Masonry &

Concrete
Structure
 Chapter-1
MASONRY STRUCTURE – INTRODUCTION (ch)

Structure of this unit

Masonry structure – introduction

Learning objectives
1. Strength of brick, stone and concrete blocks
2. Permissible stresses in masonry consisting of brick, stone and concrete blocks (both
solid and hollow) as per BIS codes

1.1 MASONRY STRUCTURE – INTRODUCTION (mh)

Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar;
the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry
construction are brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine, limestone, cast stone, concrete block,
glass block, stucco, and tile. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction.
However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in
which the units are assembled can significantly affect the durability of the overall masonry
construction.
 

Applications

Masonry is commonly used for the walls of buildings, retaining walls and buildings. Brick and
concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations and may
be either weight-bearing or a veneer. Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer
various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great compressive strength,
and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled.
Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement (typically
rebar) offers much greater tensile and lateral strength to structures.

Advantages

The use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can
protect the building from fire.
 • Most types of masonry typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure
with reduced life-cycle costs.
• Masonry is non-combustible product.
• Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or
tornadoes.
• Masonry structures built in compression preferably with lime mortar can have a useful
life of more than 500 years as compared to 30 to 100 for structures of steel or reinforced
concrete.

Disadvantages

Extreme weather -combined with the right circumstances- can cause degradation of masonry
wall surfaces due to frost damage.

• Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a strong foundation, such as reinforced
concrete, to avoid settling and cracking.
• Save for concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to mechanization, and
requires more skilled labor than stick-framing.

Structural limitations

Masonry boasts an impressive compressive strength (vertical loads) but is much lower in tensile
strength (twisting or stretching) unless reinforced. The tensile strength of masonry walls can be
strengthened by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers (vertical columns or ribs) at
intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements can be added.

1.1.1 Strength of brick (h)

1.1.1.1 Brick (sh)

Solid brickwork is made of two or more wythes of bricks with the units running horizontally
(called stretcher bricks) bound together with bricks running transverse to the wall (called
"header" bricks). Each row of bricks is known as a course. The pattern of headers and stretchers
employed gives rise to different bonds such as the common bond (with every sixth course
composed of headers), the English bond, and the Flemish bond (with alternating stretcher and
header bricks present on every course). Bonds can differ in strength and in insulating ability.
Vertically staggered bonds tend to be somewhat stronger and less prone to major cracking than a
non-staggered bond.

a) Uniformity and rusticity

 Masonry repair work done to a brick wall.

The wide selection of brick styles and types generally available in industrialized nations allow
much variety in the appearance of the final product. In buildings built during the 1950s-1970s, a
high degree of uniformity of brick and accuracy in masonry was typical. In the period since then
this style was thought to be too sterile, so attempts were made to emulate older, rougher work.
Some brick surfaces are made to look particularly rustic by including burnt bricks, which have a
darker color or an irregular shape. Others may use antique salvage bricks, or new bricks may be
artificially aged by applying various surface treatments, such as tumbling. The attempts at
rusticity of the late 20th century have been carried forward by masons specializing in a free,
artistic style, where the courses are intentionally not straight, instead weaving to form more
organic impressions.

b) Serpentine masonry

A crinkle-crankle wall is a brick wall that follows a serpentine path, rather than a straight line.
This type of wall is more resistant to toppling than a straight wall; so much so that it may be
made of a single wythe of unreinforced brick and so despite its longer length may be more
economical than a straight wall.

1.1.1.2 Methods of manufacture (sh)

 
 Brick making at the beginning of the 20th century.

Modern clay bricks are formed in one of three processes – soft mud, dry press, or extruded.

Normally, brick contains the following ingredients:

1. Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight

2. Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight
3. Lime – 2 to 5% by weight
4. Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight
5. Magnesia – less than 1% by weight

i. Mud bricks

The soft mud method is the most common, as it is the most economical. It starts with the raw
clay, preferably in a mix with 25–30% sand to reduce shrinkage. The clay is first ground and
mixed with water to the desired consistency. The clay is then pressed into steel moulds with a
hydraulic press. The shaped clay is then fired ("burned") at 900–1000 °C to achieve strength.

ii. Rail kilns

 

Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near Ngcobo in the former Transkei in 2007.

In modern brickworks, this is usually done in a continuously fired tunnel kiln, in which the
bricks are fired as they move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars, which
achieves a more consistent brick product. The bricks often have lime, ash, and organic matter
added, which accelerates the burning process.
 iii. Bull's Trench Kilns

In India, brick making is typically a manual process. The most common type of brick kiln in use
there is the Bull's Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by British engineer W. Bull
in the late 19th century.

An oval or circular trench is dug, 6–9 metres wide, 2-2.5 metres deep, and 100–150 metres in
circumference. A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the centre. Half or more of the trench is
filled with "green" (unfired) bricks which are stacked in an open lattice pattern to allow airflow.
The lattice is capped with a roofing layer of finished brick.

In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the brick
pile; cooled finished bricks are removed from the other end for transport to their destinations. In
the middle, the brick workers create a firing zone by dropping fuel (coal, wood, oil, debris, and
so on) through access holes in the roof above the trench.

West face of Roskilde Cathedral in Roskilde, Denmark.

The advantage of the BTK design is a much greater energy efficiency compared with clamp or
scove kilns. Sheet metal or boards are used to route the airflow through the brick lattice so that
fresh air flows first through the recently burned bricks, heating the air, then through the active
burning zone. The air continues through the green brick zone (pre-heating and drying the bricks),
and finally out the chimney, where the rising gases create suction which pulls air through the
system. The reuse of heated air yields savings in fuel cost.

As with the rail process above, the BTK process is continuous. A half dozen laborers working
around the clock can fire approximately 15,000–25,000 bricks a day. Unlike the rail process, in
the BTK process the bricks do not move. Instead, the locations at which the bricks are loaded,
fired, and unloaded gradually rotate through the trench.

iv. Dry pressed bricks

The dry press method is similar to the soft mud brick method, but starts with a much thicker clay
mix, so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks. The greater force in pressing and the
longer burn make this method more expensive.

v. Extruded bricks

For extruded bricks the clay is mixed with 10–15% water (stiff extrusion) or 20–25% water (soft
extrusion). This mixture is forced through a die to create a long cable of material of the desired
width and depth. This mass is then cut into bricks of the desired length by a wall of wires. Most
structural bricks are made by this method as it produces hard, dense bricks, and suitable dies can
produce holes or other perforations as well. The introduction of such holes reduces the volume of
clay needed, and hence the cost. Hollow bricks are lighter and easier to handle, and have
different thermal properties than solid bricks. The cut bricks are hardened by drying for 20 to 40
hours at 50 to 150 °C before being fired. The heat for drying is often waste heat from the kiln.

European-style extruded bricks or blocks are used in single-wall construction with finishes
applied on the inside and outside. Their many voids comprise a greater proportion of the volume
than the solid, thin walls of fired clay. Such bricks are made in 15-, 25-, 30-, 42- and 50-cm
widths. Some models have very high thermal insulation properties, making them suitable for
zero-energy buildings.

vi. Calcium-Silicate bricks

 Swedish Mexitegel.

The raw materials for calcium-silicate bricks include lime mixed with quartz, crushed flint or
crushed siliceous rock together with mineral colourants. The materials are mixed and left until
the lime is completely hydrated; the mixture is then pressed into moulds and cured in an
autoclave for two or three hours to speed the chemical hardening. The finished bricks are very
accurate and uniform, although the sharp arrises need careful handling to avoid damage to brick
(and bricklayer). The bricks can be made in a variety of colours; white is common but pastel
shades can be achieved. This type of brick is common in Sweden, especially in houses built or
renovated in the 1970s, where it is known as "Mexitegel" (en: Mexi[can] Bricks). In India these
are known as Fly ash bricks, manufactured using the FaL-G (fly ash, lime and gypsum) process.
Calcium-silicate bricks are also manufactured in Canada and the United States, and meet the
criteria set forth in ASTM C73 – 10 Standard Specification for Calcium Silicate Brick (Sand-
Lime Brick). It has lower embodied energy than cement based man-made stone and clay brick.

vii. Concrete bricks

A concrete brick-making assembly line in Guilinyang Town, Hainan, China. This operation
produces a pallet containing 42 bricks, approximately every 30 seconds.

Bricks of concrete with sand aggregate can be made using a simple machine and a basic
assembly line. A conveyor belt adds the mixture to a machine, which pours a measured amount
of concrete into a form. The form is vibrated to remove bubbles, after which it is raised to reveal
the wet bricks, spaced out on a plywood sheet. A small elevator then stacks these palettes, after
which a forklift operator moves them to the brickyard for drying.

1.1.1.3 Brick Strength (sh)

Brick strength is defined as resistance to load per unit area and is expressed in mega Pascals
(MPa).

Characteristic Unconfined Compressive Strength (f’uc)

The characteristic unconfined compressive strength is used by engineers in the design of

masonry to calculate the strength of a wall. Bricks in any one batch have a range of strengths that
would usually follow a normal distribution. In a wall the different strength bricks contribute to
the strength of the whole and the weakest brick does not determine the strength of the wall. For
safety, engineering practice has been to use characteristic unconfined compressive strength. This
is the strength 95% of the bricks will exceed and is typically 0.86 times the lowest unconfined
compressive strength found when measuring the compressive strengths of 10 samples. Boral
bricks usually have characteristic unconfined compressive strengths in the range 15 to 35 MPa.

Unconfined Compressive Strength

The unconfined compressive strength is a calculated number based on the compressive strength.
To measure the compressive strength of a brick, steel platens are used above and below. This
constrains the surface and where all other factors are equal, a shorter brick will have a higher
compressive strength than a taller brick. To remove this test effect, the compressive strength is
multiplied by a factor, which varies with the height of the brick. The resulting number is called
the unconfined compressive strength and reflects the performance of the brick in a wall.
Theoretically, bricks which are identical except for their height should produce the same
unconfined compressive strength. This figure is not now used in masonry design, but is used to
calculate Characteristic Unconfined Compressive Strength.

Compressive Strength of Bricks

Brick strength is measured according to AS4456.4 Determining Compressive Strength of

Masonry Units. Individually crushing 10 bricks gives the compressive strength of each brick and
the mean compressive strength of the lot. These figures are not used in masonry design, but are
used to calculate Unconfined Compressive.

Fairly obviously, this is the ability of the masonry unit (brick or block) to resist crushing loads,
eg the weight of the roof that the wall is supporting, plus the weight of the wall itself. The
designer of the structure needs to be sure that the masonry unit will be able to carry the load
being placed upon it, including any live loads.

1.1.2 Strength of stone (h)

The primary (control) variables examined in this study are
1) type of stone
2) orientation of bedding planes
3) type of anchor
4) type of test; ie, tension or shear

The secondary (measured) variables are

1) pulse velocity (all specimens),
2) Schmidt hammer readings (all specimens)
3) compression tests (limited specimens).
4) failure mode (all specimens)

First, Strength of Stone has a lot of mass removal

Slagstorm kills off more than half the creatures in the game, as does Magma Phoenix. Fault Line
is a scalable “everything dies” solution to swarming, and Cerebral Eruption provides powerful, if
unpredictable, way to nuke everything on the far side of the board. And while I don’t personally
run Bloodfire Colossus any more, it’s the ultimate way to finish a game of Magic the
Gathering… other than running out of pizza and diet soda.

This removal makes up for the deck’s relatively short list of early, cheap creatures by giving you
a way to clear the air after your opponent has littered the ground with elves, illusions, and baby
trees. Instead of including crappy cards like Goblin Mountaineer, you can wait out rushes and
punish overeager foes with massive card advantage. By the time they recover, you’ll have one or
more meaty creatures in play, ready to scrap with whatever they can muster up.

Of course, those skirmishes will be easier to handle due to evil fucking combos. Slagstorm with
your Magma Phoenix in play to burn the battlefield for six damage. Weaken a creature with
Flowstone Overseer before popping it with fucking anything. Drop Claws of Valakut on
Spikeshot Elder for the cheapest direct damage this side of Dominaria. Or Fault Line for 10+
with Stuffy Doll in play to instantly deal 20 damage to your foe.

And the whole time this chaos is happening, your Rockslide Elemental is getting geometrically
larger.

Of course, the final nail in your enemy’s coffin is Strength of Stone’s large number of
finishers. Sure, the aforementioned combos are great, but many of the deck’s burn spells are
enough to finish opponents. Spire Barrage is a strictly better version of Lava Axe in this format
that can hit for much more than five damage and be aimed at critters, too. Fault
Line/Slagstorm/Cerebral Eruption all put the hurt directly in your opponents’ faces. And even
when they’re protected by an enormous fatty, you can always perform an Act of Treason to
undermine their defense and swing for the win.

I’m going to make up a figure, but based on personal anecdote, I’d say I win 90% of the games I
play with Strength of Stone. I can’t say that of many other decks. Perhaps my opponents simply
underestimate its power, but in my experience they’ve generally lost once their life total drops
below ten, well within the reach of the deck’s many fire forms of doom. Do yourself a favor and
play it today.

1.1.2.1 Compressive Strength (sh)

As anticipated, the destructively-determined compressive strength of the stone is a good

predictor of bolt failure in the limited number of tests performed. The selection of specimens to
be tested destructively was based on the commonality of the variables, including failure mode,
such that the sample diversity of specimens was maximized. It the results of the destructive
compressive strength testing. These specimens are representative of all specimen types,
including bedding orientations and pull-test failure modes. When examined in total, no obvious
pattern emerges from the data.
However, when we isolate the sandstone results, then further separate the data by failure mode of
the anchor installation, we can make some valuable observations. Figure shows all of the
compressive testing results for the sandstone specimens alone.
1.1.2.2 WiNGSPANTT’s Strength of Stone Decklist ()sh
 

1x Assault Strobe
2x Darksteel Axe
1x Grim Lavamancer
1x Spikeshot Elder
1x Fault Line
3x Spitting Earth
2x Act of Treason
2x Claws of Valakut
2x Koth’s Courier
2x Molten Ravager
2x Rockslide Elemental
2x Slagstorm
1x Cerebral Eruption
1x Cyclops Gladiator
1x Hero of Oxid Ridge
1x Lavaborn Muse
 2x Oxidda Scrapmelter
1x Flowstone Overseer
1x Magma Phoenix
2x Spire Barrage
1x Stuffy Doll, bitch
2x Tephraderm
1x Conquering Manticore

1.1.3 Strength of concrete blocks (h)

1.1.3.1 Concrete block (sh)

Concrete masonry units (CMUs) or blocks in a basement wall before burial.

Blocks of cinder concrete (cinder blocks or breezeblocks), ordinary concrete (concrete blocks),
or hollow tile are generically known as Concrete Masonry Units (CMUs). They usually are much
larger than ordinary bricks and so are much faster to lay for a wall of a given size. Furthermore,
cinder and concrete blocks typically have much lower water absorption rates than brick. They
often are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry, or are used alone for the walls
of factories, garages and other industrial-style buildings where such appearance is acceptable or
desirable. Such blocks often receive a stucco surface for decoration. Surface-bonding cement,
which contains synthetic fibers for reinforcement, is sometimes used in this application and can
impart extra strength to a block wall. Surface-bonding cement is often pre-coloured and can be
stained or painted thus resulting in a finished stucco-like surface.

The primary structural advantage of concrete blocks in comparison to smaller clay-based bricks
is that a CMU wall can be reinforced by filling the block voids with concrete with or without
steel rebar. Generally, certain voids are designated for filling and reinforcement, particularly at
corners, wall-ends, and openings while other voids are left empty. This increases wall strength
and stability more economically than filling and reinforcing all voids. Typically, structures made
of CMUs will have the top course of blocks in the walls filled with concrete and tied together
with steel reinforcement to form a bond beam. Bond beams are often a requirement of modern
building codes and controls. Another type of steel reinforcement, referred to as ladder-
reinforcement, can also be embedded in horizontal mortar joints of concrete block walls. The
introduction of steel reinforcement generally results in a CMU wall having much greater lateral
and tensile strength than unreinforced walls.

CMUs can be manufactured to provide a variety of surface appearances. They can be colored
during manufacturing or stained or painted after installation. They can be split as part of the
manufacturing process, giving the blocks a rough face replicating the appearance of natural
stone, such as brownstone. CMUs may also be scored, ribbed, sandblasted, polished, striated
(raked or brushed), include decorative aggregates, be allowed to slump in a controlled fashion
during curing, or include several of these techniques in their manufacture to provide a decorative
appearance.

"Glazed concrete masonry units are manufactured by bonding a permanent colored facing
(typically composed of polyester resins, silica sand and various other chemicals) to a concrete
masonry unit, providing a smooth impervious surface."

Glass block or glass brick are blocks made from glass and provide a translucent to clear vision
through the block.

In the United States, a concrete masonry unit (CMU) – also called concrete block, cement block,
and foundation block – is a large rectangular brick used in construction. Concrete blocks are
made from cast concrete, i.e. Portland cement and aggregate, usually sand and fine gravel for
high-density blocks. Lower density blocks may use industrial wastes as an aggregate. Those that
use cinders (fly ash or bottom ash) are called cinder blocks in Canada, the US and New Zealand,
breeze blocks (breeze is a synonym of ash)[1] in the UK, hollow blocks in the Philippines and are
also known as besser blocks or bricks in Australia. Clinker blocks use clinker as aggregate. In
non-technical usage, the terms cinder block and breeze block are often generalized to cover all of
these varieties. Lightweight blocks can also be produced using aerated concrete.

1.1.3.2 Sizes and structure (sh)

Concrete blocks may be produced with hollow centres to reduce weight or improve insulation.
The use of block work allows structures to be built in the traditional masonry style with layers
(or courses) of staggered blocks. Blocks come in many sizes. In the US, with an R-Value of 1.11
the most common nominal size is 16×8×8 in (410×200×200 mm); the actual size is usually about
3
⁄8 in (9.5 mm) smaller to allow for mortar joints. In Ireland and the UK, blocks are usually
440×215×100 mm (17×8.5×3.9 in) excluding mortar joints. In New Zealand, blocks are usually
390×190×190 mm (15×7.5×7.5 in) excluding mortar joints.

Block cores are typically tapered so that the top surface of the block (as laid) has a greater
surface on which to spread a mortar bed. There may be two, three or four cores, although two
cores are the most common configuration. The presence of a core allows steel reinforcing to be
inserted into the assembly, greatly increasing its strength. Reinforced cores are filled with grout
to secure the reinforcing in proper relationship to the structure, and to bond the block and
reinforcing. The reinforcing is primarily used to impart greater tensile strength to the assembly,
improving its ability to resist lateral forces such as wind load and seismic forces.

A variety of specialized shapes exist to allow special construction features. U-shaped blocks or
notches allow the construction of bond beams or lintel assemblies, using horizontal reinforcing
grouted into place in the cavity. Blocks with a channel on the end, known as "jamb blocks",
allow doors to be secured to wall assemblies. Blocks with grooved ends permit the construction
of control joints, allowing a filler material to be anchored between the un-mortared block ends.
Other features, such as radiused corners known as "bullnoses" may be incorporated. A wide
variety of decorative profiles also exist.

Concrete masonry units may be formulated with special aggregates to produce specific colors or
textures for finish use. Special textures may be produced by splitting a ribbed or solid two-block
unit; such factory-produced units are called "split-rib" or "split-face" blocks. Blocks may be
scored by grooves the width of a mortar joint to simulate different block modules (e.g., an 8" x
16" block may be scored in the middle to simulate 8" x 8" masonry), with the grooves filled with
mortar and struck to match the true joints.

1.1.3.3 Uses (sh)

Concrete block, when built in tandem with concrete columns and tie beams and reinforced with
rebar, is a very common building material for the load-bearing walls of buildings, in what is
termed "concrete block structure" (CBS) construction. American suburban houses typically
employ a concrete foundation and slab with a concrete block wall on the perimeter. Large
buildings typically use copious amounts of concrete block; for even larger buildings, concrete
block supplements steel I-beams. Tilt-wall construction, however, is replacing CBS for some
large structures.
1.1.3.4 Structural properties (sh)

Concrete masonry can be used as a structural element in addition to being used as an

architectural element. Ungrouted, partially grouted, and fully grouted walls are the different
types of walls allowed. Reinforcement bars can be used both vertically and horizontally inside
the CMU to strengthen the wall and results in better structural performance. The cells in which
the rebar is placed must be grouted for the bars to bond to the wall. For this reason, high seismic
zones typically only allow fully grouted walls in their building codes. The American design code
that guides design engineers in using CMU as a structural system is the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee's Building Code Requirements & Specification for Masonry Structures (TMS
402/ACI 530/ASCE 5). The compressive strength of concrete masonry units and masonry walls
varies from approximately 1,000 psi (7 MPa) to 5,000 psi (34 MPa) based on the type of
concrete used to manufacture the unit, stacking orientation, the type of mortar used to build the
wall, and other factors.

1.1.3.5 Normalised strength of aggregate concrete blocks (sh)

Normalised strengths of units require a shape factor (based on height to width relationship) to be
applied to establish a cube strength and are based on the unit air dry strength. Normalised
strengths are a means of taking into account the different unit shapes and moisture contents at
test found around Europe. Under BS EN 771-3 it is required that the air dry strength is given.
Under the previous UK standard, BS 6073-1, the saturated strength was declared. On the
introduction of the BS EN 771 series of masonry unit standards, declared UK unit strengths were
corrected to take account of the moisture content at test. BS 5628 is based on traditional UK
brick and block sizes but the 2005 edition gives unit strengths to BS EN 771-3. BS 6073-2: 2008
gives guidance on specifying units to BS EN 771-3 and commonly available unit strengths. To
obtain the Normalised strength from the declared unit strength to BS EN 771-3 a correction for
shape is needed, factors for which are given in the compressive strength test method (BS EN
772-1). The factors given in BS EN 772-1 generally require interpolation to establish the factors
for common UK block sizes. Table 1 gives interpolated shape factor corrections.

*100mm high units are units laid flat. Unit strengths are usually given for units laid in their
normal aspect and not laid flat. Laid flat strengths are usually several times greater than the
normal aspect strength and manufacturers should be contacted to establish unit laid flat air dry
strengths for their products. The laid flat air dry strength should be multiplied by the appropriate
shape factor from table.

**Shape factor for units 190mm high in normal aspect when laid flat.

***Shape factor for units 215mm high in normal aspect when laid flat.
1.2 Permissible stresses in masonry consisting of brick (mh)

If tension stresses result, the allowable tensile strength for unreinforced walls must not be
exceeded. These are relatively low (40 – 70 psi).
• If compression stresses result, the allowable strength (in bending) for unreinforced
masonry Fb =1/3 f’m
• If compression stresses result, the allowable strength (in bending) for reinforced masonry
Fb =0.45 f’m
• Shear stress in unreinforced masonry cannot exceed Fv = 120 psi. m f . 5 1
• Shear stress in reinforced masonry for M/(Vd) 0.25 cannot exceed Fv = 3.0 m f
• Shear stress in reinforced masonry for M/(Vd) 1.0 cannot exceed Fv = 2.0 m f
• Allowable tensile stress, Fs, in grades 40 & 50 steel is 20 ksi, grade 60 is 32 ksi, and wire
joint reinforcement is 30 ksi..

where f’’m = specified compressive strength of masonry

1.3 Permissible stresses in stone (mh)

Permissible stress design (in USA construction more commonly called allowable stress
design) is a design philosophy used by civil engineers. The designer ensures that the stresses
developed in a structure due to service loads do not exceed the elastic limit. This limit is usually
determined by ensuring that stresses remain within the limits through the use of factors of safety.

The permissible stress design approach has generally been replaced internationally by limit state
design (also known as ultimate stress design, or in USA, Load and Resistance Factor Design,
LRFD) as far as structural engineering is considered, except for some isolated cases.

In USA construction, allowable stress design (ASD) has not yet been completely superseded by
limit state design except in the case of Suspension bridges, which changed from allowable stress
design to limit state design in the 1960s. Wood, steel, and other materials are still frequently
designed using allowable stress design, although LRFD is probably more commonly taught in
the USA university system.

1. Stress Modes—Bending

1.1 Gravity Loads

Stone stressed in bending due to gravity loads: Use not less than 8 to 1 safety factor applied to
the modulus of rupture to determine maximum allowable extreme fiber stresses.

1.2 Lateral Loads

Stone stressed in bending due to lateral loads (wind loads or seismic loads): Use not less than 8
to 1 safety factor applied to the modulus of rupture to determine maximum allowable extreme
fiber stresses. A stress increase of 1/3 is permissible when the building code for the project
permits this increase for other building materials. This provides a safety factor of not less than 6
to 1 for lateral load bending stresses.

1.3 Combined Gravity and Lateral Loads

Combined stone bending stresses due to gravity loads and lateral loads: Use not less than 8 to 1
safety factor applied to the modulus of rupture to determine maximum allowable extreme fiber
stresses.

2. Stress Mode
—shear
—compression
—pure tension (axial loads)

Use not less than 8 to 1 safety factor applied to the ultimate test value (at failure) to determine
maximum allowable working stresses.

3. Stone Stresses at Connection Points (Anchors)

For connection devices, the maximum allowable design load at the anchorage point of the device
into the stone shall not exceed 25% of the failure load of the stone as determined by relevant
tests performed on Indiana Limestone.
Anchoring devices subjected to both tension and shear shall be designed in accordance with the
following interaction formula:

t = applied tension load

T= allowable tension load
s = applied shear load
S= allowable shear load

The minimum depth of anchor embedment, the minimum center to center distance and the
minimum edge distance shall be in accordance with the manufacturers' recommendations
(expansion bolts and similar anchors).

It is good practice to install expansion bolts to an embedment depth greater than the
recommended minimum depth. This results in substantial increases in the factor of safety with a
negligible cost effect.

4. Stone Stresses at Post Tension Anchor Plates

These safety factors apply to stone stresses at post tension anchor plates which have been
epoxied to the stone bearing surface to assure complete uniform pressure distribution. Tendon
loads shall be precisely applied with specialized equipment by personnel experienced in the
proper tensioning procedures.
Stone Compression Stress:
Stone Shear Stress:
Use not less than 6 to 1 safety factor applied to the ultimate test values (at failure) to determine
maximum allowable working stresses.

STEEL STRESSES—CONNECTIONS

5. Stress Mode—Gravity Connections

Maximum allowable bending stresses at gravity supports shall not exceed 50% of the yield stress
(18,000 for A36 steel). All other allowable stress to be in accordance with AISC Manual of Steel
Construction.

6. Stress Mode—Retention Connection (Wind loads and seismic loads)

All allowable stresses to be in accordance with AISC Manual of Steel Construction.

7. Stress Mode—Frames for Preassembly of Limestone Panels

All allowable stresses to be in accordance with AISC Manual of Steel Construction.

8. Stress Mode—Secondary Framing (Wind girders, braces, hangers)

All allowable stresses to be in accordance with AISC Manual of Steel Construction.

9. Stress Mode—Stainless Steel Anchors and Devices Contained within the Stone

Maximum allowable stresses shall be in accordance with Stainless Steel Stone Anchors published
by the American Iron and Steel Institute (1975), except that the maximum design loads shall not
exceed the values defined in Paragraph 3, Stone Stresses at Connection Points (Anchors).

