WTP Report New

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Water is one of the essential factors in the development of human settlements. Especially
with the increasing population of both humans and industries, the demand for the quantity
of water is also rising. Each person on earth requires at least 20 to 50 liters of clean, safe
water a day for drinking, cooking, and simply keeping themselves clean. This has become
a serious concern as the high quality of water supply has been very limited due to the
contamination of water with municipal, agricultural and industrial waste that has led to
the decreasing water quality. This alone expresses the need for a good water treatment
facility in any such areas. Water treatment is a measure by which the water from a source
such as river, lake etc are taken and is treated chemically and physically to achieve
drinking standards.
Over 97% of all the water on earth is salty and most of the remaining 3% is frozen
in the polar ice-caps. The atmosphere, rivers, lakes and underground stores hold less than
1% of all the fresh water and this tiny amount has to provide the fresh water needed to
support the earth's population. Fresh water is a precious resource and the increasing
pollution of our rivers and lakes is a cause for alarm.
Water pollution is a major environmental issue in India. The largest source of

water pollution in India is untreated sewage. Other sources of pollution include
agricultural runoff and unregulated small scale industry. Most rivers, lakes and surface
water in India are polluted. River water is used to a maximum extent because of its
common reach to the biotic community. Maximum economic activities concentrate
around rivers. At present, 50% population of the world resides in 250 river basins, where
they use river water for different activities including agriculture and industry. In India,
dense population is settled near the banks of rivers making these rivers highly polluted.
When the quality of the water improves the health of its citizens, the growth of various
industries etc also improves. This will aid in the overall development of our country.
Department of Civil Engineering 1 AISAT

Eloor is a river island on the river Periyar around 17 km from its mouth at the
Arabian Sea near the city of Cochin, the commercial capital of Kerala. Eloor supports the
largest industrial belt in Kerala with over 247 chemical industries. The industries make a
range of chemicals such as petrochemical products, pesticides, rare-earth elements,
rubber processing chemicals, fertilizers, zinc/chrome products and leather products. Most
of these industries are over 50 years old and employ the most polluting of technologies.
The industries take in large amounts of freshwater from the river Periyar and in turn
discharge concentrated effluent with nominal treatment. This leads to the large scale
devastation of aquatic life in the river and the farmlands in the region. There are more
than 30 effluent pipes spewing toxins into the river directly from the industry. Eloor
municipality is thus facing a situation where they are surrounded by water but that cannot
be consumed without proper treatment measures. Our study includes learning about the
water quality in river by various chemical tests for chlorine, sulphur, iron, pH of water at
various points in the river, BOD, total solids etc. Using the above data and the population
data from the municipality rapid sand filter and coagulation cum sedimentation tank will
be designed with CAD drawings.
1.2 Scope and Objective

Eloor supports the largest industrial belt in Kerala with over 247 chemical industries. The
industries make a range of chemicals like petrochemical products, pesticides, rare-earth
elements, rubber processing chemicals, fertilizers, zinc/chrome products and leather
products. The industries take in large amounts of freshwater from the river Periyar and in
turn discharge concentrated effluent with nominal treatment. This leads to the large scale
devastation of aquatic life in the river and the farmlands in the region. There are more
than 30 effluent pipes spewing toxins into the river directly from the industry. Eloor
municipality is thus facing a situation where they are surrounded by water but that cannot
be consumed without proper treatment measures.
The area of study, Eloor Municipality in Ernakulam is a part of the Greater Kochi
Area (GKA) which ranks 24th (with CEPI score of 75.08) amongst the critically polluted
areas (CPA) in the country. It is also rated as one of the toxic hotspots of the world by
Green Peace International. The objectives of the project are to conduct both quantitative

and qualitative tests on different samples of Muttar river flowing through Eloor
municipality and to study about its present condition. Using these data and population
data a coagulation tank, rapid sand filter and an under drainage system is designed and
proposed for water treatment in Eloor municipality with the aid of CAD drawings.
At present the untreated domestic and industrial sewerage is discharged directly to
the Muttar river. This results in unacceptable environmental conditions of the receiving
waters, which have been classified as sensitive. The top polluting industries in Eloor are
Hindustan Insecticides Ltd (HIL), FACT, Merchem and Indian Rare Earths (IRE).
The scope of works is the design and construction of the waste water treatment
plant i.e, rapid sand filter based on the data obtained from the quantitative and qualitative
analysis of water collected from various points of the river and population data collected
from Eloor municipality.
1.3 Methodology
Figure 1.1: A flow chart depicting methodology

1.3.1 Site selection
Based on their importance, the main criteria are the ones which have a direct influence on
the selected site. They consist of seven elements:
1. Soil texture
2. Relative relief to city
3. Slope
4. Lithology
5. Distance from road
6. Distance from the city
7. Vegetation and land use.
The soil texture has great influence in the site selection as it controls the seepage
of wastewater, absorption of pollutant etc. In this respect sand and gravel fraction,
salinity, alkalinity, and solubility affect the permeability of soils. Soil with intermediate
to heavy surface texture, pebbles ratio, salinity, and low alkalinity are beneficial for the
water treatment plant. The selected site should have the above characteristics.
Relative relief with respect to the city is an important parameter in designing
plants and sewage networks. During the construction of water treatment plants (WTP),
the path of the main collector of the water is considered. In optimum design, the water
flows toward the treatment in an open channel using gravity.
The slope of the terrain is an important factor in the design of water treatment
plants. Construction of WTP in steep sites will increase the cost of excavation and
embankment and also intensify the sewage flow to surface and underground water
resources. Appropriate slope for construction of WTP is between 0-2%, which is placed
in the very suitable class. Slopes that are more than 15% prevent the runoff wastewater in
appropriate way and not suitable for civil construction.
The site selection is preferable to be in stable solid lithology; however the loose
clayey sediments formation and the transported ones are also preferable.
Geological surveys should invariably provide all possible details regarding the
composition, texture, structure and origin of rocks and sediments making the ground
through which the proposed water treatment plant has to be constructed.

