processes
Article
Heat Transfer and Hydrodynamics in Stirred Tanks with
Liquid-Solid Flow Studied by CFD–DEM Method
Xiaotong Luo 1 , Jiachuan Yu 1 , Bo Wang 1 and Jingtao Wang 1,2, *






Citation: Luo, X.; Yu, J.; Wang, B.;
Wang, J. Heat Transfer and
Hydrodynamics in Stirred Tanks with
Liquid-Solid Flow Studied by
CFD–DEM Method. Processes 2021, 9,
849. https://doi.org/10.3390/
pr9050849
Academic Editor: Gurutze
Arzamendi
Received: 22 April 2021
Accepted: 7 May 2021
Published: 12 May 2021
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Processes 2021, 9, 849. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050849
1 School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China;
2018207085@tju.edu.cn (X.L.); jcyu@tju.edu.cn (J.Y.); bowang325@tju.edu.cn (B.W.)
2 Tianjin Key Laboratory of Chemical Process Safety and Equipment Technology, Tianjin 300072, China
* Correspondence: wjingtao928@tju.edu.cn
Abstract: The heat transfer and hydrodynamics of particle flows in stirred tanks are investigated
numerically in this paper by using a coupled CFD–DEM method combined with a standard k-e
turbulence model. Particle–fluid and particle–particle interactions, and heat transfer processes are
considered in this model. The numerical method is validated by comparing the calculated results
of our model to experimental results of the thermal convection of gas-particle flows in a fluidized
bed published in the literature. This coupling model of computational fluid dynamics and discrete
element (CFD–DEM) method, which could calculate the particle behaviors and individual particle
temperature clearly, has been applied for the first time to the study of liquid-solid flows in stirred
tanks with convective heat transfers. This paper reports the effect of particles on the temperature field
in stirred tanks. The effects on the multiphase flow convective heat transfer of stirred tanks without
and with baffles as well as various heights from the bottom are investigated. Temperature range of
the multiphase flow is from 340 K to 350 K. The height of the blade is varied from about one-sixth to
one-third of the overall height of the stirred tank. The numerical results show that decreasing the
blade height and equipping baffles could enhance the heat transfer of the stirred tank. The calculated
temperature field that takes into account the effects of particles are more instructive for the actual
processes involving solid phases. This paper provides an effective method and is helpful for readers
who have interests in the multiphase flows involving heat transfers in complex systems.
Keywords: CFD–DEM coupling method; liquid-solid stirred tanks; heat transfer; fluid dynamics
1. Introduction
Stirred tanks have been widely used in fermentation, emulsification, crystallization, ho-
mogeneous/heterogeneous reaction, and other pharmaceutical and chemical processes [1].
Many of these processes involve liquid–solid multiphase flows and heat transfers. Thus,
among stirred reactors, the ones with jackets or coils are the commonest [2]. The study of
heat transfers within the stirred reactors is very important since they are crucial in many
relevant operations. For example, they are critical to achieve the desired reaction products
and prevent the thermal lose control of reactions, as well as to generate the appropriate
supersaturation for the product of promising crystals [3].
Experiments and simulations have been employed to study the multiphase flows
involving heat transfer [4–8]. However, in many cases, due to different limitations, it is
difficult to conduct experiments. Hence, developing numerical method to investigate the
heat and mass transfer of multiphase flows in various stirred tanks is of high significance.
Up to now, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has proved to be an effective tool
in the investigation of complex liquid–solid flows involving multi-physical fields. There
are a lot of numerical studies of the heat transfer of single-phase flows in stirred tanks.
Early research works mainly involved the simulation of heat transfers in mixers with
different configurations such as the rounded-bottom vessel with an atypical helical ribbon
impeller [9] and the stirred tanks with improved Intermig impellers [10]. Other researchers
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes
Processes 2021, 9, 849 2 of 22

have focused on the heat transfer characteristics of different fluids in stirred tanks and
in a jacketed stirred heat exchanger [3,11–15]. Johnson et al. [15] derived a non-adiabatic
heat-transfer model for the study of heat transfers in laboratory to pilot-scale reactors,
which could be used to predict the temperature distribution within the uncertainty of the
experimental measurements. Although the above works have done a lot on the numerical
study of heat transfers of single-phase flows in stirred reactors, there are still few numerical
works on the heat transfer of liquid-solid flows in stirred tanks. As many chemical processes
in stirred tanks, such as the crystallization, involve heat transfers in multiphase flows
containing particles, and as the ignorance of the fluid–particle interaction might result in
bigger errors of the numerical results, this paper will try to fill the gap.
The numerical methods modeling particle flows include Eulerian–Eulerian [16,17],
Eulerian–Lagrangian [18–20], and direct numerical simulations (DNS) [21]. As a La-
grangian method, the discrete phase model (DPM) treats the particles as the mass points
and does not consider the volume effects of particles. It is also limited due to its solid
volume fraction is generally less than about 10% [22]. The discrete element model (DEM) is
popular for calculating the interactions of solid particles with almost real properties and
provides several contact models to describe particle collisions. However, it cannot solve
the flow problems. Thus, the coupling model of computational fluid dynamics and discrete
element model (CFD–DEM) has been widely accepted to calculate the problems of particle
flows. As early as 1993, the CFD–DEM model using the coarse-grid approximation, had
been developed to study the movement of single particle in fluidized beds [23].
Currently, the CFD–DEM method has been employed to investigate the heat transfer
in different processes involving multiphase flow, especially for the gas–solid fluidized
beds [24–29]. Patil et al. [24] adopted an Euler–Lagrange method to study heat transfers in
a fluidized bed and the numerical results are in good agreement to those of the experiments.
CFD–DEM method has also been used to study the heat transfer in an aggregate drum
dryer to produce hot mix asphalt [26]. The results indicate that the coupled model captures
the dominant mode of heat transfers correctly as the particles pass through the hot gases.
Recently, a new coupled particle–wall heat transfer algorithm for solving particle–wall heat
transfer problems has been proposed by Oschmann et al. [28], and the numerical results
are in good agreement to experimental results.
Although many researchers have used CFD–DEM to calculate heat transfers, there are
few studies on the mixing process of liquid–solid two-phase flows involving heat transfers.
In our previous work, a coupled VOF-DEM model was developed to capture the free
surface in gas-liquid-solid systems [22,30,31]. Although they consider the collision among
particles and the effects of the particle volume on the continuous phase, no heat transfer
has been involved. In this work, CFD–DEM coupling model is extended to investigate
particulate flows with both momentum exchange and thermal convection. The calculated
temperature fields in stirred tanks involving the liquid-solid flow and the single-phase flow
are compared to investigate the influence of particles on the temperature distribution. In
addition, by changing the blade height and adding baffles, the influences of these structure
parameters on the heat transfer and temperature distribution of the multiphase flow are
studied. According to our best knowledge, it is the first work studying the heat transfer
of liquid-solid two-phase flows in stirred tanks by using CFD–DEM coupling method.
At first, the relevant background and papers are reviewed in the introduction. Then, the
mathematical model is described in Section 2. In the third section, the numerical model
is verified and validated by several examples. The calculation results are presented and
discussed in Section 4. Finally, the conclusions are summarized in Section 5.

2. Model Description
2.1. Fluid Phase
2.1.1. Momentum Equations and Turbulence Model
In the multiphase system, the fluid is considered as a continuous phase and its motion
is solved by the continuity equation and momentum equations throughout the domain.
Processes 2021, 9, 849 3 of 22

The two phases share the velocity field which is based on the local average variable on the
mesh cells. Due to the contribution of particles, the continuity and momentum equations
can be extended as follows [32]:

∂ ( ρ f ε f u)
+ ∇ · (ρ f ε f uu) = ε f (−∇ p + ∇ · (τ − ρu0 i u0 j ) + fs + ρ f g) + f p f , (1)
∂t
∂ε f
+ ∇ · (ε f u) = 0, (2)
∂t
where ρf is fluid density, εf is the volume fraction of fluid in one cell or the local porosity,
following the assumption of local average and u is fluid velocity. Each item on the right
side of Equation (1) represents the pressure gradient, stress, gravity and particle–fluid
interaction force, respectively.
In this work, the standard k-ε model is used to describe the flow since it exhibits better
suitability for heat transfer simulations [33].

2.1.2. Energy Equation

Temperature evolution is of great importance in thermal particulate flows. The energy
equation is:
!
∂(ρ f E)
+ ∇ · (v(ρ f E + p)) = ∇ · k e f f ∇ T − ∑ h j J j + (τ e f f · v) + Sh , (3)
∂t j

where keff is the effective thermal conductivity (keff = k + kt , where kt is the turbulent thermal
conductivity, defined according to the used turbulence model.), and Jj is the diffusion flux
of species j. The total energy and pressure of fluid are represented by E and p, respectively.
The first three terms on the right-hand side of Equation (3) represent the energy transfers
due to conduction, species diffusion, and viscous dissipation, respectively. Sh includes the
heat of chemical reaction, and any other volumetric heat sources defined by users.

2.2. DEM Model

In the CFD–DEM coupling method, particles are treated as the discrete phase. To
track the trajectory of individual particle, its motion is calculated by Newton’s second
law. Meanwhile, the rotational momentum of individual particle is solved by the angular
momentum equation [19,34]:

dvi
mi = −Vi ∇ P + mi g + F p f ,i + ∑ Fc,ij , (4)
dt j

dωi
Ii
dt
= ∑ Tij (5)
j

where P is the fluid-phase pressure, Vi is the particle volume, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, F pf,i is the particle-fluid interaction force, and F c ,ij is the contact force, including
normal contact force and tangential contact force. mi , vi , Ii , ωi are the mass, the linear
velocity, the moment of inertia, and angular velocity of particle i, respectively, T ij is the
torque arising from the tangential and rolling component.