10. Stress Mode—Post Tensioning Tendons and Hardware

Allowable stresses to be in accordance with recommendations of the tensioning materials

supplier for the system to be used.

1.3.1 Permissible Shear Stress (h)

Flexible linings act to reduce the shear stress on the underlying soil surface. For example, a
long-term lining of vegetation in good condition can reduce the shear stress on the soil surface
by over 90 percent. Transitional linings act in a similar manner as vegetative linings to reduce
shear stress. Performance of these products depends on their properties: thickness, cover
density, and stiffness.

The erodibility of the underlying soil therefore is a key factor in the performance of flexible
linings. The erodibility of soils is a function of particle size, cohesive strength and soil density.
The erodibility of non-cohesive soils (defined as soils with a plasticity index of less than 10) is
due mainly to particle size, while fine-grained cohesive soils are controlled mainly by cohesive
strength and soil density. For most highway construction, the density of the roadway
embankment is controlled by compaction rather than the natural density of the undisturbed
ground. However, when the ditch is lined with topsoil, the placed density of the topsoil should
be used instead of the density of the compacted embankment soil.

For stone linings, the permissible shear stress, τp, indicates the force required to initiate
movement of the stone particles. Prior to movement of stones, the underlying soil is relatively
protected. Therefore permissible shear stress is not significantly affected by the erodibility of
the underlying soil. However, if the lining moves, the underlying soil will be exposed to the
erosive force of the flow.

Values for permissible shear stress for riprap and gravel linings are based on research
conducted at laboratory facilities and in the field. The values presented here are judged to be
conservative and appropriate for design use. Permissible shear stress is given by the following
equation:

where,

τp = permissible shear stress, N/m2 (lb/ft2)

F* = Shield's parameter, dimensionless

γs = specific weight of the stone, N/m3 (lb/ft3)

γ = specific weight of the water, 9810 N/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3)

D50 = mean riprap size, m (ft)

Typically, a specific weight of stone of 25,900 N/m3 (165 lb/ft3) is used, but if the
available stone is different from this value, the site-specific value should be used.

and Equation

Equation can be written in the form of a sizing equation for D50 as shown below:

where,
d = maximum channel depth, m (ft)
SG = specific gravity of rock (γs/γ), dimensionless

Changing the inequality sign to an equality gives the minimum stable riprap size for the
channel bottom. Additional evaluation for the channel side slope is given in Section 6.3.2.
Equation 6.8 is based on assumptions related to the relative importance of skin friction,
form drag, and channel slope. However, skin friction and form drag have been documented
to vary resulting in reports of variations in Shield's parameter by different investigators,
for example Gessler (1965), Wang and Shen (1985), and Kilgore and Young (1993). This
variation is usually linked to particle Reynolds number as defined below:

where,
Re = particle Reynolds number, dimensionless
V* = shear velocity, m/s (ft/s)
ν = kinematic viscosity, 1.131x10-6 m2/s at 15.5 deg C (1.217x10-5 ft2/s at 60
deg F)

Shear velocity is defined as:

 where,
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 (32.2 ft/s2)
d = maximum channel depth, m (ft)
S = channel slope, m/m (ft/ft)

Higher Reynolds number correlates with a higher Shields parameter as is shown in Table 6.1.
For many roadside channel applications, Reynolds number is less than 4x104 and a Shields
parameter of 0.047 should be used in Equations 6.7 and 6.8. In cases for a Reynolds number
greater than 2x105, for example, with channels on steeper slopes, a Shields parameter of 0.15
should be used. Intermediate values of Shields parameter should be interpolated based on the
Reynolds number.

Table 6.1. Selection of Shields' Parameter and Safety Factor

Reynolds Number F* SF
≤4x104 0.047 1.0
4x104<Re<2x105 linear interpolation linear interpolation
≥2x105 0.15 1.5

Higher Reynolds numbers are associated with more turbulent flow and a greater likelihood of
lining failure with variations of installation quality. Because of these conditions, it is
recommended that the Safety Factor be also increased with Reynolds number as shown in
Table 6.1. Depending on site-specific conditions, safety factor may be further increased by the
designer, but should not be decreased to values less than those in Table.

As channel slope increases, the balance of resisting, sliding, and overturning forces is altered
slightly. Simons and Senturk (1977) derived a relationship that may be expressed as follows:

where,
Δ = function of channel geometry and riprap size

The parameter Δ can be defined as follows (see Appendix D for the derivation):
 where,
α = angle of the channel bottom slope
β = angle between the weight vector and the weight/drag resultant vector in the
plane of the side slope
θ = angle of the channel side slope
φ = angle of repose for the riprap

Finally, β is defined by:

where,
η = stability number

The stability number is calculated using:

Riprap stability on a steep slope depends on forces acting on an individual stone making up the
riprap. The primary forces include the average weight of the stones and the lift and drag forces
induced by the flow on the stones. On a steep slope, the weight of a stone has a significant
component in the direction of flow. Because of this force, a stone within the riprap will tend to
move in the flow direction more easily than the same size stone on a milder gradient. As a
result, for a given discharge, steep slope channels require larger stones to compensate for larger
forces in the flow direction and higher shear stress.

The size of riprap linings increases quickly as discharge and channel gradient increase.
Equation 6.11 is recommended when channel slope is greater than 10 percent and provides the
riprap size for the channel bottom and sides. Equation 6.8 is recommended for slopes less than
5 percent. For slopes between 5 percent and 10 percent, it is recommended that both methods
be applied and the larger size used for design. Values for safety factor and Shields parameter
are taken from Table 6.1 for both equations.

1.4 Permissible stresses in concrete blocks (both solid and hollow) as per BIS codes (mh)

Allowable compressive stresses in masonry shall not exceed the values prescribed in Table
R606.5. In determining the stresses in masonry, the effects of all loads and conditions of loading
and the influence of all forces affecting the design and strength of the several parts shall be taken
into account.
 
 
TABLE R606.5 ALLOWABLE COMPRESSIVE STRESSES FOR EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF MASONRY 
 

ALLOWABLE COMPRESSIVE STRESSESa GROSS

CONSTRUCTION; COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH CROSS-SECTIONAL AREAb
OF UNIT, GROSS AREA Type M or S mortar Type N mortar
Solid masonry of brick and other solid units of clay or
shale; sand-lime or concrete brick:
8,000+ psi 350 300
4,500 psi 225 200
2,500 psi 160 140
1,500 psi 115 100

Groutedc masonry, of clay or shale; sand-lime or

concrete:
4,500+ psi 225 200
2,500 psi 160 140
1,500 psi 115 100
Solid masonry of solid concrete masonry units:
3,000+ psi
2,000 psi 225 200
1,200 psi 160 140
115 100

Masonry of hollow load-bearing units:

2,000+ psi 140 120
1,500 psi 115 100
1,000 psi 75 70
700 psi 60 55

Hollow walls (cavity or masonry bondedd) solid units:

2,500+ psi
1,500 psi 160 140
Hollow units 115 100
75 70

Stone ashlar masonry:

Granite 720 640
Limestone or marble 450 400
Sandstone or cast stone 360 320

Rubble stone masonry:

Coarse, rough or random 120 100

For SI: 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.

a. Linear interpolation shall be used for determining allowable stresses for masonry units having
compressive strengths that are intermediate between those given in the table.

b. Gross cross-sectional area shall be calculated on the actual rather than nominal dimensions.

c. See Section R608.

d. Where floor and roof loads are carried upon one wythe, the gross cross-sectional area is that of
the wythe under load; if both wythes are loaded, the gross cross-sectional area is that of the wall
minus the area of the cavity between the wythes. Walls bonded with metal ties shall be
considered as cavity walls unless the collar joints are filled with mortar or grout.
1.4.1 Allowable stresses (h)

Review Questions

1. Explain masonry structure briefly.

2. Describe the Strength of brick.
3. Explain the strength of stone.
4. What do you mean by strength of concrete blocks?
5. Describe Permissible stresses in masonry consisting of brick.
6. Explain Permissible stresses in masonry consisting of stone.
7. How can you define Permissible stresses in masonry consisting of concrete blocks?
 Chapter-2

MASONRY STRUCTURES – BRICKS - WALLS & COLUMNS (ch)

Structure of this unit

Walls

Learning objectives
1. Types of walls
2. Effective length and height
3. Slenderness ratio of walls and columns
4. Estimation of loads transferred from slabs and beams to walls and columns made up of
brick, Relative advantages of different types of masonry walls
5. use of nomograms

2.1 Types of walls (mh)

A wall is a vertical structure, usually solid, that defines and sometimes protects an area. Most
commonly, a wall delineates a building and supports its superstructure, separates space in
buildings into sections, or protects or delineates a space in the open air. There are three principal
types of structural walls: building walls, exterior boundary walls, and retaining walls.

Building walls have one main purpose: to support roofs and ceilings. Such walls most often have
three or more separate components. In today's construction, a building wall will usually have the
structural elements (such as 2×4 studs in a house wall), insulation, and finish elements or surface
(such as drywall or panelling). In addition, the wall may house various types of electrical wiring
or plumbing. Electrical outlets are usually mounted in walls.

Building walls frequently become works of art externally and internally, such as when featuring
mosaic work or when murals are painted on them; or as design foci when they exhibit textures or
painted finishes for effect.

On a ship, the walls separating compartments are termed "bulkheads", whilst the thinner walls
separating cabins are termed "partitions".

In architecture and civil engineering, the term curtain wall refers to the facade of a building
which is not load-bearing but functions as decoration, finish, front, face, or history preservation.
  
 

a) Partition wall

A partition wall is a wall for the purpose of separating rooms, or dividing a room. Partition walls
are usually not load-bearing. Partition walls may be constructed with bricks or blocks from clay,
terra-cotta or concrete, reinforced, or hollow. Glass blocks may also be used.

They may also be constructed from sheet glass. Glass partition walls are a series of individual
toughened glass panels, which are suspended from or slide along a robust aluminium ceiling
track. The system does not require the use of a floor guide, which allows easy operation and an
uninterrupted threshold.

Timber may be used. This type of partition consists of a wooden framework either supported on
the floor below or by side walls. Metal lath and plaster, properly laid, forms a reinforced
partition wall. Partition walls constructed from fibre cement sheeting are popular as bases for
tiling in kitchens or in wet areas like bathrooms. Galvanized sheet fixed to wooden or steel
members are mostly adopted in works of temporary character. Plain or reinforced partition walls
may also be constructed from concrete, including pre-cast concrete blocks.

Metal framed partitioning is also available. This partition consists of track (used primarily at the
base and head of the partition) and stud (vertical sections fixed at 600mm centres).

Internal wall partitions also known as office partitioning is made using plasterboard (drywall), or
varieties of glass. Toughened glass is a common option as it is feasible however there is also low
iron glass better known as opti-white glass which increases light and solar heat transmission.

Wall partitions are constructed using beads and tracking which are either hung from the ceiling
or fixed into the ground. The panels are inserted into the tracking and fixed.

There are variations of wall partitions which include the level of fire resistance they have, and
their acoustic performance rating.

Movable partitions
Movable partitions are used where the walls of a room are frequently opened to form one large
floor area. In this system, there are several types of partitions which include;

• Sliding: Sliding partitions consists of series of panels that slide in tracks fixed to the floor
and ceiling. The machine if the partition is similar to those of sliding doors.
• Sliding & folding: Sliding and folding partitions operate in a similar manner to sliding
folding doors. They are normally used for smaller spans.
• Screens: Screens are usually constructed of a metal or timber frame. It is fixed with
plywood and chipboard inside. The screen supported with legs for free standing and easy
movement.
• Pipe and drape: Fixed or telescopic uprights and horizontals provide a ground supported
drape system with removable panels.

b) Boundary walls

Stone wall of an English barn

Boundary walls include privacy walls, boundary-marking walls on property, and town walls.
These intergrade into fences; the conventional differentiation is that a fence is of minimal
thickness and often is open in nature, while a wall is usually more than a nominal thickness and
is completely closed, or opaque. More to the point, if an exterior structure is made of wood or
wire, it is generally referred to as a fence, while if it is made of masonry, it is considered a wall.
A common term for both is barrier, convenient if it is partly a wall and partly a fence, for
example the Berlin Wall. Another kind of wall/fence ambiguity is the ha-ha which is set below
ground level, so as not to interrupt a view yet acting as a barrier to cattle for example.
 An old Italian wall surrounded by flowers

Before the invention of artillery, many of the world's cities and towns, particularly in Europe and
Asia, had protective walls (also called town walls or city walls). In fact, the English word "wall"
is derived from Latin vallum, which was a type of fortification wall. Since they are no longer
relevant for defense, such cities have grown beyond their walls, and many of the walls, or
portions thereof, have been torn down, for example in Rome, Italy and in Beijing, China.
Examples of protective walls on a much larger scale include the Great Wall of China and
Hadrian's Wall.

c) Separation walls

Some walls are designed to formally separate one population from another. Israelis most
frequently use the term in describing the various fences, walls and other barriers Israel created to
separate Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied territories of the West Bank and Gaza from Israel so
that they may not enter Israel without authorization. Barriers also have separated various
Palestinian towns and villages within the occupied territories from each other and they separate
Egypt and Jordan from Israel.

d) Retaining walls
 Dry-stone wall – Grendon

In areas of rocky soils around the world, farmers have often pulled large quantities of stone out
of their fields to make farming easier and have stacked those stones to make walls that either
mark the field boundary, or the property boundary, or both.

Retaining walls are a special type of wall, that may be either external to a building or part of a
building, that serves to provide a barrier to the movement of earth, stone or water. The ground
surface or water on one side of a retaining wall will be noticeably higher than on the other side.
A dike is one type of retaining wall, as is a levee, a load-bearing foundation wall, and a sea wall.

Ashlar wall - Inca wall at Machu Picchu, Peru

 View of the western enclosing wall of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (also called the Mosque of
Uqba) in the city of Kairouan in Tunisia.

e) Shared walls

Special laws often govern walls shared by neighbouring properties. Typically, one neighbour
cannot alter the common wall if it is likely to affect the building or property on the other side. A
wall may also separate apartment or hotel rooms from each other. Each wall has two sides and
breaking a wall on one side will break the wall on the other side.

f) Portable walls

Portable walls, such as room dividers or portable partitions, are used to take a large open space
and effectively divide it into smaller rooms. Portable walls can be static such as cubicle walls, or
they can be wall panels mounted on casters to provide an easy way to reconfigure assembly
space. They are often found inside schools, churches, convention centers, hotels and corporate
facilities.

2.1.1 Types of wall materials (h)

 

The materials you use for the walls in your home will affect how your home looks (both inside
and out), how it'll stand up to fires, wind and physical stress, and how energy efficient your
home is as a whole.

Not many people are aware of just how many different types of wall materials are available.
Read on to find out more about wall materials, and how they compare in terms of price and
performance.
a) External wall materials

External walls need to be tough, but they also need to look good. Find out more about what
sorts of materials are used on external walls.

b) Internal wall materials

The materials used on the walls inside a home have to be safe, compatible with the lighting
scheme, and easy to maintain and keep clean.

c) Framing materials

The different materials that can be used to create the frame or structure of a home will have a
big impact on its strength, insulation and cost.
2.2 Effective length and height (mh)

1. Wall must be solid, with a rectangular cross-section

2. Minimum wall thickness “tw” = larger of

3. Applied load eccentricity “e” (including lateral load moments)

4. Wall must be adequately anchored at top and bottom

2.3 Slenderness ratio of walls and columns (mh)

The slenderness of a column depends on the height or length, the shape and size of its cross-
section and how the ends are supported (pinned or fixed or a combination of both).

The effective length is the actual length of a column multiplied by a factor related to the end
fixing of the column. These factors are shown in Figure.
 Figure

The cross-section has also an important influence on the load carrying capacity of a column. A
square column support more load than a rectangular section of equal area and equal length,
because the rectangular section will buckle about the axis with the least dimension. We know
that the moment of inertia for the rectangular section as shown in Figure 3 is smaller about the y-
y axis and greater about the x-x axis.

Figure

2.4 Estimation of loads transferred from slabs and beams to walls and columns made up of
brick (mh)
Small buildings like houses with small spans of beams, slabs generally constructed as load
bearing brick walls with reinforced concrete slab beams. This system is suitable for building up
to four or less stories. In such buildings crushing strength of bricks shall be 100 kg/cm2
minimum for four stories. This system is adequate for vertical lo ads i t also serves to resists
horizontal loads like wind & earthquake by box action. Further, to ensure its act ion against
earthquake, it is necessary to provide RCC Bands in horizontal & vertical reinforcement in brick
wall as per IS: 4326- 1967( Indian Standards Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant
Construction of Buildings. ) . In some Buildings, 115mm thick brick walls are provided since
these walls are incapable of supporting vertical loads, beams have to be provide along their
lengths to support adjoining slab & the weight of 115mm thick brick wall of upper storey. These
beams are to rest on 230 mm thick brick walls or reinforced concrete columns if required. The
design of Load Bearing
If the superstructure walls are primarily constructed with bricks it is called a 'Brick Load
Bearing' construction. This is essentially because the entire load coming from the slabs, beams,
walls etc is transmitted to the foundation through the brick walls. Where good quality bricks

Brick Load Bearing Construction

are available such load bearing construction will also prove to be economical. Normally, the
thickness of the walls should be kept as 23 cm (9”) for upto two to three storeyed constructions.
Good quality bricks are normally available in the Northern regions of the country from the State
of Punjab to West Bengal. In the other regions the strength of the bricks is relatively less as the
local soil available for their manufacture is not that good for brick making.

Brick Dimensions and Strength

Most of the bricks in the country are manufactured out of good soils and normally the size of the
brick is 22.5 x 11.5 x 7.5 cm (9”x4½”x3”) whereas brick of other sizes including 25x12.5x10 cm
(10”x5”x4”) are also manufactured. Good bricks, made out of soils, are bright red in colour and
make a ringing sound when struck against each other. Good bricks should not absorb water more
than 20% of their dry weight, when immersed in water for 24 hours. 2 The strength of a good
brick can be 100 Kg/cm or more. This strength can be got tested from the testing labs meant for
the purpose. It is advisable to construct load bearing walls for upto two storeys only if the
strength of the bricks is not good (say less than 70 2 Kg/cm ). These values are indicative only
for the information of the common man.

The owner must inspect the houses in the surrounding areas for assessing the thickness of the
walls being adopted in construction, the number of storeys as well as the quality of bricks that
have been used in construction. Normally, an experienced Architect/Engineer can interpret the
quality of the brick to a reasonable extent. Nowadays modular sized bricks having dimensions of
20x10x10 cm (8”x4”x4”) are also being manufactured which are said to be economical in
construction. These bricks can also be used for load bearing construction of superstructure.
Bricks can also be manufactured from other materials also like flyash, lime, concrete etc details
of which will be given in a subsequent series of the digest.

Mortars for Brickwork

Brickwork in superstructure is laid with mortars. This mortar contains a binding material which
is usually cement (although other cementing materials like lime etc can also be used). The other
component is usually sand which can be coarse or fine in character, depending on the strength
requirements of the brick masonry walls. Coarse sand provides higher strength in masonry than
the finer sand. The most common mix used for mortars consists of one part of cement and 6 parts
of sand (1:6), however a mix of 1:4 or 1:3 can also be used if higher strengths are required. The
proportions are however defined by the Architect/Engineer in the specifications of construction
for the house. Both cement and sand are mixed properly and required quantity of water is poured
to get the mortar. The bricks are then laid in a particular pattern called 'Bond' with mortar of
required thickness.

Bonds in Brickwork

The brick laying patterns or 'Bonds' as they are better known are dependent upon a number of
factors including the local practices being followed. Usually a bond called the 'English Bond' is
followed for construction in India. For the information of the house owner the pattern of laying
of English Bond.

Care should however be taken that the superstructure walls are constructed in an exactly vertical
manner, otherwise the structure will not be safe. The bricks being used in the superstructure
should be soaked in water before use. Further, the mortar should be spread on the bricks in a
uniform manner so that a flat and even surface is obtained. In order to obtain the required
strength, the brick wall should be cured with water for at least seven days after construction. It is
Therefore advised that the date on which a particular wall is constructed should be painted on the
wall itself. The bonds should be laid in a manner that all the reinforcement bars required for the
seismic strengthening measures are accommodated at the right places say at corners and
junctions or at other such places as may be directed by the engineer. A close coordination of the
owner is required with the engineer, architect and the contractor. All openings for
doors/windows, pipes, fittings etc should be appropriately provided in the superstructure walls.

Workmanship

Workmanship in simple terms would mean the ways and means being adopted by the mason and
unskilled labour for construction of the superstructure walls of the house. The owner is expected
to keep a close watch on the same. The mason should have proper masonry kit for construction
of the walls. This would include the water level, levelling tool, tools for keeping the wall in
plumb besides other tools required for constructing the masonry. Good workmanship would
ensure that the wall corners and joints 0 are meeting at 90 or at the required angles as may be
required in the architectural plan. It would also ensure that the walls are truly plumb. Curing of
masonry walls, which is to be done by waterman, would make them achieve the required
structural strength. In short good workmanship would make the house robust and strong.

Floor Slabs

Floor slabs can be provide in a number of ways in a house. Traditionally, in the hilly regions of
the country like J&K, Himachal Pradesh etc, wooden floors are provided; in the State of
Rajasthan floors are provided in stone patties; Bamboo flooring is usually provided in the North
Eastern States; in the States where good quality bricks are available, bricks are being adopted for
providing the floor slabs by adopting different construction methods. The roof slabs are also
being accordingly provided depending upon the availability of local materials.

RCC Floor/Roof Slabs

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) floor/roof slab construction is the commonly adopted
method especially in the urban areas of the country. Accordingly, the same is highlighted
hereunder.

Slab Thickness
The slabs are spanned across the walls or the beams, as the case may be. For a span of about
three to four meters the slab thickness is usually of the order of 11cm to 12 cm, although the
exact thickness has to be as per the design of the structural engineer.

Concrete Mix

1 The concrete mix to be used is usually 1:1 / :3 as has been explained 2 under the head of
columns and beams in RCC Framed Construction in the booklet.

Reinforcement

The reinforcement for slabs is normally of 8 or 10 mm diameter size and is laid in both the
directions. The size and spacing of the reinforcement bars has to be designed by the structural
engineer. Slab being a crucial element of construction of the house, the advice of non-
professionals should not be followed by the owner.

Construction of RCC Slab

The process of constructing the RCC slab commences by erecting the centering and shuttering.
Wooden shuttering is usually provided for the purpose although steel shuttering is recommended
for getting a good under surface of the slab. Once the shuttering has been laid in a level, it has to
be cleaned properly. A bitumen coat is then applied on the top such that the concrete, which has
to be laid, does not stick to the surface of the shuttering. The reinforcement bars are then laid as
per design in both directions and tied properly with steel bars. Cover for reinforcement is
provided by putting wooden or concrete blocks over the shuttering. The concrete is then laid
continuously to the required thickness and span and vibrated effectively such that no air gaps are
left in the concrete.

The curing of top surface of concrete should commence within two or three days of its laying.
Depending upon the climatic conditions, the curing should be done for 10 to 14 days.
Alternatively, water pools can be made on the top of the slab by making squares in mud and
filling them the same with water. The pools should be filled with water as soon as the same dries
out. Curing can also be done by putting wet gunny bags on the concrete surface. The side
shuttering of the slab can be removed within 48 hours. However the bottom shuttering can be
removed within 10 to 14 days. The under surface of the concrete should be cleaned with steel
brushes such that no impurities are left on the surface. Although the slab should be constructed
under the supervision of a professional, the owner should oversee that all the precautions are
being taken during construction.
2.4.1 Relative advantages of different types of masonry walls (h)

There are many advantages when bricks are used as part of the construction. The following list
presents some of the most common advantages when using bricks instead of other construction
materials.

• Aesthetic

Bricks offer natural and a variety of colors, including various textures.

• Strength

Bricks offer excellent high compressive strength.

• Porosity

The porosity of bricks in attributed to its fine capillaries. The ability to release and absorb
moisture is one of the most important and useful properties of bricks, regulating
temperatures and humidity inside structures.

• Fire Resistance

When prepared properly a brick structure can give a fire protection maximum rating of 6
hours.

• Sound Insulation

The brick sound insulation is normally 45 decibels for a 4.5 inches brick thickness and 50
decibels for a nine inch thick brick.

• Insulation

Bricks can exhibit above normal thermal insulation when compared to other building
materials. Bricks can help regulate and maintain constant interior temperatures of a
structure due to their ability to absorb and slowly release heat. This way bricks can
produce significant energy savings, more than 30% of energy saving, when compared to
wood.

• Wear

A brick is so strong, that its molecular composition provides excellent wear resistance.
 • Efflorescence

Efflorescence forms on concrete structures and surfaces when soluble salts dissolved in
water are deposited and accumulated on surfaces forming a visible scum.

• Durability

Brick is extremely durable and perhaps is the most durable man-made structural
building material so far.

Advantages

• The use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building
and can protect the building from fire.
• Most types of masonry typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure
with reduced life-cycle costs.
• Masonry is non-combustible product.
• Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or
tornadoes.
• Masonry structures built in compression preferably with lime mortar can have a useful
life of more than 500 years as compared to 30 to 100 for structures of steel or reinforced
concrete.

Disadvantages

• Extreme weather -combined with the right circumstances- can cause degradation of
masonry wall surfaces due to frost damage.
• Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a strong foundation, such as reinforced
concrete, to avoid settling and cracking.
• Save for concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to mechanization, and
requires more skilled labor than stick-framing.

2.5 Uses of nomograms (mh)

A nomogram is a diagram that represents the relations between three or more variable quantities
by means of a number of scales. It is designed to allow the approximate graphical computation of
a function. It uses a coordinate system other than Cartesian coordinates.

A nomogram (from Greek νόμος nomos, "law" and γραμμή grammē, "line"), also called a
nomograph, alignment chart or abaque, is a graphical calculating device, a two-dimensional
diagram designed to allow the approximate graphical computation of a function. The field of
nomography was invented in 1884 by the French engineer Philbert Maurice d’Ocagne (1862-
1938) and used extensively for many years to provide engineers with fast graphical calculations
of complicated formulas to a practical precision. Nomograms use a parallel coordinate system
invented by d'Ocagne rather than standard Cartesian coordinates.

A nomogram consists of a set of n scales, one for each variable in an equation. Knowing the
values of n-1 variables, the value of the unknown variable can be found, or by fixing the values
of some variables, the relationship between the unfixed ones can be studied. The result is
obtained by laying a straightedge across the known values on the scales and reading the
unknown value from where it crosses the scale for that variable. The virtual or drawn line created
by the straightedge is called an index line or isopleth.

Nomograms flourished in many different contexts for roughly 75 years because they allowed
quick and accurate computations before the age of pocket calculators, making such calculations
available to people who did not normally use slide rules, and who didn’t know algebra or were
not competent at substituting numbers into equations to obtain results. Results from a nomogram
are obtained very quickly and reliably by simply drawing one or more lines, and the user does
not even need to know the actual equation being calculated. In addition, nomograms naturally
incorporate implicit or explicit domain knowledge into their design. For example, to create larger
nomograms for greater accuracy the nomographer usually takes the care to only include scale
ranges that are reasonable and of interest to the problem. Many nomograms include other useful
markings such as reference labels and colored regions. All of these provide useful guideposts to
the user.