Distance from the roads increases the cost of water treatment plant construction
and maintenance; however, the presence of the water treatment plant close to the roads
affects the landscape, climate, and the public health.
Due to unfavorable environmental conditions and creation of unpleasant odours,
water treatment plant should be placed far from residential areas and cities. A cost benefit
analysis with respect to the distance is performed prior to making any decision.
Land is used for various purposes such as agricultural, industrial, and residential.
Usually land use is controlled by land vegetation. It aims at the protection of sensitive
areas under economic development. Residential areas, agricultural areas of farms and
gardens are important; as these areas are the most vulnerable lands, they are marked as
unsuitable class, whereas the industrial and commercial lands are considered as less
vulnerable land. Other areas such as bare lands are regarded as suitable as there are no
activities on them. Data regarding the number of hospitals, industries, schools and other
such institutions as well as residential buildings will be collected from Municipal offices
of Eloor.
1.3.2 Sample collection
Samples are to be taken directly from river Muttar in sterile glass bottles of 250 millilitre
capacity, after rinsing the bottles three times with water. In order to collect the samples
directly from river, bottle with a string attached to neck can be used. Another long clean
string can be tied to the end of sterile string and the bottle is lowered into the water and
allowed to fill up. Then the bottle is raised and stoppered. A total of 3 such samples from
different locations along the river Muttar will be collected at minimum 15 meters
intervals.
1.3.3 Qualitative analysis of water samples
Qualitative analysis is the determination of the chemical composition of a sample. It

encompasses a set of techniques that provide non numerical information about a
specimen. The various qualitative tests conducted on water are:
1. Colour
2. Turbidity
3. Conductivity

4. Total coliforms
Colour is imparted on water due to presence of decaying vegetation, inorganic
materials, coloured soils, excessive growth of algae, chemicals in water etc. The colour of
water can easily be detected by naked eye. It can be measured by comparing the colour of
water samples with other standard glass tubes called Nesslers tubes containing solutions
of different standard colour intensities. The standard unit of colour is that which is
produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one litre of distilled water.
The maximum permissible colour for domestic supplies is 20ppm based on cobalt scale.
Turbidity is the cloudy appearance of water due to presence of large amounts of
suspended matter such as clay, silt, or finely divided organic materials in water. The
turbidity of water should be measured and be reduced to permissible values. The turbidity
can be easily measured using turbidity rods, turbidimeters etc.
The organic dissolved materials or inorganic salts impart taste and odors to water
which generally occur together. Taste and odor maybe caused by the presence of gases
like hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen etc. for drinking purposes the
drinking water must not contain any undesirable or objectionable taste and odor.
Electrical conductivity is a measure of water’s ability to conduct electricity. Pure
water is a poor conductor of electricity.
1.3.4 Quantitative analysis of water samples
Quantitative analysis refers to the determination of how much of a given component is

present in a sample. The quantity may be expressed in terms of mass, concentration, or
relative abundance of one or all components of a sample. The various quantitative tests
are:
1. Test for pH of water
2. Biochemical oxygen demand
3. Dissolved oxygen
4. Chemical oxygen demand
5. Iron, Copper, Sulphates, Mercury, Manganese, cadmium, chromium
6. Chloride
7. Alkalinity
8. Acidity
The pH value of water indicates the logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion
concentration present in water. It is thus an indicator of acidity or alkalinity of water. If
pH of water is more than 7 it will be alkaline and if pH is less than 7 it will be acidic.
Biochemical oxygen demand or BOD is the amount of oxygen required until the
oxidation process is complete. Polluted water will absorb more oxygen than unpolluted
water. The BOD of 5 days at 200C is considered the standard demand. In environmental
chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an indicative measure of the amount
of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions in a measured solution. It is commonly
expressed in mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution which in SI units is
milligrams per litre (mg/L). A COD test can be used to easily quantify the amount of
organics in water. The most common application of COD is in quantifying the amount of
oxidizable pollutants found in surface water.
Chlorides are generally present in water in the form of sodium chlorides. Their
concentrations above 250mg/L produce a noticeably salty taste.
The presence of nitrogen in water is an indication of the presence of organic
matter. Tests are carried out to determine the amounts of various metals and other
substances such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, cadmium etc in water.
1.3.5 Data examination
The results from the water tests are compared with the acceptable and permissible values
from the IS 10500:2012 and WHO guidelines to determine the extent of contamination in
the river.

Table 1.1: IS 10500 Permissible and standard values
Sl No. Parameters Standard Permissible value

value
1 pH 6.5-8.5 No relaxation
2 Turbidity (NTU) 1 5
3 Total Dissolved Solids 500 2000

(mg/L)
4 Total Hardness (as 200 600

CaCO3,mg/L)
5 Sulphates (mg/L) 200 400
6 Magnesium (mg/L) 30 No relaxation
7 Nitrate (mg/L) 45 No relaxation
8 Chloride (mg/L) 250 1000
9 Residual Free Chlorine 0.2 1

(mg/L)
10 Calcium (mg/L) 75 200
11 Total Alkalinity (as CaCO3, 200 600

mg/L)
Source: IS 10500:2012

1.3.6 Design of water treatment facility
The design of tank dimensions of a coagulation cum sedimentation tank, rapid sand filter
and an under drainage system is carried out. The clarification of water by sedimentation
can be effected by providing conditions under which the suspended materials present in
water can settle out. Special basins are constructed in order to purify the surface waters of
rivers or reservoirs by sedimentation. Coagulants can be added for aiding the
sedimentation process. Rapid sand filter is a filtration unit for water. Filtration helps in
removing colour, turbidity, odour and some pathogenic bacteria.
Figure 1.4: A typical water treatment plant