2.3. Interactions in the Multiphase Flow

In this section, the force models and heat transfer models for particles are described,
during which the momentum exchange and hear transfer between fluid and particles are
presented as well.
Processes 2021, 9, 849 4 of 22

2.3.1. Interaction between Particles

Because there are a lot of particles, it is important to calculate the particle–particle
and particle–wall interactions which are similar. In this work, the Hertz–Mindlin model is
adopted. Based on this, the contact force between two adjacent spherical particles can be
divided in to two types: normal contact force [35,36] and tangential force [37], which given
as follows. The normal contact force is expressed as:

Fn,ij = −k n,ij δn,ij − ηn,ij vn,ij , (6)

and the tangential friction force is defined as:

    

 −k t,ij δt,ij − ηt,ij vt,ij  Ft,ij  ≤ µ Fn,ij 
Ft,ij = 
, (7)
 −µ  Fn,ij  vt,ij
    
 Ft,ij  > µ Fn,ij 
|vt,ij |

where k, δ, η and µ are the spring constant, overlap between particles, damping coefficient
and friction coefficient, respectively. The subscripts n and t indicate the normal direction,
the tangential direction between particles i and j.
The torques generated by the forces can be written as:

Tt,ij = Lij nij × Ft,ij , (8)

  ωij
Tr,ij = −µr Lij Fn,ij    , (9)
ωij
where L represents the distance between particles, and subscripts t and r represent tangen-
tial and rotational directions, respectively.

2.3.2. Interaction between Particles and Fluid

In this coupling model, the force between fluid and particles have also been taken into
accounts, includes the total of drag force, pressure gradient, stresses, Saffman lift force,
Magnus lift force. The interaction force is calculated as:

F p f ,i = Fd,i + F∇ p,i + F∇·τ,i + F∇·(ρ f u0 u0 ),i + FSa f f ,i + F Mag,i + Fs,i , (10)

i j

The total force per volume:

n
1 p
Vcell i∑
f p, f = F p f ,i − F∇ p,i − F∇·τ,i − F∇·(ρ f u0 u0 ),i − Fs,i , (11)
i j
=1

The drag force model exerting on the particle is expressed as:

βVp
Fd = (u − v), (12)
εf

where the coefficient β proposed by Ergun and Wen and Yu [38].

The Saffman lift force is calculated by [22]

FSa f f = 1.61d2p (µ f ρ f )1/2 (u − v) · (∇ · u), (13)

h i
F L,mei

 FSa f f = (1 − 0.3314α1/2 )exp − Re
10 + 0.3314α
1/2 Re ≤ 40
F L,mei
, (14)

FSa f f = 0.0524(αRe)1/2 Re > 40

where α = 1/2Re·ε2 and it ranges from 0.005 to 0.4.

  FSaff  10 
 , (14)
 FL,mei = 0.0524( Re)1 2 Re > 40
 FSaff

Processes 2021, 9, 849 5 of 22
ԑ2 and it ranges from 0.005 to 0.4.
where α = 1/2Re·
The Magnus lift force is calculated by [22]:

 Re
 Mag is0.125
The Magnus liftFforce  d p3  fby [22]:CL (0.5c   p )(u  v )
calculated
Re

 3 Re
 F Mag = 0.125πd p ρ f Re CL (0.5ωc − ω p )(u − v)
, (15)
C  0.45  [   0.45]exp(0.05684 Re Re , )
Re Ω 0.4 0.3
(15)

 CL = 0.45 + [ Re
L
Re Ω 0.4  0.3
Re − 0.45] exp(−0.05684ReΩ Re )

when
when the
thearticle
articlerotation is is
rotation equal to the
equal location
to the rotation
location of theoffluid,
rotation the liftthe
the fluid, force
liftisforce
almost
is
zero.
almost zero.

2.3.3.
2.3.3. Particle
Particle Heat
Heat Transfer
Transfer
In
In this work, the heattransfer
the heat transferbetween
betweenparticle–particle
particle–particleand
and particle–fluid
particle–fluid areare con-
consid-
sidered. Figure
ered. Figure 1 shows
1 shows thethe heat
heat exchange
exchange mechanisms
mechanisms in in a fluid-solid
a fluid-solid system.
system. In In order
order to
to evaluate
evaluate temperature
temperature ofofphases
phasesinina acoupled
coupledCFD–DEM
CFD–DEMsimulation,
simulation, the
the energy balance
equation
equation for each phase should be added. In In the
the DEM
DEM model,
model, aa simple
simple method
method to simulate
simulate
the
the heat
heat transfer
transfer is provided [34]. TheThe heat flux is expressed as:

QijQ=
ij = c ijT.ij .
hch∆T (16)

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Heat
Heat exchange
exchange mechanisms
mechanisms in
in aa fluid–solid
fluid–solid system.
system.

Here,
Here, the contact area is incorporated into the heat transfer coefficient hcc
1
∗ * 1

i k j k 3F
4k4k n,ij r r 3 3

hc h== i j 3F n,ij , (17)
c ki + k j  4E∗ *  , (17)
ki + k j  4E 
where k is thermal conductivity, Fn,ij is the normal contact force, r* is the average radius of
particles. After the heat flux is calculated, the temperature of each particle will be updated
as [34]:
dT
m p Cp = ∑ Qheat , (18)
dt
where mp , Cp and T are the mass, specific heat capacity and temperature of particles,
respectively.
In addition, the convective heat transfer is happened between fluid and particles,
which is impelled by the relative motion and temperature difference. Heat transfer flux
can be expressed as:
Q p f = h p f A p ∆Tp f , (19)
where hpf is the heat transfer coefficient between the two phases, Ap is the surface area
of particles and Tpf is the temperature difference between two phases. The heat transfer
coefficient is defined as:
κq Nu p
hp f = , (20)
dp
where κq is the heat conductivity of fluid and the Nussel number Nup is a dimensionless number.
  q Nu p
hpf  , (20)
dp

Processes 2021, 9, 849

where κq is the heat conductivity of fluid and the Nussel number Nup is a dimensionless
6 of 22
number.

2.4. Coupling Scheme

2.4. Coupling Schememethod used in this work can be divided into three parts, which is pre-
The coupling
Theincoupling
sented Figure 2.method used method
Firstly, CFD in this work can be
initializes thedivided intoand
fluid field three parts,
trigger thewhich is
process,
presented
then UDFinisFigure
called2.toFirstly, CFDthe
calculate method
local initializes
porositiestheandfluid field andforces.
interaction trigger In theDEM,
process,
the
then UDFand
velocity is called to calculate
position the are
of particles local porosities
updated by and interaction
solving motion forces.
equation. In DEM, the
This infor-
velocity
mation and position of to
is transmitted particles are updated
CFD method, and itbysolves
solving motion (1),
Equation equation.
EquationThis(2),
information
and Equa-
istion
transmitted to CFD
(3) to update themethod, andand
fluid field it solves
heat Equations
field until(1)–(3) to update
the process the fluidFinally,
converges. field and
the
heat field until the process converges. Finally, the fluid field and heat field
fluid field and heat field information return to the DEM. The calculation cycles until the information
return
number to the DEM.
of steps The calculation
reaches cycles until the number of steps reaches the set value.
the set value.

Figure2.2.Computing
Figure Computingcycle
cycleofofCFD–DEM
CFD–DEMmodel.
model.

3.3.Validation
Validationand andSimulation
SimulationSetup
Setup
In
In this section, the model andparameter
this section, the model and parametersetting
settingin
inthe
thecalculation
calculationare
arefirst
firstpresented,
presented,
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEWand then, it is validated through the comparison between the calculationresults
and then, it is validated through the comparison between the calculation resultsof ofour
7 of 23
our
model
model and the experimental data from other literature for the two-phase flows in agas–
and the experimental data from other literature for the two-phase flows in a gas–
solid
solidfluidized
fluidizedbed.
bed.Finally,
Finally,the
thegrid
gridindependence
independenceisisverified.
verified.
3.1.
3.1. Configuration
Configuration of of Stirred
Stirred Tank
Tank
In
In this work, the ellipticalbottom
this work, the elliptical bottom tanks with
tanks blades
with of different
blades heights
of different (h) were
heights em-
(h) were
ployed
employed to study the heat transfer, flow patterns, and particle suspension behaviorsthe
to study the heat transfer, flow patterns, and particle suspension behaviors in in
stirred tank.
the stirred For For
tank. all ofallthem, the diameter
of them, the diameter(D) (D)
of the tanktank
of the is 0.15 m and
is 0.15 the the
m and height (H) (H)
height is 0.2
is
m.
0.2 Four up-pumping
m. Four up-pumping stirred blades
stirred areare
blades 45°45pitched andand
◦ pitched thethe
diameter
diameter(d)(d)
of the impeller
of the impelleris
D/2. Other
is D/2. sizes
Other of these
sizes of thesefour tanks
four areare
tanks shown
shownin in
Figure
Figure3. 3.
AtAt thethe
same
sametime,
time,baffles ofof
baffles 2
mm thickness are equipped in order to explore the influence
2 mm thickness are equipped in order to explore the influence of them. of them.

Figure 3.
Figure Configurationsofofthe
3. Configurations the stirred
stirred tank
tank with
with thethe height
height of blades
of blades is (a)is30
(a)mm.
30 mm.
(b) 40(b)
mm.40(c)
mm.
50
(c) mm. (d) (d)
50 mm. 60 mm.
60 mm.

3.2. Simulation Details

3.2. Simulation Details
To simulate impeller rotating, the sliding-grid (SG) algorithm [39] and multiple ref-
To simulate impeller rotating, the sliding-grid (SG) algorithm [39] and multiple ref-
erence frames (MRF) techniques [16,40] can be used. Since MRF is usually used in the
erence frames (MRF) techniques [16,40] can be used. Since MRF is usually used in the
steady-state, the sliding-grid (SG) algorithm is employed in this paper for the calculation
steady-state, the sliding-grid (SG) algorithm is employed in this paper for the calculation
of the unsteady-state [41].
of the unsteady-state [41].
In this paper, the liquid phase is water. The physical parameters of water and particles
In this paper, the liquid phase is water. The physical parameters of water and parti-
are summarized in Table 1. The non-slip condition is applied to all the geometry walls,
cles are summarized in Table 1. The non-slip condition is applied to all the geometry walls,
and other properties of the wall and particles are listed in Table 2. Meanwhile, in order to
calculate the cooling process in stirred tanks, initial temperature of the particles and water
is set at 350 K, and boundary conditions of the side and bottom surfaces of the stirred tank
are set to convection where the free stream is at 280 K. In practice, the cool water in jacket
Processes 2021, 9, 849 7 of 22

and other properties of the wall and particles are listed in Table 2. Meanwhile, in order
to calculate the cooling process in stirred tanks, initial temperature of the particles and
water is set at 350 K, and boundary conditions of the side and bottom surfaces of the stirred
tank are set to convection where the free stream is at 280 K. In practice, the cool water in
jacket of the stirred tanks enters from the bottom, thus the external convection heat transfer
coefficient on the bottom surface is set to be greater than that on the wall surface, which is
4200 W/(m2 ·K) and 3000 W/(m2 ·K), respectively.