Like a slide rule, a nomogram is a graphical analog computation device, and like the slide rule,
its accuracy is limited by the precision with which physical markings can be drawn, reproduced,
viewed, and aligned. Most nomograms are used in applications where an approximate answer is
appropriate and useful. Alternatively, a nomogram may be used to check an answer obtained
from another exact calculation method. The slide rule is intended to be a general-purpose device,
while a nomogram is designed to perform a specific calculation, with tables of values effectively
built into the construction of the scales.

Note that other types of graphical calculators such as intercept charts, trilinear diagrams and
hexagonal charts are sometimes called nomograms. Another such example is the Smith chart, a
graphical calculator used in electronics and systems analysis. Thermodynamic diagrams and
tephigrams, used to plot the vertical structure of the atmosphere and perform calculations on its
stability and humidity content, are also occasionally referred to as nomograms. These do not
meet the strict definition of a nomogram as a graphical calculator whose solution is found by the
use of one or more linear isopleths.

2.5.1 Description (h)

A nomogram for a three-variable equation typically has three scales, although there exist
nomograms in which two or even all three scales are common. Here two scales represent known
values and the third is the scale where the result is read off. The simplest such equation is u1 + u2
+ u3 = 0 for the three variables u1, u2 and u3. An example of this type of nomogram is shown on
the right, annotated with terms used to describe the parts of a nomogram.

More complicated equations can sometimes be expressed as the sum of functions of the three
variables. For example, the nomogram at the top of this article could be constructed as a parallel-
scale nomogram because it can be expressed as such a sum after taking logarithms of both sides
of the equation.

The scale for the unknown variable can lie between the other two scales or outside of them. The
known values of the calculation are marked on the scales for those variables, and a line is drawn
between these marks. The result is read off the unknown scale at the point where the line
intersects that scale. The scales include 'tick marks' to indicate exact number locations, and they
may also include labeled reference values. These scales may be linear, logarithmic, or have some
more complex relationship.

The sample isopleth shown in red on the nomogram at the top of this article calculates the value
of T when S = 7.30 and R = 1.17. The isopleth crosses the scale for T at just under 4.65; a larger
figure printed in high resolution on paper would yield T = 4.64 to three-digit precision. Note that
any variable can be calculated from values of the other two, a feature of nomograms that is
particularly useful for equations in which a variable cannot be algebraically isolated from the
other variables.

Straight scales are useful for relatively simple calculations, but for more complex calculations
the use of simple or elaborate curved scales may be required. Nomograms for more than three
variables can be constructed by incorporating a grid of scales for two of the variables, or by
concatenating individual nomograms of fewer numbers of variables into a compound nomogram.
2.5.2 Applications (h)

Nomograms have been used in an extensive array of applications. A sample includes

• The original application by d'Ocagne, the automation of complicated "cut and fill"
calculations for earth removal during the construction of the French national railway
system. This was an important proof of concept, because the calculations are non-trivial
and the results translated into significant savings of time, effort, and money.

• The design of channels, pipes and weirs for regulating the flow of water.

• The work of Lawrence Henderson, in which nomograms were used to correlate many
different aspects of blood physiology. It was the first major use of nomograms in the
United States and also the first medical nomograms anywhere. Nomograms continue to
be used extensively in medical fields.

• Ballistics calculations prior to fire control systems, where calculating time was critical.

• Machine shop calculations, to convert blueprint dimensions and perform calculations

based on material dimensions and properties. These nomograms often included markings
for standard dimensions and for available manufactured parts.

• Statistics, for complicated calculations of properties of distributions and for operations

research including the design of acceptance tests for quality control.

• Operations Research, to obtain results in a variety of optimization problems.

• Chemistry and chemical engineering, to encapsulate both general physical relationships

and empirical data for specific compounds.

• Aeronautics, in which nomograms were used for decades in the cockpits of aircraft of all
descriptions. As a navigation and flight control aid, nomograms were fast, compact and
easy-to-use calculators.

• Astronomical calculations, as in the post-launch orbital calculations of Sputnik 1 by P.E.

Elyasberg.

• Engineering work of all kinds: Electrical design of filters and transmission lines,
mechanical calculations of stress and loading, optical calculations, and so forth.

• Military, where complex calculations need to be made in the field quickly and with
reliability not dependent on electrical devices.
2.5.3 Examples (h)

2.5.3.1 Parallel-resistance/thin-lens nomogram (sh)

Parallel electrical resistance nomogram

The nomogram below performs the computation

This nomogram is interesting because it performs a useful nonlinear calculation using only
straight-line, equally-graduated scales.

A and B are entered on the horizontal and vertical scales, and the result is read from the diagonal
scale. Being proportional to the harmonic mean of A and B, this formula has several applications.
For example, it is the parallel-resistance formula in electronics, and the thin-lens equation in
optics.

In the example, the red line demonstrates that parallel resistors of 56 and 42 ohms have a
combined resistance of 24 ohms. It also demonstrates that an object at a distance of 56 cm from a
lens whose focal length is 24 cm forms a real image at a distance of 42 cm.

2.5.3.2 Chi-squared test computation nomogram (sh)

 Chi-squared distribution nomogram

The nomogram below can be used to perform an approximate computation of some values
needed when performing a familiar statistical test, Pearson's chi-squared test. This nomogram
demonstrates the use of curved scales with unevenly-spaced graduations.

The relevant expression is

The scale along the top is shared among five different ranges of observed values: A, B, C, D and
E. The observed value is found in one of these ranges, and the tick mark used on that scale is
found immediately above it. Then the curved scale used for the expected value is selected based
on the range. For example, an observed value of 9 would use the tick mark above the 9 in range
A, and curved scale A would be used for the expected value. An observed value of 81 would use
the tick mark above 81 in range E, and curved scale E would be used for the expected value. This
allows five different nomograms to be incorporated into a single diagram.

In this manner, the blue line demonstrates the computation of

 (9 − 5)2/ 5 = 3.2

and the red line demonstrates the computation of

(81 − 70)2 / 70 = 1.7

In performing the test, Yates's correction for continuity is often applied, and simply involves
subtracting 0.5 from the observed values. A nomogram for performing the test with Yates's
correction could be constructed simply by shifting each "observed" scale half a unit to the left, so
that the 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, ... graduations are placed where the values 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, ... appear on the
present chart.

2.5.3.3 Food risk assessment nomogram (h)

Food risk assessment nomogram

Although nomograms represent mathematical relationships, not all are mathematically derived.
The following one was developed graphically to achieve appropriate end results that could
readily be defined by the product of their relationships in subjective units rather than
numerically. The use of non-parallel axes enabled the non-linear relationships to be incorporated
into the model.

The numbers in square boxes denote the axes requiring input after appropriate assessment.

The pair of nomograms at the top of the image determine the probability of occurrence and the
availability, which are then incorporated into the bottom multistage nomogram.

Lines 8 and 10 are ‘tie lines’ or ‘pivot lines’ and are used for the transition between the stages of
the compound nomogram.

The final pair of parallel logarithmic scales (12) are not nomograms as such, but reading-off
scales to translate the risk score (11, remote to extremely high) into a sampling frequency to
address safety aspects and other ‘consumer protection’ aspects respectively. This stage requires
political ‘buy in’ balancing cost against risk. The example uses a three-year minimum frequency
for each, though with the high risk end of the scales different for the two aspects, giving different
frequencies for the two, but both subject to an overall minimum sampling of every food for all
aspects at least once every three years.

This risk assessment nomogram was developed by the UK Public Analyst Service with funding
from the UK Food Standards Agency for use as a tool to guide the appropriate frequency of
sampling and analysis of food for official food control purposes, intended to be used to assess all
potential problems with all foods, although not yet adopted.
 A nomogram is a graphical calculating device, a two-dimensional diagram designed to allow
the approximate graphical computation of a function. The field of nomography was invented in 1884
by the French engineer Philbert Maurice d’Ocagne (1862-1938) and used extensively for many years
to provide engineers with fast graphical calculations of complicated formulas to a practical precision.
Each variable is marked along a scale, and a line drawn through known scale values (or a
straightedge placed across them) will cross the value of the unknown variable on its scale.

Nomograms serve a dual purpose: they allow nitty-gritty fast computation—answers in the form of
unambiguous numbers—and at the same time provide tremendous insight through the relationship of
the various scales, their labeling, limits, and gradations. The better nomograms are self-
documenting. They provide a visual model of a system and manifest a wonderful ability to imply
interrelationships and cross-variable sensitivities. As the mathematician and computer scientist
Richard Hamming remarked, "The purpose of computing is insight, not numbers."

The three of us have significant backgrounds in computer software—we welcome new technologies
and are certainly not Luddites. We all have graduate degrees in physics and have professional
backgrounds. One of us has written a respected book on software development, another a book on
advanced algorithms for mental calculation, and another a number of scientific journal publications.
We maintain websites with technical information on nomograms (see below), and we have published
journal articles on nomography (one example is found here, but also see our Bayes' Theorem article
below).

We recognize well-designed nomograms as tools that can be very useful, enlightening, and easy-to-
use in many applications. In that regard, we have prepared a light-hearted comparison of
mathematical solution by nomogram vs. computer that you may enjoy reading here.

For more information on nomograms

Our team has an unparalleled experience in the design of nomograms. For more information on
nomography, read this introductory essay and visit our sites on the Internet:

• SCAN - An overview of nomography and some new designs.

• Dead Reckonings - A blog offering several essays on the history of nomography.
• PyNomo - Sophisticated software for designing your own nomograms, with examples.
• NomoGraphics - A site for commissioning nomograms, including iPad apps as well as
custom slide rules.
Applications of Nomograms

• Medical diagnostics.

• Ballistics calculations prior to fire control systems, where calculating time was critical.

• Machine shop calculations, to convert blueprint dimensions and perform calculations based on
material dimensions and properties. These nomograms often included markings for standard
dimensions and for available manufactured parts.

• Statistics, for complicated calculations of properties of distributions and for operations research
including the design of acceptance tests for quality control.

• Chemistry and chemical engineering, to encapsulate both general physical relationships and
empirical data for specific compounds.

• Aeronautics, in which nomograms were used for decades in the cockpits of aircraft of all
descriptions. As a navigation and flight control aid, nomograms were fast, compact and easy-to-
use calculators.

1. Operations Research, to obtain results in a variety of optimization problems.

• Engineering work of all kinds: Electrical design of filters and transmission lines, mechanical
calculations of stress and loading, optical calculations, and so forth.

2.5.4 Our Current Offerings (h)

NOMOGRAM POSTERS FOR BAYES' THEOREM CALCULATIONS

Unique circular nomograms were created by our team for calculating statistical outcomes from
Bayes' Theorem. This approach is used in a variety of fields, such as medicine, to calculate how
the probability of a conjecture changes after a test is performed.

Intuition often fails when interpreting statistical results from Bayes' Theorem when the pretest
probabilities are low. A second version of the nomogram shifts the scale values to make it easy
to calculate these special cases.

Posters of the nomograms are shown here. More information is provided below them.
An 8-1/2"x11" color poster printed with superior resolution on heavy, 65 lb Wausau Astroparche
Premium Cardstock (“Natural” gray color).

The front side contains the nomogram for the Common Case scenario (optimized for common
pretest probabilities), plus four small nomograms demonstrating the operation of the nomogram.

The reverse contains the nomogram optimized for the Rare Case scenario (for very low pretest
probabilities). This is often the situation of most value because this is where Bayes' Theorem
produces results that can be quite counter-intuitive.

An 18"x24" color poster printed with superior resolution on heavy (>65lb) stock.

The top two nomograms provide individual results for the positive and negative test results for
the Common Case scenario (optimized for common pretest probabilities). These are merged into
single Common Case nomograms in the posters shown above.

The large nomogram at the bottom is optimized for the Rare Case scenario (for very low pretest
probabilities). This is often the situation of most value because this is where Bayes' Theorem
produces results that can be quite counter-intuitive.
Smaller nomograms and their accompanying text descriptions demonstrate the operation of the
nomogram.

Example use of the nomograms by medical practitioners

A doctor knows the prevalence of a particular disease (the pretest probability) is 30%.
Treatments have risks, and should be administered only if the patient has a certain probability of
having the disease. A diagnostic test having a certain discriminatory power (a likelihood ratio) of
2.8 is run and comes back positive. What is the probability now of the patient having the
disease?

The calculation is found by placing a straightedge (such as a ruler or simply the edge of a sheet
of paper) on the tick mark for 30% on the pretest probability scale along the bottom half of the
circle, and crossing the likelihood ratio scale value of 2.8 on the horizontal diameter. This will
then cross the posttest probability scale along the top of the circle at just under 55%, the new
probability of the patient having the disease. Sometimes diagnostic tests are characterized by
sensitivity and specificity rather than likelihood ratio; a straightedge connecting these values on
the inner elliptical scales crosses the horizontal likelihood ratio at its value. The calculation of
the posttest probability then proceeds as before. Including negative test results, a complete set of
10 variables of Bayes' Theorem calculations are embedded in this nomogram for easy solution.

The Rare Case nomogram’s scales show very graphically that to have higher multipliers
(likelihood ratios) of the pretest probability, you need to have increased specificity rather than
sensitivity. That is, once you get to a certain point it doesn’t help much to make the test more
sensitive—you must find a test that is more specific. Being able to visualize that difference on
the Rare Case nomogram is an example of the better “feel” you have for what’s going on with a
graphical calculator—more than you ever could by punching numbers into an app.

Review Questions

1. Describe Types of walls.

2. Calculate Effective length and height of walls and columns.
3. Explain Slenderness ratio of walls and columns.
4. What is Estimation of loads transferred from slabs and beams to walls and columns made
up of brick?
5. Describe Relative advantages of different types of masonry walls.
6. Explain uses of nomograms.
 Chapter-3
MASONRY FOUNDATIONS – SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS (ch)

Structure of this unit

Types of foundation

Learning objectives
1. Concept of safe bearing capacity
2. SBC of different types of soils
3. Depth of foundations
4. Design of shallow foundation using brick and stone masonry units for walls and columns

3.1 Concept of safe bearing capacity (mh)

In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied
to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the
foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing
capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without failure; allowable
bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on
soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded foundations without actual shear failure
occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing capacity is based on the maximum allowable
settlement.

There are three modes of failure that limit bearing capacity: general shear failure, local shear
failure, and punching shear failure.

Introduction

A foundation is the part of a structure which transmits the weight of the structure to the ground.
All structures constructed on land are supported on foundations. A foundation is, therefore, a
connecting link between the structure proper and the ground which supports it.

The ability of a soil to support a load from a structural foundation without failing in shear is
known as its bearing capacity.

The stability of foundation depends on:

 1. The bearing capacity of the soil beneath the foundation.
2. The settlement of the soil beneath the foundation.

There are, therefore, two independent stability conditions to be fulfilled since the shearing
resistance of the soil provides the bearing capacity and the consolidation properties determine the
settlement.

The supporting power of soil is referred to as its bearing capacity. It may be defined as the
largest intensity of pressure which may be applied by a structure to the soil without causing
failure of soil in shear or excessive settlement. Consider a footing placed at depth D below the
ground surface, the overburden pressure at the base of the footing is qo=γD . The total pressure

at the base of the footing due to the self weight of the footing, weight of the superstructure and
due to the weight of earth fill over the footing is known as the gross pressure intensity. The
difference in intensities of gross pressure after the construction of the structure and of the
original overburden pressure is known as the net pressure.

The ultimate bearing capacity of soil may be determined by analytical methods (i.e., by bearing
capacity theories) and field tests, or approximate values may be adopted from Building Codes
which are based on experience.

General shear failure

The general shear failure case is the one normally analyzed. Prevention against other failure
modes is accounted for implicitly in settlement calculations. There are many different methods
for computing when this failure will occur.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity qu

The ultimate bearing capacity qu is defined as the least gross pressure intensity which would
cause shear failure of the supporting soil immediately below and adjacent to a foundation.

Three distinct modes of failure have been identified and these are illustrated in Fig., they well be
described with reference to a strip footing.

In the case of general shear failure, continuous failure surfaces developed between the edges of
the footing and the ground surface as shown in Fig.2. As the pressure is increased towards the
value qu the state of plastic equilibrium is reached initially in the soil around the edges of the
footing then gradually spreads downwards and outwards. Ultimately the state of plastic
equilibrium is fully developed throughout the soil above the failure surfaces. Heaving of the
ground surface occurs on both sides of the footing although the final slip movement would occur
only on one side, accompanied by tilting of the footing. This mode of failure is typical of soils of
low compressibility (i.e. dense or stiff soils) and the pressure settlement curve is of the general
form shown in Fig.2, the ultimate bearing capacity being well defined.
In the mode of local shear failure there is significant compression of the soil under the footing
and only partial development of the state of plastic equilibrium. The failure surfaces, therefore,
do not reach the ground surface and only slight heaving occurs. Tilting of the foundation would
not be expected. Local shear failure is associated with soils of high compressibility and, as
indicated in Fig.2, is characterized by the occurrence of relatively large settlements (which
would be unacceptable in practice) and the fact that the ultimate bearing capacity is not clearly
defined.

Punching shear failure occurs when there is compression of the soil under the footing,
accompanied by shearing in the vertical direction around the edges of the footing. There is no
heaving of the ground surface away from the edges and no tilting of the footing. Relatively large
settlements are also a characteristic of this mode and again the ultimate bearing capacity is not
well defined. Punching shear failure will also occur in a soil of low compressibility if the
foundation is located at considerable depth. In general the mode of failure depends on the
compressibility of the soil and the depth of foundation relative to its breadth.

Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity qnu

The net ultimate bearing capacity is the minimum net pressure intensity causing shear failure of
soil.

qnu=qu - qo

qu=qnu+qo

Net Safe Bearing Capacity qns

The net safe bearing capacity is the net ultimate bearing capacity divided by the desired factor of
safety F.

Safe Bearing Capacity qs

The safe bearing capacity is the maximum pressure which the soil can carry safely without risk
of shear failure.

Allowable Bearing Capacity

The allowable bearing capacity is maximum pressure which is considered safe both with respect
to shear failure and settlement.

When the term bearing capacity is used without any prefix it may be understood to refer to the
ultimate bearing capacity.

3.1.1 BEARING CAPACITY THEORIES (h)

Broadly, there are two approaches for the analysis of stability of foundations. The first of these is
known as the conventional approach which generates from the work of Coulomb (1977). This is
based on the assumption of a certain shape for the rapture surface. The other approach which
stems from the work of Rankine (1857) and Kotter (1903) is based on the assumption of
simultaneous failure at every point in certain zone of the soil mass. This is referred here as
plasticity theory approach. However, there is found to be reasonably good agreement between
the two approaches

3.1.1.1 Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Theory (sh)

Karl von Terzaghi was the first to present a comprehensive theory for the evaluation of the
ultimate bearing capacity of rough shallow foundations. This theory states that a foundation is
shallow if its depth is less than or equal to its width.[2] Later investigations, however, have
suggested that foundations with a depth, measured from the ground surface, equal to 3 to 4 times
their width may be defined as shallow foundations(Das, 2007).

Assumptions: Based on Prandtl's theory (1920) for plastic failure of metal under rigid punches
Terzaghi derived a general bearing capacity equation. All soils are covered in this method by two
cases which are designated as general shear and local shear failures. General shear is the case
wherein the loading test curve for the soil under consideration comes to a perfectly vertical
ultimate condition at relatively small settlement as shown by curve 1 in Fig.3. Local shear is the
case wherein settlements are relatively large and there is not a definite vertical ultimate to the
curve as in curve 2 in Fig.3. (Soil is loose relative to a general shear failure). The following
assumptions were made in the analysis.

1. The footing is continuous.

2. The weight of soil above the base level of footing is replaced by equivalent surcharge,
where is the unit weight of soil.
3. The shear resistance of the soil above the base level of the footing is neglected.
4. The base of the footing is rough.
5. The failure surface is composed of a straight line ac and the logarithmic spiral dc or cg.
6. The soil wedge abc beneath the base of footing is in elastic state and moves with the
footing.
7. the base angle of the wedge abc is equal to .
8. The principle pf superposition is valid.
The application of the load tends to push the wedge of soil abc into the ground with a lateral
displacement of zones II (radial shear zones) and zones III (plane shear zones). The downward
movement of this soil wedge is resisted by the resultant of the passive pressure of the soil and the
cohesion , acting along the surface of the wedges ac, bc as it moves.

Terzaghi developed a method for determining bearing capacity for the general shear failure case
in 1943. The equations are given below.

For square foundations:

For continuous foundations:

For circular foundations:

where

for φ' = 0

for φ' > 0

c′ is the effective cohesion.

σzD′ is the vertical effective stress at the depth the foundation is laid.
γ′ is the effective unit weight when saturated or the total unit weight when not fully saturated.
B is the width or the diameter of the foundation.
φ′ is the effective internal angle of friction.
Kpγ is obtained graphically. Simplifications have been made to eliminate the need for Kpγ. One
such was done by Coduto, given below, and it is accurate to within 10%.

For foundations that exhibit the local shear failure mode in soils, Terzaghi suggested the
following modifications to the previous equations. The equations are given below.

For square foundations:

For continuous foundations:

For circular foundations:

, the modified bearing capacity factors, can be calculated by using the bearing
capacity factors equations(for , respectively) by replacing the effective internal
angle of friction by a value equal to

Factor of Safety

Calculating the gross allowable-load bearing capacity of shallow foundations requires the
application of a factor of safety(FS) to the gross ultimate bearing capacity, or:

[
Limitations:
(i) The shear strength of soil above the base level of footing is neglected.
(ii) This theory gives conservative values for footings whose depths are greater than zero.
(iii) Subdivision of the bearing capacity problems in two types of shear is an arbitrary one, since
two cases cannot cover the wide range of conditions.

3.1.1.2 Meyerhof's Bearing Capacity Theory (sh)

Assumptions:

The bearing capacity of shallow foundations has been derived by Meyerhof (1951) taking into
account the shear strength of the soil above the base level of the footing. He assumed a failure
mechanism similar to Terzaghi's but extending up to ground surface as shown in Fig.

The following assumptions are made in the analysis:

1. The footing is continuous

 2. The failure surface is composed of a straight line and a logarithmic spiral.

3. The soil wedge ABC beneath the base of footing is in elastic state.

4. The principle of superposition is valid.

Meyerhof extended the previous analysis of the plastic equilibrium for the surface strip
foundation to shallow and deep foundation. In the mechanism of failure shown in Fig. there are
two main zones on each side of the central zone, ABC, radial shear zone BCD and mixed shear
zone BDEF. The shearing resistance of the soil above the foundation level is considered in this
analysis. The bearing capacity of shallow foundations with rough bases is expressed as:

where Nc,q and Nγ are the general bearing capacity factors which depend on foundation depth,
shape and roughness and the angle of internal friction.

To calculate the bearing capacity factors, the inclination of the equivalent free surface and the
stresses and acting on this surface must be determined. Meyerhof computed the values of Nc,q
and Nγ for various angles of and . These values for shallow strip footing are shown in Fig.7. The
general solution given by Eq. 5 is too tedious for routine application. To simplify the solution
and to avoid estimation of the equivalent free surface stresses the bearing capacity factors are
combined to give:
For cohesion-less soil the bearing capacity of strip foundation is given by

Where Nγq depends on both γand Nq , the former is more important at greater depths, the latter is
more important at shallow depths. The values of Nγq depends on the coefficient of earth pressure
KS. The values of Nγq for two values of (30o and 40o ) are shown in Fig.
For rectangular, square and circular foundations, Meyerhof modified the strip bearing capacity
factors NC ,Nq and Nγ by multiplying them by an empirical shape factor λ . Values of λ for various
values of depth, width ratio and are shown in Fig.
Limitations

Bearing capacities computed from Meyerhof's theory are found to be higher than the observed
bearing capacities in sands at greater depths.
3.1.1.3 Skemptnn's (1951) Bearing Capacity for Clays (sh)

Skempton (1951) recommended the following shape and depth factors, and values of N, for surface
footing on clays.

(i) Surface footings (D = 0)

NC ≈ 5 for strip footing

NC ≈ 6 for square or circular footing

(ii) At depth D

(iii) At any depth, for rectangular footings,

3.1.1.4 Brinch Hansen's Bearing Capacity Theory (sh)

A theory, somewhat similar to the Terzaghi's, has been proposed by Hansen (1961).

The ultimate bearing capacity according to this theory is given by

The values of bearing capacity factors as well as approximations for the shape, depth and
inclination factors are given in Tables. Table 3 provides equations for depth, shape, and inclination
factors for use in Eq. for more precise computations

TABLE Bearing Capacity Factors

NC ,Nq and Nγ for Use in Eq.

φ NC Nq Nγ
0 5.14 1.00 0.00
5 6.48 1.57 0.09
10 8.34 2.47 0.47
15 10.97 3.94 1.42
20 14.83 6.40 3.54
25 20.72 10.66 8.11
30 30.14 18.40 18.08
35 46.13 33.29 40.69
40 75.32 64.18 95.41
45 133.89 134.85 240.85
50 266.89 318.96 681.84

Table 3 Shape, inclination, and depth factors for use in Hansen equation Eq. 9

Egyptian Code of Practice for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (six edition 2001)

Based on the above analyses, the Egyptian Code of Practice for Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering has proposed a general bearing capacity equation. This equation include the most
affecting factors on the calculation of bearing capacity.
For Vertical Centric Load

The ultimate bearing capacity is given by the following formula:

3.2 SBC of different types of soils (mh)

The safe bearing capacity q of soil is the permissible soil pressure considering safety factors in
c
the range of 2 to 6 depending on the type of soil, approximations and assumptions and
uncertainties. This is applicable under service load condition and, therefore, the partial safety
factors fλ for different load combinations are to be taken from those under limit state of
serviceability (vide Table 18 of IS 456 or Table 2.1 of Lesson 3). Normally, the acceptable value
of q is supplied by the geotechnical consultant to the structural engineer after proper soil
c
investigations. The safe bearing stress on soil is also related to corresponding permissible
displacement / settlement.

Gross and net bearing capacities are the two terms used in the design. Gross bearing capacity is
the total safe bearing pressure just below the footing due to the load of the superstructure, self
weight of the footing and the weight of earth lying over the footing. On the other hand, net
bearing capacity is the net pressure in excess of the existing overburden pressure. Thus, we can
write

Net bearing capacity = Gross bearing capacity - Pressure due to overburden soil

While calculating the maximum soil pressure q, we should consider all the loads of
superstructure along with the weight of foundation and the weight of the backfill. During
preliminary calculations, however, the weight of the foundation and backfill may be taken as 10
to 15 per cent of the total axial load on the footing, subjected to verification afterwards.

The safe bearing capacity of soil is the safe extra load soil can withstand without experiencing
shear failure. The Safe Bearing Capacity (SBC) is considered unique at a particular site. But it
also depends on the following factors:

Size of footing
Shape of footing
Inclination of footing
Inclination of ground
Type of load
Depth of footing etc.