Source: www.ontario.ca
1.3.7 Proposal
Eloor supports the largest industrial belt in Kerala with over 247 chemical industries. The
industries make a range of chemicals- petrochemical products, pesticides, rare-earth
elements, rubber processing chemicals, fertilizers, zinc/chrome products and leather
products. The industries take in large amounts of fresh-water from the river Periyar and
in-turn discharge concentrated effluent with nominal treatment. As of 2011 India census,
Eloor had a population of 31, 468. The main pollution sources of concern are industries,
municipal solid waste, biomedical waste, e-waste and domestic waste. The proposal
mainly includes study of water quality and design of water treatment plant. Based on the

test results and examination of samples from three sites it is concluded that Muttar river
contains heavy metals like copper, cadmium, chloride. The design includes sedimentation
cum coagulation tank, water is first passed through this where suspended matters are
settled then followed by rapid sand filter. Coconut husk is then added to filtered water it
act as a natural absorbent for the removal of toxic metals from water. Depending on the
chemical tests on water suitable disinfection or sterilization is selected. Chlorination is
one of the most effective methods of disinfection. Chlorination is the process of adding
chlorine to drinking water to disinfect it and kill germs. Different processes can be used
to achieve safe levels of chlorine in drinking water.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Masoumeh Sharafimasooleh (2016) discussed on Effect of High Chloride

Concentrations on Microbial Regrowth in Drinking Water Distribution System. The
objectives were identification of effects of variable concentrations of chloride on
microbial regrowth, disinfection efficacy and metal release in drinking water distribution
system. The study concluded that annular reactors which operated with elevated chloride
concentrations were not significantly different from the annular reactors which operated
with low chloride concentrations in terms of microbial regrowth.
Yi Hsueh Chuang (2011) explained about Chlorine Residuals and Haloacetic Acid
Reduction in Rapid Sand Filtration. The objective was to explore the correlation between
biodegradation and chlorine concentration in rapid sand filters. He concluded that
chlorine residual is an important factor that alters bioactivity development.
Michael J Adelman (2012) examined about Stacked Filters: Novel Approach to Rapid
Sand Filtration. The objective was to introduce stacked filters in place of conventional
sand filter. He concluded with the demonstration of backwash cycle and stacked filter
unit with satisfactory performance.
Dominic L Boccelli (2007) studied about Drinking Water Treatment Plant Design
Incorporating Variability and Uncertainty. The objective of the study was optimisation of
framework for investigating the effects of five variable influent parameters and three
uncertain model parameters. The study concluded that parameter distributions related to
the primary removal mechanism are critical and contact and direct filtration are more
sensitive to variability and uncertainty.
Bibhabasu Mohanty (2017) discussed on Design and Construction of a Modified Rapid
Sand Filter for Treatment of Raw Water. The objectives were developing improved
modified operating methods for rapid sand filtration technology and to increase the
overall efficiency of conventional rapid sand filters. The conclusion of study was
achievement of lower turbidity and total dissolved solid concentration.

Bijalikhan Shaffin (2016) explained about Design of Rapid Sand Filter. The objective of
the study was to make use of sand to filter water for public use and to design a sand filter.
He concluded that rapid sand filtration method is the most suitable among several other
treatment processes.
Mark R Wiesner (1987) discussed about Optimal Water Treatment Plant Design. The
objective was identification of the least cost design. He arrived at a conclusion that filter
design traditionally relies on low filtration rates rather than pre-treatment to ensure
filtrate quality.
S R Asati (2012) studied about Qualitative Analysis and Treatment for Drinking Water
in Educational Institutes of Gondia Block. The objectives included collection of samples
and testing different parameters such as pH, hardness, alkalinity etc. The study concluded
that nearly all the parameters were within the permissible limit except hardness in some
samples.
Divya Rani Thomas (2011) carried out Physico – Chemical Analysis of Well Water at
Eloor. Seasonal variation on physico-chemical quality of well water at Eloor industrial
area, Kerala was studied. A total of 100 samples, 25 each during four different seasons,
viz. summer, pre- monsoon, monsoon and post monsoon were collected during the year
2009 and analyzed for temperature, pH, total hardness, Chemical Oxygen Demand,
concentration of nitrate, fluoride, iron, heavy metals like lead, mercury, zinc, and
cadmium. Significant difference between seasons was observed for temperature,
Chemical Oxygen Demand, concentration of nitrate, zinc and cadmium and was compare
with permitted limited.
Sudhesna Mahapatra (2011) discussed about Assessment of Mercury Contamination of
Periyar river in Kerala by Dithizone method. An attempt was made in this study to assess
the extent of mercury contamination in the river by dithizone method and compare it with
the maximum permissible level for river water. A comparison had also been attempted to
assess the extent of mercury contamination of Periyar with that of other contaminated
rivers of India. A total of 40 samples were collected from 10 locations of Periyar river at
surface level and at 1m depth. The mean mercury level observed was 0.03mg/L which is
30 times more than permissible level allowed in water which is 0.001mg/L.

Lakshmi E (2014) carried out an Assessment of Water Quality in river Periyar, Kerala
South India using water Quality Index. Statistical techniques like correlation and
regression using SPSS software were used to understand the relation between parameters
and water quality index. Overall water quality index showed “Poor” quality index in the
river, with each sampling site coming under the “poor” quality index range. Correlation
analysis showed that water quality index decreases with increase in parameter
concentration and vice versa for parameters like calcium, sulphate, chloride, nitrate-
nitrogen, total hardness, fluoride, and conductivity. From the analysis, it was found that
the water quality index range increases with increase in pH and dissolved oxygen.
N. Abdel Raouf (2012) discussed about the Normal Primary and Secondary Treatment
Processes of Wastewaters that have been introduced in a growing number of places, in
order to eliminate the easily settled materials and to oxidize the organic material present
in wastewater. The final result was a clear, apparently clean effluent which was
discharged into natural water bodies. This secondary effluent was, however, loaded with
inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus and causes eutrophication and more long-term
problems because of refractory organics and heavy metals that are discharged.
Microalgae culture offers an interesting step for wastewater treatments, because they
provide a tertiary biotreatment coupled with the production of potentially valuable
biomass, which can be used for several purposes. Microalgae cultures offer an elegant
solution to tertiary and quandary treatments due to the ability of microalgae to use
inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus for their growth. And also, for their capacity to
remove heavy metals, as well as some toxic organic compounds, therefore, it does not
lead to secondary pollution. It highlights on the role of micro-algae in the treatment of
wastewater.
B. Tassinari (2015) explained about Application of Turbidity Meters for the Quantitative
Analysis of Flocculation in a Jar Test Apparatus. An online quantitative method for the
analysis of flocculation activity was developed, which can measure sedimentation as a
function of time. This method involved modification of a standard, commercial jar test
apparatus by the addition of six turbidity meters coupled with a data-acquisition system
operating with LabView software. This system had been tested using a standard reference