Table 1. Physical properties and model parameters.

Parameter Value
(kg/m3 )
Water density 1000
Water viscosity (kg/m·s) 0.001
Water heat capacity (J/kg·K) 4182
Water thermal conductivity (W/m·K) 0.6
Particle density (kg/m3 ) 1200
Particle heat capacity (J/kg·K) 1000
Particle thermal conductivity (W/m·K) 20
CFD time step (s) 5 × 10−4
DEM time step (s) 5 × 10−5
Coupling time step (s) 5 × 10−4
Convergence criteria 1 × 10−5

Table 2. Property of particles and wall in DEM.

Parameter Particle Wall Particle–Particle Particle–Wall

Particle poisson’s ratio 0.25 0.3 - -
Particle shear modulus/MPa 1 7 × 104 Pa - -
Coefficient of restitution - - 0.3 0.2
Coefficient of static friction - - 0.5 0.5
Coefficient of rolling friction - - 0.01 0.01

3.3. CFD–DEM Model and Experimental Verification

To verify whether this CFD–DEM model is suitable for heat and momentum transfers,
our numerical results are compared to the experiment data of Patil et al. [24].

3.3.1. Heat Model and Flow Pattern Validation

In order to validate the CFD–DEM model involving heat transfers, two-phase flows
with heat transfers in a gas–solid fluidized bed are calculated according to the same
conditions as those in paper by Patil et al. [24]. In their works, the size of the fluidized bed
is 1.5 × 8 × 25 cm3 , and the initial temperatures of the particle bed and injected gas are
263.15 K and 293.15 K, respectively. Around the inlet center, there is a nozzle cover sealing
the hot gas inlet, which is not used in the present experiment, as shown in Figure 4.
For the CFD–DEM simulation, the mesh number is set to be 6 × 32 × 100. The velocity
boundary condition on the nozzle cover is set to no-slip. Other details of this simulation
are summarized in Table 3.
 3.3.1. Heat Model and Flow Pattern Validation
In order to validate the CFD–DEM model involving heat transfers, two-phase flows
with heat transfers in a gas–solid fluidized bed are calculated according to the same con-
ditions as those in paper by Patil et al. [24]. In their works, the size of the fluidized bed is
Processes 2021, 9, 849 1.5 × 8 × 25 cm3, and the initial temperatures of the particle bed and injected gas are 263.158 of 22
K and 293.15 K, respectively. Around the inlet center, there is a nozzle cover sealing the
hot gas inlet, which is not used in the present experiment, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure
Figure 4. Structure
4. Structure diagram
diagram of pneumatic
of pneumatic fluidized
fluidized bed. bed.
Table 3. Properties and settings used in the simulation.
For the CFD–DEM simulation, the mesh number is set to be 6 × 32 × 100. The velocity
boundary condition on the nozzle cover is set to no-slip. Other details
Parameter of this simulation
Value
are summarizedParticle
in Table 3. (kg/m3 )
density 2500
Fluid heat capacity (J/kg·K) 1010
Table 3. Properties and settings
Fluid thermal used in(W/m
conductivity the simulation.
·K) 0.0242
Particle heat capacity (J/kg·K) 840
Particle Parameter
thermal conductivity (W/m·K) Value 1.4
Particle density
Fluid (kg/m
viscosity 3)
(kg/m ·s) 2500 2 × 10−5
Fluid heat capacity (J/kg∙K) 1010
Fluid thermal conductivity (W/m∙K) 0.0242
According to these settings, the CFD–DEM method is validated by comparing the
temperature density distribution (TDD) of particles and 840
Particle heat capacity (J/kg∙K) the average temperature of the
Particle
powder thermal conductivity
bed. Firstly, Figure (W/m∙K) 1.4the fluidized bed at different
5 shows a series of snapshots of
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23
time tFluid
= 2 s,viscosity (kg/m∙s)
t = 4 s and 2 ×and
t = 12 s, and both the flow patterns 10−5 temperature distributions
are similar to the infrared images recorded by Patil et al. [24].
According to these settings, the CFD–DEM method is validated by comparing the
temperature density distribution (TDD) of particles and the average temperature of the
powder bed. Firstly, Figure 5 shows a series of snapshots of the fluidized bed at different
time t = 2 s, t = 4 s and t = 12 s, and both the flow patterns and temperature distributions
are similar to the infrared images recorded by Patil et al. [24].

Figure
Figure5. 5. Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofparticle
particlebehaviors
behaviorsand
andtemperature
temperaturedistribution
distributionwhen
whentime
timeisis(a)
(a)2 2s,
(b) 4 s4and
s, (b) (c) (c)
s and 12 12
s. s.

In
In order to analyze
order to analyze the
thefluidized
fluidizedbed
bedwith
withthermal
thermal convection,
convection, thethe distribution
distribution of
of the
the particle temperature provides information that is of great concern. The
particle temperature provides information that is of great concern. The temperature den- temperature
density distribution
sity distribution is a good
is a good parameter
parameter to present
to present the distribution
the distribution clearly,
clearly, whichwhich
is the is the
quan-
quantitative description about the temperature of most particles and the temperature
titative description about the temperature of most particles and the temperature range of range
of
thethe fluidizedbed.
fluidized bed.AsAsshown
shownininFigure
Figure6,6,the
theoverall
overall profiles
profiles of
of TDD
TDD are
are quite
quite consistent
consistent
to the experimental results, especially when time is 1 s and
to the experimental results, especially when time is 1 s and 10 s. 10 s.

Processes 2021, 9, 849
In order to analyze the fluidized bed with thermal convection, the distribution of the
particle temperature provides information that is of great concern. The temperature den-
sity distribution is a good parameter to present the distribution clearly, which is the quan-
titative description about the temperature of most particles and the temperature range of
9 of 22
the fluidized bed. As shown in Figure 6, the overall profiles of TDD are quite consistent
to the experimental results, especially when time is 1 s and 10 s.

Figure6.6.Temperature
Figure Temperaturedistribution
distributionofofparticles
particlesobtained
obtainedfrom
from experiments
experiments [24]
[24] and
and from
from CFD–
CFD–DEM
DEM method.
method.

Anotherimportant
Another importantmeasure
measureof ofthe
themodel
modelaccuracy
accuracyisisthe
theaverage
averagetemperature
temperatureofofthe the
fluidized bed. Figure 7 shows the comparison of the calculated results to
fluidized bed. Figure 7 shows the comparison of the calculated results to those experimental those experi-
mental
data datamean
of the of thetemperature.
mean temperature. The maximum
The maximum relative
relative error between
error between the numerical
the numerical and
and experimental
experimental resultsresults
is lessisthan
less1%,
than 1%, which
which means means
that thethat the results
results of the CFD–DEM
of the CFD–DEM model
model
are are consistent
consistent to thosetoofthose of the experiments.
the experiments. Thus, Thus,
in thein the following
following sections,
sections, this cou-
this coupled
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
pled CFD–DEM
CFD–DEM methodmethod
will bewill be employed
employed to calculate
to calculate the convective
the convective heat of
heat transfer transfer 10ofofliq-
liquid-solid 23
uid-solid
flows flowstanks.
in stirred in stirred tanks.

Figure7.7. Comparison
Figure Comparison of
of the
thenumerical
numericalresults
resultsofofthe
themean
meantemperature to to
temperature thethe
experimental results
experimental re-
[24].
sults [24].