SBC alone is not sufficient for design. The allowable bearing capacity is taken as the smaller of
the following two criteria

Limit states of shear failure criteria (SBC)

Limit states of settlement criteria

Based on ultimate capacity, i.e., shear failure criteria, the SBC is calculated as

SBC = Total load / Area of footing

Usually the Allowable Bearing Pressure (ABP) varies in the range of 100 kN/m2 to 400 kN/m2.
The area of the footing should be so arrived that the pressure distribution below the footing
should be less than the allowable bearing pressure of the soil. Even for symmetrical Loading, the
pressure distribution below the footing may not be uniform. It depends on the Rigidity of
footing, Soil type and Conditions of soil. In case of Cohesive Soil and Cohesion less Soil the
pressure distribution varies in a nonlinear way. However, while designing the footings a linear
variation of pressure distribution from one edge of the footing to the other edge is assumed. Once
the pressure distribution is known, the bending moment and shear force can be determined and
the footing can be designed to safely resist these forces.

3.3 Depth of foundations (mh)

All types of foundation should have a minimum depth of 50 cm as per IS 1080-1962. This
minimum depth is required to ensure the availability of soil having the safe bearing capacity
assumed in the design. Moreover, the foundation should be placed well below the level which
will not be affected by seasonal change of weather to cause swelling and shrinking of the soil.
Further, frost also may endanger the foundation if placed at a very shallow depth. Rankine
formula gives a preliminary estimate of the minimum depth of foundation and is expressed as

2
d = (q /λ){(1 - sinφ)/(1 + sinφ)} (11.2)
c

where

d = minimum depth of foundation

q = gross bearing capacity of soil
c
λ= density of soil
φ = angle of repose of soil

Though Rankine formula considers three major soil properties q , λand φ, it does not consider the
c
load applied to the foundation. However, this may be a guideline for an initial estimate of the
minimum depth which shall be checked subsequently for other requirements of the design.

3.4 Types of foundation (mh)

Foundations are mainly of two types:

 (A) shallow and
(B) deep foundations.

The two different types are explained below:

(A) Shallow foundations

Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short depth below the
ground level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads to the base soil. These
heavy loads are sustained by the reinforced concrete columns or walls (either of bricks or
reinforced concrete) of much less areas of cross-section due to high strength of bricks or
reinforced concrete when compared to that of soil. The strength of the soil, expressed as the safe
bearing capacity of the soil as discussed in sec.11.28.3, is normally supplied by the geotechnical
experts to the structural engineer. Shallow foundations are also designated as footings. The
different types of shallow foundations or footings are discussed below.

1. Plain concrete pedestal footings

Plain concrete pedestal footings are very economical for columns of small loads or pedestals
without any longitudinal tension steel (see cls.34.1.2 and 34.1.3 of IS 456). In Fig., the angle α
between the plane passing through the bottom edge of the pedestal and the corresponding
junction edge of the column with pedestal and the horizontal plane shall be determined from Eq.

2. Isolated footings
These footings are for individual columns having the same plan forms of square, rectangular or
circular as that of the column, preferably maintaining the proportions and symmetry so that the
resultants of the applied forces and reactions coincide. These footings, shown in Figs.11.27.2 to
11.27.4, consist of a slab of uniform thickness, stepped or sloped. Though sloped footings are
economical in respect of the material, the additional cost of formwork does not offset the cost of
the saved material. Therefore, stepped footings are more economical than the sloped ones. The
adjoining soil below footings generates upward pressure which bends the slab due to cantilever
action. Hence, adequate tensile reinforcement should be provided at the bottom of the slab
(tension face). Clause 34.1.1 of IS 456 stipulates that the sloped or stepped footings, designed as
a unit, should be constructed to ensure the integrated action. Moreover, the effective cross-
section in compression of sloped and stepped footings shall be limited by the area above the
neutral plane. Though symmetrical footings are desirable, sometimes situation compels for
unsymmetrical isolated footings (Eccentric footings or footings with cut outs) either about one or
both the axes.

3. Combined footings
When the spacing of the adjacent columns is so close that separate isolated footings are not
possible due to the overlapping areas of the footings or inadequate clear space between the two
areas of the footings, combined footings are the solution combining two or more columns.
Combined footing normally means a footing combining two columns. Such footings are either
rectangular or trapezoidal in plan forms with or without a beam joining the two columns, as
shown in Figs.

4. Strap footings
When two isolated footings are combined by a beam with a view to sharing the loads of both the
columns by the footings, the footing is known as strap footing (Fig.11.28.9). The connecting
beam is designated as strap beam. These footings are required if the loads are heavy on columns
and the areas of foundation are not overlapping with each other.

5. Strip foundation or wall footings

These are in long strips especially for load bearing masonry walls or reinforced concrete walls
(Figs.11.28.10). However, for load bearing masonry walls, it is common to have stepped
masonry foundations. The strip footings distribute the loads from the wall to a wider area and
usually bend in transverse direction. Accordingly, they are reinforced in the transverse direction
mainly, while nominal distribution steel is provided along the longitudinal direction.

6. Raft or mat foundation

These are special cases of combined footing where all the columns of the building are having a
common foundation (Fig.11.28.11). Normally, for buildings with heavy loads or when the soil
condition is poor, raft foundations are very much useful to control differential settlement and
transfer the loads not exceeding the bearing capacity of the soil due to integral action of the raft
foundation. This is a threshold situation for shallow footing beyond which deep foundations have
to be adopted.

(B) Deep foundations

As mentioned earlier, the shallow foundations need more plan areas due to the low strength of
soil compared to that of masonry or reinforced concrete. However, shallow foundations are
selected when the soil has moderately good strength, except the raft foundation which is good in
poor condition of soil also. Raft foundations are under the category of shallow foundation as they
have comparatively shallow depth than that of deep foundation. It is worth mentioning that the
depth of raft foundation is much larger than those of other types of shallow foundations.

However, for poor condition of soil near to the surface, the bearing capacity is very less and
foundation needed in such situation is the pile foundation. Piles are, in fact, small diameter
columns which are driven or cast into the ground by suitable means. Precast piles are driven and
cast-in-situ are cast. These piles support the structure by the skin friction between the pile surface
and the surrounding soil and end bearing force, if such resistance is available to provide the
bearing force. Accordingly, they are designated as frictional and end bearing piles.
They are normally provided in a group with a pile cap at the top through which the loads of the
superstructure are transferred to the piles.

Piles are very useful in marshy land where other types of foundation are impossible to construct.
The length of the pile which is driven into the ground depends on the availability of hard
soil/rock or the actual load test. Another advantage of the pile foundations is that they can resist
uplift also in the same manner as they take the compression forces just by the skin friction in the
opposite direction.
However, driving of pile is not an easy job and needs equipment and specially trained persons or
agencies. Moreover, one has to select pile foundation in such a situation where the adjacent
buildings are not likely to be damaged due to the driving of piles. The choice of driven or bored
piles, in this regard, is critical.

Exhaustive designs of all types of foundations mentioned above are beyond the scope of this
course. Accordingly, this module is restricted to the design of some of the shallow footings,
frequently used for normal low rise buildings only.

3.5 Design of shallow foundation using brick and stone masonry units for walls and
columns (mh)

3.5.1 FOUNDATION AND RETAINING WALLS (h)

3.5.1.1 Concrete and masonry foundation walls (sh)

Concrete foundation walls shall be selected and constructed in accordance with the provisions.
Masonry foundation walls shall be selected and constructed in accordance with the provisions.

Design of masonry foundation walls

Masonry foundation walls shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the provisions
of this section or in accordance with the provisions of TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5 or NCMA
TR68-A. When TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5, NCMA TR68-A or the provisions of this section are
used to design masonry foundation walls, project drawings, typical details and specifications are
not required to bear the seal of the architect or engineer responsible for design, unless otherwise
required by the state law of the jurisdiction having authority.

PLAIN MASONRY FOUNDATION WALLS

PLAIN MASONRYa MINIMUM NOMINAL

WALL THICKNESS (inches)
Soil classesb
MAXIMUM SC, MH, ML-
MAXIMUM UNBALANCED GM, GC, SM, CL
WALL HEIGHT BACKFILL GW, GP, SW SM-SC and and inorganic
(feet) HEIGHTc (feet) and SP ML CL
5 4 6 solid or 8 6 solid or 8 6 solidd or 8
d d
 5 6 solidd or 8 8 10
4 6 solidd or 8 6 solidd or 8 6 solidd or 8
6 5 6 solidd or 8 8 10
6 8 10 12

4 6 solidd or 8 8 8
5 6 solidd or 8 10 10
7
6 10 12 10 solidd
7 12 10 solidd 12 solidd

4 6 solidd or 8 6 solidd or 8 8
5 6 solidd or 8 10 12
8 6 10 12 12 solidd
7 12 12 solidd Footnote e
d d
8 10 solid 12 solid Footnote e

4 6 solidd or 8 6 solidd or 8 8
5 8 10 12
6 10 12 12 solidd
9
7 12 12 solidd Footnote e
d
8 12 solid Footnote e Footnote e
9 Footnote e Footnote e Footnote e

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 Pa.
a. Mortar shall be Type M or S and masonry shall be laid in running bond. Ungrouted hollow
masonry units are permitted except where otherwise indicated.
b. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System. Refer to Table.
c. Unbalanced backfill height is the difference in height between the exterior finish ground
level and the lower of the top of the concrete footing that supports the foundation wall or the
interior finish ground level. Where an interior concrete slab-on-grade is provided and is in
contact with the interior surface of the foundation wall, measurement of the unbalanced
backfill height from the exterior finish ground level to the top of the interior concrete slab is
permitted.
d. Solid grouted hollow units or solid masonry units.
e. Wall construction shall be in accordance with either Table, or a design shall be provided.
TABLE R404.1.1(2) 8-INCH MASONRY FOUNDATION WALLS WITH
REINFORCING WHERE d > 5 INCHESa, c

MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT AND

SPACING (INCHES)b, c
Soil classes and lateral soil loadd (psf per foot below grade)
HEIGHT OF GW, GP, SW GM, GC, SM, SM- SC, ML-CL and
WALL UNBALANCED and SP soils SC and ML soils inorganic CL soils
HEIGHT BACKFILLe 30 45 60
4 feet (or less) #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
6 feet 8
5 feet #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
inches
6 feet 8 inches #4 at 48 #5 at 48 #6 at 48
4 feet (or less) #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
7 feet 4 5 feet #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
inches 6 feet #4 at 48 #5 at 48 #5 at 48
7 feet 4 inches #5 at 48 #6 at 48 #6 at 40
4 feet (or less) #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
5 feet #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
8 feet 6 feet #4 at 48 #5 at 48 #5 at 48
7 feet #5 at 48 #6 at 48 #6 at 40
8 feet #5 at 48 #6 at 48 #6 at 32
4 feet (or less) #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
5 feet #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #5 at 48
8 feet 8
6 feet #4 at 48 #5 at 48 #6 at 48
inches
7 feet #5 at 48 #6 at 48 #6 at 40
8 feet 8 inches #6 at 48 #6 at 32 #6 at 24
4 feet (or less) #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
5 feet #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #5 at 48
9 feet 4 6 feet #4 at 48 #5 at 48 #6 at 48
inches 7 feet #5 at 48 #6 at 48 #6 at 40
8 feet #6 at 48 #6 at 40 #6 at 24
9 feet 4 inches #6 at 40 #6 at 24 #6 at 16
4 feet (or less) #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #4 at 48
5 feet #4 at 48 #4 at 48 #5 at 48
10 feet 6 feet #4 at 48 #5 at 48 #6 at 48
7 feet #5 at 48 #6 at 48 #6 at 32
8 feet #6 at 48 #6 at 32 #6 at 24
 9 feet #6 at 40 #6 at 24 #6 at 16
10 feet #6 at 32 #6 at 16 #6 at 16

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.157
kPa/mm.
a. Mortar shall be Type M or S and masonry shall be laid in running bond.
b. Alternative reinforcing bar sizes and spacings having an equivalent cross-sectional
area of reinforcement per lineal foot of wall shall be permitted provided the spacing
of the reinforcement does not exceed 72 inches.
c. Vertical reinforcement shall be Grade 60 minimum. The distance, d, from the face of
the soil side of the wall to the center of vertical reinforcement shall be at least 5
inches.
d. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System and design
lateral soil loads are for moist conditions without hydrostatic pressure. Refer to Table
R405.1.
e. Unbalanced backfill height is the difference in height between the exterior finish
ground level and the lower of the top of the concrete footing that supports the
foundation wall or the interior finish ground level. Where an interior concrete slab-
on-grade is provided and is in contact with the interior surface of the foundation wall,
measurement of the unbalanced backfill height from the exterior finish ground level
to the top of the interior concrete slab is permitted.

TABLE 10-INCH FOUNDATION WALLS WITH REINFORCING WHERE d >

6.75 INCHESa, c

MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT AND

SPACING (INCHES)b, c
Soil classes and later soil loadd (psf per foot below grade)
HEIGHT OF GW, GP, SW GM, GC, SM, SM- SC, ML-CL and
WALL UNBALANCED and SP soils SC and ML soils inorganic CL soils
HEIGHT BACKFILLe 30 45 60
4 feet (or less) #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
6 feet 8
5 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
inches
6 feet 8 inches #4 at 56 #5 at 56 #5 at 56
 4 feet (or less) #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
7 feet 4 5 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
inches 6 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #5 at 56
7 feet 4 inches #4 at 56 #5 at 56 #6 at 56
4 feet (or less) #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
5 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
8 feet 6 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #5 at 56
7 feet #4 at 56 #5 at 56 #6 at 56
8 feet #5 at 56 #6 at 56 #6 at 48
4 feet (or less) #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
5 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
8 feet 8
6 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #5 at 56
inches
7 feet #4 at 56 #5 at 56 #6 at 56
8 feet 8 inches #5 at 56 #6 at 48 #6 at 32
4 feet (or less) #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
5 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
9 feet 4 6 feet #4 at 56 #5 at 56 #5 at 56
inches 7 feet #4 at 56 #5 at 56 #6 at 56
8 feet #5 at 56 #6 at 56 #6 at 40
9 feet 4 inches #6 at 56 #6 at 40 #6 at 24
4 feet (or less) #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
5 feet #4 at 56 #4 at 56 #4 at 56
6 feet #4 at 56 #5 at 56 #5 at 56
10 feet 7 feet #5 at 56 #6 at 56 #6 at 48
8 feet #5 at 56 #6 at 48 #6 at 40
9 feet #6 at 56 #6 at 40 #6 at 24
10 feet #6 at 48 #6 at 32 #6 at 24

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.157
kPa/mm.
a. Mortar shall be Type M or S and masonry shall be laid in running bond.
b. Alternative reinforcing bar sizes and spacings having an equivalent cross-sectional
area of reinforcement per lineal foot of wall shall be permitted provided the spacing
of the reinforcement does not exceed 72 inches.
c. Vertical reinforcement shall be Grade 60 minimum. The distance, d, from the face of
the soil side of the wall to the center of vertical reinforcement shall be at least 6.75
inches.
d. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System and design
lateral soil loads are for moist conditions without hydrostatic pressure.
e. Unbalanced backfill height is the difference in height between the exterior finish
ground level and the lower of the top of the concrete footing that supports the
foundation wall or the interior finish ground level. Where an interior concrete slab-
on-grade is provided and is in contact with the interior surface of the foundation wall,
measurement of the unbalanced backfill height from the exterior finish ground level
to the top of the interior concrete slab is permitted.

TABLE 12-INCH MASONRY FOUNDATION WALLS WITH REINFORCING

WHERE d > 8.75 INCHESa, c

MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT AND

SPACING (INCHES)b, c
Soil classes and lateral soil loadd (psf per foot below grade)
HEIGHT OF GW, GP, SW GM, GC, SM, SM- SC, ML-CL and
WALL UNBALANCED and SP soils SC and ML soils inorganic CL soils
HEIGHT BACKFILLe 30 45 60
4 feet (or less) #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
6 feet 8
5 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
inches
6 feet 8 inches #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #5 at 72
4 feet (or less) #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
7 feet 4 5 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
inches 6 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #5 at 72
7 feet 4 inches #4 at 72 #5 at 72 #6 at 72
4 feet (or less) #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
5 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
8 feet 6 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #5 at 72
7 feet #4 at 72 #5 at 72 #6 at 72
8 feet #5 at 72 #6 at 72 #6 at 64
4 feet (or less) #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
5 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
8 feet 8
6 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #5 at 72
inches
7 feet #4 at 72 #5 at 72 #6 at 72
8 feet 8 inches #5 at 72 #7 at 72 #6 at 48
 4 feet (or less) #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
5 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
9 feet 4 6 feet #4 at 72 #5 at 72 #5 at 72
inches 7 feet #4 at 72 #5 at 72 #6 at 72
8 feet #5 at 72 #6 at 72 #6 at 56
9 feet 4 inches #6 at 72 #6 at 48 #6 at 40
4 feet (or less) #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
5 feet #4 at 72 #4 at 72 #4 at 72
6 feet #4 at 72 #5 at 72 #5 at 72
10 feet 7 feet #4 at 72 #6 at 72 #6 at 72
8 feet #5 at 72 #6 at 72 #6 at 48
9 feet #6 at 72 #6 at 56 #6 at 40
10 feet #6 at 64 #6 at 40 #6 at 32

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.157
kPa/mm.
a. Mortar shall be Type M or S and masonry shall be laid in running bond.
b. Alternative reinforcing bar sizes and spacings having an equivalent cross-sectional
area of reinforcement per lineal foot of wall shall be permitted provided the spacing
of the reinforcement does not exceed 72 inches.
c. Vertical reinforcement shall be Grade 60 minimum. The distance, d, from the face of
the soil side of the wall to the center of vertical reinforcement shall be at least 8.75
inches.
d. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System and design
lateral soil loads are for moist conditions without hydrostatic pressure. Refer to Table
R405.1.
e. Unbalanced backfill height is the difference in height between the exterior finish
ground level and the lower of the top of the concrete footing that supports the
foundation wall or the interior finish ground levels. Where an interior concrete slab-
on-grade is provided and in contact with the interior surface of the foundation wall,
measurement of the unbalanced backfill height is permitted to be measured from the
exterior finish ground level to the top of the interior concrete slab is permitted.

Masonry foundation walls

Concrete masonry and clay masonry foundation walls shall be constructed as set forth in Tables
and shall also comply with applicable provisions. In buildings assigned to Seismic Design
Categories D0, D1 and D2, concrete masonry and clay masonry foundation walls shall also
comply with Section. Rubble stone masonry foundation walls shall be constructed in accordance
with Rubble stone masonry walls shall not be used in Seismic Design Categories D0, D1 and D2.

3.5.1.2 Concrete foundation walls (sh)

Concrete foundation walls that support light-frame walls shall be designed and constructed in
accordance with the provisions of this section, ACI 318, ACI 332 or PCA 100. Concrete
foundation walls that support above-grade concrete walls that are within the applicability limits
of Section R611.2 shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the provisions of this
section, ACI 318, ACI 332 or PCA 100. Concrete foundation walls that support above-grade
concrete walls that are not within the applicability limits of Section R611.2 shall be designed and
constructed in accordance with the provisions of ACI 318, ACI 332 or PCA 100. When ACI 318,
ACI 332, PCA 100 or the provisions of this section are used to design concrete foundation walls,
project drawings, typical details and specifications are not required to bear the seal of the
architect or engineer responsible for design, unless otherwise required by the state law of the
jurisdiction having authority.

TABLE MINIMUM HORIZONTAL REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE

BASEMENT WALLSa, b

MAXIMUM
UNSUPPORTED
HEIGHT OF
BASEMENT
WALL (feet) LOCATION OF HORIZONTAL REINFORCEMENT
One No. 4 bar within 12 inches of the top of the wall story and one No.
≤8
4 bar near mid-height of the wall story
One No. 4 bar within 12 inches of the top of the wall story and one No.
>8
4 bar near third points in the wall story

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.
a. Horizontal reinforcement requirements are for reinforcing bars with a minimum yield
strength of 40,000 psi and concrete with a minimum concrete compressive strength
2,500 psi.
b. See Section R404.1.2.2 for minimum reinforcement required for foundation walls
supporting above-grade concrete walls.
TABLE R404.1.2(2) MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT FOR 6-INCH
NOMINAL FLAT CONCRETE BASEMENT WALLSb, c, d, e, g, h, i, j

MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT-

BAR SIZE AND SPACING (inches)
MAXIMUM Soil classesa and design lateral soil (psf per foot
MAXIMUM UNBALANCED of depth)
UNSUPPORTED BACKFILL GW, GP, GM, GC, SM, SC, ML-CL and
f
WALL HEIGHT HEIGHT SW, SP SM-SC and ML inorganic CL
(feet) (feet) 30 45 60
4 NR NR NR
5 NR 6 @ 39 6 @ 48
8 6 5 @ 39 6 @ 48 6 @ 35
7 6 @ 48 6 @ 34 6 @ 25
8 6 @ 39 6 @ 25 6 @ 18
4 NR NR NR
5 NR 5 @ 37 6 @ 48
6 5 @ 36 6 @ 44 6 @ 32
9
7 6 @ 47 6 @ 30 6 @ 22
8 6 @ 34 6 @ 22 6 @ 16
9 6 @ 27 6 @ 17 DR
4 NR NR NR
5 NR 5 @ 35 6 @ 48
6 6 @ 48 6 @ 41 6 @ 30
10 7 6 @ 43 6 @ 28 6 @ 20
8 6 @ 31 6 @ 20 DR
9 6 @ 24 6 @ 15 DR
10 6 @ 19 DR DR

For SI:1 foot = 304.8 mm; 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.1571
kPa2/m, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.
a. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System.
b. Table values are based on reinforcing bars with a minimum yield strength of 60,000
psi concrete with a minimum specified compressive strength of 2,500 psi and vertical
 reinforcement being located at the centerline of the wall.
c. Vertical reinforcement with a yield strength of less than 60,000 psi and/or bars of a
different size than specified in the table are permitted in accordance.
d. Deflection criterion is L/240, where L is the height of the basement wall in inches.
e. Interpolation is not permitted.
f. Where walls will retain 4 feet or more of unbalanced backfill, they shall be laterally
supported at the top and bottom before backfilling.
g. NR indicates no vertical wall reinforcement is required, except for 6-inch nominal
walls formed with stay-in-place forming systems in which case vertical
reinforcement shall be No. 4@48 inches on center.
h. for minimum reinforcement required for basement walls supporting above-grade
concrete walls.
i. for tolerance from nominal thickness permitted for flat walls.
j. DR means design is required in accordance with the applicable building code, or
where there is no code, in accordance with ACI 318.

TABLE MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT FOR 8-INCH (203 mm)

NOMINAL FLAT CONCRETE BASEMENT WALLSb, c, d, e, f, h, i

MINIMUM VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT-BAR SIZE AND
SPACING (inches)
Soil classesa and design lateral soil (psf
MAXIMUM per foot of depth)
MAXIMUM UNBALANCED GM, GC, SM,
UNSUPPORTED BACKFILL GW, GP, SM-SC and SC, ML-CL and
WALL HEIGHT HEIGHTg SW, SP ML inorganic CL
(feet) (feet) 30 45 60
4 NR NR NR
5 NR NR NR
8 6 NR NR 6 @ 37
7 NR 6 @ 36 6 @ 35
8 6 @ 41 6 @ 35 6 @ 26
4 NR NR NR
5 NR NR NR
6 NR NR 6 @ 35
9
7 NR 6 @ 35 6 @ 32
8 6 @ 36 6 @ 32 6 @ 23
9 6 @ 35 6 @ 25 6 @ 18
 4 NR NR NR
5 NR NR NR
6 NR NR 6 @ 35
10 7 NR 6 @ 35 6 @ 29
8 6 @ 35 6 @ 29 6 @ 21
9 6 @ 34 6 @ 22 6 @ 16
10 6 @ 27 6 @ 17 6 @ 13

For SI:1 foot = 304.8 mm; 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.1571
kPa2/m, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.
a. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System. Refer to
Table R405.1.
b. Table values are based on reinforcing bars with a minimum yield strength of 60,000
psi (420 MPa), concrete with a minimum specified compressive strength of 2,500 psi
and vertical reinforcement being located at the center line of the wall.
c. Vertical reinforcement with a yield strength of less than 60,000 psi and/or bars of a
different size than specified in the table are permitted in accordance.
d. NR indicates no vertical reinforcement is required.
e. Deflection criterion is L/240, where L is the height of the basement wall in inches.
f. Interpolation is not permitted.
g. Where walls will retain 4 feet or more of unbalanced backfill, they shall be laterally
supported at the top and bottom before backfilling.
h. for minimum reinforcement required for basement walls supporting above-grade
concrete walls.
i. for tolerance from nominal thickness permitted for flat walls.

TABLE MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT FOR 10-INCH NOMINAL

FLAT CONCRETE BASEMENT WALLSb, c, d, e, f, h, i

MINIMUM VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT-BAR SIZE AND
MAXIMUM SPACING (inches)
MAXIMUM UNBALANCED Soil classesa and design lateral soil (psf
UNSUPPORTED BACKFILL per foot of depth)
WALL HEIGHT HEIGHTg GW, GP, GM, GC, SM, SC, ML-CL and
(feet) (feet) SW, SP SM-SC and inorganic CL
 30 ML 60
45
4 NR NR NR
5 NR NR NR
8 6 NR NR NR
7 NR NR NR
8 6 @ 48 6 @ 35 6 @ 28
4 NR NR NR
5 NR NR NR
6 NR NR NR
9
7 NR NR 6 @ 31
8 NR 6 @ 31 6 @ 28
9 6 @ 37 6 @ 28 6 @ 24
4 NR NR NR
5 NR NR NR
6 NR NR NR
10 7 NR NR 6 @ 28
8 NR 6 @ 28 6 @ 28
9 6 @ 33 6 @ 28 6 @ 21
10 6 @ 28 6 @ 23 6 @ 17

For SI:1 foot = 304.8 mm; 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.1571
kPa2/m, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.
a. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System. Refer to
Table R405.1.
b. Table values are based on reinforcing bars with a minimum yield strength of 60,000
psi concrete with a minimum specified compressive strength of 2,500 psi and vertical
reinforcement being located at the centerline of the wall.
c. Vertical reinforcement with a yield strength of less than 60,000 psi and/or bars of a
different size than specified in the table are permitted in accordance.
d. NR indicates no vertical reinforcement is required.
e. Deflection criterion is L/240, where L is the height of the basement wall in inches.
f. Interpolation is not permitted.
g. Where walls will retain 4 feet or more of unbalanced backfill, they shall be laterally
supported at the top and bottom before backfilling.
h. for minimum reinforcement required for basement walls supporting above-grade
concrete walls.
i. for tolerance from nominal thickness permitted for flat walls.