turbid water suspension containing kaolin, with aluminium sulphate and ferric sulphate as
coagulants.
Sukhvinder Singh Purewal (2014) discussed about Qualitative analysis of water
samples collected from different locations of Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Present study was
carried out to determine the quality of different water samples using various parameters
i.e. pH, Total hardness, Residual chlorine, Conductivity, Chloride ion concentration,
Dissolved oxygen, Acidity, Alkalinity, Total Dissolved Solids, Free Carbon Dioxide and
Fluoride ion concentration. pH of different water samples ranged from 7.09-8.06. Total
Hardness varied from 1666-66.66 mg/l. Variation in conductivity was from 0.400-1.000.
Chloride ion concentration ranged between 71.0-1056.2 mg/l. Variation on dissolved
oxygen contents were between 0.6-1.0 mg/l. Acidity and alkalinity of different samples
varied from 12.5-37.5 and 300-1125 mg/l. Total dissolved solids and fluoride content
ranged between 0.01-0.03 mg/l and 0.111-0.610 mg/l respectively. Although no
variations were found in case of Residual chlorine and free carbon dioxide amount.
Anwar Khalid (2011) studied about Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Drinking
Water Samples of different localities in Abbottabad district, Pakistan. The complete
analysis of 15 drinking water samples was carried out to develop a data base on the
quality of water being consumed in different areas of Abbottabad district. The qualitative
and quantitative analysis of water samples of different localities was conducted to
determine the exact amount of different pollutants present in water. The results of the
research work showed that drinking water collected from different areas of Abbottabad
district was not found to be suitable for human health due to microbiological issues.
Jessica M. Wilson (2014) discussed about Sources of High Total Dissolved Solids to
Drinking Water Supply in Southwestern Pennsylvania. The characteristics of natural
waters, oil and gas-produced waters, and coal-related wastewaters were analysed to
extract information about constituent concentrations and anion ratios. Statistical analysis
of the anion ratios indicated that the SO4=Cl ratio is higher in coal-related wastewaters
than in oil and gas-produced waters, suggesting that wastewaters can be distinguished
based on this ratio. This method was applied to surface water quality data collected from
two tributaries in Southwestern Pennsylvania. Results showed that this constituent and
ratio method, combined with mixing curve calculations, can be used to identify water

quality changes in these two tributaries. Similar mixing models, when applied to
regionally relevant high TDS wastewater data, may be used in other areas experiencing
water quality changes resulting from fossil fuel extraction activities.

CHAPTER 3
CONTAMINATION OF WATER
The Safe Drinking Water Act defines the term contaminant as any physical, chemical,
biological, or radiological substance or matter in water. Therefore, the law defines
contaminant very broadly as being anything other than water molecules. Drinking water
may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants.
Some drinking water contaminants may be harmful if consumed at certain levels in
drinking water while others may be harmless. The presence of contaminants does not
necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk. Water bodies like lake, river, ocean
and groundwater get contaminated due to discharge of pollutants into the water bodies
without any treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution adversely affects
not only aquatic plants and animals but also affects human beings and ecosystems.
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human
activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. Water
pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment. For
example, releasing inadequately treated wastewater into natural water bodies can lead
to degradation of aquatic ecosystems. In turn, this can lead to public health problems for
people living downstream. They may use the same polluted river water for drinking or
bathing or irrigation. Water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and
disease; due to water-borne diseases.
Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired
by anthropogenic contaminants. Due to these contaminants it either does not support
human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its
biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms,
storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological
status of water. Water pollution is a major global problem. It requires ongoing evaluation
and revision of water resource policy at all levels. It has been suggested that water
pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and diseases. Water pollution
accounted for the death of 1.8 million people in 2015.
In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing
countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For
example, in a report on water quality in the United States in 2009, 44% of assessed
stream miles, 64% of assessed lake acres, and 30% of assessed baysand estuarine square
miles were classified as polluted.
3.1 Causes of Water Pollution
Water pollution is caused due to several reasons. Here are the few major causes of water
pollution.
3.1.1 Sewage and waste water
Sewage, garbage and liquid waste of households, agricultural lands and factories are
discharged into lakes and rivers. These wastes contain harmful chemicals and toxins
which make the water poisonous for aquatic animals and plants.
3.1.2 Dumping
Dumping of solid wastes and litters in water bodies cause huge problems. Litters include
glass, plastic, aluminum, styrofoam etc. Different things take different amount of time to
degrade in water. They affect aquatic plants and animals. Industrial waste contains
pollutants like asbestos, lead, mercury and petrochemicals which are extremely harmful
to both people and environment. Industrial waste is discharged into lakes and rivers by
using fresh water making the water contaminated.
3.1.3 Oil pollution
Sea water gets polluted due to oil spilled from ships and tankers while traveling. The
spilled oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge polluting the water.
3.1.4 Acid rain
Acid rain is pollution of water caused by air pollution. When the acidic particles caused
by air pollution in the atmosphere mix with water vapor, it results in acid rain.
3.1.5 Global warming
Due to global warming, there is an increase in water temperature. This increase in

temperature results in death of aquatic plants and animals. This also results in bleaching
of coral reefs in water.