3.3.2.
3.3.2.Grid
GridIndependence
IndependenceVerification
Verification
The
Thepurpose
purposeof ofthis
thiswork
workisistotostudy
studythe theparticulate
particulateflows
flowswith
withheatheattransfer
transferininthethe
stirred tanks. The selection of grid sizes is critical to the calculation
stirred tanks. The selection of grid sizes is critical to the calculation process of CFD: coarse process of CFD:
coarse grids might
grids might result result in a calculation
in a poor poor calculationaccuracy,accuracy,
whilewhile fine grids
fine grids will increase
will increase the
the com-
computation costs. In this paper, the computation domains are divided
putation costs. In this paper, the computation domains are divided into the dynamic re- into the dynamic
region
gion andandthethestatic
staticregion.
region. AsAs for
for them,
them, the the dynamic
dynamic region
region uses
uses aa finer
finermesh,
mesh,while
whilethethe
static
staticregion
regionisisdiscretized
discretizedinto intorelatively
relativelycoarse
coarsegrids.
grids.
In
Inorder
ordertotochoose
choosean anappropriate
appropriategrid gridsize,
size,five
fivecombinations
combinationsof ofgrid
gridsizes
sizesarearede-
de-
signed: 2 mm + 6 mm, 3 mm + 7 mm, 4 mm + 8 mm, 5 mm
signed: 2 mm + 6 mm, 3 mm + 7 mm, 4 mm + 8 mm, 5 mm + 9 mm, 6 mm + 10 mm. The + 9 mm, 6 mm + 10 mm. The2
2mm
mm++66mm mmcombination
combinationrepresents
representsthat that2 2mm mmmeshes
meshes are
are employed
employed inin
thethe dynamic
dynamic re-
region
gion and 6 mm meshes are used in the static region. The total grid numbers are407,167,
and 6 mm meshes are used in the static region. The total grid numbers are 407,167,
328,877,
328,877,296,340,
296,340, 254,028
254,028 and 233,225, respectively.
and 233,225, respectively. To Tocompare
comparethe theaccuracy
accuracyofofthe thecalcu-
cal-
culation results
lation results ofof different
different grid
grid sizes,
sizes, it isitassumed
is assumed thatthat
the the results
results of theof smallest
the smallest
grid grid
com-
combination (2 mm + 6 mm) are the actual results. The mean
bination (2 mm + 6 mm) are the actual results. The mean temperature of the stirred temperature of the stirred
tank
tank is chosen
is chosen to dotothe
do grid
the grid independence
independence verification.
verification.
Figure 8 shows the relative errors of the calculated results of five grid combinations
when time is 1 s. As the number of grids increases, the relative error δ decreases rapidly
firstly, but after the number of 254,028, the change becomes very limited. Since the relative
error is less than 0.1% when the grid number is 296,340, it means that the accuracy is high
 In order to choose an appropriate grid size, five combinations of grid sizes are de-
signed: 2 mm + 6 mm, 3 mm + 7 mm, 4 mm + 8 mm, 5 mm + 9 mm, 6 mm + 10 mm. The 2
mm + 6 mm combination represents that 2 mm meshes are employed in the dynamic re-
gion and 6 mm meshes are used in the static region. The total grid numbers are 407,167,
Processes 2021, 9, 849 328,877, 296,340, 254,028 and 233,225, respectively. To compare the accuracy of the10calcu- of 22
lation results of different grid sizes, it is assumed that the results of the smallest grid com-
bination (2 mm + 6 mm) are the actual results. The mean temperature of the stirred tank
is chosen to do the grid independence verification.
Figure
Figure88showsshowsthetherelative
relativeerrors
errorsofofthe
thecalculated
calculatedresults
resultsof
offive
fivegrid
gridcombinations
combinations
when
when time is 1 s. As the number of grids increases, the relative error δ decreasesrapidly
time is 1 s. As the number of grids increases, the relative error δ decreases rapidly
firstly,
firstly,but
butafter
afterthe
thenumber
numberofof254,028,
254,028,the
thechange
changebecomes
becomesveryverylimited.
limited.Since
Sincethe
therelative
relative
error
error isis less than 0.1%
less than 0.1%when
whenthe thegrid
gridnumber
number is is 296,340,
296,340, it means
it means thatthat
the the accuracy
accuracy is
is high
high enough and there is no need to reduce the grid size further. Thus, the
enough and there is no need to reduce the grid size further. Thus, the mesh size of 4 + 8 mesh size of
4mm
+ 8 is
mm is adopted
adopted in paper.
in this this paper.

Figure8.8.Relative
Figure Relativeerrors
errorsof
ofthe
themean
meantemperature
temperaturefor
fordifferent
differentgrid
gridnumbers
numberswhen
whent t==11s.s.

4. Results and Discussion

In this section, the heat transfer in stirred tanks with and without particles is first
compared. Then, the effects of blade heights and baffles on the heat transfer and hydro-
dynamics of the liquid-solid flow in stirred tanks are investigated. Four heights of blades
from the bottom (30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm and 60 mm) are considered. The diameter of
particles is 1.5 mm, the number of particles is 50,000 and the agitator speed is 600 rpm. At
time t = 0 s, particles are accumulated on the bottom of stirred tanks.

4.1. Effects of Particles on Heat Transfer

In Figure 9a,b, the temperature distributions on XZ plane in the tank with and without
particles are compared. It is obvious that the temperature fields are different for the two
tanks due to the effects of the particles. Firstly, although there is a low temperature zone
just below the stirrer for both cases, the sizes of the zone are different. For the tank with
single-phase flow, this zone is narrow and the temperature adjacent to the blade is a
little higher (see Figure 9a); for the tank with particle flows, this zone is wider, and the
temperature is relatively lower (see Figure 9b), which might be because of the particle
accumulation in the dead zone below the stirrer. In addition, the former has a greater
temperature gradient near the wall of the middle tank than the latter, and for the latter,
the low temperature green zone is relatively wider. This is because for the former, the
water boundary layer decreases the heat transfer rate, and for the latter, the zone near the
wall surface is occupied by particles and the heat transfer boundary layer is obviously
weakened due to the collision of the particles which are relatively easier to conduct heat.
The particle distribution could be seen clearly in next sections (Figure 10a). At the top part
of the tank with the single-phase flow, there is a low temperature zone like the elephant
nose, while, for the tank with particle flows, there is no such a zone. When there are no
particles in the tank, the heat transfer inside the tank is dominated by the flow circulation.
The low temperature belt zones just follow the currents whose direction is from the wall to
central zone of the tank. However, when there are a lot of particles in the tank, the chaotic
movement and collision of particles might enhance the turbulence of the flow and change
the circulation, and further change the heat transfer inside the tank. Figure 9c is amplified
figure of region B picked from Figure 9b, which shows the fluid and particle temperature
Processes 2021, 9, 849 11 of 22

in this zone on XZ plane of the stirred tank with particle flows. It can be seen that there is a
little difference between temperature of particles and surrounding fluid and temperature
of most particles near the bottom is lower than the surrounding fluid. At time t = 0, all
the particles are closely settled at the bottom, and at t = 1 s, most of these particles are
still at the bottom, especially for those in the dead zone. Thus, for those particles, the heat
conduction between particles is strong. At the meantime, the hot fluid from the center of
the tank and the cold fluid near the bottom mix more quickly than the upward movement
of the cooler particles near the bottom under the stirring action. Thus, it is reasonable that
the temperature of particles near the bottom is relatively lower than the surrounding fluid.
When the calculation reaches 5 s, the average temperature of the fluid in the stirred tank
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23
for the single-phase flow and particle flow is 345.389 K and 343.55 K, respectively. It can be
seen that the existence of particles enhances the heat transfer in the stirred tank.

Figure9.9.The
Figure Thetemperature
temperature on
on XZ plane of (a) the tank with
with single-phase
single-phaseflow
flowand
and(b)
(b)the
thetank tankwith
with
particleflow.
particle flow.(c)
(c)Amplified
Amplifiedtemperature
temperature distribution
distribution of
of fluid and particles in region B. tt == 11s.s.

4.2.
4.2.Effects
Effects of of Blade
Blade Height
Height on on Heat
Heat Transfer
Transfer andand Hydrodynamic
Hydrodynamic
The snapshots of temperature and
The snapshots of temperature and distribution of distribution of particles
particles inin four
fourtanks
tanksare aredisplayed
displayed
in Figure 10. In order to clearly see the particle temperature
in Figure 10. In order to clearly see the particle temperature range, a different rangerange, a different range is usedis
for each moment of the legend in Figure 10. It can see that particles
used for each moment of the legend in Figure 10. It can see that particles are inhaled up- are inhaled upward
by
wardthe byrotation of blades
the rotation at theatbeginning
of blades the beginning of the ofagitation, andand
the agitation, subsequently
subsequently thrown
thrown off
by the stirrer and move toward the wall along with the radial
off by the stirrer and move toward the wall along with the radial flow. When touching the flow. When touching the
wall,
wall,particles
particles move along the
move along thewall
wallwithwiththe theupward
upward andand downward
downward axialaxial flow.
flow. It can
It can be
be
seenseen that
that thethe higher
higher thethe bladeblade is, the
is, the higher
higher the the particles
particles could could
reachreach
alongalongwith withthe up-the
upward
ward axial axial flow
flow (see(see Figure
Figure 10,10,
t = t1=s).1 However,
s). However, the the particles
particles cannotcannot
reach reach
the topthe oftoptheof
the stirred tank when h = 30 mm. Then, the fluid will form
stirred tank when h = 30 mm. Then, the fluid will form a loop in each of the upper and a loop in each of the upper
and
lower lower sections
sections of blades
of blades due to duethetonegative
the negativepressurepressure
causedcaused by therotation.
by the blade blade rotation.
When
When the mixing processes reach the stable state, a strong
the mixing processes reach the stable state, a strong tangential flow is formed in tangential flow is the
formedtanks, in
the tanks, which results in the accumulation of particles in
which results in the accumulation of particles in the conical dead zone below the blades the conical dead zone below
the
andblades
in the andupper in circular
the upper beltcircular
zone (see beltFigure
zone (see10, t Figure 10, t the
= 5 s). With = 5 increase
s). With of thetheincrease
blade
of the blade
height, height, the
the negative negative
pressure zone pressure zone at isthe
at the bottom bottom is
enlarged, enlarged,
causing morecausing
particles moreto
particles to remain in the dead zone. The upper particles form
remain in the dead zone. The upper particles form a narrower and sparser but higher ring a narrower and sparser but
higher
since the ringnumber
since the of number of rising
rising particles getsparticles
less. For gets
h less.
= 30 For
mm,hmore = 30 mm,
than more
half of than
all half
the
of all the particles can be suspended above the blades. Moreover,
particles can be suspended above the blades. Moreover, in the steady state, the upper par- in the steady state, the
upper particles in this case do not form the circular belt and could
ticles in this case do not form the circular belt and could rise almost to the same height as rise almost to the same
height
those in asother
thosecases.
in other cases. Inonly
In contrast, contrast,
7% of the onlyparticles
7% of theareparticles
suspended areoversuspended
blades for overh
blades for h = 60 mm. It can be asserted that reducing the blade
= 60 mm. It can be asserted that reducing the blade height is beneficial to the mixing pro- height is beneficial to the
mixing
cess. process.
Processes 2021, 9, 849 12 of 22
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23

Figure 10. Schematic

Figure10. Schematic diagram
diagram of of temperature
temperature and
and distribution
distributionof ofparticles
particlesin infour
four tanks.
tanks. The
The height
height of
of blades
blades isis (a)
(a) 30
30 mm,
mm,
time
time respectively
respectively 11 s,s,33s,s,55s.s. (b)
(b) 40
40mm,
mm, time
time respectively
respectively 11 s,s,33s,s,55s.s. (c)
(c)50
50mm,
mm,timetimerespectively
respectively 11s,s,33s,s,55s.s. (d)
(d)60
60mm
mm
timerespectively
time respectively11s,s,33s,s,55s.s.