TABLE MINIMUM VERTICAL WALL REINFORCEMENT FOR 6-INCH

WAFFLE-GRID BASEMENT WALLSb, c, d, e, g, h, i

MINIMUM VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT-BAR SIZE AND
SPACING (inches)
Soil classesa and design lateral soil (psf
MAXIMUM per foot of depth)
MAXIMUM UNBALANCED GM, GC, SM,
UNSUPPORTED BACKFILL GW, GP, SM-SC and SC, ML-CL and
WALL HEIGHT HEIGHTf SW, SP ML inorganic CL
(feet) (feet) 30 45 60
4 4 @ 48 4 @ 46 6 @ 39
5 4 @ 45 5 @ 46 6 @ 47
8 6 5 @ 45 6 @ 40 DR
7 6 @ 44 DR DR
8 6 @ 32 DR DR
4 4 @ 48 4 @ 46 4 @ 37
5 4 @ 42 5 @ 43 6 @ 44
9 6 5 @ 41 6 @ 37 DR
7 6 @ 39 DR DR
i
>8 DR DR DR
4 4 @ 48 4 @ 46 4 @ 35
5 4 @ 40 5 @ 40 6 @ 41
10 6 5 @ 38 6 @ 34 DR
7 6 @ 36 DR DR
>8 DR DR DR

For SI: 1 foot = 304.8 mm; 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.1571
kPa2/m, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.
a. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System. Refer to
Table R405.1.
b. Table values are based on reinforcing bars with a minimum yield strength of 60,000
psi concrete with a minimum specified compressive strength of 2,500 psi and vertical
reinforcement being located at the centerline of the wall.
c. Maximum spacings shown are the values calculated for the specified bar size. Where
the bar used is Grade 60 and the size specified in the table, the actual spacing in the
wall shall not exceed a whole-number multiple of 12 inches (i.e., 12, 24, 36 and 48)
that is less than or equal to the tabulated spacing. Vertical reinforcement with a yield
strength of less than 60,000 psi and/or bars of a different size than specified in the
table are permitted in accordance.
d. Deflection criterion is L/240, where L is the height of the basement wall in inches.
e. Interpolation is not permitted.
f. Where walls will retain 4 feet or more of unbalanced backfill, they shall be laterally
supported at the top and bottom before backfilling.
g. for minimum reinforcement required for basement walls supporting above-grade
concrete walls.
h. for thicknesses and dimensions of waffle-grid walls.
i. DR means design is required in accordance with the applicable building code, or
where there is no code, in accordance with ACI 318.

TABLE MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT FOR 8-INCH WAFFLE-

GRID BASEMENT WALLSb, c, d, e, f, h, i, j

MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT-BAR

SIZE AND SPACING (inches)
MAXIMUM Soil classesa and design lateral soil (psf per foot of
MAXIMUM UNBALANCED depth)
UNSUPPORTED BACKFILL GW, GP, GM, GC, SM, SM- SC, ML-CL and
g
WALL HEIGHT HEIGHT SW, SP SC and ML inorganic CL
(feet) (feet) 30 45 60
4 NR NR NR
5 NR 5 @ 48 5 @ 46
8 6 5 @ 48 5 @ 43 6 @ 45
7 5 @ 46 6 @ 43 6 @ 31
8 6 @ 48 6 @ 32 6 @ 23
4 NR NR NR
5 NR 5 @ 47 5 @ 46
9
6 5 @ 46 5 @ 39 6 @ 41
7 5 @ 42 6 @ 38 6 @ 28
 8 6 @ 44 6 @ 28 6 @ 20
9 6 @ 34 6 @ 21 DR
4 NR NR NR
5 NR 5 @ 46 5 @ 44
6 5 @ 46 5 @ 37 6 @ 38
10 7 5 @ 38 6 @ 35 6 @ 25
8 6 @ 39 6 @ 25 DR
9 6 @ 30 DR DR
10 6 @ 24 DR DR

For SI: 1 foot = 304.8 mm; 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.1571
kPa2/m, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.
a. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System.
b. Table values are based on reinforcing bars with a minimum yield strength of 60,000
psi concrete with a minimum specified compressive strength of 2,500 psi and vertical
reinforcement being located at the centerline of the wall.
c. Maximum spacings shown are the values calculated for the specified bar size. Where
the bar used is Grade 60 (420 MPa) and the size specified in the table, the actual
spacing in the wall shall not exceed a whole-number multiple of 12 inches (i.e., 12,
24, 36 and 48) that is less than or equal to the tabulated spacing. Vertical
reinforcement with a yield strength of less than 60,000 psi and/or bars of a different
size than specified in the table are permitted in accordance.
d. NR indicates no vertical reinforcement is required.
e. Deflection criterion is L/240, where L is the height of the basement wall in inches.
f. Interpolation shall not be permitted.
g. Where walls will retain 4 feet or more of unbalanced backfill, they shall be laterally
supported at the top and bottom before backfilling.
h. for minimum reinforcement required for basement walls supporting above-grade
concrete walls.
i. for thicknesses and dimensions of waffle-grid walls.
j. DR means design is required in accordance with the applicable building code, or
where there is no code, in accordance with ACI 318.

TABLE MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT FOR 6-INCH (152 mm)

SCREEN-GRID BASEMENT WALLSb,c,d,e,g,h,i,
 MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT—BAR
SIZE AND SPACING (inches)
MAXIMUM MAXIMUM Soil classesa and design lateral soil (psf per foot of
UNSUPPORTED UNBALANCED depth)
WALL HEIGHT BACKFILL GW, GP, GM, GC, SM, SM- SC, ML-CL and
f
(feet) HEIGHT (feet) SW, SP 30 SC and ML 45 inorganic CL 60
4 4 @ 48 4 @ 48 5 @ 43
5 4 @ 48 5 @ 48 5 @ 37
8 6 5 @ 48 6 @ 45 6 @ 32
7 6 @ 48 DR DR
8 6 @ 36 DR DR
4 4 @ 48 4 @ 48 4 @ 41
5 4 @ 48 5 @ 48 6 @ 48
9 6 5 @ 45 6 @ 41 DR
7 6 @ 43 DR DR
>8 DR DR DR
4 4 @ 48 4 @ 48 4 @ 39
5 4 @ 44 5 @ 44 6 @ 46
10 6 5 @ 42 6 @ 38 DR
7 6 @ 40 DR DR
>8 DR DR DR

For SI: 1 foot = 304.8 mm; 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.1571 kPa2/m,
1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.

a. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System.
b. Table values are based on reinforcing bars with a minimum yield strength of 60,000 psi (420
MPa), concrete with a minimum specified compressive strength of 2,500 psi and vertical
reinforcement being located at the centerline of the wall.
c. Maximum spacings shown are the values calculated for the specified bar size. Where the bar
used is Grade 60 and the size specified in the table, the actual spacing in the wall shall not
exceed a whole-number multiple of 12 inches (i.e., 12, 24, 36 and 48) that is less than or equal to
the tabulated spacing. Vertical reinforcement with a yield strength of less than 60,000 psi and/or
bars of a different size than specified in the table are permitted in accordance.
d. Deflection criterion is L/240, where L is the height of the basement wall in inches.
e. Interpolation is not permitted.
f. here walls will retain 4 feet or more of unbalanced backfill, they shall be laterally supported at
the top and bottom before backfilling.

g. for minimum reinforcement required for basement walls supporting above-grade concrete
walls.

h. for thicknesses and dimensions of screen-grid walls.

i. DR means design is required in accordance with the applicable building code, or where there is
no code, in accordance with ACI 318.

TABLE MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT FOR 6-, 8-, 10-INCH AND

12-INCH NOMINAL FLAT BASEMENT WALLSb, c, d, e, f, h, i, k, n

MINIMUM VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT-BAR SIZE

AND SPACING (inches)
Soil classesa and design lateral soil (psf per foot of depth)
MAXIMUM GM, GC, SM, SM- SC, ML-CL and
MAXIMUM UNBALANCED GW, GP, SW, SP SC and ML inorganic CL
WALL BACKFILL 30 45 60
HEIGHT HEIGHTg Minimum nominal wall thickness (inches)
(feet) (feet) 6 8 10 12 6 8 10 12 6 8 10 12
4 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
5
5 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
4 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
4@
5 NR NR NR NR NR NRl NR NR NRl NR NR
6 35
5@ 5@
6 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
48 36
4 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
5@
5 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
47
5
5@ 6@
7 6 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR @ NRl NR
42 43
48
6
5@ 6 @5 @ 6@
7 NR NR NR NRl NR @ NR NR
46 42 46 34
48
 4 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
4@ 5@
5 NR NR NR NR NRl NR NR NR NR NR
38 43
5
4@ 5@ 6@
6 NRl NR NR NR NR NR @ NRl NR
37 37 37
43
8
6
5@ 6 @5 @ 6@
7 NR NR NR NRl NR @ NR NR
40 37 41 34
43
6
6 @5 @ 6 @6 @ 6@ 6@
8 NRl NR NR NR @ NR
43 47 34 43 27 44
32
4 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
4@ 5@
5 NR NR NR NR NRl NR NR NR NR NR
35 40
6
4@ 6@ 6@
6 NRl NR NR NR NR NR @ NRl NR
34 48 36
39
6
5@ 6 @5 @ 6@ 5@
9 7 NR NR NR NR NR @ NRl
36 34 37 33 37
38
6
6 @5 @ 6 @6 @5 @ 6@ 6@
8 NRl NR NRl @ 4 @ 48m
38 41 33 38 37 24 39
29
6
6 @6 @ 6 @6 @6 @ 6@ 6@
9 NR NR NR @ 6 @ 39
34 46 26 30 41 19 30
23
4 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
4@ 5@
5 NR NR NR NR NRl NR NR NR NR NR
33 38
5
5@ 6@ 6@
6 NRl NR NR NR NR NR @ NR NR
48 45 34
10 37
6
6@ 6 @6 @ 6@ 6@
7 NR NR NR NR NR @ NRl
47 34 48 30 48
35
6 @5 @ 6 @6 @6 @ 6 @6 6 @
8 NR NR NRl 6 @ 45m
34 38 30 34 47 22 @ 35
 26
6
6 @6 @4 @ l 6 @6 @6 @4 @ 6@
9 NR m DR @ 6 @ 34
34 41 48 23 27 35 48 27
22
6
6 @6 @6 @ j 6 @6 @6 @ 6@
10 NR DR DR @ 6 @ 28
28 33 45 23 29 38 22
22

For SI: 1 foot = 304.8 mm; 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 pound per square foot per foot = 0.1571
kPa2/m, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.
a. Soil classes are in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System.
b. Table values are based on reinforcing bars with a minimum yield strength of 60,000
psi.
c. Vertical reinforcement with a yield strength of less than 60,000 psi and/or bars of a
different size than specified in the table are permitted
d. NR indicates no vertical wall reinforcement is required, except for 6-inch nominal
walls formed with stay-in-place forming systems in which case vertical reinforcement
shall be #4@48 inches on center.
e. Allowable deflection criterion is L/240, where L is the unsupported height of the
basement wall in inches.
f. Interpolation is not permitted.
g. Where walls will retain 4 feet or more of unbalanced backfill, they shall be laterally
supported at the top and bottom before backfilling.
h. Vertical reinforcement shall be located to provide a cover of 1.25 inches measured
from the inside face of the wall. The center of the steel shall not vary from the
specified location by more than the greater of 10 percent of the wall thickness or 3/8-
inch.
i. Concrete cover for reinforcement measured from the inside face of the wall shall not
be less than 3/4-inch. Concrete cover for reinforcement measured from the outside face
of the wall shall not be less than 11/2 inches for No. 5 bars and smaller, and not less
than 2 inches for larger bars.
j. DR means design is required in accordance with the applicable building code, or
where there is no code in accordance with ACI 318.
k. Concrete shall have a specified compressive strength, f′c, of not less than 2,500 psi at
28 days, unless a higher strength is required by footnote l or m.
l. The minimum thickness is permitted to be reduced 2 inches, provided the minimum
specified compressive strength of concrete, f′c, is 4,000 psi.
m. A plain concrete wall with a minimum nominal thickness of 12 inches is permitted,
provided minimum specified compressive strength of concrete, f′c, is 3,500 psi.
n. for tolerance from nominal thickness permitted for flat walls.

TABLE MINIMUM SPACING FOR ALTERNATE BAR SIZE AND/OR

ALTERNATE GRADE OF STEELa, b, c

BAR SIZE FROM APPLICABLE TABLE IN SECTION R404.1.2.2

BAR
#4 #5 #6
SPACING
Alternate bar size and/or alternate grade of steel desired
FROM
APPLICABLE Grade Grade
TABLE IN Grade 60 Grade 40 60 Grade 40 60 Grade 40
SECTION #5 #6 #4 #5 #6 #4 #6 #4 #5 #6 #4 #5 #4 #5 #6
R404.1.2.2 Maximum spacing for alternate bar size and/or alternate grade of
(inches) steel (inches)
8 12 18 5 8 12 5 11 3 5 8 4 6 2 4 5
9 14 20 6 9 13 6 13 4 6 9 4 6 3 4 6
10 16 22 7 10 15 6 14 4 7 9 5 7 3 5 7
11 17 24 7 11 16 7 16 5 7 10 5 8 3 5 7
12 19 26 8 12 18 8 17 5 8 11 5 8 4 6 8
13 20 29 9 13 19 8 18 6 9 12 6 9 4 6 9
14 22 31 9 14 21 9 20 6 9 13 6 10 4 7 9
15 23 33 10 16 22 10 21 6 10 14 7 11 5 7 10
16 25 35 11 17 23 10 23 7 11 15 7 11 5 8 11
17 26 37 11 18 25 11 24 7 11 16 8 12 5 8 11
18 28 40 12 19 26 12 26 8 12 17 8 13 5 8 12
19 29 42 13 20 28 12 27 8 13 18 9 13 6 9 13
20 31 44 13 21 29 13 28 9 13 19 9 14 6 9 13
21 33 46 14 22 31 14 30 9 14 20 10 15 6 10 14
22 34 48 15 23 32 14 31 9 15 21 10 16 7 10 15
23 36 48 15 24 34 15 33 10 15 22 10 16 7 11 15
24 37 48 16 25 35 15 34 10 16 23 11 17 7 11 16
25 39 48 17 26 37 16 35 11 17 24 11 18 8 12 17
26 40 48 17 27 38 17 37 11 17 25 12 18 8 12 17
 27 42 48 18 28 40 17 38 12 18 26 12 19 8 13 18
28 43 48 19 29 41 18 40 12 19 26 13 20 8 13 19
29 45 48 19 30 43 19 41 12 19 27 13 20 9 14 19
30 47 48 20 31 44 19 43 13 20 28 14 21 9 14 20
31 48 48 21 32 45 20 44 13 21 29 14 22 9 15 21
32 48 48 21 33 47 21 45 14 21 30 15 23 10 15 21
33 48 48 22 34 48 21 47 14 22 31 15 23 10 16 22
34 48 48 23 35 48 22 48 15 23 32 15 24 10 16 23
35 48 48 23 36 48 23 48 15 23 33 16 25 11 16 23
36 48 48 24 37 48 23 48 15 24 34 16 25 11 17 24
37 48 48 25 38 48 24 48 16 25 35 17 26 11 17 25
38 48 48 25 39 48 25 48 16 25 36 17 27 12 18 25
39 48 48 26 40 48 25 48 17 26 37 18 27 12 18 26
40 48 48 27 41 48 26 48 17 27 38 18 28 12 19 27
41 48 48 27 42 48 26 48 18 27 39 19 29 12 19 27
42 48 48 28 43 48 27 48 18 28 40 19 30 13 20 28
43 48 48 29 44 48 28 48 18 29 41 20 30 13 20 29
44 48 48 29 45 48 28 48 19 29 42 20 31 13 21 29
45 48 48 30 47 48 29 48 19 30 43 20 32 14 21 30
46 48 48 31 48 48 30 48 20 31 44 21 32 14 22 31
47 48 48 31 48 48 30 48 20 31 44 21 33 14 22 31
48 48 48 32 48 48 31 48 21 32 45 22 34 15 23 32

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.

a. Bar spacing shall not exceed 48 inches on center and shall not be less than one-half
the nominal wall thickness.

b. This table is for use with tables that specify the minimum bar size and maximum
spacing of
vertical wall reinforcement for foundation walls and above-grade walls.

c. For Grade 50 steel bars (ASTM A 996, Type R), use spacing for Grade 40 bars or
interpolate between Grades 40 and 60.
Concrete cross-section

Concrete walls constructed in accordance with this code shall comply with the shapes and
minimum concrete cross-sectional dimensions required by Table. Other types of forming
systems resulting in concrete walls not in compliance shall be designed in accordance
with ACI 318.

Reinforcement for foundation walls

Concrete foundation walls shall be laterally supported at the top and bottom. For
basement walls supporting above-grade concrete walls, vertical reinforcement shall be
the greater of that required by Tables through. for the above-grade wall. In buildings
assigned to Seismic Design Category D0, D1 or D2, concrete foundation walls shall also
comply.

3.5.1.3 Concrete foundation stem walls supporting above-grade concrete walls (sh)

Foundation stem walls that support above-grade concrete walls shall be designed and
constructed in accordance with this section.

1. Stem walls not laterally supported at top. Concrete stem walls that are not monolithic
with slabs-on-ground or are not otherwise laterally supported by slabs-on-ground shall
comply with this section. Where unbalanced backfill retained by the stem wall is less
than or equal to 18 inches (457 mm), the stem wall and above-grade wall it supports shall
be provided with vertical reinforcement in accordance for above-grade walls. Where
unbalanced backfill retained by the stem wall is greater than 18 inches (457 mm), the
stem wall and above-grade wall it supports shall be provided with vertical reinforcement
in accordance.

2.Stem walls laterally supported at top. Concrete stem walls that are monolithic with
slabs-on-ground or are otherwise laterally supported by slabs-on-ground shall be
vertically reinforced in accordance with for above-grade walls. Where the unbalanced
backfill retained by the stem wall is greater than 18 inches (457 mm), the connection
between the stem wall and the slab-on-ground, and the portion of the slab-on-ground
providing lateral support for the wall shall be designed in accordance with PCA 100 or in
accordance with accepted engineering practice. Where the unbalanced backfill retained
by the stem wall is greater than 18 inches (457 mm), the minimum nominal thickness of
the wall shall be 6 inches (152 mm).
Concrete foundation stem walls supporting light-frame above-grade walls

Concrete foundation stem walls that support light-frame above-grade walls shall be
designed and constructed in accordance with this section.

1. Stem walls not laterally supported at top. Concrete stem walls that are not monolithic
with slabs-on-ground or are not otherwise laterally supported by slabs-on-ground and
retain 48 inches (1219 mm) or less of unbalanced fill, measured from the top of the wall,
shall be constructed in accordance. Foundation stem walls that retain more than 48 inches
(1219 mm) of unbalanced fill, measured from the top of the wall, shall be designed in
accordance.

2. Stem walls laterally supported at top. Concrete stem walls that are monolithic with
slabs-on-ground or are otherwise laterally supported by slabs-on-ground shall be
constructed in accordance. Where the unbalanced backfill retained by the stem wall is
greater than 48 inches (1219 mm), the connection between the stem wall and the slab-on-
ground, and the portion of the slab-on-ground providing lateral support for the wall shall
be designed in accordance with PCA 100 or in accordance with accepted engineering
practice.

Concrete, materials for concrete, and forms

Materials used in concrete, the concrete itself and forms shall conform to requirements of
this section or ACI 318.

Compressive strength

The minimum specified compressive strength of concrete, f′c, shall comply and shall be
not less than 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa) at 28 days in buildings assigned to Seismic Design
Category A, B or C and 3000 psi (20.5 MPa) in buildings assigned to Seismic Design
Category D0, D1 or D2.

Concrete mixing and delivery

Mixing and delivery of concrete shall comply with ASTM C 94 or ASTM C 685.

Maximum aggregate size

The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate shall not exceed one-fifth the narrowest
distance between sides of forms, or three-fourths the clear spacing between reinforcing
bars or between a bar and the side of the form.

Proportioning and slump of concrete

Proportions of materials for concrete shall be established to provide workability and

consistency to permit concrete to be worked readily into forms and around reinforcement
under conditions of placement to be employed, without segregation or excessive
bleeding. Slump of concrete placed in removable forms shall not exceed 6 inches (152
mm).

Slump of concrete placed in stay-in-place forms shall exceed 6 inches (152 mm). Slump
of concrete shall be determined in accordance with ASTM C 143.

Consolidation of concrete

Concrete shall be consolidated by suitable means during placement and shall be worked
around embedded items and reinforcement and into corners of forms. Where stay-in-
place forms are used, concrete shall be consolidated by internal vibration.

Form materials and form ties

Forms shall be made of wood, steel, aluminum, plastic, a composite of cement and foam
insulation, a composite of cement and wood chips, or other approved material suitable for
supporting and containing concrete. Forms shall provide sufficient strength to contain
concrete during the concrete placement operation.

Form ties shall be steel, solid plastic, foam plastic, a composite of cement and wood
chips, a composite of cement and foam plastic, or other suitable material capable of
resisting the forces created by fluid pressure of fresh concrete.

Stay-in-place forms

Stay-in-place concrete forms shall comply with this section.

1. Surface burning characteristics. The flame-spread index and smoke-developed index of

forming material, other than foam plastic, left exposed on the interior shall comply. The
surface burning characteristics of foam plastic used in insulating concrete forms shall
comply.
2. Interior covering. Stay-in-place forms constructed of rigid foam plastic shall be
protected on the interior of the building as required. Where gypsum board is used to
protect the foam plastic, it shall be installed with a mechanical fastening system. Use of
adhesives in addition to mechanical fasteners is permitted.
3. Exterior wall covering. Stay-in-place forms constructed of rigid foam plastics shall be
protected from sunlight and physical damage by the application of an approved exterior
wall covering complying with this code. Exterior surfaces of other stay-in-place forming
systems shall be protected in accordance with this code.
4. Termite hazards. In areas where hazard of termite damage is very heavy in accordance
with foam plastic insulation shall be permitted below grade on foundation walls in
accordance with one of the following conditions:
4.1. Where in addition to the requirements, an approved method of protecting the foam
plastic and structure from subterranean termite damage is provided.
4.2. The structural members of walls, floors, ceilings and roofs are entirely of non-
combustible materials or pressure-preservative-treated wood.
4.3. On the interior side of basement walls.

3.5.1.4 Steel reinforcement (sh)

Steel reinforcement shall comply with the requirements of ASTM A 615, A 706, or A
996. ASTM A 996 bars produced from rail steel shall be Type R. In buildings assigned to
Seismic Design Category A, B or C, the minimum yield strength of reinforcing steel shall
be 40,000 psi (Grade 40) (276 MPa). In buildings assigned to Seismic Design Category
D0, D1 or D2, reinforcing steel shall comply with the requirements of ASTM A 706 for
low-alloy steel with a minimum yield strength of 60,000 psi (Grade 60) (414 MPa).

Location of reinforcement in wall

The center of vertical reinforcement in basement walls determined from Tables shall be
located at the centerline of the wall. Vertical reinforcement in basement walls determined
from Table R404.1.2(8) shall be located to provide a maximum cover of 1.25 inches (32
mm) measured from the inside face of the wall. Regardless of the table used to determine
vertical wall reinforcement, the center of the steel shall not vary from the specified
location by more than the greater of 10 percent of the wall thickness and 3/8-inch (10
mm). Horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall be located in foundation walls to
provide the minimum cover.

Wall openings
Vertical wall reinforcement required that is interrupted by wall openings shall have
additional vertical reinforcement of the same size placed within 12 inches (305 mm) of
each side of the opening.

Support and cover

Reinforcement shall be secured in the proper location in the forms with tie wire or other
bar support system to prevent displacement during the concrete placement operation.
Steel reinforcement in concrete cast against the earth shall have a minimum cover of 3
inches (75 mm). Minimum cover for reinforcement in concrete cast in removable forms
that will be exposed to the earth or weather shall be 11/2 inches (38 mm) for No. 5 bars
and smaller, and 2 inches (50 mm) for No. 6 bars and larger. For concrete cast in
removable forms that will not be exposed to the earth or weather, and for concrete cast in
stay-in-place forms, minimum cover shall be 3/4 inch (19 mm). The minus tolerance for
cover shall not exceed the smaller of one-third the required cover or 3/8 inch (10 mm).

Lap splices

Vertical and horizontal wall reinforcement shall be the longest lengths practical. Where
splices are necessary in reinforcement, the length of lap splice shall be in accordance. The
maximum gap between noncontact parallel bars at a lap splice shall not exceed the
smaller of one-fifth the required lap length and 6 inches (152 mm).

Alternate grade of reinforcement and spacing

It specify vertical wall reinforcement based on minimum bar size and maximum spacing,
which are based on Grade 60 (414 MPa) steel reinforcement, different size bars and/or
bars made from a different grade of steel are permitted provided an equivalent area of
steel per linear foot of wall is provided. Use of Table is permitted to determine the
maximum bar spacing for different bar sizes than specified in the tables and/or bars made
from a different grade of steel. Bars shall not be spaced less than one-half the wall
thickness, or more than 48 inches (1219 mm) on center.

Standard hooks

Where reinforcement is required by this code to terminate with a standard hook.

Construction joint reinforcement

Construction joints in foundation walls shall be made and located to not impair the
strength of the wall. Construction joints in plain concrete walls, including walls required
to have not less than No. 4 bars at 48 inches (1219 mm) on, shall be located at points of
lateral support, and a minimum of one No. 4 bar shall extend across the construction joint
at a spacing not to exceed 24 inches (610 mm) on center. Construction joint
reinforcement shall have a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) embedment on both sides of
the joint. Construction joints in reinforced concrete walls shall be located in the middle
third of the span between lateral supports, or located and constructed as required for
joints in plain concrete walls.

Exterior wall coverings

Requirements for installation of masonry veneer, stucco and other wall coverings on the
exterior of concrete walls and other construction details not covered in this section shall
comply with the requirements of this code.

Requirements for Seismic Design Category C

Concrete foundation walls supporting above-grade concrete walls in townhouses assigned

to Seismic Design Category C shall comply with ACI 318, ACI 332 or PCA 100

Design required

Concrete or masonry foundation walls shall be designed in accordance with accepted

engineering practice when either of the following conditions exists:
1. Walls are subject to hydrostatic pressure from groundwater.
2. Walls supporting more than 48 inches (1219 mm) of unbalanced backfill that do not
have permanent lateral support at the top or bottom.

3.5.1.5 Masonry foundation walls (sh)

In addition to the requirements of Table plain masonry foundation walls in buildings

assigned to Seismic Design Category D0, D1 or D2, as established in Table, shall comply
with the following.
1. Wall height shall not exceed 8 feet (2438 mm).
2. Unbalanced backfill height shall not exceed 4 feet (1219 mm).
3. Minimum nominal thickness for plain masonry foundation walls shall be 8 inches (203
mm).
4. Masonry stem walls shall have a minimum vertical reinforcement of one No. 3 (No.
10) bar located a maximum of 4 feet (1219 mm) on center in grouted cells. Vertical
reinforcement shall be tied to the horizontal reinforcement in the footings.

Foundation walls in buildings assigned to Seismic Design Category D0, D1 or D2, as

established in Table, supporting more than 4 feet (1219 mm) of unbalanced backfill or
exceeding 8 feet (2438 mm) in height shall be constructed in accordance . Masonry
foundation walls shall have two No. 4 (No. 13) horizontal bars located in the upper 12
inches (305 mm) of the wall.