3.1.6 Eutrophication
Eutrophication is an increased level of nutrients in water bodies. This results in bloom of

algae in water. It also depletes the oxygen in water, which negatively affects fish and
other aquatic animal population.
3.2 Characteristics of Water
3.2.1 Physical characteristics
3.2.1.1 Turbidity
Large amount of suspended matter present in water will make it appear muddy or cloudy
or turbid in appearance. Turbidity depends upon fineness and concentration of particles
present in water. It is measured by a turbidity rod or turbidimeter with optical
observations. It is expressed as the amount of suspended matter in mg/L or ppm. Standard
unit is that which is produced by 1mg of finely divided silica in 1 liter of distilled water.
Insoluble particles of soil, organics, microorganisms and other material, impeding the
passage of light through water by scattering and absorbing rays causes Turbidity
.Measured as the interference to the passage of light through the given water. Turbidity
limits as per is 10500:2012 are acceptable limit is 1 NTU and permissible limit is 5NTU.
Turbidity rod is used to measure turbidity in the field. Turbidimeter is used to measure
turbidity in the laboratory. It works on the principle of measuring the interference caused
by the water sample to the passage of light rays. Types of turbidity meter are the
following:
 Jackson’s Turbidimeter (Jackson’s candle Turbidimeter)
It measure turbidities in the range 25-1000 mg/L and is expressed as JTU-Jackson’s
Turbidity Unit. It cannot be used to measure the turbidity of treated waters. Standard unit
is that which is produced by 1mg of finely divided silica in 1 litre of distilled water.
Insoluble particles of soil, organics, microorganisms and other material, impeding the
passage of light through water by scattering and absorbing rays causes turbidity. It is
measured as the interference to the passage of light through the given water.
 Nephelometer
It is the modern commercial turbidimeter, used to measure very low turbidities of

drinking waters (upto less than 1 unit). It is expressed in NTU – Nephelometric Turbidity
Unit, which is also referred to as FTU –Formazin Turbidity Unit, as Formazin polymer is
used as reference turbidity standard in place of silica suspension.
3.2.1.2 Colour
Colour is measured by comparing the colour of water sample with other standard glass
tubes (Nessler Tubes) containing solutions of different standard colour intensities.
Standard unit of colour is that which is produced by 1 mg of platinum cobalt dissolved in
1 litre of distilled water. Colour of water is due to dissolved organic matter from decaying
vegetation or some inorganic materials as coloured soils excessive growth of algae and
aquatic microorganisms. Presence of colour is not objectionable from health point of
view but it spoil the colour of clothes washed in such water and also objectionable from
aesthetic & psychological point of view. It is measured by comparing the colour of water
sample with other standard glass tubes (Nessler Tubes) containing solutions of different
standard colour intensities. Standard unit of colour is that which is produced by 1 mg of
platinum cobalt dissolved in 1 litre of distilled water. Maximum permissible colour for
domestic supplies is 15 ppm (based on cobalt scale) as per IS 10500: 2012 Tintometer is
a compact instrument for precise determination of small colour intensities. For public
supplies, colour number on cobalt scale should not exceed 15 and should preferably be
less than 5 (IS 10500:2012).
3.2.1.3 Tastes and odours
Taste and odour in water is caused due to dissolved organic matter, inorganic salts or
dissolved gases, presence of dissolved gases like H2S, CH4, CO2, O2 etc combined with
organic matter, mineral substances like NaCl, iron compounds, carbonates, & sulphates
of other elements, Phenols and other tarry or oily matter, After chlorination Some tastes
that are imparted by dissolved oxygen and dissolved CO2 are generally desirable. For
drinking purposes water should not contain any undesirable or objectionable taste and
odour. Odour intensity is the term used to measure the extent of taste or odour present in
a sample of water. Threshold odour number represents the dilution ratio at which odour is
hardly detectable.

Water to be tested is gradually diluted with odour free water, and the mixture at
which the detection of odour by human observation is just lost, is determined. The
number of times the sample is diluted represents the threshold odour number. If 40 ml
sample is diluted to make 200 ml (till it loses its taste or odour), then Threshold odour
number will be 5. For public water supplies, TON should be 1 and never exceed 3.
3.2.1.4 Temperature
Testing the temperature of water has usually no practical significance For potable waters,
temperatures of about 100C are highly desirable, while temperatures above 250C are
considered objectionable.
3.2.1.5 Specific conductivity of water
Electrical conductivity is the measure of ability of water to conduct electricity. Specific

conductivity (specific conductance) is the electrical conductivity-approximately measures
the number of ions present in water and hence approximately measures the total dissolved
solids in water. Specific conductivity is measured by a portable ionic water tester called
conductivity sensor. It is expressed in mhos per centimeter. Renamed by ISO as Siemen
(1mhos= 1 Siemen). Since mhos is a very large unit, micromhos, ie, microsiemen (μs/cm)
is typically used. In order to convert the specific conductivity of water sample (μs/cm)
into approximate concentration of TDS (in ppm) , μs/cm is multiplied by a conversion
factor called conductivity factor Value of Conductivity Factor Varies From 0.54 To 0.96 .
3.2.2 Chemical characteristics
3.2.2.1 Total solids and suspended solids
Total amount of solids (suspended as well as dissolved) present in water is known as total
solids. It is determined by evaporating a sample of water and weighing the dry residue
left. Suspended solids are determined by filtering the water sample and weighing the
residue left on the filter paper. Dissolved solids = Total solids – suspended solids. Total
permissible amount of solids in water limited to 500ppm.
3.2.2.2 pH value of water
pH value of water is a indicator of acidity or alkalinity of water .It indicates the logarithm
of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration present in water. Ph value of neutral water is

7, if ph of water is more than 7, it will be alkaline if ph of water is less than 7, and it will
be acidic. Acidity of water is caused by the presence of mineral acids, free CO2, sulphates
of iron and aluminum in water. Alkalinity is caused by the presence of bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium or by the carbonates or hydroxides of sodium, potassium,
calcium and magnesium.
pH value of water measured quickly and automatically with the help of
Potentiometer. Measures the electrical potential exerted by hydrogen ions thus indicating
their concentration pH can also be measured with the help of colour indicators (dyes)
Permissible pH values for public water supplies ranges between 6.5 to 8.5 .Lower values
(acidic waters) cause tuberculation and corrosion .Higher values (alkaline waters)
produce incrustation, sediment deposits, difficulties in chlorination, psychological effects
on human system etc.
3.2.2.3 Hardness of water
Hardness is the characteristic which prevents the formation of sufficient lather or foam,
when such hard water is mixed with soap. It is caused by the presence of calcium and
magnesium salts present in water, which form scum by reaction with soap. Hard waters
are undesirable as they lead to greater soap consumption, corrosion, Incrustation of pipes,
making foods tasteless .Types of hardness are:
 Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness)
If bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium and magnesium are present in water, water is
rendered hard temporarily. This hardness can be removed to some extent by simple
boiling or to full extent by adding lime to the water When such waters are boiled, CO 2
gas escapes out and the insoluble calcium carbonate gets precipitated. Temporary hard
waters cause deposition of calcium scales in boilers. Carbonate hardness is equal to total
hardness or alkalinity, whichever is lesser.
 Permanent hardness (non-carbonate hardness)
If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium or magnesium are present in water, they
cannot be removed by simple boiling such waters require special treatment for softening.
Non carbonate hardness is the total hardness in excess of the alkalinity. If alkalinity is
equal to or greater than the total hardness, then there is no non-carbonate hardness