To
To describe
describe the
the homogeneity
homogeneity degree
degree of
of particles
particles in stirred tanks, the variation coeffi-
cient
cient σσis isused
used to qualify
to qualify the suspension
the suspension of particles,
of particles, which by
which is defined is Equation
defined (21)
by
Equation
[42,43]. (21) [42,43]. v
u1 n  α
u 2
∑ 2i 2
σ= 1 n α2,av 2−i 1 , (21)
t
  i =1 
n
n
 
 1 ,

(21)
where α2i is the particle volume fraction in eachpart, α2,avis the average of particle volume
i 1
2, av

fractions
where α2i in all parts.
is the particleInvolume
this work, the whole
fraction in eachdomain
part, α2,avcovered by water
is the average is divided
of particle into
volume
36 cells, thus the value of n in this formula is 36. Figure 11 shows the value
fractions in all parts. In this work, the whole domain covered by water is divided into 36 variation
of σ over
cells, thustime for four
the value of cases. In all
n in this the four
formula stirred
is 36. Figure tanks, σ firstly
11 shows thedecreases and finally
value variation of σ
fluctuates around a certain value. It can be seen that the homogeneity degree of
over time for four cases. In all the four stirred tanks, σ firstly decreases and finally fluctu- particles
decreases with the increase of blade heights at the final stage of mixing. The results here
ates around a certain value. It can be seen that the homogeneity degree of particles de-
are similar to those of Blais et al. [44].
creases with the increase of blade heights at the final stage of mixing. The results here are
similar to those of Blais et al. [44].
 Processes
Processes
Processes 2021,
2021,
2021,9,9,x9,
849x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 14
14 13 of2223
of of23

Figure
Figure
Figure 11.
11.
11. Time
Time
Time evolution
ofofσofσfor
evolution
evolution σfor
for different
different
different blade
blade
blade heights,
NN=N=600
heights,
heights, =600
600 rpm.
rpm.
rpm.

InInInorder
order
order tototo
understand
understand
understand thethe
the hydrodynamics
hydrodynamics
hydrodynamics in
in the
in stirred
thethe tanks,
stirred
stirred the
tanks,
tanks, thevelocity
the vectors
velocity
velocity on
vectors
vectors
onXZ
on
XZplane
XZplane of of
planetheofstirred
thethe tanks
stirred
stirred at tat= at
tanks
tanks t5 =st 5are shown
= s5are
s are in Figure
shown
shown in in 12. It12.
Figure
Figure is12.
obvious that the
It obvious
It is is obvious lower
that
that thethe
loop
lower
lower is expanded
looploop as theas
is expanded
is expanded blades
as
thethe are elevated.
blades
blades areare In the In
elevated.
elevated. conical
In
thethe dead zone
conical
conical deaddeadand theand
zone
zone upper
and circular
thethe upper
upper
belt zone, the axial and radial velocities are very weak. As the
circular belt zone, the axial and radial velocities are very weak. As the blade height in-in-
circular belt zone, the axial and radial velocities are very weak. blade
As the height
blade increases,
height
the axial
creases,
creases, thevelocity
the axial
axial of the of
velocity
velocity fluid
the near
of the the
fluid
fluid near bottom
near thethe decreases,
bottom
bottom resulting
decreases,
decreases, in theinexpansion
resulting
resulting in the
the of the
expansion
expansion
negative
of the
of the pressure
negative
negative zone,
pressure
pressure and
zone,
zone, more
and and particles
moremore are trapped
particles
particles areare in the
trapped
trapped dead
in the
in the deadzone.
dead As
zone.
zone. a result,
AsAs the
a result,
a result,
homogeneity
thethe homogeneity
homogeneity degree of
degree
degree particles
of of decreases.
particles
particles decreases.
decreases.

Figure
Figure 12.12.
Figure 12. The
TheThe velocity
velocity
velocity profile
profile
profile ofof
of fluid fluid
fluid in
in the
in the the
four
four four stirred
stirred
stirred tankstanks
withtanks
with with different
different
different blade
blade blade hheights.
heights.
heights. =h(a)
= (a)
30h30
mm,mm,
= (a) 30(b)
(b) mm,
40 40
mm, mm,
(b) 40(c)
(c) mm,
50 50
mm,mm,
(c) 50(d)
(d) 60 60
mm,mm, mm,
(d) 60respectively,
t = t5=s.5 s.t = 5 s.
mm, respectively,
respectively,

The
TheThe temperature
temperature
temperature distribution
distribution
distribution of
ofparticles
of particles
particles cancanalso
canalsobe
alsoclearly
be be seenseen
clearly
clearly inseen
Figure
in in 10. It 10.
Figure
Figure shows
10.
It It
that
showstemperature
that of
temperature particles
of in stirred
particles in tanks
stirred can be
tanks divided
shows that temperature of particles in stirred tanks can be divided into several parts.can be into
dividedseveral
into parts.
several Firstly,
parts.
particles
Firstly, on the bottom
particles ofbottom
the tanks have the lowest temperature of all particles. Because
Firstly, particles onon thethebottom of of
thethe tanks
tanks havehave thethe lowest
lowest temperature
temperature of of
allall particles.
particles.
the axial
Because velocities near the bottom are relatively low, most particles near the bottom stay
Because thethe axial
axial velocities
velocities nearnearthethe bottom
bottom areare relatively
relatively low,low,most most particles
particles near near
thethe bot-
bot-
on
tomthe bottom
stay surface for a longer time, and thus, their temperature is low. Subsequently, in
tom stay onon thethe bottom
bottom surface
surface forfor a longer
a longer time,time,and and thus,
thus, theirtheir temperature
temperature is low.
is low. Sub- Sub-
the process
sequently, of being inhaled, the particles are far away from the convective wall and mixed
sequently, in in
thethe process
process of of being
being inhaled,
inhaled, thethe particles
particles arearefarfaraway away fromfromthethe convective
convective
with
wall hot
and fluid
mixedinsidewiththehot
tank, resulting
fluid inside in
thethe decrease
tank, resultingof heatin transfer
the decreaserate. of
Asheatmentioned
transfer
wall and mixed with hot fluid inside the tank, resulting in the decrease of heat transfer
before,
rate. thementioned
As radial and before,
axial flowsthe which and
radial contributes
axial to the
flows convective
which heat transfer
contributes to the efficiency
convective
rate. As mentioned before, the radial and axial flows which contributes to the convective
ofheat
thetransfer
stirred tanks in the
efficiency deadstirred
zone tanks
are weak, resulting in aare lower rate of heatin transfer.
heat transfer efficiency of of
thethestirred tanks in inthethedeaddead zonezone
are weak, weak, resulting
resulting a lower
in a lower
Thus,
rate particles which are just thrown off by blades have the highest temperature of all,
rate of of heat
heat transfer.
transfer. Thus,
Thus, particles
particles which
which areare justjust thrown
thrown offoffbyby blades
blades have
have thethe highest
highest
which becomes
temperature more pronounced as the blades rise (Figure 10, t = 1 s). The powerful radial
temperature of of
all,all, which
which becomes
becomes moremore pronounced
pronounced as asthethe blades
blades riserise (Figure
(Figure 10,10,
t = t1=s).1 s).
flow generated by the blades brings the internal hot fluid to the wall and causes the heat
The powerful radial flow generated by the blades brings
The powerful radial flow generated by the blades brings the internal hot fluid to the wall the internal hot fluid to the wall
transfer between the hot fluid and the cold wall. In the axial movement along the wall,
andand causes thethe heat transfer between the
hothot fluid andthethe cold wall.
In In the axial movement
thecauses
heat transferheat transfer
rate of thebetween
particles the fluid
increases, and
and the cold wall.
temperature the axial
drops movement
quickly. After
along
along thethe wall,
wall, thetheheatheat transfer
transfer raterate
of of
thethe particles
particles increases, and the temperature drops
reaching the steady state, the upper particles stay inincreases,
the circular and thearea
belt temperature
near the wall drops due
quickly.
quickly. After
After reaching
reaching the the steady
steady state,
state, the the
upperupper particles
particles stay stayin in
the the circular
circular beltbelt
areaarea
to the strong tangential velocity and gradually cool down. The particles near the blade
near
near the wall due to the strong tangential velocity and gradually cool down. The particles
coolthe walldue
down duetotothethelower
strongand tangential
upper loop velocity
of the andflow,gradually
and finally coolthedown.
entireThe particles
tank is fully
near
near thethe blade
blade coolcool
downdown duedue to to
thethe lower
lower and and upper
upper loop
loop of ofthethe flow,
flow, andand finally
finally thethe
Processes 2021,9,
Processes 2021, 9,849
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22
15 23

entire tank
cooled down is when
fully cooled
the bladedown
heightwhen thelowest
is the blade(Figure
height is thet =lowest
10a, (Figure
5 s). For other10a,
threet =cases,
5 s).
For entire
the other three
tanks cases,
could the
not entire tanks
be fully could
cooled not when
down be fullyt =cooled
5 s. down when t = 5 s.
The temperature of particles on the bottom can be observed observed more more clearly
clearly from
from thethe
bottom-view diagram (see Figure 13), and the legend is is consistent
consistent with with Figure
Figure 10.
10. From
From
Figure 13, it can be seenseen that
that the
the temperature
temperature of of the
the bottom
bottom particles
particles presents
presents aa circular
circular
distribution. The temperature of the central particles is low and gradually
distribution. The temperature of the central particles is low and gradually increases towards increases to-
wards
the the circular
circular boundary.boundary. In thestage
In the initial initial
(t =stage (t = 1tos),
1 s), due thedue to theupward
different differentspeeds
upward of
speeds
the of the
bottom bottomthe
particles, particles, the blade
higher the higheris,the
theblade
longer is,the
theparticles
longer the stayparticles stay atand
at the bottom, the
thus,
bottom,theand
larger thethe
thus, central low
larger thetemperature
central lowcircle zone will
temperature be. However,
circle zone will these circular
be. However,
zones disappear
these circular as the
zones stirring as
disappear process develops
the stirring (t = 5develops
process s). Due to (t the circulation
= 5 s). inside
Due to the the
circula-
tanks, the temperature
tion inside the tanks, the of temperature
particles getsof uniform gradually
particles gets uniformalonggradually
with the time.
alongWhen
with thethe
blades height gets down, the fluid shear forces near the tank bottom
time. When the blades height gets down, the fluid shear forces near the tank bottom be- become much stronger.
When h = 30stronger.
come much mm, the dead
Whenzoneh = 30is replaced
mm, the by deada central
zone isblankreplacedarea by as the swirling
a central motion
blank area
dominates particles
as the swirling motion(Figure 13a). Due
dominates to the
particles elimination
(Figure 13a). Due of the dead
to the zone, more
elimination of particles
the dead
are suspended,
zone, resulting
more particles in the increase
are suspended, of the
resulting inheat transferof
the increase efficiency. At the meantime,
the heat transfer efficiency.
the collision between particles is enhanced, which makes the temperature
At the meantime, the collision between particles is enhanced, which makes the tempera- distribution of
particles more uniform.
ture distribution of particles more uniform.