Concrete foundation walls

In buildings assigned to Seismic Design Category D0, D1 or D2, as established in Table ,

concrete foundation walls that support light-frame walls shall comply with this section,
and concrete foundation walls that support above-grade concrete walls shall comply with
ACI 318, ACI 332 or PCA 100. In addition to the horizontal reinforcement required by
Table, plain concrete walls supporting light-frame walls shall comply with the following.
1. Wall height shall not exceed 8 feet (2438 mm).
2. Unbalanced backfill height shall not exceed 4 feet (1219 mm).
3. Minimum thickness for plain concrete foundation walls shall be 7.5 inches (191 mm)
except that 6 inches (152 mm) is permitted where the maximum wall height is 4 feet, 6
inches (1372 mm).

Foundation walls less than 7.5 inches (191 mm) in thickness, supporting more than 4 feet
(1219 mm) of unbalanced backfill or exceeding 8 feet (2438 mm) in height shall be
provided with horizontal reinforcement in accordance with Table, and vertical
reinforcement in accordance with Table. Where Tables through permit plain concrete
walls, not less than No. 4 (No. 13) vertical bars at a spacing not exceeding 48 inches
(1219 mm) shall be provided.

Foundation wall thickness based on walls supported

The thickness of masonry or concrete foundation walls shall not be less than that are
required.
FIGURE FOUNDATION WALL CLAY MASONRY CURTAIN WALL WITH
CONCRETE MASONRY PIERS
Masonry wall thickness

Masonry foundation walls shall not be less than the thickness of the wall supported,
except that masonry foundation walls of at least 8-inch (203 mm) nominal thickness shall
be permitted under brick veneered frame walls and under 10-inch-wide (254 mm) cavity
walls where the total height of the wall supported, including gables, is not more than 20
feet (6096 mm), provided the requirements are met.

Concrete wall thickness

The thickness of concrete foundation walls shall be equal to or greater than the thickness
of the wall in the story above. Concrete foundation walls with corbels, brackets or other
projections built into the wall for support of masonry veneer or other purposes are not
within the scope of the tables in this section.

Where a concrete foundation wall is reduced in thickness to provide a shelf for the
support of masonry veneer, the reduced thickness shall be equal to or greater than the
thickness of the wall in the story above. Vertical reinforcement for the foundation wall
shall be based on Table and located in the wall as required where that table is used.
Vertical reinforcement shall be based on the thickness of the thinner portion of the wall.

Exception: Where the height of the reduced thickness portion measured to the underside
of the floor assembly or sill plate above is less than or equal to 24 inches (610 mm) and
the reduction in thickness does not exceed 4 inches (102 mm), the vertical reinforcement
is permitted to be based on the thicker portion of the wall.

3.5.1.6 Pier and curtain wall foundations (sh)

Use of pier and curtain wall foundations shall be permitted to support light-frame
construction not more than two stories in height, provided the following requirements are
met:

1. All load-bearing walls shall be placed on continuous concrete footings placed

integrally with the exterior wall footings.
2. The minimum actual thickness of a load-bearing masonry wall shall be not less than 4
inches (102 mm) nominal or 33/8 inches (92 mm) actual thickness, and shall be bonded
integrally with piers spaced in accordance.
 3. Piers shall be constructed in accordance, and shall be bonded into the load-bearing
masonry wall in accordance.
4. The maximum height of a 4-inch (102 mm) load-bearing masonry foundation wall
supporting wood-frame walls and floors shall not be more than 4 feet (1219 mm).
5. Anchorage shall be in accordance, or as specified by engineered design accepted by the
building official.
6. The unbalanced fill for 4-inch (102 mm) foundation walls shall not exceed 24 inches
(610 mm) for solid masonry or 12 inches (305 mm) for hollow masonry.
7. In Seismic Design Categories D0, D1 and D2, prescriptive reinforcement shall be
provided in the horizontal and vertical direction. Provide minimum horizontal joint
reinforcement of two No.9 gage wires spaced not less than 6 inches (152 mm) or one 1/4
inch (6.4 mm) diameter wire at 10 inches (254 mm) on center vertically. Provide
minimum vertical reinforcement of one No. 4 bar at 48 inches (1220 mm) on center
horizontally grouted in place.

Height above finished grade

Concrete and masonry foundation walls shall extend above the finished grade adjacent to
the foundation at all points a minimum of 4 inches (102 mm) where masonry veneer is
used and a minimum of 6 inches (152 mm) elsewhere.

Backfill placement

Backfill shall not be placed against the wall until the wall has sufficient strength and has
been anchored to the floor above, or has been sufficiently braced to prevent damage by
the backfill.

Rubble stone masonry

Rubble stone masonry foundation walls shall have a minimum thickness of 16 inches
(406 mm), shall not support an unbalanced backfill exceeding 8 feet (2438 mm) in height,
shall not support a soil pressure greater than 30 pounds per square foot per foot (4.71
kPa/m), and shall not be constructed in Seismic Design Categories D0, D1, D2 or
townhouses in Seismic Design Category C.

3.5.1.7 Wood foundation walls

Wood foundation walls shall be constructed in accordance with the provisions.

Identification
All load-bearing lumber shall be identified by the grade mark of a lumber grading or
inspection agency which has been approved by an accreditation body that complies with
DOC PS 20. In lieu of a grade mark, a certificate of inspection issued by a lumber
grading or inspection agency meeting the requirements of this section shall be accepted.
Wood structural panels shall conform to DOC PS 1 or DOC PS 2 and shall be identified
by a grade mark or certificate of inspection issued by an approved agency.

Stud size

The studs used in foundation walls shall be 2-inch by 6-inch (51 mm by 152 mm)
members. When spaced 16 inches (406 mm) on center, a wood species with an Fb value
of not less than 1,250 pounds per square inch (8619 kPa) as listed in AF&PA/NDS shall
be used. When spaced 12 inches (305 mm) on center, an Fb of not less than 875 psi (6033
kPa) shall be required.

Height of backfill

For wood foundations that are not designed and installed in accordance with AF&PA
PWF, the height of backfill against a foundation wall shall not exceed 4 feet (1219 mm).
When the height of fill is more than 12 inches (305 mm) above the interior grade of a
crawl space or floor of a basement, the thickness of the plywood sheathing shall meet the
requirements of Table.

TABLE PLYWOOD GRADE AND THICKNESS FOR WOOD FOUNDATION

CONSTRUCTION (30 pcf equivalent-fluid weight soil pressure)

FACE GRAIN ACROSS FACE GRAIN PARALLEL TO

STUDS STUDS
HEIGHT STUD Minimum Minimum
OF FILL SPACING thickness Span thickness Span
a a
(inches) (inches) Grade (inches) rating Grade (inches)b, c rating
15
15 A /32 32/16
12 B /32 32/16 15
B /32c 32/16
15 c
24 A /32 32/16
15 19 c
16 B /32 32/16 /32 (4, 5
B 40/20
ply)
15 15
36 12 B /32 32/16 A /32 32/16
 15
/32c (4, 5
B 32/16
ply)
19
/32 (4, 5
B 40/20
ply)
19
15 c A /32 40/20
16 B /32 32/16 23
B /32 48/24
15 c
A /32 32/16
15 19 c
12 B /32 32/16 /32 (4, 5
B 40/20
48 ply)
19
19 A /32c 40/20
16 B /32 40/20 23
A /32 48/24

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 pound per cubic foot = 0.1572 kN/m3.
a. Plywood shall be of the following minimum grades in accordance with DOC PS 1 or
DOC PS 2:
1. DOC PS 1 Plywood grades marked:
1.1. Structural I C-D (Exposure 1)
1.2. C-D (Exposure 1)
2. DOC PS 2 Plywood grades marked:
2.1. Structural I Sheathing (Exposure 1)
2.2. Sheathing (Exposure 1)
3. Where a major portion of the wall is exposed above ground and a better appearance
is desired, the following plywood grades marked
exterior are suitable:

3.1. Structural I A-C, Structural I B-C or Structural I C-C (Plugged) in accordance

with DOC PS 1
3.2. A-C Group 1, B-C Group 1, C-C (Plugged) Group 1 or MDO Group 1 in
accordance with DOC PS 1
3.3. Single Floor in accordance with DOC PS 1 or DOC PS 2
b. Minimum thickness 15/32 inch, except crawl space sheathing may be 3/8 inch for face
grain across studs 16 inches on center and maximum 2-foot depth of unequal fill.
c. For this fill height, thickness and grade combination, panels that are continuous over
less than three spans (across less than three stud spacings) require blocking 16
inches above the bottom plate. Offset adjacent blocks and fasten through studs with
two 16d corrosion-resistant nails at each end.
Backfilling

Wood foundation walls shall not be backfilled until the basement floor and first floor
have been constructed or the walls have been braced. For crawl space construction,
backfill or bracing shall be installed on the interior of the walls prior to placing backfill
on the exterior.

Drainage and dampproofing

Wood foundation basements shall be drained and dampproofed in accordance.

Fastening

Wood structural panel foundation wall sheathing shall be attached to framing.

Wood sill plates. Wood sill plates shall be a minimum of 2-inch by 4-inch (51 mm by
102 mm) nominal lumber. Sill plate anchorage shall be in accordance.

3.5.1.8 Retaining walls

Retaining walls that are not laterally supported at the top and that retain in excess of 24
inches (610 mm) of unbalanced fill shall be designed to ensure stability against
overturning, sliding, excessive foundation pressure and water uplift. Retaining walls shall
be designed for a safety factor of 1.5 against lateral sliding and overturning.

3.5.1.9 Precast concrete foundation walls

Design

Precast concrete foundation walls shall be designed in accordance with accepted

engineering practice. The design and manufacture of precast concrete foundation wall
panels shall comply with the materials requirements of ACI 318. The panel design
drawings shall be prepared by a registered design professional where required by the
statutes of the jurisdiction in which the project is to be constructed in accordance.

Precast concrete foundation design drawings

 Precast concrete foundation wall design drawings shall be submitted to the building
official and approved prior to installation. Drawings shall include, at a minimum, the
information specified below:
1. Design loading as applicable;
2. Footing design and material;
3. Concentrated loads and their points of application;
4. Soil bearing capacity;
5. Maximum allowable total uniform load;
6. Seismic design category; and
7. Basic wind speed.

3.5.2 COLUMNS (h)

Wood column protection

Wood columns shall be protected against decay as set forth.

Steel column protection

All surfaces (inside and outside) of steel columns shall be given a shop coat of rust-inhibitive
paint, except for corrosion-resistant steel and steel treated with coatings to provide corrosion
resistance.

Structural requirements

The columns shall be restrained to prevent lateral displacement at the bottom end. Wood
columns shall not be less in nominal size than 4 inches by 4 inches (102 mm by 102 mm). Steel
columns shall not be less than 3-inch-diameter (76 mm) Schedule 40 pipe manufactured in
accordance with ASTM A 53 Grade B or approved equivalent.

Exception

In Seismic Design Categories A, B and C, columns no more than 48 inches (1219 mm) in height
on a pier or footing are exempt from the bottom end lateral displacement requirement within
under-floor areas enclosed by a continuous foundation.
 Review Questions

1. Explain Concept of safe bearing capacity.

2. Describe SBC of different types of soils.
3. What is Depth of foundations?
4. Describe Types of foundation.
5. How can you define Design of shallow foundation using brick and stone masonry units
for walls and columns?
 Chapter-4
INTRODUCTION – LIMIT STATE DESIGN (ch)

Structure of this unit

Concrete, Basic design concepts

Learning objectives
1. Plain and reinforced concrete
2. Basic material properties of cement, aggregate, water and reinforcing steel
3. Grades of concrete
4. Properties of hardened concrete
5. Durability of Concrete
6. High Strength Concrete, High Performance Concrete, Self Compacting Concrete, Fiber
Reinforced, Polymer Concrete
7. Outline of manufacture, Properties & Uses
8. Limit state method of design

4.1 Plain and reinforced concrete (mh)

4.1.1 Plain concrete (h)

Plain concrete is structural concrete without reinforcement or with less than the minimum
amount required by ACI 318 for reinforced concrete. It is sometimes used in slabs-ongrade,
pavement, basement walls, small foundations, and curb-and-gutter.

4.1.2 Reinforced concrete (h)

Plain concrete has compressive strength—the ability to resist crushing loads; however, its tensile
strength is only about 10% of its compressive strength. Its tensile strength is so low that it is
nearly disregarded in design of most concrete structures. Reinforced concrete is a combination of
adequate reinforcement (usually steel bars with raised lugs called deformations) and concrete
designed to work together to resist applied loads. Properly placed reinforcement in
concrete improves its compressive and tensile strength.
4.1.2 Bending and bending stresses in reinforced concrete members (sh)

Many structural members are required to carry loads that cause bending stresses. An example is a
simply supported beam, in which the top of the member is subjected to compression lengthwise
while the bottom is subjected to tension lengthwise. This is referred to as beam action and can be
illustrated by supporting a board at each end and breaking it by applying a heavy load to the
center. If the board is loaded at each end and supported in the middle, as in a cantilevered beam,
the top of the board over the support is in tension and the bottom is in compression. Unreinforced
concrete structural members have little capacity for beam action because concrete’s low tensile
strength provides little resistance to the tensile stress in the tension side of the member. This is
one of the most important functions of reinforcement in concrete members—to resist the tension
in these members due to beam action. Steel is remarkably well- suited for concrete reinforcement
because it has high tensile strength, and therefore relatively small amounts are required. Also,
concrete bonds to steel, and both expand and contract to about the same degree with temperature
changes. The good bond between concrete and steel allows an effective transfer of stress or load
between the steel and concrete so both materials act together in resisting beam action. For these
reasons, steel is the most common material used to reinforce concrete. However, other materials
such as FRP are also used for reinforcement.
4.1.2.2 Other reinforcement applications (sh)

In addition to its use to resist tension in structural members, reinforcement is used in concrete
construction for other reasons, such as:

• To resist a portion of the compression force in a member. The compressive strength of steel
reinforcement is about 20 times greater than that of normal-strength concrete. In a column, steel
is sometimes used to reduce the size of the column or to increase the column’s carrying capacity.
Compression steel is sometimes used in beams for the same reasons.

• To resist diagonal tension or shear in beams, walls, and columns. Reinforcement used to resist
shear in beams is commonly in the form of stirrups, but may also consist of longitudinal
reinforcement bent up at an angle near the ends of the beam, or welded wire fabric. In columns,
shear reinforcement is typically in the form of ties, hoops, or spirals.

4.2 Basic material properties of cement, aggregate, water and reinforcing steel (mh)

"Aggregate" consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or
crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand.

"Cement", commonly Portland cement, and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag
cement, serve as a binder for the aggregate.

Water is then mixed with this dry composite, which produces a semi-liquid that workers can
shape (typically by pouring it into a form). The concrete solidifies and hardens to rock-hard
strength through a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which
bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like material.

"Chemical admixtures" are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may speed or
slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful properties.

"Reinforcements" are often added to concrete. Concrete can be formulated with high
compressive strength, but always has lower tensile strength. For this reason it is usually
reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel).

4.2.1 Cement (h)

 Blocks of concrete in Belo Horizonte, Brazil.

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar and plaster. English masonry worker Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement
in 1824. It was named because of the similarity of its color to Portland limestone, quarried from
the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture
of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminium. Portland cement and similar materials are made by
heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay and grinding this product (called clinker) with
a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).

In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel consumption per ton
of clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dirty industrial
installations, and have many undesirable emissions. Of the various ingredients used in concrete
the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to
3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it into cement. Many kilns can
be fueled with difficult to dispose of wastes, the most common being used tires. The extremely
high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement kilns to
efficiently and completely burn even difficult to use fuels.

In recent years, alternatives have been developed to help replace cement. Products such as PLC
(Portland Limestone Cement), which incorporate limestone into the mix, are being tested. This is
due to cement production being one of the largest producers of global greenhouse gas emissions
(about 5 to 10%).
4.2.2Water (h)

Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration.
The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more
freely.

A lower water to cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete, while more water gives a
freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause
problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.

Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual
sand and gravel particles and other components of the concrete, to form a solid mass.

Reaction:

Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH

Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2

Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2

4.2.3 Aggregates (h)

Crushed stone aggregate

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel and
crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction,
demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements of natural
aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag
and bottom ash are also permitted.

The presence of aggregate greatly increases the durability of concrete above that of cement,
which is a brittle material in its pure state. Thus concrete is a true composite material.[30]

Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates inhomogeneity due to the influence
of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.[31]

Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to
the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape
designers.

In addition to being decorative, exposed aggregate adds robustness to a concrete driveway.[32]

4.2.4 Reinforcement (h)

Installing rebar in a floor slab during a concrete pour.

Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load.
However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing
the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass
fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads.

Steel reinforcement is available in the form of plain steel bars, deformed steel bars, cold-drawn
wire, welded wire fabric, and deformed welded wire fabric. Reinforcing steel must conform to
applicable ASTM standard specifications.

4.2.4.1 Deformed steel bars(sh)

Deformed bars are round steel bars with lugs, or deformations, rolled into the surface of the
bar during manufacturing. These deformations create a mechanical bond between the concrete
and steel. Deformed steel bars are the most common type of reinforcement used in structural
concrete.

Deformed bar sizes

Deformed steel bars are designated in both SI (metric) and U.S. customary (in.-lb) sizes,
according to ASTM A 615M/A 615, A 706M/A 706, and A 996M/A 996. In other words, metric
bar sizes represent a soft conversion of U.S. customary bar sizes. Metric bars are exactly the
same size as corresponding U.S. customary bars, but are given a metric designation (bar number
and grade). The bar number for both metric and U.S. customary bar sizes denotes the
approximate diameter of the bar in millimeters and eighths of an inch, respectively. (For U.S.
customary bar sizes No. 4 through No. 8, the relationship between bar number and bar diameter
in eighths of an inch is exact—the bar number is exactly the number of eighths of an inch in the
bar diameter. However, for U.S. customary bar sizes No. 9 through No. 18, the bar number is the
number of eighths of an inch in the diameter closest to the actual diameter.) For example, a No.
13 metric bar is approximately 13 mm in diameter and is exactly the same size as a No. 4 U.S.
customary bar, which is 4/8 or ½ in. in diameter. Similarly, a No. 32 metric bar is approximately
32 mm in diameter and is exactly the same size as a No. 10 U.S. customary bar, which is 1.27 in.
in diameter, or approximately 10/8 or 1-1/4 in. There are 11 bar sizes. The 11 metric sizes are
No. 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 29, 32, 36, 43, and 57. The corresponding U.S. customary sizes are
No. 3 through No. 11, No. 14, and No. 18. Note that the six metric bar sizes from No. 10 through
No. 25 (corresponding to No. 3 through No. 8 U.S. customary bars) are in 3 mm (1/8 in.)
increments and that the designation numbers for these bars are three times the bar

Typical deformed reinforcing bar (courtesy of Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute).

4.3 Grades of concrete (mh)

1. Ordinary concrete
o M10
o M15
o M20
2. Standard Concrete
o M25
o M30
o M35
o M40
o M45
o M50
o M55
3. High strength concrete
o M60
o M65
o M70
o M75
o M80

4.3.1 M 20 Grade Of Concrete (h)

1. REQUIREMENTS
a) Specified minimum strength = 20 N/Sq mm

b) Durability requirements
i) Exposure Moderate
ii) Minimum Cement Content = 300 Kgs/cum

c) Cement
(Refer Table No. 5 of IS:456-2000)
i) Make Chetak (Birla)
ii) Type OPC
iii) Grade 43

d) Workability
i) compacting factor = 0.7
e) Degree of quality control Good

2. TEST DATA FOR MATERIALS SUPPLIED

a) CEMENT
i) Specific gravity = 3.05
ii) Avg. comp. strength 7 days = 46.5 more than 33.0 OK
28 days = 55.0 more than 43.0 OK

b) COARSE AGGREGATE
i) 20mm Graded
Type Crushed stone aggregate
Specific gravity = 2.68
Water absorption = 1.46
Free (surface) moisture = 0

c) FINE AGGREGATE (Coarse sand)

i) Type Natural (Ghaggar)
Specific gravity = 2.6
Water absorption = 0.5
Free (surface) moisture = 1.4
3. TARGET MEAN STRENGTH (TMS)
a) Statistical constant K = 1.65
b) Standard deviation S = 4.6
Thus, TMS = 27.59 N/Sqmm

4. SELECTION OF W/C RATIO

a) As required for TMS = 0.5
b) As required for ‘Moderate’ Exposure = 0.55
Assume W/c ratio of 0.5

5. DETERMINATION OF WATER & SAND CONTENT

For W/C = 0.6
C.F. = 0.8
Max. Agg. Size of 20 mm
a) Water content = 186 Kg/cum
b) Sand as percentage of total aggregate by absolute volume = 35 %

Thus,
Net water content = 180.42 Kg/cum
Net sand percentage = 33 %
6. DETERMINATION OF CEMENT CONTENT
W/c ratio = 0.5
Water content = 180.42 Kg/cum
Thus, Cement content = 360.84 Kg/cum Adequate for moderate exposure Say 360 Kg/cum

7. DETERMINATION OF COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATE CONTENT

Assume entrapped air as 2 %
Thus,
0.98 cum = [180.42+360/3.05 + {1/0.33}*{fa/2.6}]/1000
& 0.98 cum = [180.42+360/3.05 + {1/0.67}*{Ca/2.68}]/1000
Hence,
fa = 584 Kg/cum
Ca = 1223.8 Kg/cum

The final mix proportions of M-20 grade of concrete become:-

Note: 1 The above recommended mix design must be verified, by actual cube tests.
2 The mix design is based on the quality and grading of the materials actually supplied, by the
client.
Any variation in quality and gradation will result in changes in the mix design.

This mix design was submitted by a regular contributor to this site. We are thankful to him for
his excellent service.

4.4 Properties of hardened concrete (mh)

The present chapter reviews the literature related to the properties of hardened concrete
published after the previous congress (the 12th International Congress on the Chemistry of
Cement (Montreal, 2007)). The focus is given on compressive strength, which is considered as
the main engineering property of concrete. The rest of mechanical and physical properties of
hardened concrete, such as tensile strength, elastic properties, shrinkage, creep, cracking
resistance, electrical, thermal, transport and other properties, are addressed as well.

A certain number of works addressing strength and other properties of hardened concrete have
been published with the goal to develop new methods of testing, to interpret test results, to model
and predict the development of properties in time or under specific mechanical or environmental
loading. However, during preparation of the present state-of-the-art it was discovered that most
of the papers on concrete properties address not the properties themselves, but rather their
influence on numerous different factors (such as different type of loading, or introduction of
chemical or mineral admixtures, recycled aggregates etc. into concrete mixes), or the properties
of certain types of concrete, such as lightweight, self-compacting, fiber-reinforced, high-strength
and other types of concrete. In view of this, the paper starts with the general review of hardened
concrete properties and continues with reviewing of the properties of different types of concrete
and of the effects caused by the replacement of conventional concrete constituents (Portland
cement and aggregates) with new or special materials (including industrial by-products with
cementitious or pozzolanic properties), or by their introduction to concrete mixes.

About 34,000 papers on properties of hardened concrete have been published in the years 2007–
2010. This number exceeds by ~ 20% that in the 4 years preceded the previous (12th)
International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement held in Montreal in 2007 As will be
demonstrated in further sections, in some fields, such as in properties of hardened self-
compacting concrete (SCC) and concrete made with recycled aggregates (RA), the real boom
with publications has been observed in the last few years.
 Fig. 1. Growth in publications on properties of hardened self-compacting concrete (SCC),
concrete made with recycled aggregates and concrete in general.

4.4.1 Testing and interpretation (h)

Mechanical concrete properties at high temperatures depend on many parameters. The main
parameters are the specimen type and the test conditions. The report describes the test
parameters and test procedures for relaxation tests in the range of 20 to 750 °C.

It describes microwave reflection and transmission properties measured from various sides of
hardened mortar and concrete specimens with different water-to-cement (w/c) ratios. These
properties are important in predicting/measuring accurate electrical properties of cement-based
materials which can eventually be utilized in structural health monitoring, public safety, and
propagation-related research.

It proposes a critical analysis of the studies since the 1950s attempted to quantify the influence
of specimen shape on the determination of concrete compressive strength, with special regard to
the problem of conversion from cylinder to cube strength and vice versa. To obtain quantitative
predictions and to investigate on the influence of the friction between the platens of the testing
machine and the concrete specimen, uniaxial compressive tests are numerically simulated by
using a nonlinear finite element model.

Accurate determination of the compressive strength of very high strength concrete is difficult
due to large testing machine capacity requirements and the need for cylinder end preparation. An
experimental program was conducted to determine whether alternate specimen types can be
reliably used to determine the compressive strength of an ultra-high-performance fiber-
reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) in the strength range from 80 to 200 MPa.

4.4.2 Modeling and prediction of properties (h)

In the study waste rubberized aggregates were used as sand in mortar production which had two
different sizes, 0–1 and 1–4 mm. Flexural and compressive strengths were determined and
modeled by artificial neural network and fuzzy logic methods. It is concluded that the strength
decreases considerably with the content of waste rubber aggregates. The same type of modeling
was used in another work of the authors dealing with properties of concrete made with waste
autoclaved aerated concrete aggregate.

The article introduces genetic programming (GP) as a new tool for the formulations of properties
of self-compacting concretes (SCC). The GP based formulation is found to be reliable, especially
for hardened concrete properties (compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity and electrical
resistivity).

A finite element-based cohesive zone model was developed using bilinear softening to predict
the monotonic load versus crack mouth opening displacement curve of geometrically similar
notched concrete specimens. The softening parameters for concrete material are based on
concrete fracture tests, total fracture energy (GF), initial fracture energy (Gf), and tensile strength
(ft), which are obtained from a three-point bending configuration.

In the study compression strength and physical properties of the forty concrete carrot specimens
taken from some buildings which collapsed by 1999 earthquakes were investigated and the
correlations between compressive strength and physical properties (ultrasound velocity and
Schmidt rebound) determined. The models tried to maximize using Genetic Algorithm (GA) and
Linear Programming (LP) depending on specimens' properties.

4.4.3 Correlation with properties of fresh concrete and durability (h)

In several works an attempt to find a correlation between properties of hardened concrete, fresh
concrete and durability, was undertaken. The following works can serve as an example.

The experimental study examines the effects of mix design, formwork and consolidation on the
quality of the surface of high w/c concrete. Pulse velocity, pull off strength and compressive
strength were measured to evaluate the quality and mechanical properties of the hardened
concrete. The results show that the rheological properties of fresh concrete can be correlated to
the mechanical and permeation properties of the hardened concrete.

The experimental investigation on the frost-salt scaling resistance of air-entrained concrete

containing CEM II/B-S 42.5N and CEM III/A 42.5N-HSR/NA slag-blended cements was
performed in . The mass of scaled material was increased for increased slag content, in spite of
increased compressive and flexural strengths, decreased water absorption and water penetration
depth. Increasing slag content resulted in a decrease of the total volume of air in hardened
concrete and in a corruption of the air void system exhibited by a decrease of micropores
content. The increase of mass of scaled material was proportional to the increase of the spacing
factor of air voids, except for CEM III/A cement concrete exhibiting accelerated scaling.

It provides an overview of the early-age properties of cement-based materials, from a materials

science perspective. The major physical and chemical processes occurring at early ages are
reviewed and strategies for mitigating early-age cracking are presented.

