to the cement
• If in excess, makes the cement unsound
7. Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)
• If present in very small quantity, makes the cement sound
• If in excess, it causes the cement become unsound
8. Alkalis
• Should be present in small quantities
• Alkalis in excess will cause efflorescence
Harmful Constituents of Cement
Presence of these 2 oxides affects the quality of cement adversely:
1. Alkali Oxide (K2O & Na2O): If the amount exceeds 1%, it leads to failure of concrete.
2. Magnesium Oxide (MgO): If the amount exceeds 5%, it causes cracks after mortar or concrete hardens.
Setting of cement: the cement mix after adding water goes through initial hydration during which plasticity gradually
disappears and becomes stiff and changes into solid mass which is called initial setting. After sometimes the solid
mass starts gaining the strength which is called final setting time of cement.
5.4 MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT (FLOW DIAGRAM)

Cement Production goes through the following phases to complete the production cycle:
1. Extraction of raw materials / Quarrying

2. Grinding, Proportioning and Blending
3. Pre-heating phase
4. Kiln phase
5. Cooling and final grinding
6. Packing and transporting/ shipping
Cement can be manufactured by following two methods:
1) Dry Process 2) Wet Process
Process of cement Manufacturing

Dry Process
- The limestone & clay are ground separately to fine powders and then mixed together in desired proportions
- The water is then added & the resulting product is dried and burnt in kilns
- To the clinker obtained after burning is added3~5% of gypsum & ground to very fine powder which makes
final product ready to be used
This process is slow and costly. Also, due to difficulty in proportioning correct mixing of constituents, the final
product is not as good as that of wet process.
Wet Process
- The limestone is ground separately

- Clay materials are mixed with water in wash mills and stored
- The crushed dry limestone & wet clay are mixed in correct proportions
- The resulting slurry is fed into the kiln for burning
- To the clinker obtained after burning is added3~5% of gypsum & ground to very fine powder which produces
final product ready to be used
Manufacture Flow Diagram

5.5 COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION OF CEMENT CLINKER

Composition
- The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker.
- The compounds formed in the burning process have the properties of setting & hardening in the presence of
water.
- These compounds are known as Bogue Compounds after the person who invented it.
The following Bogue Compounds are formed during clinkering process:
The compounds undergo chemical combination during burning & fusion and produces followings with these specific
properties:
i) Tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2)

a) this is best cementing material constituting 25~50% (normally 40%) of the total
b) renders the clinker easier to grind, increases resistance to freezing & thawing
c) hydrates more rapidly by generating heat more rapidly
d) possesses less resistance to chemical attacks
e) develops hardening and gains strength early
ii) Di-Calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2)

a) it constitutes about 25~40% (normally about 32%) of the total
b) imparts ultimate strength to the cement
c) offers more resistance to chemical attack
d) hardens and hydrates slowly
e) Raising this content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early strength, decreases resistance to freezing
& thawing at early age & decreases heat of hydration
iii) Tri-calcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3)

a) constitutes about 5~11% (normally about 10.5%) of the total
b) rapidly reacts with water and is responsible for flash set of finely grounded clinker
c) causes initial setting of cement
b) reacts faster, generating large amount of heat
c) doesn’t contribute developing strength
d) raising it reduces setting time & weakens against sulphate attack
iv) Tetra-Calcium aluminium ferrite (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3)

a) constitutes about 8~14% (normally about 9%) of the total
a) poor cementing value & comparatively inactive
b) responsible for flash setting but reacts slowly, generating small amount of heat
Most of the strength developing properties of cement are controlled by tricalcium silicate & dicalcium silicate.
Thus, by changing the relative proportions of these compounds, various types of cements are manufactured.
5.6 STANDARD TEST OF CEMENT

In cement we seek permanency of structure, strength, and rate of setting suitable to the demands of the work. To
determine these qualifications, both physical (more often) and chemical tests are made. The most common physical
tests determining the acceptability of cement are:
1) Soundness Test
2) Strength (Tensile & Compressive) Test
3) Consistency Test
4) Setting Time (Initial & Final) Test
5) Fineness Test
1) Soundness Test:
It is to determine if excess of lime, magnesia or sulphur is present in cement which are undesired & harmful
The following two types of tests are used for soundness:
a) Le Chatelier’s Test (using Le Chatelier’s apparatus): it indicates unsoundness due to lime only. Following
are the procedures:
- 100g of cement is mixed with 0.78 times water & the paste is filled on the mould of which top and bottom
are covered with glass plate.
- It is submerged in water at 27~320C and removed after 24 hrs & the distance separating the indicator points
is measured.
- The sample is again submerged in water which is boiled for 3 hours & taken out.
- After cooling the sample, the distance between the indicators are again measured.
- The difference between the two measurements represents the unsoundness of cement which should not be
more than 10mm (for OPC, rapid hardening & low heat cement).
Apparatus for test
b) Autoclave Test: It indicates unsoundness due to both lime & magnesia. Following are the procedures:
- A 25 X 25 X 250 mm specimen bars of neat cement paste are removed from the moist atmosphere after 24
hrs from mould and measured.
- The samples are placed in autoclave with raised steam pressure of 2.1 N/mm2 which is maintained for 3
hours before turning off slowly.
- The autoclave is cooled with a rate of 0.1N/mm2 then the specimens are placed in water at temperature of
900C which is gradually brought down to 27±20C in 15 mins.
- The specimens are maintained at the same temperature for another 15 mins the length of specimen bars is
measured again.
- The difference in two measurements gives the unsoundness of the cement which (expansion) should not be
more than 0.6%.
2) Strength Test:
The strength of mortar / concrete depends upon the type & nature of cement. So, it should develop a minimum
specified strength if it is to be used in structures.
a) Tensile Strength: It may be determined by Briquette test method or split tensile test.
Briquette test:
- It is tested by fracturing 6 standard briquettes made of normal consistence cement mortar (1:3) using cement
& standard sand
- % of water by wt. of cement is given by the relation P/5 + 2.5 where P is the % water required to make
normal consistency
- A cement mortar (1:3) is prepared & filled in standard briquette mould & cured for 24 hrs. at temperature of
27±20C
- Tensile test is carried out for 3 or 7 days also. For OPC the average value should not be less than 2.0 N/mm2
& 2.5 N/mm2 respectively
b) Compressive Strength: It is determined by cube test method
- It is tested by crushing 3 standard cubes made of normal consistence cement mortar (1:3) using cement &
standard sand
- % of water by weight of cement is given by the relation P/4 + 3.5 where P is the % water required to make
normal consistency
- A cement mortar (1:3) is prepared & filled in standard cube (70.6mm size) mould & vibrated for about 2
minutes and cured for 24 hrs. at temperature of 27±20C
- Compressive test is carried out for 3 or 7 days also. For OPC the average value should not be less than 10.5
N/mm2 & 17.5 N/mm2 respectively
3) Consistency Test
This is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of normal consistency.
- A cement paste is made by mixing 300g cement with 25% water

- The paste is filled in Vicat’s apparatus and levelled well
- A round needle (10mm size diameter) attached to the plunger is lowered to touch the top surface of cement
paste
- Plunger is released quickly & the needle penetrates the sample
- If the reading on the attached scale shows 5~7mm from the bottom of the mould, it is considered consistence
paste. If not, the sample is prepared again with water adjustment and tested again until correct water amount
is determined
After correct consistency, another sample is prepared with same percentage of water for testing of setting time
of cement.
4) Setting Time of Cement
- Setting time is categorized as initial and final setting time

- Initial setting time is the time after which the cement paste starts losing its plasticity
- So, initial setting time is considered to know the available time for mixing, transportation, placing &
compaction of cement product
- The final setting time is the time at which cement paste completely loses its plasticity and attains strength to
resist certain pressure
- Initial setting time of OPC should not be less than 30 minutes and final setting time should not be more than
10 hours
i) Initial Setting time of cement

- The consistence cement paste is placed in Vicat’s mould
- A needle of 1 mm2 is fit to the apparatus and is brought in contact with top surface of cement paste & released
- The process is carried out until the needle penetrates the paste 43-45mm from the top or 5-7mm from bottom
- The time elapsed from placing water to the cement and allowing this standard penetration is the initial setting
time of cement
ii) Final Setting time of cement

- After determining the initial time same sample is tested further for final setting time
- For this test a plunger with annular collar of 5mm (1mm2 tip of 0.5mm projection at the center) is brought
in contact with top surface of cement paste and released quickly
- The final setting is said to occur when the central needle makes an impression over the surface of the paste
but circular cutting edge fails to do so
- The time elapsed from placing water to the cement and determining this standard penetration is the final
setting time of cement
5) Fineness Test
- It is carried out to check proper grinding of cement