.Waters with hardness up to 75ppm considered as soft. Waters with hardness 200 ppm
and above considered as hard In between 75ppm and 200ppm, considered as moderately
hard. Underground waters are generally harder than surface waters prescribed hardness
limit for public water supplies ranges between 75 to 115 ppm for boiler feed waters and
for efficient cloth washing in laundries, waters must be soft with hardness less than
75 ppm or so.
3.2.2.4 Chloride content
Chlorides, generally present in water in the form of sodium chloride occurs due to
leaching of marine sedimentary deposits, pollution from sea water, industrial, domestic,
human wastes. Concentration above 250 mg/L produce noticeable salty taste and thus
objectionable. Chloride content can be measured by titrating the water with standard
silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as the indicator Chloride content of
treated water for public water supplies should not exceed 250 ppm.
3.2.2.5 Nitrogen content
Presence of nitrogen in water is an indication of presence of organic matter .Occur in one

or more of the following forms:
Free ammonia or ammonia nitrogen indicates the very first stage of
decomposition of organic matter and consequent release of free ammonia (thus indicating
recent pollution) For potable waters, free ammonia should not exceed 0.15 mg/L. It is
measured by boiling the water and measuring the liberated ammonia gas by distillation
process.
Organic nitrogen indicates the quantity of nitrogen present in water in the form of
undecomposed organic matter (in the form of proteins and aminoacids) which on
digestion will release ammonia. For potable waters, organic nitrogen should not exceed
0.3mg/L. It is determined by digestion of organic matter and measuring the released
ammonia gas. It can be easily done by adding strong alkaline solution of potassium
permanganate to already boiled water sample and again boiling the same. Ammonia gas
liberated is measured which indicates the amount of organic nitrogen present in water.
Nitrites indicate the presence of partly decomposed (not fully oxidized) organic
matter in the form of nitrites is highly dangerous .Permissible amount of nitrites in
potable waters should be nil.
Nitrates indicate the presence of fully oxidized organic matter (thus representing
old pollution) It represent fully oxidized organic matter .Presence of too much of nitrate
in water adversely affects the health of infants, causing disease called
methemoglobinemia (blue baby disease). Children suffering from this disease may vomit,
skin colour become dark and may die in extreme cases. Nitrate concentration in domestic
water supplies limited to 45 ppm.
Amount of nitrites and nitrates can be measured by colour matching methods. For
nitrites, colour is developed by adding sulphonic acid and napthamine. For nitrates,
colour is developed by adding phenol-di-sulphonic acid and potassium hydroxide .Colour
developed in water is finally compared with standard colours of known concentration.
3.2.2.6 Metals and other chemical substances
Tests carried out to determine presence of Iron, manganese, copper, lead, barium,
cadmium, chromium, arsenic, selenium, cyanide ,fluorine etc .Metals and other
substances present in water can be estimated by using colour matching methods by using
different indicators.
Presence of excess of iron and manganese in water causes discolouration,
turbidity and deposits. Precipitation of iron and manganese imparts colour to water from
yellow to brownish black, which becomes objectionable to costumers. Manganese
concentration ranging from 8-14 mg/l is toxic to human. Excess of iron facilitates growth
of iron bacteria which causes blocking of pipes, meters etc.
Phosphate occurs in traces in many natural waters, and often in appreciable
amounts during periods of low biologic productivity. Waters receiving raw or treated
sewage agricultural drainage, and certain industrial water normally contain significant
concentration of phosphate.
Sulphates occur in natural water, high concentration of sulphate cause scaling in
industrial water supply problem of odours and corrosion in waste water treatment due to
its reduction in H2S.
3.2.2.7 Fluoride
Consumption of higher concentration of fluorides exceeding 1.5mg/L may cause mottling

of teeth and fluorosis. The excessive consumption over long periods cause bone

problems, including crippling of bones. Lower concentrations of fluorides, lesser than 1
mg/l in waters may cause dental caries (tooth decay due to cavity formation). As per IS
10500:2012, acceptable limit of fluorine is 1 mg/L and permissible limit is 1.5mg/L.
3.2.2.8 Arsenic (As)
It may cause cancer, diabetes and liver damage. It als increases risk of hypertension and
causes acute or chronic arsenic toxicity (called arsenicosis) to humans. It is toxic to all
life. Ground waters are often found to contain arsenic in specific areas in west Bengal.
Maximum permissible concentration as per BIS standards is 0.01mg/L.
3.2.2.9 Dissolved gases
Various gases dissolved may be nitrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide,
biochemical oxygen demand and oxygen demand. Hydrogen sulphide gives bad taste and
odour to water and it should be removed.CO2 indicates biological activity and it imparts
bad taste and odour causes corrosion. Oxygen gas is absorbed by water from atmosphere,
but is consumed by unstable organic matter for their oxidation. If oxygen is found to be
less than its saturation level, it indicates presence of organic matter. If sufficient oxygen
is present in water, the useful aerobic bacteria production will flourish and cause the
biological decomposition of waste and organic matter. The amount of oxygen required in
the process until oxidation gets completed is known as BOD. Polluted waters will
continue to absorb oxygen for many months, till the oxidation is completed BOD of
water during first five days at 20˚C is generally taken as the standard demand.
3.2.3 Biological characteristics
Bacteria are Single cell organisms with no defined nucleus, and having no chlorophyll
(prokaryotes).Generally present in raw or contaminated waters. They are mainly
classified as non pathogenic and pathogenic bacteria. Non pathogenic bacteria (Non-
pathogens) are harmless and beneficial to human beings, pathogenic bacteria (Pathogens)
are harmful bacteria causing water borne diseases- cholera, typhoid, infectious hepatitis
etc. Water act as a vehicle for the transfer of a wide range of diseases of microbial origin.
Important bacterial diseases are typhoid fever, cholera, bacterial dysentery etc. Usual