Concrete can crack during hardening, especially if shrinkage (including autogenous, thermal and
drying components) is restrained. The concrete permeability due to this cracking may rise
significantly and thus increase leakage and reduce durability. The restrained shrinkage ring test
serves as an efficient tool to estimate cracking sensitivity.

4.4.4 Effect of special binders (h)

This study investigated the use of two kinds of waste from landfills, calcium carbide residue and
fly ash (FA), as a low CO2 emission concrete binder. Ground calcium carbide residue (CR) was
mixed with original fly ash (OF) or ground fly ash (GF) at a ratio of 30:70 by weight and was
used as a binder to cast concrete without Portland cement. The effects of FA finenesses and
water to binder (W/B) ratios of CR–OF and CR–GF concretes on compressive strength, modulus
of elasticity, and splitting tensile strength were investigated. The hardened concretes produced
from CR–OF and CR–GF mixtures had mechanical properties similar to those of normal
Portland cement concrete.

It presents the engineering properties of inorganic polymer concretes (IPCs). The study includes
a determination of the modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, compressive strength, and the
splitting tensile strength and flexural strength of IPCs, made with Class-F fly ash. IPC mix
designs were adopted to evaluate the effects of the inclusion of coarse aggregates and granulated
blast furnace slag into the mixes. The engineering properties of IPCs are close to those predicted
by the relevant standards.
Hwangtoh-based alkali-activated concrete mixes were tested to explore the significance and
limitations of the development of cementless concrete. Hwangtoh, which is a kind of kaolin, was
incorporated with inorganic materials, such as calcium hydroxide, to produce a cementless
binder. The main variables investigated were the water–binder ratio and fine to total aggregate
ratio. Compressive strength gain, splitting tensile strength, moduli of rupture and elasticity,
stress–strain relationship, and bond resistance were measured. Test results show that the
mechanical properties of hwangtoh-based concrete were significantly influenced by the water–
binder ratio and to less extend by fine to total aggregate ratio.

4.4.5 Effect of recycled aggregates (h)

The growth in publications on properties of hardened concrete made with recycled aggregates
(RA), especially after the 11th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement (Durban,
2003), is quite impressive.It shows that number of publications on this specific topic in the years
since 2003 increased 3 times faster than in general. In most of these studies the new types of RA
and their combinations were suggested and maximum replacement ratios of RA, which do not
jeopardize mechanical properties of hardened concrete, were determined.

In the study, cylindrical compressive strength and ultrasound pulse velocity of hardened concrete
were determined experimentally for concrete made with waste autoclaved aerated concrete
aggregates. It is found that concrete lighter than crushed stone concrete can be produced by using
this kind of RA.

Four different recycled aggregate concretes were produced in ; made with 0%, 25%, 50% and
100% of recycled coarse aggregates. The mix proportions were designed in order to achieve the
same compressive strengths. Recycled aggregates were used in wet condition, but not saturated,
to control their fresh concrete properties, effective w/c ratio and lower strength variability. The
lower modulus of elasticity of recycled coarse aggregate concretes with respect to conventional
concretes was found.

Mixed color waste recycled glass cannot be reused in glass industry. The research work studied
the feasibility of recycled glass sand (RGS) and pozzolanic glass powder (PGP) in concrete as
sand and cement replacement, respectively. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and
metakaolin (MK) were used to replace Portland cement and investigate the effect of RGS on the
behavior and properties of concrete. No significant differences were observed in compressive
strength of concrete with RGS, while an average reduction of 16% was occurred when 20% of
the Portland cement was replaced by PGP.

3.6. Effect of natural aggregates

The use of limestone in the construction industry has been increasing due to benefits as
aggregate. Some of these benefits include good strength, low possibility of alkali–silica reaction
and the decrease in drying shrinkage in concrete. The research discusses the consumption and
general characteristics of the limestone aggregate in USA and Japan. Then experiments were
conducted on mixtures of different proportions of fine limestone and sand at different
water/cement (w/c) ratios. The w/c ratios selected were 45%, 55% and 65% with fine limestone
replacements of 0%, 30%, 50% and 100%. The water absorption and porosity of fine limestone
and sand were measured to find a relation with the water entrapped in the pores of the surface of
the rock and the drying shrinkage. The results show the increases in the compressive and flexural
strengths and modulus of elasticity when the fine limestone proportion increases in the mixture.
The most outstanding results are found on the drying shrinkage, which decreases considerably
with the increase in fine limestone proportions.

The paper examines the influence of aggregate type (gabbro, basalt, quartzite, limestone and
sandstone) on strength and abrasion resistance of high strength silica fume concrete. Gabbro
concrete showed the highest compressive and flexural tensile strength and abrasion resistance,
while sandstone showed the lowest values. High abrasion resistant aggregate produced a
concrete with high abrasion resistance. Three-month compressive strengths of concretes made
with basalt, limestone and sandstone were found to be equivalent to the uniaxial compressive
strengths of their aggregate rocks. However, the concretes made with quartsite and gabbro
aggregate showed lower compressive strength than the uniaxial compressive strength of their
aggregate rocks.

In the study the relationships between methylene blue values of the concrete samples produced
with the aggregates from different quarries, and ultrasonic pulse velocity, compressive strength,
and surface abrasion resistance were investigated. Tests were done to determine the quality of
microfine material (i.e., passing 0.063 mm sieve). It is shown that clay content, as indicated by
the methylene blue value test, affects the concrete properties, but the microfine material
percentage does not relate to the clay content.

3.7. Effect of fiber reinforcement

Effect of fiber reinforcement on the properties of hardened concrete continued to draw attention
of the researchers, while many publications dealt with synthetic structural fibers, hybrid fibers
and combination of fiber reinforcement and pozzolanic additions. The following studies illustrate
these research activities.

The study [136] analyzes the impact of polypropylene fibers on mechanical properties of
hardened lightweight self-compacting concrete (compressive strength with elapsed age, splitting
tensile strength, elastic modulus and flexural strength). Polypropylene fibers did not influence
the compressive strength and elastic modulus, however applying these fibers at their maximum
percentage volume increased the tensile splitting and flexural strengths by 14.4% and 10.7%,
respectively.

Concretes produced with three different replacement ratios of fly ash and three different types of
steel and polypropylene fibers were compared to those without fibers in concrete with FA. It is
shown that fibers provide better concrete performance, while fly ash may adjust workability and
strength losses caused by fibers, and improve strength gain.

The paper presents results of an experimental investigation carried out to study the properties of
plain concrete and steel fiber reinforced concrete containing fibers of mixed aspect ratio.
Compressive, tensile splitting and flexural strengths were determined in concrete incorporated
1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% of corrugated steel fibers, each volume fraction incorporated mixed steel fibers
of size 0.6 × 2.0 × 25 mm and 0.6 × 2.0 × 50 mm in different proportions. Complete load
deflection curves under static flexural loads were obtained and the flexural toughness indices
were obtained by ASTM C-1018 as well as Japanese Concrete Institute (JCI) method. A fiber
combination of 65% 50 mm + 35% 25 mm long fibers was the most appropriate combination for
compressive and tensile strengths. However, better workability was obtained as the percentage of
shorter fibers increased.

The paper studies high strength concrete reinforced with hybrid fibers (combination of hooked
steel and a non-metallic fiber) up to a volume fraction of 0.5%.

4.4.8 Effect of slag and pozzolanic additions (h)

The use of slag and pozzolanic additions in concrete is an important subject and is growing in
importance day by day. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) have become an integral
part of high strength and high performance concrete mix design. These may be naturally
occurring materials, industrial wastes, or byproducts or the ones requiring less energy to
manufacture. Some of the commonly used supplementary cementing materials are coal fly ash
(FA), silica fume (SF), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), rice husk ash (RHA) and
metakaolin (MK). SCM with cementitious or pozzolanic properties may both provide
economical advantages and improve concrete quality and durability.

The paper presents experimentally investigated the effects of pozzolan made from various by-
product materials on mechanical properties of high-strength concrete. Ground pulverized coal
combustion FA, ground fluidized bed combustion fly ash (FB), ground rice husk–bark ash
(RHBA), and ground palm oil fuel ash (POFA) having median particle sizes less than 11 μm
were used to partially replace Portland cement. The results suggest that concretes containing FA,
FB, RHBA, and POFA can be used as pozzolanic materials in making high-strength concrete
with 28-day compressive strengths higher than 80 MPa. After 7 days of curing, the concretes
containing 10–40% FA or FB and 10–30% RHBA or POFA exhibited higher compressive
strengths than that of the control concrete. The use of FA, FB, RHBA, and POFA to partially
replace Portland cement has no significant effect on splitting tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity as compared to control concrete or silica fume concretes.

The paper presents the results of an experimental investigation on the properties of fly ash
concrete incorporating either hydrated lime or silica fume to improve early strength. The addition
of both improved the early age compressive strength of fly ash concrete. The inclusion of silica
fume was also found to increase the 28 days strength significantly. The air permeability of
concrete containing lime and silica fume either decreased or remained almost the same. The
addition of lime and silica fume improved the sorptivity of concrete.

4.4.9 Effect of chemical admixtures (h)

The influence of a new organic surface-applied corrosion inhibitor (SACI) on selected concrete
properties is studied including compressive strength, tensile strength, steel–concrete bond
strength, permeability, drying shrinkage, and freeze–thaw resistance. The inhibitor is an
aminoalcohol-based (AMA) corrosion inhibitor and it is applied on the hardened concrete
surface. The results show that the inhibitor can be used safely and it does not have any
significant harmful effect on the properties of hardened concrete and it improves some properties
of concrete with its pore-blocking effect.

Lignosulfonate-based air-entraining (AE) water-reducing agents have been used in various

concrete structures for over 50 years. Polycarboxylate-based superplasticizers, which are the
main superplasticizers in use today, have been on the market for 20 years and have recently been
applied to various kinds of concrete structures. Therefore, it is important to know the difference

that these three dispersants (lignosulfonate-based (LG), B-naphthalenesulfonate-based (BNS),

and polycarboxylate-based (PC)) have on concrete durability. The authors, using
superplasticizers containing each dispersant, studied the properties of concrete at a w/c of 0.50
up to the age of 20 years. This paper discusses the experimental results up to the age of 3 years
following standard curing and artificial sea water curing, and under normal external exposure
and exposure in a splash zone. As a result, no major difference has been observed in the effect on
properties of the hardened concrete between PC and BNS, dispersants in superplasticizers. In
addition, the authors consider that concrete incorporating PC-based superplasticizer or BNS-
based superplasticizer has equal durability to that of concrete incorporating an AE water-
reducing agent, most of which is in service over the long term.

An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate the influence of elevated temperatures

on the mechanical properties, phase composition and microstructure of SF concrete. The blended
cement used in this investigation consists of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and SF. The OPC
were partially replaced by 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% of SF. The blended concrete paste was prepared
using the water–binder ratio of 0.5 wt.% of blended cement.

4.4.10 Properties of hardened light-weight concrete (h)

The influence of surfactant concentration and pozzolanic amorphous nanodispersive SiO2 (ANS)

additive on formation of autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) structures and properties was

investigated in. It was established that in the AAC forming mixture the replacement of 1.0%
milled sand by ANS accounts for considerably higher crystallinity of hardened binding material,
and that the plate-like shape of crystals generated in this case is typical to hydrosilicates with
lower ratio C/S. The formation of such AAC structure conditioned increase in compressive
strength by 20.0%, bending strength by 31.0 and decrease in shrinkage at temperature of 700 °C
by 0.1% versus AAC without surfactant and ANS. It is concluded that ANS added to AAC
forming mass serve as nucleators during the hardening of concrete, stimulating higher
crystallinity in the hardened structure than that without these additives and improving AAC
mechanical properties. The ANS additive also helps to form the crystalline structure and to
improve thermal resistance of concrete.

In the paper, cement paste characteristics and porous concrete properties are studied. The results
indicate that cement paste characteristics are dependent on the w/c ratio, admixture and mixing
time. Cement paste with high viscosity and high flow suitable for making porous concrete is
obtained with the use of low w/c of 0.20–0.25, an incorporation of 1% superplasticizer, and
sufficient mixing. Porous concretes having suitable void ratios are produced with appropriate
paste content and flow, and sufficient compaction. Good porous concretes with void ratio of 15–
25% and strength of 22–39 MPa are produced using paste with flow of 150–230 mm and top
surface vibration of 10 s with vibrating energy of 90 kN m/m2. For low void ratio, high strength
porous concrete of 39 MPa is obtained using paste with low flow. For high void ratio, porous
concrete of 22 MPa is obtained using paste with high flow. Furthermore, the results indicate that
the strength of porous concrete could be estimated from strength equation of porous brittle
material.

4.4.11 Properties of hardened SCC (h)

Self-compacting (self-consolidating) concrete (SCC) is a relatively new type of concrete with

high flowability and cohesiveness, when compared to conventional concrete. The intensive
publications growth on properties of hardened SCC has been observed in the last 12 years, which
demonstrates superior properties of this type of concrete—not only in fresh, but also in hardened
state.
Data from more than 70 recent studies on the hardened mechanical properties of SCC have been

analyzed and correlated to produce comparisons with the properties of equivalent strength
normally vibrated concrete (NVC). Relationships were obtained between cylinder and cube
compressive strength, tensile and compressive strengths, and elastic modulus and compressive
strength. It is found that limestone powder, a common addition to SCC mixes, makes a
substantial contribution to strength gain. Bond strength of SCC to reinforcing and prestressing
steel is similar to or higher than that of normally vibrated concrete. It is demonstrated that
variation of in situ properties in structural elements cast with SCC is similar to that with NVC,
and the performance of the structural elements is largely as predicted by the measured material
properties.

The study aimed to develop a new method for proportioning SCC. This method is capable of
proportioning SCC mixtures with specified compressive strength, contrary to previous SCC
proportioning methods that emphasized the fulfillment of fresh properties requirements more
than strength requirements. In addition, no previous method considered the grading of aggregate
in SCC mixtures (fineness modulus of fine aggregate and maximum size of coarse aggregate) as
in conventional concrete (CC) proportioning methods, making a need for numerous trial
mixtures to adjust the fresh and hardened properties of SCC. Two well-known concrete mixture
proportioning methods were adopted to develop the new method. The requirements of these
methods were combined with certain modifications and a new method was proposed.

4.5 Durability of Concrete (mh)

Concrete durability has been defined by the american concrete institute as its resistance to
weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion and other degradation processes.

Durability is the ability to last a long time without significant deterioration. a durable material
helps the environment by conserving resources and reducing wastes and the environmental
impacts of repair and replacement. Construction and demolition waste contribute to solid waste
going to landfills. the production of new building materials depletes natural resources and can
produce air and water pollution the design service life of most buildings is often 30 years,
although buildings often last 50 to 100 years or longer. Most concrete and masonry buildings are
demolished due to obsolescence rather than deterioration. a concrete shell can be left in place if a
building use or function changes or when a building interior is renovated. Concrete, as a
structural material and as the building exterior skin, has the ability to withstand nature’s normal
deteriorating mechanisms as well as natural disasters.
Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. different
concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the exposure environment and
properties desired. for example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different
requirements than an indoor concrete floor. concrete ingredients, their proportioning, interactions
between them, placing and curing practices, and the service environment determine the ultimate
durability and life of concrete.

A long service life is considered synonymous with durability. Since durability under one set of
conditions does not necessarily mean durability under another, it is customary to include a
general reference to the environment when defining durability. According to aci committee 201,
durability of portland cement concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration; that is, durable concrete will
retain its original form, quality, and serviceability when exposed to its environment. no material
is inherently durable; as a result of environmental interactions the microstructure and,
consequently, the properties of materials change with time. a material is assumed to reach the
end of service life when its properties under given conditions of use have deteriorated to an
extent that the continuing use of the material is ruled either unsafe or uneconomical. Durability
of concrete can be defined as the ability to perform satisfactorily in the exposure condition to
which it is subjected over an intended period of time with minimum of maintenance.

4.5.1 High Strength Concrete (h)

High-strength concrete has a compressive strength greater than 40 MPa (5800 psi). High-
strength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often
silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement
matrix, which might reduce the strength at the cement-aggregate bond.

Low W/C ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes significantly less workable,
which is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense
rebar cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability, superplasticizers
are commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate must be selected carefully for high-
strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be strong enough to resist the loads imposed on
the concrete and cause failure to start in the aggregate rather than in the matrix or at a void, as
normally occurs in regular concrete.

In some applications of high-strength concrete the design criterion is the elastic modulus rather
than the ultimate compressive strength.
4.5.2 High Performance Concrete (h)

High-performance concrete (HPC) is a relatively new term for concrete that conforms to a set
of standards above those of the most common applications, but not limited to strength. While all
high-strength concrete is also high-performance, not all high-performance concrete is high-
strength. Some examples of such standards currently used in relation to HPC are:

• Ease of placement
• Compaction without segregation
• Early age strength
• Long-term mechanical properties
• Permeability
• Density
• Heat of hydration
• Toughness
• Volume stability
• Long life in severe environments
• Depending on its implementation, environmental

4.5.3 Self Compacting Concrete (h)

After identification, the defects in concrete in Japan were found to be mainly due to a) high water
cement ratio to increase workability, b) poor compaction mostly happened due to the need of
speedy construction in 1960s–70s, Professor Hajime Okamura envisioned the need of a concrete
that is highly workable and does not rely on the mechanical force for compaction. During the
1980s, Professor Okamura and his PhD student Kazamasa Ozawa (currently professor) at the
University of Tokyo, Japan developed a concrete called Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) that
was cohesive but flowable and took the shape of the formwork without use of any mechanical
compaction. SCC is known as self-consolidating concrete in the United States. SCC is
characterized by:

• extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 650–750 mm on a flow table,

rather than slump(height)
• no need for vibrators to compact the concrete
• placement being easier.
• no bleed water, or aggregate segregation
• Increased Liquid Head Pressure, Can be detrimental to Safety and workmanship
SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced wear and tear on
formwork.

As of 2005, self-consolidating concretes account for 10–15% of concrete sales in some European
countries. In the US precast concrete industry, SCC represents over 75% of concrete production.
38 departments of transportation in the US accept the use of SCC for road and bridge projects.

This emerging technology is made possible by the use of poly carboxylates plasticizer instead of
older naphthalene based polymers, and viscosity modifiers to address aggregate segregation.

4.5.4 Fiber Reinforced (h)

Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its
structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly
oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers – each of
which lend varying properties to the concrete. In addition, the character of fiber-reinforced
concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation,
and densities.

4.5.4.1 Historical perspective (sh)

The concept of using fibers as reinforcement is not new. Fibers have been used as reinforcement
since ancient times. Historically, horsehair was used in mortar and straw in mud bricks. In the
1900s, asbestos fibers were used in concrete. In the 1950s, the concept of composite materials
came into being and fiber-reinforced concrete was one of the topics of interest. Once the health
risks associated with asbestos were discovered, there was a need to find a replacement for the
substance in concrete and other building materials. By the 1960s, steel, glass (GFRC), and
synthetic fibers such as polypropylene fibers were used in concrete. Research into new fiber-
reinforced concretes continues today.

4.5.4.2 Effect of fibers in concrete (sh)

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to drying
shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water.
Some types of fibers produce greater impact–, abrasion–, and shatter–resistance in concrete.
Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, and so cannot replace moment–
resisting or structural steel reinforcement. Indeed, some fibers actually reduce the strength of
concrete.
The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of
the composite (concrete and fibers), termed "volume fraction" (Vf). Vf typically ranges from 0.1
to 3%. The aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its diameter (d). Fibers
with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio. If
the fiber's modulus of elasticity is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help to
carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material. Increasing the aspect ratio of the
fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix. However, fibers that are
too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create workability problems.

Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on the impact
resistance of the materials. This finding is very important since traditionally, people think that
ductility increases when concrete is reinforced with fibers. The results also indicated that the use
of micro fibers offers better impact resistance to that of longer fibers.

The High Speed 1 tunnel linings incorporated concrete containing 1 kg/m³ of polypropylene
fibers, of diameter 18 & 32 μm, giving the benefits noted below.

As for pavements, the most prevalent use for FRC is at toll plazas where nonmetallic fibers are
used in lieu of metallic reinforcement since they can disrupt electronic toll readers signals.

4.5.4.3 Benefits (sh)

Polypropylene and Nylon fibers can:

• Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances

• Improve freeze-thaw resistance
• Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire
• Improve impact resistance
• Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing

Steel fibers can:

• Improve structural strength

• Reduce steel reinforcement requirements
• Improve ductility
• Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability
• Improve impact– and abrasion–resistance
• Improve freeze-thaw resistance
Blends of both steel and polymeric fibers are often used in construction projects in order to
combine the benefits of both products; structural improvements provided by steel fibers and the
resistance to explosive spalling and plastic shrinkage improvements provided by polymeric
fibers.

In certain specific circumstances, steel fiber can entirely replace traditional steel reinforcement
bar ("rebar") in reinforced concrete. This is most common in industrial flooring but also in some
other precasting applications. Typically, these are corroborated with laboratory testing to confirm
that performance requirements are met. Care should be taken to ensure that local design code
requirements are also met, which may impose minimum quantities of steel reinforcement within
the concrete. There are increasing numbers of tunnelling projects using precast lining segments
reinforced only with steel fibers.

4.5.4.4 Some developments in fiber-reinforced concrete (sh)

An FRC sub-category named Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) claims 500 times more
resistance to cracking and 40 percent lighter than traditional concrete. ECC claims it can sustain
strain-hardening up to several percent strain, resulting in a material ductility of at least two
orders of magnitude higher when compared to normal concrete or standard fiber-reinforced
concrete. ECC also claims a unique cracking behavior. When loaded to beyond the elastic range,
ECC maintains crack width to below 100 µm, even when deformed to several percent tensile
strains. Field results with ECC and The Michigan Department of Transportation resulted in
early-age cracking.

Recent studies performed on a high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete in a bridge deck

found that adding fibers provided residual strength and controlled cracking.[3] There were fewer
and narrower cracks in the FRC even though the FRC had more shrinkage than the control.
Residual strength is directly proportional to the fiber content.

A new kind of natural fiber-reinforced concrete (NFRC) made of cellulose fibers processed from
genetically modified slash pine trees is giving good results. The cellulose fibers are longer and
greater in diameter than other timber sources. Some studies were performed using waste carpet
fibers in concrete as an environmentally friendly use of recycled carpet waste. A carpet typically
consists of two layers of backing (usually fabric from polypropylene tape yarns), joined by
CaCO3 filled styrene-butadiene latex rubber (SBR), and face fibers (majority being nylon 6 and
nylon 66 textured yarns). Such nylon and polypropylene fibers can be used for concrete
reinforcement. Other ideas are emerging to use recycled materials as fibers: recycled
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fiber, for example.
Steel fibre-reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) is a kind of spray concrete (shotcrete) with steel fibres
added.

For statistical calculations there is a new modelling in Stahlfaserbeton by Bernhard Wietek.

4.5.5 Polymer Concrete (h)

Polymer concrete is part of group of concretes that use polymers to supplement or replace
cement as a binder. The types include polymer-impregnated concrete, polymer concrete, and
polymer-Portland-cement concrete. Polymers in concrete have been overseen by Committee 548
of the American Concrete Institute since 1971.

4.5.5.1 Composition (sh)

In polymer concrete, thermosetting resins are used as the principal polymer component due to
their high thermal stability and resistance to a wide variety of chemicals. Polymer concrete is
also composed of aggregates that include silica, quartz, granite, limestone, and other high quality
material. The aggregate must be of good quality, free of dust and other debris, and dry. Failure to
fulfill these criteria can reduce the bond strength between the polymer binder and the aggregate.

4.5.5.2 Uses (sh)

Polymer concrete may be used for new construction or repairing of old concrete. The adhesive
properties of polymer concrete allow patching of both polymer and conventional cement-based
concretes. The low permeability and corrosive resistance of polymer concrete allows it to be
used in swimming pools, sewer structure applications, drainage channels, electrolytic cells for
base metal recovery, and other structures that contain liquids or corrosive chemicals. It is
especially suited to the construction and rehabilitation of manholes due to their ability to
withstand toxic and corrosive sewer gases and bacteria commonly found in sewer systems.
Unlike traditional concrete structures, polymer concrete requires no coating or welding of PVC-
protected seams.[1] It can also be used as a replacement for asphalt pavement, for higher
durability and higher strength.

Polymer concrete has historically not been widely adopted due to the high costs and difficulty
associated with traditional manufacturing techniques. However, recent progress has led to
significant reductions in cost, meaning that the use of polymer concrete is gradually becoming
more widespread.
4.5.5.3 Advantages (sh)

Advantages of polymer concrete include:

• Rapid curing at ambient temperatures

• High tensile, flexural, and compressive strengths
• Good adhesion to most surfaces
• Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
• Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
• Good chemical resistance
• Good resistance against corrosion
• Lighter weight (only somewhat less dense than traditional concrete, depending on the
resin content of the mix)
• May be vibrated to fill voids in forms
• Allows use of regular form-release agents (in some applications)
• Dielectric

4.5.5.4 Disadvantages (sh)

Product hard to manipulate with conventional tools such as drills and presses due to its strength
and density. Recommend getting pre-modified product from the manufacturer

Small boxes are more costly when compared to its precast counterpart however pre cast
concretes induction of stacking or steel covers quickly bridge the gap.

4.6 Outline of manufacture, Properties & Uses (mh)

4.6.1 Properties (h)

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but much lower tensile strength. For this
reason it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity
of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels
as matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and
shrinks as it matures. All concrete structures crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension.
Concrete that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep.
Tests can be made to ensure the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the
application.

Different mixes of concrete ingredients produce different strengths, which are measured in psi or
MPa.

Different strengths of concrete are used for different purposes. Very low-strength (2000 psi or
less) concrete may be used when the concrete must be lightweight.[45] Lightweight concrete is
often achieved by adding air, foams, or lightweight aggregates, with the side effect that the
strength is reduced. For most routine uses, 3000 psi to 4000 psi concrete is often used. 5000 psi
concrete is readily commercially available as a more durable, although more expensive, option.
5000 psi concrete is often used for larger civil projects.[46] Strengths above 5000 psi are often
used for specific building elements. For example, the lower floor columns of high-rise concrete
buildings may use concrete of 12,000 psi or more, to keep the size of the columns small. Bridges
may use long beams of 10,000 psi concrete to lower the number of spans required.[47][48]
Occasionally, other structural needs may require high strength concrete. If a structure must be
very rigid, concrete of very high strength may be specified, even much stronger than is required
to bear the service loads. Strengths as high as 19,000 psi have been used commercially for these
reasons.

Compression testing of a concrete cylinder

Imperial Strength Metric Equivalent

2000 psi 14 MPa
2500 psi 18 MPa
3000 psi 20 MPa
3500 psi 25 MPa
4000 psi 30 MPa
5000 psi 35 MPa
6000 psi 40 MPa
7000 psi 50 MPa
8000 psi 55 MPa
10000 psi 70 MPa

4.6.2 Use of concrete in infrastructure (h)

Aerial photo of reconstruction at Taum Sauk (Missouri) pumped storage facility in late
November, 2009. After the original reservoir failed, the new reservoir is made of roller
compacted concrete.