- It may be determined by sieve method (using 90-micron sieve), air permeability method (Nurse & Blains
method) or sedimentation method (Wagner turbidimeter method)
- The first method measures the grain size whereas last two methods measure the surface area of cement
- The first method doesn’t represent true value as tiny cement grains tend to conglomerate into lumps
- Fineness is generally expressed in terms of specific area, which is total surface area of the particles in unit
weight of material
a) Sieve method: A 100g of cement sample is taken and continuously passed for 15 minutes through standard
90-micron sieve. The residue is weighted which should not be less than 10% for OPC & 5% for both rapid
hardening (RHC) and Portland pozzolana cement.
b) Air permeability method: The cement is placed and air pressure is applied in the apparatus & the specific
surface area is determined which is 2250 cm2/g for OPC, 3250 cm2/g for RHC & 300 cm2/g for PPC.
c) Wagner turbidimeter method: A sample of cement is dispersed uniformly in a rectangular glass tank filled
with kerosene. The light rays are passed thought the solution which strike the sensitivity plate of
photoelectric cell. Then readings are taken with regular intervals while the cement particles are falling in the
solution. The readings are expressed in cm2/g
5.7 CEMENT WATER PROOFERS

A waterproofing material is impervious, durable & should be able to resist loads to which it is subjected without
failure. There are different types of water proofers one of which is cement water proofer. Water proofing is done by
adding certain water proofing compound to mix of cement (slurry, mortar or concrete). This compound will add
certain qualities to the product which improves cement flexibility & strength; water & damp resistance and excellent
adhesion.
These materials are available mainly in three forms & may be available commercially with different names.
i) Compounds made from chalk, talk, fullers earth which may fill the voids of cement product.
ii) Compounds like alkaline silicate, aluminium sulphate, calcium chloride etc. which react chemically with
cement to produce water proofing properties.
iii) Compounds like soap, petroleum, oils, fatty acid compounds (stearates of calcium, sodium, ammonia etc.)
work on water repulsion principle. When these are mixed with cement products, it becomes water repellent.
5.8 ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are materials which are added to the concrete mix before or during mixing to improve certain properties
in fresh or hardened state.
The admixture may affect more than one property. The functions of admixture are:
✓ Accelerate the initial setting of cement (speed up early strength)

✓ Retard initial setting
✓ Increase concrete strength
✓ Improve workability
✓ Reduce heat evolution
✓ Increase durability of concrete against freezing and thawing
✓ Control expansion
✓ Increase impermeability
✓ Reduce segregation
✓ Increase flowability & pumpability
✓ Strengthen bond between old & new concrete, iron bars & concrete
✓ Resistance to corrosion
✓ Resistance to chemical attack
✓ Produce non-skid or coloured or insecticidal properties
Admixtures may be classified as:

1. Accelerators: It accelerates rate of hydration & consequently rate of gain of strength and reduce the setting
time. Ex- sulphates (except calcium sulphate); alkali carbonates, aluminates & silicates; aluminium chloride;
calcium/ sodium chloride; sodium & potassium hydroxide; formaldehyde etc.
2. Retarders: Retards initial setting time to allow longer transport & placing of concrete in the site which is far
from batching plant. Ex- the most common is calcium sulphate
4. Water proofers: Explained on previous topic.
5. Workability agents: These agents increase the workability by increasing the amount of paste in concrete &
hence the cohesiveness. If excess – causes cracking & strength loss. Ex- Lime, bentonite, kaolin, chalk,
diatomaceous earth etc.
6. Surface active agents: These agents decrease the surface tension & commonly known as air entraining agent
which increases the slump of concrete & so the compaction.
Ex- Natural wood resins & their sap
Animal or vegetable fats/oils such as tallow or olive oil
Wetting agent such as alkali salts of sulphonated or sulphated organic compound
7. Pozzolanas: They are siliceous materials which are inactive alone but will react, in the presence of water,
with lime to form compounds having cementitious properties.
Ex- lime, fly ash, burnt clay, blast furnace slag etc.
CHAPTER 6 – MORTAR
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Mortar may be defined as a paste (capable of setting & hardening) obtained by adding water to a mixture of fine
aggregates such as sand and binding material, e.g., clay, gypsum, lime or cement or their combinations. Building
mortars are mixtures used for the jointing of bricks, stones, blocks, etc.
The ancient forts, gumbas, temples etc. are joined with mud mortar or lime mortar in Nepal which is now being
replaced by cement mortar. The pyramids of Egypt have been built with clay-gypsum, gypsum-lime & lime mortars.
The mortar is designed by the weight or volume of material. For simple mortars, it is composed of one kind of
binding material and fine particles (e.g., cement mortar), the composition will be as 1:4, i.e., one part (by weight or
volume) of binding material (cement) and 4 parts of sand. Combined mortar composed of two binding materials or
combined mineral admixtures are identified by three figures, e.g., 1:0.4:5 (cement: clay: sand).
Some of the important uses of mortars are:
Joints in masonry walls: used as horizontal or vertical joints by spreading over each layer to give the joint a binding
medium in brick or stone or block masonry.
In plastering and pointing: to cover exposed walls and joints to protect against weathering besides better appearance.
As matrix in concrete.
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MORTAR

Mortars are usually divided into four classes as:
On the basis of Bulk Density:

Type of Mortar Bulk Density (kg/m3) Aggregate
Heavy weight >1500 Heavy quartz or sand
Light weight <1500 Light porous sand from pumice, tuffa, slags, etc.
On the basis of Binding Material
Mud Mortars: mixture of clay with water used for poor & temporary construction and is cheaper in cost
Gypsum Mortars: are prepared from gypsums or anhydride binding materials (calcium sulphate, hydrated lime, PoP)
Lime Mortars: are mixture of air hardening lime or hydraulic lime, sand/surkhi and water
Cement Mortars: are prepared from Portland cement or its varieties, sand and water
Composite Mortars: may be surkhi-mortar (surkhi, lime and water), lime-surkhi-sand mortar, cement-lime mortar
and cement-clay mortar.
On the basis of Application
Masonry Mortars: are intended for joining bricks, stones or blocks

Finishing Mortars: are intended for plastering, decorative layers, architectural or ornamental parts
Special Mortars: intended for acoustics, X-ray shielding, fire shielding, damp-proofing, plugging at oil fields, etc.
On the basis of Physical & Mechanical Properties (Strength)
The strength of masonry depends upon both the mortar and the building unit (brick, stone or block). A very strong
mortar with weak building units will be of little use. It is also important to consider whether full strength is required
within a short time. In cold weather, when the strength of lime or cement mix develops slowly, this is likely to affect
the choice of mix. Strong cement mortars are most likely to lead to shrinkage cracks, and should, therefore be avoided
except where high strength is an essential requirement.
6.3 FUNCTION OF MORTAR

➢ It should be cheap, durable & easily workable.
➢ It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks, stones, blocks etc.
➢ It should be capable of resisting penetration of rain water.
➢ It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.
➢ It should set quickly so that speed in construction may be achieved.
➢ It should be capable of resisting the designed stress.
➢ The joints formed by mortar should not develop cracks and they should be able to maintain their appearance
for a sufficiently long period.
6.4 SELECTION OF MORTAR FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

The particular type of mortar to be used for construction works are:
CHAPTER 7 – TIMBER
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and branches of a tree. Wood includes
all types of wood which may be burning wood, structural wood, furniture wood etc. The wood prepared for use in
the building and carpentry is called timber which also includes structural timber. Lumber (American, Canadian term)
is a type of wood that has been processed into beams and planks mainly used as structural component.
According to various stages at which timber is found, it is named as:
a) Standing timber – part of living tree

b) Rough timber – when the tree is felled
c) Converted timber - when it is further sawn & converted into market forms such as beam, planks, battens etc.
7.2 GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF TREE