Figure 13. Schematic

Schematic diagram
diagramof oftemperature
temperatureandanddistribution
distributionofofparticles
particlesatat
the bottom
the of of
bottom four tanks.
four
tanks.
The The height
height of blades
of blades is (a) 30ismm,
(a) 30 mm,
(b) (b) 40
40 mm, (c)mm, (c) 50
50 mm, mm,
and (d)and (d) 60 mm.
60 mm.

Compared
Compared to tothe
thetraditional
traditionalCFD CFD methods,
methods, thethe
major advantage
major advantage of our method
of our is that
method is
more details
that more of theofparticle
details motion
the particle and temperature
motion and temperature distribution couldcould
distribution be calculated
be calculatedand
exhibited
and exhibited like inlikeFigures 10 and
in Figures 10 13.
andIt13.is more helpful
It is more for researchers
helpful to analyze
for researchers the heat
to analyze the
transfer and hydrodynamic behaviors of particles in
heat transfer and hydrodynamic behaviors of particles in complex reactors.complex reactors.
As
As can
can be be seen
seen from
from both
both Figures
Figures 10 10 and
and 13,
13, when
when the
the blade
blade height
height decreases,
decreases, the the
particle temperature drops
particle temperature dropsaalittle
littlefaster,
faster,and andthethe temperature
temperature range
range of the
of the particles
particles is
is also
also narrower.
narrower. It alsoItcould
also could be observed
be observed from Figure
from Figure 14, density
14, density distribution
distribution curves ofcurves of
the par-
the
ticleparticle temperature.
temperature. At thestage
At the initial initial(t =stage
1 s), (t = 1 s), particles
particles in four
in four tanks tanks
have havedistribu-
similar similar
distribution of the temperature, and the temperature range is
tion of the temperature, and the temperature range is relatively big, from 346 K to 349relatively big, from 346 K.
K
to 349 K. It can be seen that there are two peaks in the temperature
It can be seen that there are two peaks in the temperature distribution curves. The first distribution curves.
The
peakfirst peak
(about (about
349 349 K)
K) might be might
causedbebycaused by theparticles
the earliest earliest which
particles
arewhich
inhaledarebyinhaled
the bladeby
the blade rotation, and the second (about 348.3 K) might be due to
rotation, and the second (about 348.3 K) might be due to the particles staying in the dead the particles staying in
the
zone.dead
As zone. As theprocess
the stirring stirringgoes
process goestemperature
on, the on, the temperature
becomes becomes
more andmoremoreand more
uniform
uniform (Figure 14b,c). However, due to the large dead zone, the
(Figure 14b,c). However, due to the large dead zone, the particle temperature range is still particle temperature
range is still relatively large when h = 50 mm and h = 60 mm. The peaks of the curves
relatively large when h = 50 mm and h = 60 mm. The peaks of the curves in Figure 14b,c
in Figure 14b,c show that the particle cooling is faster when the flow near the bottom is
show that the particle cooling is faster when the flow near the bottom is strengthened due
strengthened due to the low height of the blade.
to the low height of the blade.
 Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23
Processes 2021,
Processes 9, x849
2021, 9, FOR PEER REVIEW 1615of
of 23
22

Figure 14. The temperature distribution of four stirred tanks when time is (a) 1 s, (b) 3 s, (c) 5 s.
Figure14.
Figure Thetemperature
14.The temperaturedistribution
distributionof
offour
fourstirred
stirredtanks
tanks when
when time
time is
is (a)
(a) 11 s,
s, (b)
(b) 33 s,
s, (c)
(c) 55 s.
s.
Figure 15 and Figure 16 show the heat flux through the wall and the bottom of the
Figures
stirred
Figure tanks 1515when
andandFigure
16
timeshowis16 the
1 s, heat
theflux
respectively.
show heat through the wall
The negative
flux through theand
sign inthe
wall the bottom
andtemperatureof thescale
the bottom stirred
of thebar
tanks when
indicates time
that is 1
the times, respectively.
heat isflow The negative
is from the inside sign in the
to the outside temperature
of the scale bar indicates
tanks. As scaleshown
stirred tanks when 1 s, respectively. The negative sign in the temperature barin
that the heat
Figure 15, itflow
is is from
clear that the
thereinside
is a to the outside
circular belt of the tanks.
distribution of As
theshown
heat in Figure
flux through 15,the
it
indicates that the heat flow is from the inside to the outside of the tanks. As shown in
iswall,
clearand thatthe there
heat is flux
a circular
reaches belt distribution
the maximum of the heat
around the flux throughplane
horizontal the wall,
of theand the
blades.
Figure 15, it is clear that there is a circular belt distribution of the heat flux through the
heat flux reaches
Compared the maximum around thehigher
horizontal plane of the blades. Compared flowtois
wall, and thetoheat Figureflux 12, the heat
reaches flux is
the maximum aroundat the thelocation
horizontal whereplanetheofradial
the blades.
Figure
stronger.12, Thus,
the heat flux is higher
enhancing the at theflows
radial location
will where
be the radial
effective to flow is the
enhance stronger.
heat Thus,
transfer
Compared to Figure 12, the heat flux is higher at the location where the radial flow is
enhancing
efficiency the
of theradial flows
stirred tanks. will be effective
From Figure to enhance
16, abering the heat
distribution transfer
of the the efficiency
heatheat of
fluxtransfer
could thebe
stronger. Thus, enhancing the radial flows will effective to enhance
stirred tanks.
seen dueof tothe From
thestirred Figure
influence 16,
of thea ring distribution
rotating of the heat flux could be seen duemore the
to
efficiency tanks. From Figureflow.16, aObviously,
ring distribution the heat offlux becomes
the heat flux could uni-
be
influence
form as of
the the rotating
blade height flow. Obviously,
decreases. This the heat
could flux
be becomes
explained more
by uniform
Figure 17, as
whichthe blade
shows
seen due to the influence of the rotating flow. Obviously, the heat flux becomes more uni-
height decreases.velocity
the tangential This could be flow
explained theby Figure 17, whichmshows YZthe tangential velocity
form as the blade heightofdecreases.
the at
This height
could beHexplained
= 0.015 onFigure
by plane. The tangential
17, which shows
ofvelocity
the flow at the height
increases as the Hblade
= 0.015 m on
rises, YZ plane.
resulting in The
the tangential velocity
enlargement of the increases
dead zones. asCom-
the
the tangential velocity of the flow at the height H = 0.015 m on YZ plane. The tangential
blade rises,
pared to resulting
other three in the
cases, enlargement
therises, of
deadresulting the
zone could dead zones.
be enlargement Compared
eliminated when to other
the blade three
height cases,
is 30
velocity
the dead increases
zone could as the blade
be eliminated when the in the
blade height is 30 of the
mm, anddeadthus,zones. Com-
the particle
mm,
pared and thus,
to otherinthree the particle
cases, tank temperature
the dead in the stirred tank will be more uniform and the
temperature
heat transfer the is
rate stirred
higher. will zone
be more could be eliminated
uniform and the heat whentransfer
the blade rateheight is 30
is higher.
mm, and thus, the particle temperature in the stirred tank will be more uniform and the
heat transfer rate is higher.

Figure
Figure15. Theheat
15. The heatflux
flux through
through thethe wall
wall of four
of four stirred
stirred tankstanks with different
with different blade heights.
blade heights. (a) h =
(a)
30hmm,
= 30(b)
mm,h =(b)
40hmm,
= 40(c)
mm,
h =(c)
50 hmm,
= 50(d)
mm,h =(d)
60 hmm,
= 60t mm,
= 1 s.t = 1 s.
Figure 15. The heat flux through the wall of four stirred tanks with different blade heights. (a) h =
30 mm, (b) h = 40 mm, (c) h = 50 mm, (d) h = 60 mm, t = 1 s.
Processes 2021, 9, 849 16 of 22
Processes 2021,
Processes 2021, 9,
9, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 17 of
17 of 23
23

Figure
Figure 16.
Figure 16. The
16. The
The heat
heat
heat flux
fluxflux through
through
through the the bottom
the bottom
bottom of stirred
of stirred
of stirred tanks
tanks with
tanks with with different
different
different blade(a)
blade heights.
blade heights. heights.
(a) hh == 30
30
mm,
(a)
mm, (b)
30 hh
h =(b) == 40
mm, 40(b)
mm,
mm, (c)
40hhmm,
h =(c) == 50
50(c)
mm,
mm, (d)
50hhmm,
h =(d) == 60
60(d)
mm,
mm, h =tt ==6011mm,
s. t = 1 s.
s.

Figure17.
Figure
Figure 17.The
17. Thetangential
The tangentialvelocity
tangential velocityatat
velocity atHH
H===0.015
0.015mm
0.015 mon
onYZ
on YZplane
YZ planeofof
plane ofthe
thefour
the fourstirred
four stirred
stirred tanks
tanks
tanks with
with
with differ-
differ-
different
ent blade
ent blade
blade heights.
heights.
heights.