4.6.2.1 Mass concrete structures (sh)

These large structures typically include gravity dams, such as the Hoover Dam, the Itaipu Dam
and the Three Gorges Dam, arch dams, navigation locks and large breakwaters. Such large
structures, even though individually placed in formed horizontal blocks, generate excessive heat
and associated expansion; to mitigate these effects post-cooling[50] is commonly provided in the
design. An early example at Hoover Dam, installed a network of pipes between vertical concrete
placements to circulate cooling water during the curing process to avoid damaging overheating.
Similar systems are still used; depending on volume of the pour, the concrete mix used, and
ambient air temperature, the cooling process may last for many months after the concrete is
placed. Various methods also are used to pre-cool the concrete mix in mass concrete
structures.[50]

Another approach to mass concrete structures that is becoming more widespread is the use of
roller-compacted concrete, which uses much lower levels of cement and water than traditional
concrete mixtures, and is generally not poured into place. Instead it is placed in thick layers as a
semi-dry material and compacted into a dense, strong mass with rolling compactors. Because it
uses less cementitious material, Roller Compacted Concrete has a much lower cooling
requirement than traditional concrete.

Concrete that is poured all at once in one form (so that there are no weak points where the
concrete is "welded" together) is used for tornado shelters.

4.6.2.2 Prestressed concrete structures (sh)

40-foot cacti decorate a sound/retaining wall in Scottsdale, Arizona

Prestressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in compressive stresses during
construction to oppose those found when in use. This can greatly reduce the weight of beams or
slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the reinforcement.
For example a horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed reinforcement along the bottom of the
beam counteracts this. In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using steel or
polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned
concrete, after casting.
4.6.2.3 Concrete textures (sh)

When one thinks of concrete, the image of a dull, gray concrete wall often comes to mind. With
the use of form liner, concrete can be cast and molded into different textures and used for
decorative concrete applications. Sound/retaining walls, bridges, office buildings and more serve
as the optimal canvases for concrete art. For example, the Pima Freeway/Loop 101 retaining and
sound walls in Scottsdale, Arizona, feature desert flora and fauna, a 67-foot (20 m) lizard and 40-
foot (12 m) cacti along the 8-mile (13 km) stretch. The project, titled "The Path Most Traveled,"
is one example of how concrete can be shaped using elastomeric form liner.

4.6.2.4 Building with concrete (sh)

Concrete is one of the most durable building materials. It provides superior fire resistance,
compared with wooden construction and can gain strength over time. Structures made of
concrete can have a long service life. Concrete is the most widely used construction material in
the world with annual consumption estimated at between 21 and 31 billion tonnes.

The Buffalo City Court Building in Buffalo, NY.

Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world.[51] As of 2006, about 7.5
billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year—more than one cubic meter for every
person on Earth.
Concrete powers a US$35 billion industry, employing more than two million workers in the
United States alone. More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in the United States are
paved with this material. Reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and precast concrete are the
most widely used types of concrete functional extensions in modern days.

4.6.2.5 Energy efficiency (sh)

Energy requirements for transportation of concrete are low because it is produced locally from
local resources, typically manufactured within 100 kilometers of the job site. Similarly, relatively
little energy is used in producing and combining the raw materials (although large amounts of
CO2 are produced by the chemical reactions in cement manufacture). The overall embodied
energy of concrete is therefore lower than for most structural materials other than wood.

Once in place, concrete offers significant energy efficiency over the lifetime of a building.
Concrete walls leak air far less than those made of wood-frames. Air leakage accounts for a large
percentage of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of concrete increase the
efficiency of both residential and commercial buildings. By storing and releasing the energy
needed for heating or cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing
temperature swings inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs.[54] While insulation reduces
energy loss through the building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy.
Modern concrete wall systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-
efficient building. Insulating Concrete Forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either
insulating foam or rastra that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then
filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.

4.6.2.6 Pervious concrete (sh)

Pervious concrete is a mix of specially graded coarse aggregate, cement, water and little-to-no
fine aggregates. This concrete is also known as “no-fines” or porous concrete. Mixing the
ingredients in a carefully controlled process creates a paste that coats and bonds the aggregate
particles. The hardened concrete contains interconnected air voids totalling approximately 15 to
25 percent. Water runs through the voids in the pavement to the soil underneath. Air entrainment
admixtures are often used in freeze-thaw climates to minimize the possibility of frost damage.

4.6.2.7 Fire safety (sh)

A modern building: Boston City Hall (completed 1968) is constructed largely of concrete, both
precast and poured in place. Of Brutalist architecture, it was voted "The World's Ugliest
Building" in 2008.

Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed using steel frames,since
concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and therefore could last longer under the same
fire conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire protection for steel frames, for the same
effect as above. Concrete as a fire shield, for example Fondu fyre, can also be used in extreme
environments like a missile launch pad.

Options for non-combustible construction include floors, ceilings and roofs made of cast-in-place
and hollow-core precast concrete. For walls, concrete masonry technology and Insulating
Concrete Forms (ICFs) are additional options. ICFs are hollow blocks or panels made of fire-
proof insulating foam that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled
with reinforced concrete to create the structure.

Concrete also provides a good resistance against external forces applied such as high winds,
hurricanes, tornadoes due to its lateral stiffness that results in minimal horizontal movement.
However this stiffness can work against certain types of structure being constructed in concrete,
particularly where a relatively higher flexing structure is require to resist more extreme forces.

4.6.2.8 Earthquake safety (sh)

As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension. Larger
earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear loads subject the
structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete structures without reinforcing, like
other unreinforced masonry structures, can fail during severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced
masonry structures constitute one of the largest earthquake risks globally. These risks can be
reduced through seismic retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. School buildings in Istanbul,
Turkey).
 The Paulins Kill Viaduct was completed in 1910.

Concrete can be viewed as a form of artificial sedimentary rock. As a type of mineral, the
compounds of which it is composed are extremely stable.[57] Many concrete structures are built
with an expected lifetime of approximately 100 years,[58] but researchers have suggested that
adding silica fume could extend the useful life of bridges and other concrete uses to as long as
16,000 years.[59] Coatings are also available to protect concrete from damage, and extend the
useful life. Epoxy coatings may only be applied to interior surfaces, though, as they would
otherwise trap moisture in the concrete.

Self healing concrete has been developed, which can also last longer than traditional concrete.

Large dams, such as the Hoover Dam, and the Three Gorges Dam are intended to last "forever",
a period that is not quantified.

4.7 Basic design concepts (mh)

There are various types of reinforced suspended concrete floors that may be used in buildings,
ranging from flat slabs, through one- and two-way slabs, to ribbed and waffle slabs. A wide
range of factors will govern the selection of an appropriate option. A spreadsheet, Concept.xls,
has been developed by the Concrete Centre to aid the selection process.

The spreadsheet is intended for time and cost comparisons and gives initial member sizing,
quantities of formwork, reinforcement and concrete – all useful information when making a
choice of frame. The optimised solution takes full account of the interaction between frame,
cladding and foundation costs as well as frame construction time. Spans up to 12 m (16 m for
wide beams) are catered for.

The designer inputs information such as the number of bays, spans and loads. Cost and time data,
and many of the basic assumptions, can be changed. The program compares conceptual designs
for different forms of floor and then ranks them in order of total or construction cost. The
designer can then proceed with detailed design of the chosen option in the normal way.

A free trial download of Concept.xls is available from The Concrete Centre

Flat slabs often prove to be the most economic choice. Further information on the design of slabs
may be found in Concrete Society Technical Report 64, Guide to the design and construction of
reinforced concrete flat slabs and in Technical Report 43, Post-tensioned concrete floors: design
handbook. In addition, Economic concrete frame elements to Eurocode 2 is a pre-scheme
handbook to the rapid sizing and selection of reinforced concrete frame elements, which replaces
the earlier Economic concrete frame elements published in 1997 in which design was in
accordance with BS 8110.

4.8 Limit state method of design (mh)

Limit state design (LSD) refers to a design method used in structural engineering. A limit state
is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the relevant design criteria. The
condition may refer to a degree of loading or other actions on the structure, while the criteria
refer to structural integrity, fitness for use, durability or other design requirements. A structure
designed by LSD is proportioned to sustain all actions likely to occur during its design life, and
to remain fit for use, with an appropriate level of reliability for each limit state. Building codes
based on LSD implicitly define the appropriate levels of reliability by their prescriptions.

Criteria

Limit state design requires the structure to satisfy two principal criteria:

1. the ultimate limit state (ULS)

2. the serviceability limit state (SLS).

Any design process involves a number of assumptions. The loads to which a structure will be
subjected must be estimated, sizes of members to check must be chosen and design criteria must
be selected. All engineering design criteria have a common goal: that of ensuring a safe structure
and ensuring the functionality of the structure.

1. Ultimate Limit State

A clear distinction is made between the Ultimate State (US) and the Ultimate Limit State (ULS).
The US is a physical situation that involves either excessive deformations leading and
approaching collapse of the component under consideration or the structure as a whole, as
relevant, or deformations exceeding pre agreed values. It involves of course considerable
inelastic (plastic) behavior of the structural scheme and residual deformations. While the ULS is
not a physical situation but rather an agreed computational condition that must be fulfilled,
among other additional criteria, in order to comply with the engineering demands for strength
and stability under design loads. The ULS condition is computationally checked at a certain
point along the behavior function of the structural scheme, located at the upper part of its elastic
zone at approximately 15% lower than the elastic limit. That means that the ULS is a purely
elastic condition, located on the behavior function far bellow the real Ultimate point which is
located deeply within the plastic zone. The rational for chosing the ULS at the upper part of the
elastic zone is that as long as the ULS design criteria is fulfilled, the structure will behave in the
same way under repetitive loadings, and as long as it keeps this way, it proves that the level of
safety and reliability assumed as the basis for this design is properly maintained and justified,
(following the probabilistic safety approach). A structure is deemed to satisfy the ultimate limit
state criterion if all factored bending, shear and tensile or compressive stresses are below the
factored resistances calculated for the section under consideration. The factored stresses referred
to are found by applying Magnification Factors to the loads on the section. Reduction Factors are
applied to determine the various factored resistances of the section.

The limit state criteria can also be set in terms of load rather than stress: using this approach the
structural element being analysed (e.g. a beam or a column or other load bearing element, such
as walls) is shown to be safe when the "Magnified" loads are less than the relevant "Reduced"
resistances.

Complying with the design criteria of the ULS is considered as the minimum requirement
(among other additional demands) to provide a proper structural safety.

2. Serviceability Limit State

In addition to the ULS check mentioned above, a Service Limit State (SLS) computational check
must be performed. As for the ULS, here also the SLS is not a physical situation but rather a
computational check. The aim is to prove that under the action of Characteristic design loads
(unfactored), and/or whilst applying certain (unfactored) magnitudes of imposed deformations,
settlements, or vibrations, or temperature gradients etc. the structural behavior complies with,
and does not exceed, the SLS design criteria values, specified in the relevant standard in power.
These criteria involves various stress limits, deformations limits (deflections, rotations and
curvature), flexibility (or rigidity) limits, dynamic behavior limits, as well as crack control
requirements (crack width) and other arrangements concerned with the durability of the structure
and its level of everyday service level and human comfort achieved, and its abilities to fulfil its
everyday functions. In view of non-structural issues it might involve also limits applied to
acoustics and heat transmission that might also affect the structural design. To satisfy the
serviceability limit state criterion, a structure must remain functional for its intended use subject
to routine (read: everyday) loading, and as such the structure must not cause occupant discomfort
under routine conditions. This calculation check is performed at a point located at the lower half
of the elastic zone, where characteristic (unfactored) actions are applied and the structural
behavior is purely elastic.

4.8.1 Factor Development (h)

The load and resistance factors are determined using statistics and a pre-selected probability of
failure. Variability in the quality of construction, consistency of the construction material are
accounted for in the factors. Generally, a factor of unity (one) or less is applied to the resistances
of the material, and a factor of unity or greater to the loads. Not often used, but in some load
cases a factor may be less than unity due to a reduced probability of the combined loads. These
factors can differ significantly for different materials or even between differing grades of the
same material. Wood and masonry typically have smaller factors than concrete, which in turn has
smaller factors than steel. The factors applied to resistance also account for the degree of
scientific confidence in the derivation of the values - i.e. smaller values are used when there isn't
much research on the specific type of failure mode). Factors associated with loads are normally
independent on the type of material involved, but can be influenced by the type of construction.

In determining the specific magnitude of the factors, more deterministic loads (like dead loads,
the weight of the structure and permanent attachments like walls, floor treatments, ceiling
finishes) are given lower factors (for example 1.4) than highly variable loads like earthquake,
wind, or live (occupancy) loads (1.6). Impact loads are typically given higher factors still (say
2.0) in order to account for both their unpredictable magnitudes and the dynamic nature of the
loading vs. the static nature of most models. While arguably not philosophically superior to
permissible or allowable stress design, it does have the potential to produce a more consistently
designed structure as each element is intended to have the same probability of failure. In
practical terms this normally results in a more efficient structure, and as such, it can be argued
that LSD is superior from a practical engineering viewpoint.

4.8.2 Example Treatment of LSD in Codes (h)

The following is the treatment of LSD found in the National Building Code of Canada:

NBCC 1995 Format

φR > αDD + ψ γ {αLL + αQQ + αTT}
where φ = Resistance Factor
ψ = Load Combination Factor
γ = Importance Factor
αD = Dead Load Factor
αL = Live Load Factor
αQ = Earthquake Load Factor
αT = Thermal Effect (Temperature) Load Factor

4.8.3 The State of the Art (h)

Limit state design has replaced the older concept of permissible stress design in most forms of
civil engineering. Notable exceptions are geotechnical engineering and transportation
engineering. Even so, new codes are currently being developed for both geotechnical and
transportation engineering which are LSD based. As a result, most modern buildings are
designed in accordance with a code which is based on limit state theory. For example, in Europe,
structures are designed to conform with the Eurocodes: Steel structures are designed in
accordance with EN 1993, and reinforced concrete structures to EN 1992. Australia, Canada,
China, France, Indonesia, and New Zealand (among many others) utilise limit state theory in the
development of their design codes. In the purest sense, it is now considered inappropriate to
discuss safety factors when working with LSD, as there are concerns that this may lead to
confusion.

4.8.4 Limit State Design in the United States (h)

The United States has been particularly slow to adopt Limit State design (known as Load and
Resistance Factor Design in the US). Design codes and standards are issued by diverse
organizations, some of which have adopted Limit States Design, and others have not.

The ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete uses Limit state design.

The ANSI/AISC 360 Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, the ANSI/AISI S-100 North
American Specification for the Design of Cold Formed Steel Structural Members, and The
Aluminum Association's Aluminum Design Manual contain two methods of design side by side:

1. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), a Limit States Design implementation, and
 2. Allowable Strength Design (ASD), a method where the nominal strength is divided by a
safety factor to determine the allowable strength. This allowable strength is required to
equal or exceed the required strength for a set of ASD load combinations. ASD is
calibrated to give the same structural reliability and component size as the LRFD method
with a live to dead load ratio of 3. Consequently, when structures have a live to dead load
ratio that differs from 3, ASD produces designs that are either less reliable or less
efficient as compared to designs resulting from the more rational LSD method.

In contrast, the ANSI/AWWA D100 Welded Carbon Steel Tanks for Water Storage and API 650
Welded Tanks for Oil Storage still use allowable stress design.

4.9 Recommendations in the code book (mh)

Recommended specifications for reinforced concrete design based on the regulations in the
building code recommended by the National board of fire underwriters and the 1916 report of the
Joint committee on concrete and reinforced concrete.
The code portion of this document covers the design and construction of structural concrete used
in buildings and where applicable in nonbuilding structures. <P>Among the subjects covered
are: drawings and specifications; inspection; materials; durability requirements; concrete quality,
mixing and placing; formwork; embedded pipes; construction joints; reinforcement details;
analysis and design; strength and serviceability; flexural and axial loads; shear and torsion;
development and splices of reinforcement; slab systems; walls; footings; precast concrete;
composite flexural members; prestressed concrete; shells and folded plate members; strength
evaluation of existing structures; special provisions for seismic design; structural plain concrete;
strut-and-tie modeling in Appendix A; alternative design provisions in Appendix B; alternative
load and strength-reduction factors in Appendix C; and anchoring to concrete in Appendix D.
<P>The quality and testing of materials used in construction are covered by reference to the
appropriate ASTM standard specifications. Welding of reinforcement is covered by reference to
the appropriate ANSI/AWS standard. <P>Uses of the code include adoption by reference in
general building codes, and earlier editions have been widely used in this manner. The code is
written in a format that allows such reference without change to its language. Therefore,
background details or suggestions for carrying out the requirements or intent of the code portion
cannot be included. The commentary is provided for this purpose. Some of the considerations of
the committee in developing the code portion are discussed within the commentary, with
emphasis given to the explanation of new or revised provisions. Much of the research data
referenced in preparing the code is cited for the user desiring to study individual questions in
greater detail. Other documents that provide suggestions for carrying out the requirements of the
code are also cited.
The "Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete" ("Code") covers the materials,
design, and construction of structural concrete used in buildings and where applicable in
nonbuilding structures. The Code also covers the strength evaluation of existing concrete
structures.

Among the subjects covered are: contract documents; inspection; materials; durability
requirements; concrete quality, mixing, and placing; formwork; embedded pipes; construction
joints; reinforcement details; analysis and design; strength and serviceability; flexural and axial
loads; shear and torsion; development and splices of reinforcement; slab systems; walls;
footings; precast concrete; composite flexural members; prestressed concrete; shells and folded
plate members; strength evaluation of existing structures; provisions for seismic design;
structural plain concrete; strutand- tie modeling in Appendix A; alternative design provisions in
Appendix B; alternative load and strength reduction factors in Appendix C; and anchoring to
concrete in Appendix D.

The quality and testing of materials used in construction are covered by reference to the
appropriate ASTM standard specifications. Welding of reinforcement is covered by reference to
the appropriate American Welding Society (AWS) standard.

Uses of the Code include adoption by reference in general building codes, and earlier editions
have been widely used in this manner. The Code is written in a format that allows such reference
without change to its language. Therefore, background details or suggestions for carrying out the
requirements or intent of the Code portion cannot be included. The Commentary is provided for
this purpose. Some of the considerations of the committee in developing the Code portion are
discussed within the Commentary, with emphasis given to the explanation of new or revised
provisions. Much of the research data referenced in preparing the Code is cited for the user
desiring to study individual questions in greater detail. Other documents that provide suggestions
for carrying out the requirements of the Code are also cited.

4.9.1 Code Consulting (h)

 

Our code consulting team develops innovative solutions to resolve code conflicts where multiple
building codes and standards apply or where building codes, laws or ordinances conflict with
design concepts or objectives. We work closely with building code enforcing authorities to
develop professional relationships that greatly enhance cooperation and the resolution of matters
regarding occupant safety, accessibility and property protection.
Aon FPE is continually involved in the development of model codes and standards, including
those for the International Code Council (ICC), American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). We are extremely knowledgeable in
the application of federal laws and agency regulations, such as those enforced by the U.S.
General Services Administration (GSA), U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) and the U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE).

Review Questions

1. What do you mean by Plain and reinforced concrete?

2. What are the Basic material properties of cement, aggregate, water and reinforcing steel?
3. Describe Grades of concrete.
4. What are the Properties of hardened concrete?
5. Describe Durability of Concrete.
6. How can you define Outline of manufacture, Properties & Uses?
7. Describe Basic design concepts
8. Explain Limit state method of design.
9. What are recommendations in the code book.
 Chapter-5
LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF SLABS (ch)

Structure of this unit

Slabs, loads

Learning objectives
1. Classification of slabs
2. Estimation of loads
3. Design of one way, two way, circular and continuous slabs using SP – 16

5.1 Classification of slabs (mh)

Slabs are classified based on many aspects

1) Based of shape: Square, rectangular, circular and polygonal in shape.

2) Based on type of support: Slab supported on walls, Slab supported on beams, Slab
supported on columns (Flat slabs).

3) Based on support or boundary condition: Simply supported, Cantilever slab,

Overhanging slab, Fixed or Continues slab.

4) Based on use: Roof slab, Floor slab, Foundation slab, Water tank slab.

5) Basis of cross section or sectional configuration: Ribbed slab /Grid slab, Solid slab,
Filler slab, Folded plate

6) Basis of spanning directions :

One way slab – Spanning in one direction
Two way slab _ Spanning in two direction

Types of 2-way Slab Systems

• Flat plate
 • Flat slab

• Waffle slab (Stratton Student Center, MIT)

• Two-way slabs with two-way beams (conventional framing)

*
• Two-way slabs with band beams

5.1.1 Characteristics of Selected Systems (h)

Flat Plate System

a) 15 to 20 foot spans

b) light gravity loads (e.g. apartment buildings)

c) economical due to low-cost formwork

Flat Slab System

a) 20 to 30 foot spans

b) higher gravity loads than flat plates (e.g. office buildings)

c) use of drop panels to reduce shear stresses (both direct and moment induced) at
column

Waffle Slab System

a) 20 to 35 foot spans

b) high gravity loads (e.g. industrial buildings)

c) high stiffness and small deflections

d) expensive due to high-cost formwork

 5.2 Estimation of loads (mh)

The load on slab comprises of Dead load, floor finish and live load. The loads are calculated
per unit area (load/m2).

Dead load = D x 25 kN/m2 ( Where D is thickness of slab in m)

Floor finish (Assumed as)= 1 to 2 kN/m2

Live load (Assumed as) = 3 to 5 kN/m2 (depending on the occupancy of the building)

5.3 Design of one way, two way, circular and continuous slabs using SP – 16 (mh)

5.3.1 BEHAVIOR OF ONE WAY SLAB (h)

When a slab is supported only on two parallel apposite edges, it spans only in the direction
perpendicular to two supporting edges. Such a slab is called one way slab. Also, if the slab is
supported on all four edges and the ratio of longer span(ly) to shorter span (lx) i.e ly/lx > 2,
practically the slab spans across the shorter span. Such a slabs are also designed as one way
slabs. In this case, the main reinforcement is provided along the spanning direction to resist one
way bending.
5.3.1.1 Limitations to the single span slabs (sh)

The use of prefabricated slabs or plates spanning in one direction, is very popular in the
constructions business, but has a serious limitation in their span width. This is best realised in the
case of a slab with load q and eigenweight g and a span L and bending stiffness EI, where the
maximal shear force V, bending moment M and deflection u are estimated as
If we double the length of the span, then we will double V (factor 2) and quadrouble M (factor
4), but we will actually increase the deflection with a factor sixteen (factor 16) – this means that
at larger spans, the deflection will determine the design or capacity of the slab as shown in
Figure.

We may of course increase the reinforcement ratio (expensive and only possible up to a certain
level) or we may increase the thickness of the slab (cheap), however, if we increase the
thickness, then we increase the slabs own weight g equally. This means that longer spans require
designs, where most of the slabs capacities are actually used for carrying the slabs own weight g
and not the load q, which we need the slab to carry. This would obviously be a poor and
uneconomic design and we need to find a solution for this problem, if we wish to design longer
spans.
A simple solution would be to let the slab span in two directions and use the strength of the
concrete in two directions at the same time.

5.3.2 BEHAVIOR OF TWO WAY SLABS (h)

A rectangular slab supported on four edge supports, which bends in two orthogonal directions
and deflects in the form of dish or a saucer is called two way slabs. For a two way slab the ratio
of ly/lx shall be <= 2.0 .
Since, the slab rest freely on all sides, due to transverse load the corners tend to curl up and lift
up. The slab looses the contact over some region. This is known as lifting of corner. These slabs
are called two way simply supported slabs. If the slabs are cast monolithic with the beams, the
corners of the slab are restrained from lifting. These slabs are called restrained slabs. At corner,
the rotation occurs in both the direction and causes the corners to lift. If the corners of slab are
restrained from lifting, downward reaction results at corner & the end strips gets restrained
against rotation. However, when the ends are restrained and the rotation of central strip still
occurs and causing rotation at corner (slab is acting as unit) the end strip is subjected to torsion.

5.3.2.1 Types of Two Way Slab (sh)

Two way slabs are classified into two types based on the support conditions:
a) Simply supported slab
b) Restrained slabs

a) Two way simply supported slabs

The bending moments Mx and My for a rectangular slabs simply supported on all four edges
with corners free to lift or the slabs do not having adequate provisions to prevent lifting of
corners are obtained using
Mx = _x W l2
x
My = _y W l2
x
Where,
_x and _y are coefficients given in Table
W- Total load /unit area
lx & ly – lengths of shorter and longer span.

Table Bending Moment Coefficients for Slabs Spanning in Two Directions at

Right Angles, Simply Supported on Four Sides (Table 27:IS 456-2000)

b) Two way Restrained slabs

When the two way slabs are supported on beam or when the corners of the slabs are prevented
from lifting the bending moment coefficients are obtained from Table 2 (Table 26, IS456-2000)
depending on the type of panel shown in Fig. 3. These coefficients are obtained using yield line
theory. Since, the slabs are restrained; negative moment arises near the supports. The bending
moments are obtained using;
Detailing requirements as per IS 456-2000

a. Slabs are considered as divided in each direction into middle and end strips as shown below.
b. The maximum moments obtained using equations are apply only to middle strip.
c. 50% of the tension reinforcement provided at midspan in the middle strip shall extend in
the lower part of the slab to within 0.25l of a continuous edge or 0.15l of a discontinuous edge
and the remaining 50% shall extend into support.
d. 50% of tension reinforcement at top of a continuous edge shall be extended for a distance
of 0.15l on each side from the support and atleast 50% shall be provided for a distance of 0.3l on
each face from the support.
e. At discontinuous edge, negative moment may arise, in general 50% of mid span steel shall be
extended into the span for a distance of 0.1l at top.
f. Minimum steel can be provided in the edge strip
g. Tension steel shall be provided at corner in the form of grid (in two directions) at top and
bottom of slab where the slab is discontinuous at both the edges . This area of steel in each layer
in each direction shall be equal to ¾ the area required (Ast) for maximum mid span moment.
This steel shall extend from the edges for a distance of lx/5. The area of steel shall be reduced to
half (3/8 Astx) at corners containing edges over only one edge is continuous and other is
discontinuous.
 Fig. Reinforcement details and strips in Two way restrained slabs

The slabs spanning in one direction and continuous over supports are called one way continuous
slabs.These are idealised as continuous beam of unit width. For slabs of uniform section which
support substantially UDL over three or more spans which do not differ by more than 15% of the
longest, the B.M and S.F are obtained using the coefficients available in Tables of IS 456-2000.
For moments at supports where two unequal spans meet or in case where the slabs are not
equally loaded, the average of the two values for the negative moments at supports may be taken.
Alternatively, the moments may be obtained by moment distribution or any other methods.
EXAMPLES

1. Design a simply supported one –way slab over a clear span of 3.5 m. It carries a live load
of 4 kN/m2 and floor finish of 1.5 kN/m2. The width of supporting wall is 230 mm. Adopt
M- 20 concrete & Fe-415 steel.
 Review Questions

1. Describe Classification of slabs.

2. Calculate Estimation of loads.
3. Define Design of one way, two way, circular and continuous slabs using SP – 16.
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