Growth of Tree
In spring, roots of the tree suck food from soil and transmit the same through the trunk of tree to its branches &
leaves. This solution of salts loses some of the moisture because of evaporation & absorbs CO2 from the air. This
action in the presence of sun makes the solution a bit viscous. This transformed viscous solution is known as sap.
Medullary rays carry the sap to the interior thereby nourishing the tree.
In autumn, sap descends below the bark & leaves a thick layer. Layer of sap gets transformed to wood and is known
as cambium layer. It goes on gaining strength with the passage of time. A fresh layer is thus added on the outside of
the tree every year forming a new annual ring. The new ring represents a year’s growth of tree.
Structure of Tree
A tree can be divided into three portions, crown - composed of branches and leaves, trunk, and roots. The trunk
accounts for about 80% of the total bulk of wood. Components of tree cross-section:
1) Bark: The outermost skin of an exogeneous tree is called bark and it is for the protection of inner portion of
the tree from external injuries. In course of time older layer split and scale off.
2) Cambium layer: Outermost one ring between the bark & sap wood which is not yet converted into wood is
known as the cambium layer. In due course, cambium layer changes to sapwood. If the cambium layer is
exposed by removing the bark, the cells cease to be active and results in death of tree.
3) Sap wood: This layer is saturated with sap which becomes the source for fungal & insect attack, shrinkage
and crack hence, is dimensionally unstable. It is lighter in colour, has high moisture content and has indistinct
annual rays. It transmits sap from root to branches.
4) Heart wood: Innermost rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. It is almost the dead part of
the wood. This wood is darker in colour, stronger, more compact and durable.
5) Medullary rays: These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark. They carry sap
from outside to the inner parts of tree and nourish it. They keep the annual rings tightly gripped together. In
some trees they might be found broken or may not even be clearly visible.
6) Pith or medulla: It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree. It consists entirely of cellular tissues. The
pith, which when the plant is young, contains a large amount of fluid and nourishes the plant. It dies up and
decays when the plant becomes old. Sap is then transmitted by the woody fibers that deposit about the pith.
Pith of branches is a mere prolongation of the pith of stem.
7) Annual rings: These consist of cellular tissues and woody fibers arranged in distinct concentric circles round
the pith. Annual rings are generally formed every year, due to the deposition of sap below bark. So number
of annual rings indicate the age of a tree.
7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TREE

Trees are the only source of timber but all trees can’t yield the timber. Depending upon the mode of growth, it can
be classified as:
a) Endogenous tree: It grows chiefly longitudinally by mingling new fibers with old ones, with minimum
growth in the outwardly direction. Due to the hollowness of the core & predominantly longitudinal growth,
the stems are light & tough but are too flexible & slender so not suitable for engineering purposes, with
exception of bamboo. Ex- bamboo, palm, cane, banana etc.
b) Exogenous tree: They grow outwardly with the addition of a ting every year known as annual ring which
shows age of the tree at the time of felling. Due to solid nature, these trees are selected for engineering
purposes including for structural uses.
The exogenous trees can be classified further into 2 types based on different properties from different types of trees
as:
i) Conifers or evergreen yielding soft wood:

These have pointed needle like or scale like leaves and bear cone shaped fruits. They are generally evergreen
trees which yield softwood. Deodar, pipe, kail, chir etc. belong to this group.
ii) Deciduous yielding hard wood:

These have flat broad leaves which fall in autumn & reappear in spring and yield hard wood. Timber for
structural purposes is mostly derived from these categories. Teak, sal, shisau etc. belong to this class.
The term soft or hardwood have commercial importance only because some varieties of soft wood may be stronger
than some hardwood.
7.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER

The principal characteristics of good timber are strength, durability and better appearance. Some of the main
characteristics are:
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.

2. Compact medullary rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. When struck ringing sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects in timber.
8. Heavy weight.
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface.
10. Have bright & smooth surface when planned.
11. Should offer adequate fire resistance.
7.5 DEFECTS OF TIMBER

The defects in timber may be classified into two categories:
A) Defects that develop during growth of tree

B) Defects that develop after felling of tree
The main types of defects under category ‘A’ are:
1) Shake: This is most serious type of defect which are sort of cracks which partly or completely separate the
fibers of wood along the grain. These may be of different types:
a) Star shake: These are radial cracks of splits that extend from bark and usually remain confined upto the plane
of sap wood. These develop due to fierce heat and frost.
b) Heart shake: The splits or cracks occur wider in the center and radiates becoming narrower towards outside.
This defect is usually caused due to shrinkage of heart wood in over matured trees.
c) Cup or Ring shake: These are curved splits separating one annual ring from the adjacent one either partly or
wholly. These are caused by strong wind and by excessive frost action on the moisture present in the tree,
especially while it is young.
d) Radial shake: They are similar to star shake but numerus, fine & irregular. They usually occur when felled
tree is exposed to sun for seasoning. The cracks run for a short distance from bark towards the center.
2) Rind gall: It is curved swelling found on the body of the tree usually caused by growth of the layers over the
wounds left after branches are cutoff in an irregular and improper manner.
3) Twisted fibers: Fibers are twisted by strong winds turning the tree constantly in one direction. The timber
having this defect is mostly used for posts and poles in an unsawn condition.
4) Upsets: In this defect; during the growth of tree, fibers are sometimes injured due to crushing or compression
resulting in breakage of continuity of fibers.
5) Knots: It is the root of a branch that is embedded in the stem with the formation of the annual rings at right
angles to those of the stem. These are of two classes:
i) Dead or loose knot: this can be separated from tree body

ii) Live or sound knot: this is firmly attached and can’t be separated
Twisted Fiber
Knots
A knot is hard to work upon and remains rough after planning. Presence of knot reduces strength. So, timber with
many or loose knots should not be used for structural purposes.
6) Coarse grain: Timber having very wide annual rings because of rapid growth of trees have coarse grains.
This type of wood is not durable and is deficient in strength.
7) Foxiness: Presence of reddish or yellowish stains shows the beginning of decay in timber because of bad
ventilation during storage or due to over maturity of the tree.
8) Druxiness: In this defect, white decayed spots of timber remain concealed under healthy wood. This defect
is probably caused due to access of fungi.
Coarse Grains Foxiness Druxiness
The main types of defects under category ‘B’ are:
1) Dry rot: It is disintegration of converted timber by harmful effects of certain fungi. This fungi feeds wood and
converts it into dry fine powder. This occurs, when timber is imperfectly seasoned and also when it is subjected
to warm moist conditions. This defect may be prevented by using well-seasoned timber free from sap.
2) Wet rot: It is decomposition of the timber due to alternate wetting and drying. Due to this the affected timber
decays and gets converted into graying brown powder. To overcome this, the timber should be seasoned &
painted to protect against moisture.
3) Check: A crack separating wood fiber is known as check which doesn’t extend from one end to the other.
4) Case hardening: The defect in which timber is subjected to stresses and strains due to unequal shrinkage of
internal and external surfaces is known as case hardening.
7.6 SEASONING OF TIMBER

Seasoning of timber is the process of reducing the moisture content in order to prevent it from possible shrinkage,
uneven cracking & decay. Wood has ability to absorb or release moisture until it’s moisture is in equilibrium with
surrounding environment. So seasoning is done to bring the moisture content to match with average humidity of
surroundings.
Generally, the raw wood contains 100~200 % of moisture content. This is brought to about 10~20% after seasoning.
So, the loss of that large amount of water content should be carried out carefully.
Advantages of seasoning
a) It decreases the weight of timber and makes it lighter

b) It increases the strength and makes it stable
c) It improves the working quality of timber
d) It reduces the possibility of attack by fungi and insects
e) It provides dimensional stability of timber
f) It enables timber to be easily planned, polished and preserved
Methods of seasoning: It may be carried out in two ways:
1. Natural Seasoning
2. Artificial Seasoning
Natural Seasoning: There are two types of natural seasoning:
i) Air drying/seasoning: In this method, timber is stacked in a dry place at about one foot above the floor level.
Each piece is spaced few centimeters apart to allow free circulation of air. These stacks should be protected
from rainwater and sunlight. It is economical method with less chance of damage and doesn’t need skilled
manpower. But this method takes more time (2~4 months) & takes more space.
ii) Water seasoning: In this process, the log of wood is kept completely immersed in running stream of water.
Then the log is kept out of the water and place under air. This is a quick process but elasticity and durability
of timber decreases.
Artificial Seasoning: It is the quick process of seasoning. The most popular method under this is kiln seasoning.
Kiln seasoning: In this method, timber is seasoned under controlled temperature and humidity condition with proper
air circulation and ventilation system. The rise in temperature should be such that the timber retains original strength
and elastic properties. Humidity controls the warping and cracks of timber. Circulated air causes the uniform drying
of timber and ventilation reduces the excessive heat. Due to uniform drying in controlled way, any percentage of
moisture content can be obtained by this method. However, the timber obtained by this method is inferior quality
than the natural method. This process is quick but expensive, requiring skilled manpower. It takes four to five days
for complete seasoning in normal condition.
Boiling seasoning is carried out by boiling the timber and drying it in normal way or in kiln.
Chemical seasoning is also known as salt seasoning. It is the process at which the timber is immersed in soluble salt
and seasoned in a normal way or seasoned in kiln.
In Electrical seasoning, the timber is passed through an induction coil due to which moisture is reduced constantly.
It is a highly costlier process.
7.7 DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