4.3.
4.3.Effects
4.3. Effectsofof
Effects ofBaffles
Baffleson
Baffles onHeat
on HeatTransfer
Heat Transferand
Transfer andHydrodynamic
and Hydrodynamic
Hydrodynamic
In
Inthe
In thestirring
the stirringprocess,
stirring process,baffles
process, bafflesare
baffles areemployed
are employedto
employed toeliminate
to eliminatethe
eliminate thetangential
the tangentialflow
tangential flowand
flow andto
and to
to
strengthen
strengthen the
strengthen the axial
the axial and
axial and radial
and radial flow.
radial flow.
flow. TheThe stirred
The stirred
stirred tanktank with
tank with the
with the blades
the blades height
blades height
height ofof 30
of 30 mm,
30 mm,
mm,
which
whichhas
which hasaaabetter
has betterresult
better resultas
result asshown
as shownin
shown inlast
in lastsection,
last section,isis
section, isselected
selectedto
selected toadd
to addthe
add thebaffles
the bafflesand
baffles andstudied
and studied
studied
in
inthis
in thissection.
this section.
section.
Figure
Figure18
Figure 18shows
18 showsthe
shows thesnapshots
the snapshotsof
snapshots ofthe
of thetemperature
the temperatureand
temperature anddistribution
and distributionofof
distribution ofparticles.
particles.The
particles. The
The
temperature
temperature range
range in
inthe
the legend
legend isischosen
chosen differently
differently from
temperature range in the legend is chosen differently from Figure 10, which is to better from Figure
Figure 10,
10, which
which isistotobetter
better
represent
representthe
represent theparticle
the particletemperature
particle temperaturedistribution.
temperature distribution.Comparing
distribution. Comparingto
Comparing tothe
to thestirred
the stirredtanks
stirred tankswithout
tanks without
without
baffles (Figure
baffles (Figure
baffles 10a),
(Figure 10a), particles
10a), particles are
particles are suspended
are suspended
suspended in in the
in the tank
the tank more
tank more violently.
more violently. Due
violently. DueDueto tothe
to thebaffles,
the baffles,
baffles,
the
thetangential
the tangentialmovement
tangential movementof
movement ofparticles
of particlesare
particles areconstrained,
are constrained,the
constrained, theaxial
the axialand
axial andradial
and radialmovement
radial movementare
movement are
are
remarkably
remarkablyenhanced.
remarkably enhanced.
enhanced. AtAtthethe
At initial
the stage
initial
initial (t = 1(t
stage
stage (ts),== mores), particles
11 s), driven by
more particles
more particles the stirrer
driven
driven by the
by themoving
stirrer
stirrer
toward
movingthe
moving wall change
toward
toward the walltochange
the wall the upward
change to theand
to the upward
upwarddownward and downward
and movement
downward due to thedue
movement
movement hindering
due to the
to of
the hin-
hin-
baffles.
dering of
dering When
of baffles.the system
baffles. When
When the reaches
the system the
system reaches steady
reaches the state,
the steady particles
steady state, in the
state, particles upper
particles in zone
in the of
the upper the
upper zone tank
zone of
of
could
the tank
the not could
tank form anot
could ring
not beltaasince
form
form ring the
ring belttangential
belt since the
since the velocity
tangential
tangential arevelocity
stronglyare
velocity weakened,
are strongly and
strongly much
weakened,
weakened,
more particles
and much
much morecould reach the
particles couldtopreach
zone of thethetop tank.
zoneFigure the19
of the shows
tank. the variation
Figure showsofthe
19 shows σ along
the varia-
and more particles could reach the top zone of tank. Figure 19 varia-
with
tion time.
of σ Compared
along with to the
time. stirred
Compared tank without
to the baffles,
stirred the
tank values
without of σ are
baffles,generally
the smaller
values of σσ
tion of σ along with time. Compared to the stirred tank without baffles, the values of
for
arethe tank with
generally baffles.for
smaller Obviously,
the tank the
with mixing
baffles. degree of the tank
Obviously, the with baffles
mixing degree is higher.
of the The
tank
are generally smaller for the tank with baffles. Obviously, the mixing degree of the tank
enhanced axial and radial flows strengthen the main body circulation in the tank and drive
Processes
Processes 2021,
2021, 9,
9, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 18
18 of
of 23
23

Processes 2021, 9, 849 17 of 22

with
with baffles
baffles isis higher.
higher. The
The enhanced
enhanced axialaxial and
and radial
radial flows
flows strengthen
strengthen the the main
main body
body cir-cir-
culation
culation in the tank and drive more particles moving upward and suspending. Figure 20
in the tank and drive more particles moving upward and suspending. Figure 20
shows
shows the
the comparison
comparison of
of the
the radial
radial velocities
velocities of
of different
different heights
heights at
at the
the location
location r/R
r/R == 2/3
2/3
more particles moving upward and suspending. Figure 20 shows the comparison of the radial
between
between the tanks
tanks with and
and without baffles. The
The=positive and
and negative velocities indicate
velocitiestheof different with
heights without baffles.r/R
at the location positive
2/3 between negative
the tanksvelocities
with and indicate
without
the
the outward
outward and inward
and inward direction of the movement, respectively. At the same height,
height, the
baffles. The positive and direction of the movement,
negative velocities indicate therespectively.
outward and At the samedirection
inward theof
axial
axial velocity
velocity is greater
greater in
in the
is respectively.
theAttank
tank with baffles. Moreover, due due to the remarkable enhance-
the movement, the with
samebaffles.
height, Moreover,
the axial velocity to is
the remarkable
greater enhance-
in the tank with
ment
ment
baffles.of the
the turbulence
ofMoreover, due toof
turbulence the
ofthe
the circulation,
circulation,
remarkable the
the convective
convective
enhancement heat
heat
of the transfer
transferofefficiency
turbulence efficiency is
is in-
the circulation, in-
creased
creased significantly.
significantly. Thus,
Thus, the
the cooling
cooling rate
rate of
of the
the tank
tank with
with baffles
baffles is
is elevated.
elevated.
the convective heat transfer efficiency is increased significantly. Thus, the cooling rate of the When
When tt ==
55tank
s,
s, the
the average
average
with baffles temperature
is elevated. of
temperature of particles
t = 5 in
particles
When in the tank
tank with
the average
s, the with baffles
baffles is
temperatureis about
about 11 K
K less
of particles lessinthan
than that
that
the tank
in
in the tank
thebaffles
with without
tank without baffles.
is aboutbaffles.
1 K less than that in the tank without baffles.

Figure
Figure 18. Schematic diagram of temperature and distribution
distributionofof particles
particlesinin stirred tank with baf-
Figure 18.
18. Schematic
Schematic diagram of temperature
diagram of temperatureand
anddistribution ofparticles instirred
stirredtank
tankwith
with baf-
baffles.
fles.
fles. Time
Time is
is 1
1 s,
s, 3
3 s,
s, 5
5 s,
s, respectively.
respectively.
Time is 1 s, 3 s, 5 s, respectively.

Figure 19.
Figure
Figure 19. Comparison of
19. Comparison
Comparison of σ
of of stirred
σσ of
of stirred tank
stirred tank with
tank with and
with and without
and without baffles.
without baffles.
baffles.

Figure 21 shows the temperature of particles near the bottom of the stirred tanks and
the legend is consistent with Figure 18. Similarly, temperature of particles around the center
is lower than those near the wall. The difference is that the particles with lower temperature
form a spiral shape rather than a circle in the baffled tank. This is because the baffles block
the tangential flow, allowing the particles to accumulate behind the baffles, where the
particles are cooled down more quickly. When the system reaches the steady state (t = 5 s),
because the radius of the rotating flow is reduced, a blank area without particles at the
bottom cannot be formed, and the particles with lower temperature appear in a cross-like
shape. It could be supported by Figure 22, which shows the comparison of the tangential
velocity at H = 0.015 m on YZ plane of the tanks with and without baffles. The tangential
velocity decreases significantly beyond 1/2 of the radius in the tank with baffles.
Processes 2021, 9, 849 18 of 22

Figure 19. Comparison of σ of stirred tank with and without baffles.

Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

Figure 20. Comparison of the radial velocities of different heights at r/R = 2/3 of the stirred tanks
Figure 20. Comparison of the radial velocities of different heights at r/R = 2/3 of the stirred tanks
with and without baffles.
with and without baffles.

Figure
Figure2121showsshowsthe thetemperature
temperatureofofparticles
particlesnearnearthe
thebottom
bottomofofthe thestirred
stirredtankstanksand
and
the
the legend is consistent with Figure 18. Similarly, temperature of particles aroundthe
legend is consistent with Figure 18. Similarly, temperature of particles around thecen-
cen-
ter
terisislower
lowerthan thanthose
thosenearnearthe
thewall.
wall.TheThedifference
differenceisisthat
thatthe
theparticles
particleswith
withlower
lowertem-tem-
perature
perature form a spiral shape rather than a circle in the baffled tank. This is becausethe
form a spiral shape rather than a circle in the baffled tank. This is because the
baffles
bafflesblockblockthe thetangential
tangentialflow,
flow,allowing
allowingthe theparticles
particlestotoaccumulate
accumulatebehindbehindthe thebaffles,
baffles,
where
wherethe theparticles
particlesarearecooled
cooleddown
downmore morequickly.
quickly.WhenWhenthe thesystem
systemreaches
reachesthe thesteady
steady
state
state (t = 5 s), because the radius of the rotating flow is reduced, a blank areawithout
(t = 5 s), because the radius of the rotating flow is reduced, a blank area without
particles
particlesatatthe thebottom
bottomcannot
cannotbe beformed,
formed,and andthetheparticles
particleswith
withlower
lowertemperature
temperatureappear appear
ininaacross-like
cross-likeshape.shape.ItItcould
couldbebesupported
supportedby byFigure
Figure22,
22,which
whichshowsshowsthe thecomparison
comparisonofof
the
thetangential
tangential velocity
velocity atatHH==0.015
0.015mmon onYZYZ plane
planeofofheights
the
thetanks
tanks with
with and
andwithout
without baffles.
baffles.
Figure
The 20. Comparison
tangential velocityofdecreases
the radial velocities of different
significantly beyond 1/2 ofatthe
r/Rradius
= 2/3 ofin the
the stirred
tank tanks
with
The
with
tangential
and without
velocity
baffles.
decreases significantly beyond 1/2 of the radius in the tank with
baffles.
baffles.