routine tests conducted to detect and count the presence of non-pathogenic indicator
organisms.
Coliforms are rod shaped non pathogenic bacteria whose presence or absence in
water indicates the presence or absence of fecal pollution and hence of pathogens.
Normal inhabitants of intestines of warm blooded animals .Coliform bacteria are aerobic
and facultative anaerobic gram negative, non spore forming, and rod shaped bacteria that
ferment lactose with gas formation within 48hrs at 35 ˚C. Total coliform group is widely
used as the indicator organism of choice for drinking waters. Fecal coliform is a sub
group of total coliforms which is much more specific indicator of fecal contamination.
Escherichia Coli (E- Coli) is the predominant member of the fecal coliform group.
Detection of E-Coli in drinking water is taken as evidence of recent pollution with human
or animal feces. Since the harmless organisms of the coliform group live longer in water
than pathogens, and will be in much more number than the pathogens in any wastewater,
it is generally presumed that the water will be safe and free from pathogenic bacteria , if
no (or very little) coliforms are present in it. Standard methods commonly used to
identify coliforms in water:
Membrane filter test is the simplest and most recent method. Water sample is
filtered through a sterile membrane of special design (porosity 80%, pore size 5 -10 mμ)
on which bacteria will be retained if present. Filter then rinsed with sterile buffer
solution, placed upon a pad saturated with suitable nutrient medium and incubated at
appropriate temperature. Bacteria able to grow produce visible colonies which can be
counted .This incubation process known as culturing through culture medium. Medium to
be used and temperature of incubation depends upon the type of bacteria to be counted.
For fecal coliforms count, the medium used is M-FC broth and incubation is done at 44.5
˚C for 22 hrs. Coliform colonies produced are blue, and other bacteria which grow upon
this medium are grey to cream coloured. The bacterial count is expressed as number of
colonies per 100 ml of sample.
The MPN test is a statistics-based test which estimates the number of fecal
coliforms in a water sample based on the degree of lactose fermentation by organisms in
the sample. Coliform bacteria ferment lactose with formation of gas within a max of 48
hrs at 35°C. This property of coliform organisms is used to detect their presence in the

given water sample and the method is known as multiple tube fermentation technique. It
consists of 3 stages.
Presumptive test consists of inoculating measured amounts of water sample into
tubes of Mac Conkey bile salt lactose broth and incubating the cultures at 37°C for 24
hours .Volume of water samples in different tubes are taken in multiples of ten – such as
0.01ml, 1ml, 10ml .If acid and gas are formed- test is positive. Amount of water sample
used in the test depends upon the anticipated bacterial purity of water. Absence of
formation of acid and gas at the end of 48 hours incubation constitutes a negative test.
Presumptive test can be extended to form confirmed test and completed test. MPN / MPN
Index is the most Probable Number of the coliforms. Coliform Index (CI) is the term used
to measure the coliform bacteria present in water sample.
Figure 3.1: Schematic representation of presumptive test MPN

Source: microbeonline.com

CHAPTER 4
METHODS OF PURIFICATION OF WATER
There are several methods to purify water, which are mainly divided into four categories:
separation, filtration, chemicals and oxidation. There are five types of contaminants that
are found in water namely, particulates, bacteria, minerals, chemicals, and
pharmaceuticals. Methods to remove these elements range from simple and inexpensive
to elaborate and costly. Often to achieve purely potable water, several technologies must
be combined in a particular sequence.
4.1 Screening
Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Water
when derived from the surface sources may contain suspended matter which may range
from floating debris such as sticks, branches, leaves etc. to find particles such as sand, silt
etc causing turbidity. Screening removes objects such as rags, paper, plastics, and metals
to prevent damage and clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances.
Some modern wastewater treatment plants use both coarse screens and fine screens.
Screens serve as protective device for the remainder of the plant rather than as a
treatment process.
Figure 4.1: Cable Operated Bar Screen

Source : www.huber-technology.com

4.1.1 Coarse screens
Coarse screens remove large solids, rags, and debris from wastewater, and typically have
openings of 6 mm (0.25 in) or larger. Types of coarse screens include mechanically and
manually cleaned bar screens, including trash racks. Table 1 describes the various types
of coarse screens.
4.1.2 Fine screens
Fine screens are typically used to remove material that may create operation and
maintenance problems in downstream processes, particularly in systems that lack primary
treatment. Typical opening sizes for fine screens are 1.5 to 6 mm (0.06 to 0.25 in). Very
fine screens with openings of 0.2 to 1.5 mm (0.01 to 0.06 in) placed after coarse or fine
screens can reduce suspended solids to levels near those achieved by primary
clarification.
4.2 Aeration
Aeration brings water and air in close contact in order to remove dissolved gases (such as
carbon dioxide) and oxidizes dissolved metals such as iron, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile
organic chemicals (VOCs). Aeration is often the first major process at the treatment
plant. During aeration, constituents are removed or modified before they can interfere
with the treatment processes. Aeration brings water and air in close contact by exposing
drops or thin sheets of water to the air or by introducing small bubbles of air (the smaller
the bubble, the better) and letting them rise through the water. The scrubbing process
caused by the turbulence of aeration physically removes dissolved gases from solution
and allows them to escape into the surrounding air. Aeration also helps remove dissolved
metals through oxidation, the chemical combination of oxygen from the air with certain
undesirable metals in the water. Once oxidized, these chemicals fall out of solution and
become particles in the water and can be removed by filtration or flotation. The
efficiency of aeration depends on the amount of surface contact between air and water,
which is controlled primarily by the size of the water drop or air bubble. Oxygen is added
to water through aeration and can increase the palpability of water by removing the flat
taste. The amount of oxygen the water can hold depends primarily on the temperature of

the water. (The colder the water, the more oxygen the water can hold). Water that
contains excessive amounts of oxygen can become very corrosive. Excessive oxygen can
also cause problems in the treatment plant i.e. air binding of filters.
4.2.1 Cascade aerators
A cascade aerator (one of the oldest and most common aeratrors) consists of a series of
steps that the water flows over (similar to a flowing stream). In all cascade aerators,
aeration is accomplished in the splash zones. Splash zones are created by placing blocks
across the incline. (They are the oldest and most common type of aerators.) Cascade
aerators can be used to oxidize iron and to partially reduce dissolved gases.
Figure 4.2 : Cascade Aerator