Deterioration of Timber
Timber doesn’t deteriorate by natural, physical or chemical changes or by pure ageing. It is, however, affected by
destructive elements, such as weathering, chemical attack, fungi, insects or rodents. Most crucial among these are
fungi, insects & rodents and are described as follows:
Decay due to Fungal and Bacterial Attack

Wood is essentially an organic substance, made up of a skeleton of cellulose impregnated with lignin. The organic
substances are susceptible to attack by both bacteria and fungi. Bacteria are the smallest of living organism and do
not cause any serious damage to timber, except for some discolorations. Fungi are a system of plant organism which
live in and attack timber causing rot and decay.
The basic requirements for the existence of fungi are moisture, suitable temperature and food supplies. The wood
itself forms the food supply and optimum temperature conditions are in the range of 18°C to 30°C. The various
symptoms of decay are discoloration, abnormal mottled appearance and roughness of surface.
Control of Fungi and Bacterial attack

One of the prime requirements in the control of fungal attack is the dryness of timber. The timber should not be
subjected to alternate wet and dry conditions. When this is unavoidable, a proper preservative treatment should be
made. It should be ensured that adequate ventilation is there around the timber to prevent fungal attack. Also, no
timber used in a structure should contain sapwood which is more susceptible to fungal attack.
Damage due to Insects
Termites: Termites, or white ants, are the most destructive of all insects. They are small, social insects which form
vast colonies. They completely excavate the wood at the center leaving the outer shell intact. They also attack
furniture & wood work in houses and railway sleepers, etc.
Beetles: They are small insects & cause rapid decay of timber by converting them into fine powder. There are
different kind of beetles causing damage. Usually, the outer shell of timber remains intact & hence the timber looks
sound from outside until it fails completely.
Carpenter ants: They are usually black in colour and vary in size. They do not eat wood but merely tunnel it out for
habitation. They normally attack slightly rotted or water-softened wood. Timbers are often riddled with galleries
before the presence of ants is detected.
Control of Insects
It is much simpler than eradicating fungi. The tunnels made by the insects help in the deep penetration of toxic
elements that are used to destroy them. A good insecticide which does not damage the paint or varnish and vaporizes
easily is yet to be found. It is found that no insecticide can fulfill all these requirements in one application & periodic
applications are required to be effective. The best alternative is common turpentine mixed with a small quantity of
orthodichlorobenzene. This vapor is very deadly to insects and is not poisonous to human beings and animals.
Damage due to Rodents

Although the domestic rodents do not destroy timber in the same as the organism, they are capable of penetrating
both wood and concrete.
Control of Rodents: The guiding principle is to close all openings or passages and making doors and windows capable
of closure in a rat-tight manner by fixing metal sheets over the lower parts of doors.
Preservation of Timber
Preservation of timber means the art of treating the timber by some means including with chemicals so as to protect
it and thus increase the timber’s life.
The objectives of preservation are:
i) To protect the timber structure from attack of destroying agencies such as fungi, insect, moisture,
temperature etc.
ii) To lengthen the life of timber structure.
iii)
Following methods are used for preservation of wood:

A) Pressure or vacuum process: Under this the preservation is injected under pressure into timber. There are 2
types under this process:
i) Full cell or Bethel process: Under this, the timber is injected with preservative in a vacuumed chamber with
controlled pressure and temperature. This method doubles the life of treated timber and protects against dry
rot & red ants. Usually, railway sleepers, piles, poles are produced with this treatment.
ii) Empty cell or Reaping process: Under this, the timber is treated with preservative under controlled pressure
only. So, this consumes less preservative than the earlier process. This method is specially recommended for
pressuring timber of mixed species.
B) Soaking treatment: In this process, the timber is submerged in the preservative solution for long time until the
required absorption is obtained.
C) Surface application: In this process, the timber to be treated is applied with preservative solution like tar, oil
paints, creosote etc. by the following ways:
i) Brushing: The hot oil preservative solution is applied on timber with brush as required (usually, two coats).
ii) Spraying: The preservative is sprayed on timber with pressure, the coating with this method is effective &
superior than with brushing.
iii) Dipping: The timber is dipped into the preservative for short period. This give better penetration than
brushing or spraying.
D) ASCU Treatment: This preservative is developed in India by mixing 4 types of compounds which is in powder
form. Six parts of ASCU is mixed with 100 parts of water (by weight) which is sprayed on timber to protect
against white ants. The treated surface can then be coated with external layer of other preservatives as needed.
E) Charring, Tarring and Creosoting: These are the followings:
i) Charring: Under this, the timber is kept wet for half an hour in water & burnt to coal over slow fire. It is then
cooled or quenched with water. This method is used for posts, piles, etc. where timber is used under soil.
ii) Tarring: Under this, hot coal tar is applied on the surface of the timber to be treated. Ex–door/window frames,
fencing, piles etc.
iii) Creosoting: It is the process of applying creosote under pressure to the timber stacked in an air-tight
cylindrical vacuum chamber.
F) Hot and Cold Process: The stack of timbers to be treated is first submerged in cold preservative (usually, creosote)
then heated to 85~950C & maintained for some times & cooled slowly. The heating & cooling creates partial vacuum
which sucks the preservative well. It is recommended to treat sapwood & easily treatable heartwood.
7.8 COMMERCIAL PRODUCT OF TIMBER

Many wood-based products have been developed to economies on the use of timber. These wood products are
manufactured under controlled conditions in factories. As such, these have desired shape and dimensions,
appearance, strength and durability. Some of these are described below:
1) Veneers: These are thin sheets of timber of superior quality obtained by slicing or sawing of wood. The thickness
may vary from 0.4mm to as much as 6mm or more as needed. Veneers are dried carefully and glued to inferior timber
surface to improve the appearance to have decorative and attractive designs. It is used for manufacturing plywood,
lamin board, batten board etc.
2) Plywood: It is in the form of boards prepared from thin layers of wood or veneers. Veneers are glued together
(usually with pressure) one above the other in odd number with direction of grains of successive layers right angles
to each other to increase the strength. The outer layers are called face ply. The odd no is used so as to make the
shrinkage stresses symmetrical minimizing warping tendency. The plywood is generally manufactured in 3, 5, 7 and
so on. Now, some refined plywood (treated) are available with properties of waterproofing, fire retarding, termite
proofing etc. Plywood is generally used for covering or paneling walls, doors, windows, furniture and formwork in
construction works.
3) Lamin Board: It consists of a core built up of laminae not more than 7mm wide glued between two or more plies.
Grains of laminae should be right angles to the outer plies. These are pressed into thin sheets of 1 to 5mm thick.
These are light, strong and available in different sizes and are used for construction of partition walls, packing cases,
false ceiling, furniture, door panels etc.
4) Block Board: They consist of core made of small timber blocks upto 25mm thick glued together and both faces
are covered with 3mm thick plywood. These are available in different sizes and are used for construction of partition
walls, false ceiling, furniture, door panels, bus bodies etc.
Lamin Board Block Board
5) Batten Board: It is just like laminae or block board except the core is made from timber blocks width of 80mm
and are 20~30 mm thick. These are available in different sizes and are used for table tops, door panels and other flat
surfaces.
6) Fiber or Particle Board: These are manufactured from wood, bamboo, cane or other vegetable fibers. The pieces
are boiled with steam and pressure and the fibers obtained are pressed to obtained desired size of the product. The
high-density fiber board are called hard board. They are used as wall panels, false ceilings, partition, table tops,
insulating material against heat & sound etc.
CHAPTER 8 – METALS AND ALLOYS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Metals and their alloys are backbone of all engineering products and projects. Metals are found as compounds like
oxides, carbonates, phosphates and sulfides etc. in nature. These compounds, known as metal ores, are treated to
remove the impurities and get the metal.
An alloy steel may be defined as a carbon steel to which one or more elements are added to get some desired benefits.
Some examples are: cobalt, copper, chromium, nickel, manganese, stainless steel etc.
Metals used for engineering purposes are classified into 2 categories:

a) Ferrous metals: wherein iron is the main constituent
b) Non-ferrous metals: iron is not the main constituent
8.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF IRON