Figure 21. Schematic diagram ofoftemperature and distribution of particles at the bottom on stirred
Figure 21.Schematic
Figure21. Schematic diagram
diagram of temperature
temperature and
and distribution
distribution of
of particles
particles at
at the
the bottom
bottom on stirred
on stirred
tank
tankwith
with baffles.
baffles.
tank with baffles.

Figure 22. Comparison of the tangential velocity at H = 0.015 m on YZ plane of the stirred tanks
Figure22.
Figure 22.Comparison
Comparisonofofthe
thetangential
tangentialvelocity
velocityatatHH= =0.015
0.015mm
onon
YZYZ plane
plane of of
thethe stirred
stirred tanks
tanks with
with and without baffles.
with and without baffles.
and without baffles.
The
Thecomparison
comparisonof ofdensity
densitydistribution
distributioncurves
curvesof ofparticle
particletemperature
temperaturein inthe
thetanks
tanks
The comparison of density distribution curves of particle temperature in the tanks
with
with and
and without
without baffles
baffles isisshown
shown in
inFigure
Figure 23.
23. ItItcan
can bebe seen
seen that
that the
the temperature
temperature ofof
with and without baffles is shown in Figure 23. It can be seen that the temperature of
particles
particlesininthe
thetank
tankwith
withbaffles
bafflesdrop
dropaaalittle
littlefaster.
faster.When
Whentt t===111s,s,s,the
theparticle
particletemperature
temperature
particles in the tank with baffles drop little faster. When the particle temperature
distribution is roughly
distributionisisroughly the
roughlythe same.
thesame. However,
same.However,
However,whenwhen t = 3 s,
whent t==33s,s,thethe average
theaverage temperature
temperaturefor
averagetemperature forboth
both
distribution for both
two cases
twocases
two are
casesare almost
arealmost the
almostthe same,
thesame, but
same,but the
butthe distribution
thedistribution
distributionin in the
inthe tank
thetank with
tankwith baffles
withbaffles was
baffleswas wider
widerthan
waswider than
than
that
thatininthe
thetank
tankwithout
withoutbaffles.
baffles.When
Whenthe thestirring
stirringprocess
processreaches
reachesthe thesteady
steadystate,
state,the
the
temperature
temperatureininthe thetank
tankwith
withbaffles
bafflesgets
getsdown
downmoremorethan thanthatthatininthethetank
tankwithout
withoutbaffles,
baffles,
Processes 2021, 9, 849 19 of 22

Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 23

that in the tank without baffles. When the stirring process reaches the steady state, the
temperature in the tank with baffles gets down more than that in the tank without baffles,
but
butits
itsdistribution
distributionisiswider
widerthan
thanthethelatter.
latter.This
Thismight
mightbebebecause
becausethe
theparticles
particlesare
aretoo
too
dispersed in the tank and there is still a dead zone, resulting in the probability of particle
dispersed in the tank and there is still a dead zone, resulting in the probability of particle
collisions
collisionsisisreduced.
reduced.

Figure23.
Figure 23.Comparison
Comparisonofofthe thetemperature
temperaturedistribution
distributionofofthe
thestirred
stirredtanks
tankswith
withand
andwithout
withoutbaffles
baf-
fles at time is 1 s, 2 s and
at time is 1 s, 2 s and 3 s. 3 s.

5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
In
Inthis
thiswork,
work,the theheat
heattransfer
transferand andhydrodynamics
hydrodynamicsin inthe
thestirred
stirredtanks
tankswithwithliquid-
liquid-
solid
solidflow
floware are studied
studied by by using the coupledcoupled CFD–DEM
CFD–DEMmodel. model.This Thismodel
model takes
takes into
into ac-
account
count both boththe theheat
heattransfer
transfer between
between particles
particles andand between
between particles
particles andand fluid,
fluid, which
which can
can accurately
accurately capture
capture thethe temperature
temperature of of a single
a single particle.
particle. InIn order
order toto ensure
ensure theaccuracy
the accuracyof
ofthe
themodel,
model,a aseries
seriesofofverification
verificationare arecarried
carriedout.out.
The
Theheat heattransfer
transfer of of
liquid-solid
liquid-solid flows in the
flows stirring
in the process
stirring is studied
process for thefor
is studied first
thetime
first
intime
thisinpaper. By comparing the heat transfer between the single-phase
this paper. By comparing the heat transfer between the single-phase flow and liq- flow and liquid–
solid flow in
uid–solid thein
flow stirred tanks,tanks,
the stirred it is disclosed that particles
it is disclosed have have
that particles obvious influences
obvious on the
influences on
heat transfer in stirred tank, which has seldom been studied in the
the heat transfer in stirred tank, which has seldom been studied in the literature. Severalliterature. Several stirred
tanks,
stirredwhich
tanks,havewhich blades
haveofblades
different heights or
of different whichorare
heights equipped
which with baffles
are equipped withor not,
baffles
are studied carefully. The numerical results show that, within the
or not, are studied carefully. The numerical results show that, within the range set by this range set by this study,
the decrease
study, of blade of
the decrease heights
bladehas a good
heights haseffect
a good on the heat
effect ontransfer
the heatand mixing
transfer and of mixing
particlesof
inparticles
the stirred tanks. Compared to other cases, the particle temperature
in the stirred tanks. Compared to other cases, the particle temperature is more uniform
is more
and drops faster when the blade height is 30 mm (about H/6).
uniform and drops faster when the blade height is 30 mm (about H/6). In addition, the In addition, the particles
are mixed are
particles more evenly.
mixed After
more addingAfter
evenly. four baffles,
adding the fourtangential
baffles, theflowtangential
in the stirred
flowtank is
in the
constrained and the radial and axial flow are enhanced, resulting
stirred tank is constrained and the radial and axial flow are enhanced, resulting in the in the enhancement of the
heat transfer efficiency
enhancement of the heatandtransfer
the degree of mixing.
efficiency andHowever,
the degree theoftemperature
mixing. However,distribution
the tem-of
particles is wider.
perature distribution of particles is wider.
The above results show that the radial flow is important for the heat transfer in the
The above results show that the radial flow is important for the heat transfer in the
stirred tanks with particle flows. In addition, the large dead zone has a negative effect
stirred tanks with particle flows. In addition, the large dead zone has a negative effect on
on the uniformity of the particle temperature and the heat transfer efficiency. Thus, the
the uniformity of the particle temperature and the heat transfer efficiency. Thus, the en-
enhancement of the radial flow and the elimination of the dead zone are important to
hancement of the radial flow and the elimination of the dead zone are important to en-
enhance the heat transfer efficiency in the stirred tanks with particle flows.
hance the heat transfer efficiency in the stirred tanks with particle flows.
In general, this coupled method is effective for calculating multi-phase flows involving
In general, this coupled method is effective for calculating multi-phase flows involv-
heat transfers. This work is helpful for readers to understand the influence of particles
ing heat transfers. This work is helpful for readers to understand the influence of particles
on the heat transfer of chemical processes in stirred tanks, and the results of the effects of
on the heat transfer of chemical processes in stirred tanks, and the results of the effects of
the blade height and baffles on the heat transfer is also useful in the design of the stirred
the blade height and baffles on the heat transfer is also useful in the design of the stirred
tanks. However, the heat transfer inside the particle and between the particle and wall are
tanks.
not However,Also,
considered. the heat
this transfer
paper only inside the particle
considers a caseand between
in which thethe particleconductivity
thermal and wall are
not considered. Also, this paper only considers a case in which
of particles is greater than that of water, and the opposite case would be an interesting the thermal conductivity
of particles
research is greater
direction. than
In the that of
future, morewater, and the opposite
comprehensive and deepcase studies
would be an interesting
about this topic
research
will direction.
be carried out. In the future, more comprehensive and deep studies about this topic
will be carried out.
Processes 2021, 9, 849 20 of 22

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.L. and J.W.; Formal analysis, X.L. and J.Y.; Investigation,
X.L.; Methodology, X.L. and B.W.; Project administration, J.W.; Supervision, J.W.; Validation, X.L. and
J.Y.; Writing—original draft, X.L. and J.W.; Writing—review & editing, X.L. and J.W. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (22078229 and
21576185) and National Key R&D Program of China (2019YFC1905805).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Cp heat capacity (J/K)

D the diameter of stirred tanks (m)
dp particle diameter (m)
E total energy of fluid (J/kg)
FD drag force (N)
FMag Magnus lift force (N)
Fn normal contact force (N)
Ft tangential contact force (N)
FSaff Saffman lift force (N)
fpf particle-fluid interaction force (N/m3 )
fs surface tension (N/m3 )
g acceleration due to gravity (m/s2 )
H the height of stirred tanks(m)
h the height of the blade(m)
hc convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ·K)
hpf heat transfer coefficient between the two phases(W/m2 ·K)
I moment of inertia (kg·m2 )
J diffusion flux (kg/m·s)
k thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
keff effective thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
kt turbulent thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
Ln distance between two particles (m)
m mass of inertia (kg·m2 )
N rotating speed of the impeller (rpm)
P pressure (Pa)
Q heat flux (W/m2 )
Sn normal stiffness (N/m)
St tangential stiffness (N/m)
Tr rolling torque (N·m)
Tt tangential torque (N·m)
u velocity of fluid (m/s)
V normal unit vector volume (m3 )
v liner velocity of particle(m/s)
Greek letter
ε local volume fraction of fluid
ρ density (kg/m3 )
τ viscous stress tensor (Pa)
µ friction coefficient
Processes 2021, 9, 849 21 of 22

α volume fraction of relevant phase

ω angular velocity (rad/s)
δ relative error
σ variation coefficient
κq heat conductivity of fluid (W/m·K)
Dimensionless Numbers
CD drag force coefficient
Re Reynolds number
Nup Nussel number

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