Iron is never available pure in nature. It has been extracted in the form of pig iron from various iron ores, important
of which are Magnetite (70~75% iron), Hematite (70% iron), Iron pyrites (47% iron) and Siderite (40% iron). Pig
iron is the crudest and wrought iron is the purest form of iron. Various iron and steel are obtained by suitably
purifying and adjusting the composition of pig iron.
Pig iron
To remove impurities from the iron ore, carbon and flux are added while melting it. The refined product so obtained
is the crudest form of iron called pig iron and converted rough bars are called pigs.
Cast iron
Pig iron is re-melted with limestone and coke in a furnace and poured into mould of desired shapes and sizes to get
purer product known as cast iron. Moulding re-melted pig iron reduces impurities and gives a uniform product that
could be had by directly moulding the pig iron in its initial molten state.
Composition
Carbon contents in cast iron vary from 2.0% to 4.5%. With carbon it also contains impurities like manganese,
phosphorus, sulphur & silicon.
Properties
a) It is hard, brittle & easily fusible with 12500C of melting temp.
b) It doesn't rust and can’t be magnetized.
c) It becomes soft in saline water.
d) It can’t be tempered, but can be easily hardened by heating & suddenly cooling.
e) It shrinks on cooling.
f) It is strong in compression but weak in tension.
g) It can’t be riveted or welded.
Uses
It is used for castings, rain water pipes, sewer pipes, gutters, manhole covers and balustrades. It is the basic material
for the manufacture of wrought iron and steel.
Wrought iron
Nearly all the carbon and other elements in pig iron are oxidized and may be left with 0.25% of carbon to obtain
wrought iron. It is the purest form of iron in which the total impurities do not exceed 0.5%.
Composition
Carbon, silica, phosphorus, sulphur, manganese & slag (iron silicate) remain in small percentage as impurities. The
slag remains distributed uniformly as fine threads and act as barrier preventing corrosion and fatigue cracks.
Properties
a) Its structure is fibrous and has silky luster.
b) It’s ductile, malleable, weldable & can be temporarily magnetized.
c) It can neither be hardened nor tempered.
d) It is tough & can withstand shocks & impacts better than cast iron.
e) It melts at 15000C and rusts easily.
f) It is nearly equally strong in tension, compression and shear.
Uses
The use of wrought iron has been replaced to a very extent by mild steel. It is used only where tough material is
required. It is used as rivets, railway couplings, water and steam pipes, bolts and nuts, horse shoes, hand rails, chains
etc. It is also used for fabricating architectural works and manufacture of hard steel.
Pig Iron Cast Iron
Wrought Iron
8.3 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF STEEL

Steel is an intermediate form between cast iron and wrought iron. Cast iron is very good to take up compressive force
and wrought iron is suitable for tensile forces. Steel is the material which can be used both for compressive as well
as tensile purposes.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Pure iron without any carbon content is not very strong but its strength can be
increased very much when alloyed with carbon. Iron when alloyed with other non-ferrous metals is called steel alloy.
Composition
Steel goes on becoming harder and tougher with the increase in its carbon contents. Up to a content of about 1.5%
all the carbon gets into chemical combination with iron & non exists in its free state. If the carbon is more than 1.5%
then it does not combine with iron & present as free graphite then it falls under the category of cast iron.
Classification
1. High carbon steel: carbon content 0.8~1.5%
2. Medium carbon steel: carbon content 0.3~0.8%
3. Mild steel: carbon content 0.15~0.3%
4. Dead mild steel: carbon content <0.15%
Steel with >1% carbon content is called cast steel or carbon tool steel
Properties
- It is tough, malleable, ductile and has granular structure
- It can be hardened, tempered, rapidly forged and welded
- Its melting point is between 1300~14000C
- It absorbs shocks, rusts easily and can make permanent magnets
- It is strong in tension as well as in compression
Uses
Used as kitchenware, reinforcement in RCC, grills, steel column & beams, automobile parts, machine tools, plain &
corrugated sheets etc.
8.4 HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS

Heat treatment for steel is very important to improve its specific properties. It is the process or operation which
involves heating and cooling of steel in solid state. The main functions of heat treatment are:
- To bring desired mechanical properties such as hardness, toughness, strength, ductility etc.
- To remove the concentration of stress development during working operation of steel
- To remove voids entrapped during the process of manufacture of steel,
- To refine grain size
- To improve the machinability of steel
- To harden the surface of ductile steel
Followings are the methods of heat treatment of steel:
1. Annealing: During heat treatment process, steel is heated slowly to a temperature of 800 to 1000 0C and then
allowed to cool slowly embedding in sand, ash, lime or some other non-conducting material. By this process,
steel becomes soft and ductile so as to enable it to be easily machined and the air entrapped during casting is
removed. And also, the internal stresses developed during casting and working on it are released.
2. Normalizing: In this, steel is heated slowly to about 10000C & then allowed to cool in air to remedy some defects
in steel such as: when steel is cold worked, its crystalline structure may get upset & it may become brittle and
even crack; also when steel is heated to very high temperature as for forging, it may loose its toughness.
3. Quenching (Hardening): In this, steel is heated to red hot and then allowed to cool suddenly by dipping in bath
of cold water or oil. The steel going through this process is called quenched steel. Through this process, steel
becomes hard and brittle. It improves wear and tear resistance of steel. The hardness of quenched steel depends
upon the medium used for quenching & rate of cooling.
4. Case/Surface Hardening: During this, only the surface of metal is hardened to a depth of about 1.5mm with two
operations:
a. Converting the outer skin to high carbon steel
b. Hardening the case and refining the core
To increase surface carbon content, steel is incased in cast iron or steel boxes together with a substance rich in
carbon like charcoal granules, bone dust etc. & the boxes are heated in a furnace to a temperature of 900 to 9500C.
At this temperature, carbon infuses into the surface of steel and converts it to high carbon steel. The steel is then
taken out and allowed to cool same as quenching. The hardened depth depends upon time of heating. It is usually
3 to 4 hours.
5. Tempering: The steel is heated below critical temperature & then cooled gradually in steel air which causes a
partial transformation thereby reducing its hardness but making the steel tougher. It helps in releasing any
internal stresses develop during hardening. It makes steel more ductile while maintaining its hardness. Quenched
steel often needs tempering to improve its ductility.
8.5 ALLOY OF STEEL

An alloy steel may be defined as a carbon steel to which one or more elements are added to get some beneficial
effects. The commonly added elements include silicon, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten,
vanadium, copper, boron etc. They are:
1) Cobalt Steel: This alloy is formed by adding cobalt to high carbon steel. This alloy remains hard and tough even
at red hot condition. Alloy containing 5~12% cobalt is very much used for high speed cutting tools, 35% of cobalt
in high carbon steel is used for making permanent magnets.
2) Copper Steel: This alloy consists of copper about 0.15~0.25%. This alloy can resist effects of atmospheric
agencies in a better way than ordinary carbon steel.
3) Chromium/chrome Steel: It is prepared by adding 0.7~1.2% of chromium to steel containing 0.17~0.55% carbon.
This alloy can withstand impact, shock, abrasion and have very high elastic limit. It is used coil springs, ball
bearings, files, cutting tools etc.
4) Manganese Steel: This alloy contains 1.6~1.9% manganese and 0.3~0.5% carbon. It is hard, strong, and fairly
ductile alloy. It possesses excellent resistance against abrasion and coefficient of expansion is low. This alloy is
used for gears, railway crossings etc.
5) Molybdenum Steel: This steel contains 0.2~0.3% molybdenum, 0.7~1.0% manganese and 0.3~0.7% carbon. It
can be easily welded, is resistance against shock & impact and maintains its property even at high temperature. It
is strong and hard alloy. It is used for springs, bolts, scraper blades, axles etc.
6) Nickel Steel: It consists of 3.0~3.5% of nickel and 0.15~0.50% carbon. This alloy is hard, ductile and resistance
to corrosion. It is used as structural steel, for propeller shafts, boilerplates etc.
7) Tungsten Steel: This consists of 0.5~1.0% carbon with 5~7% of tungsten. It is hard alloy which can maintain
cutting edges sharp even at high temperature. Itis used for cutting tools & drills.
8) Vanadium Steel: This is formed by alloying about 0.2% of vanadium with steel. This alloy is ductile and has quite
high strength. It is used for making springs, automobile parts etc.
9) Silicon Steel: This is made by alloying silicon with steel. This alloy is very tough. More than 4.0% silicon
develops brittleness in the alloy. It can be easily magnetized and demagnetized. It is used for transformer cores.
10) Stainless Steel: It is an alloy of steel having very low carbon content and chromium content of over 12%. It is
generally used for kitchenware.
8.6 NON-FERROUS METALS

A non-ferrous metal is a metal, including alloys, that does not contain iron (ferrite) in appreciable amounts. Compare
to iron, non-ferrous metals have lesser production. The non-ferrous metals and their alloys are used despite their high
cost because they provide a wide variety of properties. Important non-ferrous metals include aluminium, copper,
lead, tin, zinc, manganese and alloys such as brass.
(1) Aluminium: The chief ore is bauxite (Al2O3H2O). It is silver white in colour with a brittle metallic luster on
freshly broken surface. It is malleable, less ductile than copper but harder than tin. Aluminium is very light, soft,
strong and durable, has low thermal conductivity but is a good conductor of electricity. Aluminium can be riveted
and welded, but cannot be soldered. Ex- door, window, partitions, plane parts etc.
(2) Copper: The chief ores are copper pyrite, malachite and copper glance. Copper is a bright shining metal of reddish
colour which turns greenish on exposure to weather. It is malleable and ductile and can be worked in hot and cold
conditions. It is not weldable, except on red heat. It is soft and good conductor of heat and electricity. Ex- electrical
materials, parts of roofing, sheeting and damp proofing, kitchen utensils. Some of the important alloys made with
copper are brass & bronze.
(3) Zinc: Sulphide ore is the main source of zinc including others. The most important property of zinc is its resistance
to atmospheric corrosion. Ductility is good & it can be deformed into desired shapes. It is used to produce brass,
German silver, some of the bronzes, as a protective coating on iron and steel-CGI sheets, boiler tubes, fruit jar covers
& cans for resisting corrosion & for negative pole of batteries.
(4) Lead: The principal ore is lead sulphide. Mainly used in its pure form, lead is the densest, softest & the weakest
metal. Pure lead can be scratched even with finger nail, highly malleable & can be rolled, into thin foils. It has a blue
grey colour & dull metallic lusture when fractured. When exposed to moist air it loses lusture due to oxidation.
It is principally used in paints as base, lead pipes and joints in sanitary fittings and in batteries.
(5) Tin: It is extracted from black oxide of tin. It is a silvery-white, lustrous, and extremely malleable metal. It is so
soft that it can be cut by a knife. It is harder, more ductile and stronger than lead. Tin is as ductile as soft steel. It is
highly resistant to corrosion & has low tensile strength. Sheets coated with tin are used to make cans, utensils &
furnace pipes. Lead-tin alloy coated sheets are used for roofing. Tin is also used for making bronze & other alloys.
8.7 COMMERCIAL PRODUCT OF METALS

Construction is one of the most important metal-using industries, especially steel, accounting for more than 50% of
world production. Buildings, roads & bridges, water supply system, irrigation & hydropower systems rely on steel
for their strength.
The advanced high-strength steels also find uses in a number of related industries. Offshore oil rigs, bridges,
civil engineering and construction machines, rail carriages, tanks and pressure vessels, nuclear, thermal and
hydroelectric plants – all these applications benefit from the attributes of modern steels.
Not only is steel affordable, readily available and safer, its intrinsic properties, such as strength, versatility, durability
and 100% recyclability allow for improved environmental performance across the entire life cycle of the structure.
The possibilities for using steel in buildings and infrastructure are limitless.
The most common applications are listed below:
For Buildings
❖ Structural sections: these provide a strong, stiff frame for the building. Ex- angle section, I-section, T-section,
channel section, square bar, flat bar etc.
❖ Reinforcing bars: these add tensile strength & stiffness to concrete. Steel binds well to concrete, has a similar
thermal expansion coefficient & is strong and relatively cost-effective. Reinforced concrete is also used to
provide deep foundations & basements & is currently the world’s primary building material. Ex- Ribbed bar,
round bar, tor-steel round bar, TMT bar, CTD bar etc.
❖ Sheet products: The sheet products such as roofing (CGI), purlins, internal walls, ceilings and cladding.
❖ Non-structural steel: Used in non-structural applications in buildings, such as heating and cooling equipment
and interior ducting.
❖ Internal fixtures and fittings such as rails, shelving and stairs are also made of steel.
For Infrastructure
❖ Transport networks: steel is required for bridges, tunnels, rail track and in constructing buildings such as fueling
stations, train stations, ports and airports. About 60% of steel use in this application is as rebar and the rest is
sections, plates and rail track.
❖ Utilities (fuel, water, power): over 50% of the steel used for this application is in underground pipelines to
distribute water to and from housing, and to distribute gas. The rest is mainly rebar for power stations and
pumping houses.
CHAPTER 9 – PAINTS AND VARNISHES
9.1 FUNCTION, INGREDIENT, TYPE AND USES OF PAINTS AND VARNISHES

The paints are coatings of fluid materials and they are applied over the surfaces of timber and metals. Paints are
classified as oil paints, water paints, cement paints, bituminous paints and special paints such as fire proof paints,
luminous paints, chlorinated rubber paints etc.
The functions of the paints are: to protect the coated surface against possible stresses—mechanical or chemical;
deterioration—physical or environmental; decorate the structure by giving smooth and colourful finish; avoid
penetration of water through R.C.C; avoid the formation of bacteria and fungus, which are unhygienic and give ugly
look to the walls; avoid the corrosion of the metal structures; avoid the decay of wood work and to colour the surface
to display it to better advantage.
A paint consists of the following ingredients:

1. Base: The base, usually a metallic oxide, is the principal constituent of the paint. It makes the paint film opaque
and possesses binding properties which reduce the shrinkage cracks in the film on drying. Some of the examples
of base are white lead, red lead, zinc white, aluminium powder, iron oxide, etc. Lead based paints are in general
affected by atmosphere and are not recommended for final coats. Zinc white is weather resistant.
2. Vehicle: Vehicle (or binder) is an oil to which the base is mixed. It holds the constituents of paint in suspension
& helps spread it over the surface to be painted, imparts durability, toughness & water proofing to the paint film
& resistance to weathering & gloss to the painted surface and forms the body of the paint. The examples are
natural drying oils such as linseed oil, nut oil, poppy oil and tung oil.
3. Pigments: They are used to hide the surface imperfections and to impart the desired colour. They protect the
paint film by reflecting the destructive ultra violet light, which acts as a catalytic agent for the destructive
oxidation of the film. They also improve the impermeability of the paint film and enhance its resistance to
weathering, affect the flow characteristics making it possible to paint vertical and uneven surfaces smoothly.
They are finely ground mineral, organic substances or metal powders. Their general properties are covering,
colouring capacity, fineness, fire resistance, chemical stability & weather resistance. The fine pigment particles
have a reinforcing effect on the paint film.
The common pigments are classified as natural & artificial. Examples of natural: limestone & glue paints, putties
& coloured building mortars, include ground natural white chalk, mastics, grey graphite, dry yellow ochre etc.
Artificial mineral pigments, obtained by chemical processing of raw mineral materials, include titanium dioxide,
zinc white, lead white, lithophone, chrome oxide, red lead, gas black soot, etc. metal powders such as aluminium
powder, metallic powders, gold dust, etc. synthetic substances of organic origin, possessing high dyeing capacity.
4. Solvents: They are the oils used to thin the paints, increase the spread, and are also known as thinners. They
make the paint of workable consistency and evaporate during drying of the film. The common thinning agents
used are petroleum, spirit, naptha and turpentine oil. It is obtained from the steam distillation of the resinous
exudations of the pine tree, leaving resin as a by-product. Turpentine is used extensively because of high solvent
power, excellent flattening properties and ideal rate of evaporation.
5. Driers: Also known as plasticizers, are chemicals added for specific purposes, e.g., as catalyst (accelerate the
drying of the vehicle) for oxidation, Polymerisation & condensation of the vehicle in paint. The quantity of drier
is limited to 8%, the excess affects the elasticity of paint leading to flaking failure. Ex- letharge (oxidized lead),
lead acetate, red lead, manganese dioxide & cobalt, zinc & lead chromate. Red lead is the best for primary coat
over steel & metal work; it produces an extremely hard & tough film, almost impervious to air and moisture,
adheres firmly to the metal and is extremely effective in protecting steel from corrosion. The cost of zinc and
lead chromates is high.
6. Adulterants: They bring down the cost, reduce the weight & increase the durability. They also help to reduce
cracking of dry paint & sometimes help to keep the pigment in suspension. Ex -barium sulphate, calcium
carbonate, magnesium silicate and silica.
Types of paint
There are different types of paints available in various colours which are required to be thinned with oil or turpentine
before use:
- Aluminium paint - Anti-corrosive paint

- Asbestos paint - Bituminous or Tar paint
- Cellulose paint - Cement paint
- Emulsion paint - Enamel paint
- Oil paint - Plastic paint
- Silicate paint - Synthetic rubber paint
- Colloidal paint - Graphite paint
- Inodorous paint - Luminous paint
Aluminium paint: The finely ground aluminium is suspended in quick-drying sprit varnish or slow-drying oil varnish
which after applying evaporates and thin metallic film of aluminium is left of the surface.
Anti-corrosive paint: It mainly consists of oil, a strong dryer and a colouring pigment mixed with very fine sand.
This paint is usually cheaper than white lead, lasts for long period and exerts black appearance to the painted surface.
It is used externally, protects and preserves the structural steel against adverse weather, fumes, acidic, corrosive
chemicals etc.
Emulsion paint: It consists of binding materials such as polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins etc. This paint is easy to
apply, tough, dries quickly, remains for longer time and can be cleaned by water.
Enamel paint: It consists of mix of four constituents: metallic oxide, oil, petroleum spirit and resinous matter. It is
available in market in readymade form in different colours.
Cement paint: It consists of boiled linseed oil to which dry good cement (65~75% OPC, white or coloured cement)
are mixed. It is available in powder form which is made into required consistency.
Varnish
Varnish is the solution of resins or resinous substances prepared either in alcohol, oil of turpentine. The oil dries with
time and the other solvents evaporate leaving behind a solid transparent resin film over the surface. For rapid drying,
driers such as letharage, lead accetate, etc. are used.
The type of solvent depends upon the type of resin used and is given below.
Function of varnish
➢ It should render the surface glossy.
➢ It should dry rapidly and present a finished surface which is uniform in nature and pleasing in appearance.
➢ The colour of varnish should not fade away when the surface is exposed to atmospheric actions.
➢ The protecting film developed should be tough, hard and durable.
➢ It should not shrink or show cracks after drying.
The following types of varnishes are commonly used:
Oil varnish: It uses linseed oil and takes about 24 hours to dry. Hard resins such as amber and copal are dissolved in
linseed oil. If the varnish is found unworkable, a small amount of turpentine oil may be added. It is suitable both for
interior and external works.
Spar varnish: The name is due to its use on spars and other parts of ships. It gives sticky effect in warm weather and
is not used indoors.
Flat varnish: The materials such as wax, metallic soap or finally divided silica when added to varnish produce a dull
appearance on drying and are known as flat varnish.
Sprit varnish: It is resins of soft variety such as lac or shellac dissolved in spirit. The examples are French polish,
lacquer and shellac varnish. It dries very quickly. These are not durable and are easily affected by weathering action.
Asphalt varnish: It is made by dissolving melted hard asphalt in linseed oil with a thinner such as turpentine or
petroleum spirit. It is used over shop fabricated steel works.
Water varnish: It is shellac dissolved in hot water to which enough quantity of either ammonia, borax, soda or potash
is added. These are used for varnishing maps and pictures.
9.2 DISTEMPER
Distemper is made with base as white chalk and thinner as water. Some colouring pigments and glue are added. They
are available in powder and paste forms and are substantially cheaper than paints. They are most suitable for plastered
surfaces as well as white washed surfaces of interior walls.
Oil bound washable distemper, washable oil free distemper, & non-washable distemper or emulsion paints are some
of the types of distemper. In the oil bound distemper, the drying oil is rendered mixable with water. While using they
are thinned by adding water. On drying, the oil content in distemper hardens and yields comparatively durable
coating.
Characteristics
- The coatings are thick and more brittle compared to paints.

- They are workable, easy in application but less durable.
- The film (porous) can be applied on even newly plastered surface.
Distempers are applied in the following manner:
Preparation of surface: The surface is thoroughly rubbed and cleaned; new plastered surface - kept exposed & let
dry; old distempered surface - cleaned with profuse watering; efflorescence & patches are wiped out by a clean cloth
& cracks filled with putty.
Priming coat: A recommended priming coat is applied on the prepared surface.
Final coat: Two or three coats of distemper are applied. Each coat should be applied only after the previous coat has
dried.
9.3 ANTI-TERMITE TREATMENT

There are two types of termites which need damp or moist environment to grow and damage structures:
Dry-wood termites: These are wood nesting termites living in dry-wood in small colonies without maintaining any
connection to soils.
Subterranean or ground nesting termites: The primary colonies of these termites are established in the ground
developing earthen material shelter tubes or galleries on mud or other materials. The secondary nests may also be
developed in the wood, they consume.
It is better to take care of termite proofing prior construction of the structure if not we can treat the structure later
which might prove to be expensive.
Generally, following two termite proofing methods are adopted:
Chemical treatment of soil: Under this, the insecticides are thoroughly mixed & spread evenly in soil. These are also
used in damaged portions of masonry & woodwork by injecting them under pressure in drilled holes. Several
insecticides are used: DDT, BHC, PCP etc. Also, there are chemicals which are mixed in oil or water & used. These
are proved to be quite effective barrier between the structure & ground.
Physical structural barrier: Under this, continuous physical structural barriers as concrete or metal layer may be
provided at plinth level. The concrete layer should be 50~75mm thick and preferably be projected about 50~75mm
internally & externally. Non-corrodible 0.8mm thick metal sheet of copper or galvanized iron barriers were used but
was not effective. However, these require good skills.
CHAPTER 10 – ASPHALT, BITUMEN, TAR & MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
10.1 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF ASPHALT, BITUMEN AND TAR

The materials in which asphalt, bitumen or tar are associated in some forms are termed as bituminous or asphaltic
materials. It is extensively used in road construction. It is also used in building industry in form of timber
preservatives, DPC and leak proofing roofs.
Bitumen
It is defined as a non-crystalline solid or viscous hydrocarbon material, having adhesive properties derived from
petroleum either by natural or refinery process. It is brown or black in colour and completely soluble in carbon
disulphide (CS2). Bitumen may occur naturally, but are usually made as end products from distillation of or as
extracts from petroleum oils.
Types
Bitumen emulsion, Blown bitumen, Cut-back bitumen, Plastic bitumen and Straight Run bitumen.
Properties
It is solid or semisolid, black or sticky; melts or softens on application of heat; completely soluble in carbon
disulphide; binder in all types of asphalt and possesses great chemical stability but affected by oil.
Uses
It is used as road making material; damp-proof course; joint fillers in leaky roofs; as roofing felt, impermeable paints
& cold moulded bituminous plastics; filling compounds for cable boxes, dry battery; waterproof packing paper etc.
Asphalt
It is a natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen is associated with inert materials like sand, gravel and crushed
stone. It is available in natural state or it can be prepared artificially. In natural form it is found as lake asphalt and
rock asphalt.
Types
Mastic asphalt, Asphaltic cement, Cut-back asphalt, Asphaltic emulsion.
Properties
Sticky/adhesive & binds strongly; solid/semi-solid in nature; black or brown in colour; waterproof & elastic;
becomes plastic & workable when heated; highly ductile & not easily affected by adverse weather.
Uses
Extensively used in roads & pavements; water-proof layer for flooring, tanks, roofs, basements, swimming pool;
roofing felts, paints; electric insulating materials etc.
Tar
It is a viscous liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood and coal are destructively distilled in
absence of air.
Types
Coal tar, Mineral tar, Wood tar.
Properties
It is black or dark brown in colour; contains high carbon %; quick hardening and more adhesive than asphalt;
possesses high degree of toxicity.
Uses
Used for roofing and road construction; making paints and water proofing compounds; painting of bathroom walls;
coal tar is used as preservative for timber.
10.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF GLASS

Glass has been extensively used in building construction as an infilling for the transmission of light through doors,
windows and partitions and for insulation and decoration purposes.
Types
It is classified into two ways:
1) Based on predominant chemical composition
2) Based on different commercially available forms
It is divided into 4 types based on chemical composition:

a) Soda lime glass (soft glass)
b) Potassium lime glass (hard glass)
c) Potassium lead glass (flint glass)
d) Common glass (tinted soft glass)
There are many types of commercial forms some of which are:

- Sheet glass - Plate glass
- Laminated glass - Wired glass
- Insulating glass - Coloured glass
- Tempered glass - Figured glass
- Ground glass or obscured glass
Properties
- It is transparent and can be tinted with colour.
- It is an amorphous or non-crystalline & extremely brittle material.
- It has high workability thus can be casted, welded, forged, drawn, blown etc. allowing to take desired shapes.
- It is chemically inert & can be used in corrosive environment.
- Different improvements can be made to increase its thermal shock resistance and fire resistance capacity.
However
- It is good in compression but weak in tension.
- It is poor resisting thermal shock and impact stress.
Use
It is widely used in spectacles, mirrors, door & window screens, automobile wind screens, bullet proof screens, glass
fiber, glass wool, electric bulb, bottles etc.
Wired Glass Figured Glass Ground or obscured glass

10.3 PLASTIC MATERIALS

Plastics are made from resin with or without fillers, plasticisers and pigments. These are organic materials of high
molecular weight which can be moulded to any desired form when subjected to heat and pressure in the presence of
a catalyst.
Plastics are replacing glass, ceramics & other building materials due to the low temperature range they can be brought
to the plastic state and ease of forming & fabrication, low cost and easy availability. Plastics are classified as
thermoplastic polymers (thermoplasts) and thermosetting polymers (thermosets).
The thermoplastic variety softens on heating with or without pressure & hardens on cooling taking required shape.
When heated and compressed, the fluid takes shape of mould in which they are placed.
They are not too strong but flexible and are reusable. They can’t be used in higher temperature. The examples are:
Polythene: pipes, cistern balls, sheet plastic
Polyvinyl Chloride: drainage pipes, electric insulation, emulsion paint
Polyvinyl Acetate: adhesives, latex paint
Teflon: teflon tapes, teflon sleeve to join pipes, non-stick cooking
Polystyrene: food containers, plastic cups, cosmetic bottles, packaging
Thermosetting materials can’t be softened by heating but become hard. They are characterized by strong cross-
links between chains. These are formed by condensation polymerization. Some examples:
Phenolic Resins: electric switches, plywood adhesive, utensil handles
Epoxy Resin: adhesive for glass, porcelain, metal and wood
Glyptal Resin: alkyd paints
Properties
- Low density, light weight, good mouldability, cheaper, quite durable
- Poor temperature resistance
- Good corrosion resistance, low coefficient of friction
- Can be produced transparent or with colour
- Low mechanical properties but can be improved by reinforcements
Uses
- Materials for flooring, interior finishing of walls, ceilings etc.
- Materials for structural components
- Miscellaneous slender and tubular materials
- Synthetic varnishes, paints, glues etc.
- Heat and sound insulating materials
- Waterproofing and sealing materials
- Sanitary equipment, piping and fittings
10.4 INSULATING MATERIALS

Based on the purpose, two types of insulation are carried out.
a) Thermal Insulation: The purpose is to restrict the heat transfer from warmer to cooler areas. The commonly used
heat insulating materials work on principle of air spaces formed between structural components, surface insulation
or internal insulation. Examples are aerated concrete, gypsum boards, fiber boards, asbestos cement boards, chip
boards, cork boards, foam plastic, aluminium foil, reflecting paints, expanded blast furnace slag, fiber glass, glass
wool etc. Cavity wall, though costly, provides good insulation.
Properties: should be impermeable to water, fire proof, resists insect attacks, have low thermal conductivity, it is a
porous light weight so has low strength.
b) Sound Insulation: A well designed building should incorporate sound insulation to restrain noise level. High
noise conditions result in uncomfortable living conditions, mental strain, fatigue & may even lead to nervous
breakdown or temporary deafness. Adequate insulation can be achieved by using sound absorbing or sound repellent
materials.
The commonly used sound insulating materials are cellular concrete, asbestos, rock wool, glass wool, glass silk,
mineral wool boards, cane fiber and porous tiles. Acoustic plastics such as gypsum plaster is very effective in sound
insulation.
Properties: should have low density, porous texture, resistance to moisture, pleasing look, incombustible, light in
weight and easy to handle and fix, resistant to attacks of vermin, insects, termite etc.
10.5 GYPSUM PRODUCTS

Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder occurring naturally as a soft crystalline rock or sand. Pure gypsum is a white
translucent crystalline mineral so soft that it can be scratched by a finger nail. As a binding material, the gypsum
quickly sets and hardens. Its initial setting time after adding water is 4 to 6 minutes and final setting time is about 30
minutes. It is mainly used for manufacturing of cement to increase the setting time. It is also used to prepare gypsum
plaster (plaster of Paris), gypsum board, partition blocks, and pyrocell.
Properties are: small bulk density, incombustibility, good sound absorbing capacity, good fire resistance, rapid drying
& hardening with negligible shrinkage, superior surface finish, resistance to insects & rodents. But has poor strength
in wet state & high creep under load.
10.6 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composites are combination of two materials in which one is called the reinforcing phase which is in the form of
fibers, sheets or particles and is embedded in the other material called the matrix phase.
The reinforcing material and the matrix material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials
are strong with low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile or tough, material. If the composite is designed
and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a
combination of desirable properties not available in any single conventional material.
Examples
1. Fiber reinforced plastics: glass-fiber reinforced plastic or fiberglass, carbon fiber reinforced plastic,
thermoplast composites, thermoset composites
2. Reinforced carbon-carbon: carbon fiber in a graphite matrix
3. Metal matrix composites: White cast iron, hard metal (carbon in metal matrix)
4. Ceramic matrix composites: Concrete, cermet (ceramic and metal)
5. Organic matric/ceramic aggregate composites: Asphalt concrete, dental composite, synthetic foam
6. Engineered wood: Plywood, wood plastic composite
7. Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textile: Arborite, formica
Uses and Applications

Straw-reinforced mud bricks for huts is the example of composites that were in use historically and are still being
used extensively in rural areas. The most widely used composite material in construction industry in modern age is
cement concrete and, reinforced cement concrete. Some of the special concrete such as Ferrocement and fiber
concrete are also composites.
Composite materials are more environmental resistance than traditional civil engineering materials such as steel,
masonry, and plaster. Degradation in strength and stiffness for pure steel structures (rusting) requires frequent
inspection, maintenance and repair. Similarly stress due to warm/cold weathering or seismic loads limit the service
life of concrete structures.
Use of composites in structure minimizes property and life loss induced by earthquake. Currently, composite
materials are being used to retrofit and /or reinforce existing infrastructure.

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TRIVUBAN UNIVERSITY

PULCHOWK ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

CIVIL SECOND YEAR – FIRST PART

COURSE CODE: CE 506

1. INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL 1

8. METALS AND ALLOYS #

9. PAINTS AND VARNISHES #

10. ASPHALT, BITUMEN, TAR AND MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS #

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1.1 SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT

1.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

The important properties of materials are:

H) Disposability and recyclability

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

A. Based on the existence: It is classified into two types:

B. Based on metallurgy: It is classified into two types:

C. Based on use: It is classified into three types:

1.4 PROPERTIES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

2. Density: It is defined as the mass of a material per unit of its volume.

12. Durability: It is the resistance of a material to destruction by natural agencies.

11. Malleability: It is the ability of a material to be beaten to thin sheets.

- The density of material

1. Chemical properties (chemical composition, acidity, alkalinity, corrosion etc.)

CHAPTER 2 – BUILDING STONES

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

2.3 SELECTION AND USE OF STONES

2.4 DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF STONES

- It doesn’t allow moisture to penetrate the stone surfaces

2.5 NATURAL BED OF STONES

2.6 DRESSING OF STONES

➢ Generally, to give them neat/good appearances

The different types of dressing of stones are:

1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface

The details of types of dressing of stones are as follows:

1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface:

2. Rough tooled surface:

4. Cut stone Surface:

CHAPTER 3 – CLAY PRODUCTS

3.2 CONSTITUENTS OF BRICK EARTH

FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS

HARMFUL INGREDIENTS IN BRICK EARTH

3.3 MANUFACTURE OF BRICK

The important terms to be remembered in connection with the drying is as follows:

(i) Clamp burning

(ii) Kiln burning

Example – Clamp Burning

Example – Kiln Burning

3.4 QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICKS

Crushing strength: It should not be less than 10 N/mm2.

3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

Based on the process of making they can be classified as:

Based on the burning process:

First class brick (Class ‘A’) Second class brick

Third class brick Over burnt brick

First class brick

Second class brick

Third class brick

3.6 STANDARD TEST FOR BRICKS

4) Shape and Size Test

Length: 3680mm to 3920mm (single brick length: 184mm~196mm)

Maximum Load at failure (N)

7) Presence of Soluble Salt