Source : www.appropedia.org
4.2.2 Slat and coke aerators
Slat and coke trays are similar to the cascade and cone aerators. They usually consist of
three-to-five stacked trays, which have spaced wooden slats in them. The trays are then
filled with fistsized pieces of coke, rock, ceramic balls, limestone, or other materials. The
primary purpose of the materials is providing additional surface contact area between the
air and water.
Figure 4.3 : Slat and Coke Aerator

4.2.3 Spray aerators
Spray aerators have one or more spray nozzles connected to a pipe manifold. Water
moves through the pipe under pressure, and leaves each nozzle in a fine spray and falls
through the surrounding air, creating a fountain affect. Spray aeration is successful in
oxidizing iron and manganese and increases the dissolved oxygen in the water.
4.3 Sedimentation
Sedimentation gravitationally settles heavy suspended material. Separation can be

done by different methods. Boiling water for 15 to 20 minutes kills 99.9% of all living
things and vaporizes most chemicals. Minerals, metals, solids and the contamination from
the cooking container become more concentrated. Distillation boils and recondenses the
water, but many chemicals vaporize and recondense in concentration in the output water.
It is also expensive to boil & cool water. Ultraviolet light is a good bactericide, but has no
residual kill, and works only in clearly filtered water. It is a new technology involving
super white light which is still in its infancy stage. Sedimentation tanks are designed to
reduce the velocity of flow of water so as to permit suspended solids to settle out of the
water by gravity. In water treatment sedimentation might be used to reduce the
concentration of particles in suspension before the application of coagulation.
When the impurities are separated from suspending fluid by action of natural
forces alone that is by gravitation and natural aggregation of the settling particles, the
operation is called plain sedimentation. When the chemicals or other substances are
added to induce or hasten aggregation and settling of finally divided suspended matter,
colloidal substances, and large molecules, the operation is called sedimentation with
coagulation or simply clarification.
Coagulation-flocculation is a chemical water treatment technique typically
applied prior to filtration (e.g. rapid sand filtration) to enhance the ability of a treatment
process to remove particles. Coagulation is a process used to neutralize charges and form
a gelatinous mass to trap particles thus forming a mass large enough to settle or be
trapped in the filter. Flocculation is gentle stirring or agitation to encourage the particles
thus formed to agglomerate into masses large enough to settle or be filtered from
solution.

4.3.1 Fill and draw type sedimentation tank
In case of fill and draw type sedimentation tank, water from inlet is stored for some time.
The time may be 24 hours. In that time, the suspended particles are settled at the bottom
of the tank. After 24 hours, the water is discharged through outlet.Then settled particle
are removed. This removal action requires 6-12 hours. So, one complete action of
sedimentation requires 30-40 hours in case of fill and draw type sedimentation tank.
Figure 4.5 : Fill and Draw Type Sedimentation Tank

Source : theconstructor.org
4.3.2 Continuous flow type sedimentation tank
In this case, water is not allowed to rest. Flow always takes place but with a very small
velocity. During this flow, suspended particles are settling at the bottom of the tank. The
flow may be either in horizontal direction or vertical direction.
There are two types of continuous flow tanks, namely horizontal and vertical. The
simplest method of sedimentation is to use rectangular tanks with horizontal flow through
them. The water with the particles in suspension is introduced at one end of the tank, then
as the water flows to the other end of the tank settlement of particles in the water occurs.
The aim is that a large proportion of the settling particles manage to reach the tank floor
before the water is drawn out of the tank at the outlet end. Such horizontal flow tanks are
usually built with a floor that slopes gently down to the inlet end to a hopper. The tank is
fitted with a mechanism to scrape the sediment from the outlet end back to the inlet end
and into the hopper from where it can be discharged hydraulically. In the design of such
tanks detailed attention has to be given to the inlet and outlet ends so that the water flows
from one end to the end as uniformly as possible. The vertical flow type sedimentations
tanks are generally in circular shape and flow takes place in vertical direction. Hopper
bottom is provided at the bottom of the tank to dispose the collected sludge.
Figure 4.6 : Horizontal flow tank

Figure 4.7 : Vertical flow tank

4.4 Filtration
Filtration is one of the most important operations in the water purification process. The
resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure, and may contain some very fine
suspended particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities
still further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granular material, such as sand,
etc. The process of passing the water through the beds of such granular materials is
known as filtration.
There are two types of filters, namely slow sand and rapid sand filters. Slow sand
filter consists of fine sand, supported by gravel. They are used in water purification for

treating raw water to produce a potable product. They are typically 1 to 2 metres deep,
can be rectangular or cylindrical in cross section and are used primarily to treat surface
water. The length and breadth of the tanks are determined by the flow rate desired by the
filters, which typically have a loading rate of 200 to 400 litres per hour per square metre
(or 0.2 to 0.4 cubic metres per square metre per hour). They capture particles near the
surface of the bed and are usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of sand that
contains the particles.
Figure 4.8 : Process of filtration

Source : brainly.in
The rapid sand filter or rapid gravity filter is a type of filter used in water
purification and is commonly used in municipal drinking water facilities as part of a
multiple-stage treatment system. It consist of larger sand grains supported by gravel and
capture particles throughout the bed. Rapid sand filters are typically designed as part of
multi-stage treatment systems used by large municipalities. These systems are complex
and expensive to operate and maintain, and therefore less suitable for small communities
and developing nations. The filtration system requires a relatively small land area in
proportion to the population served, and the design is less sensitive to changes in raw
water quality, e.g. turbidity, than slow sand filters. Rapid sand filters use relatively coarse
sand and other granular media to remove particles and impurities that have been trapped
in a floc through the use of flocculation chemicals—typically alum. The unfiltered water
flows through the filter medium under gravity or under pumped pressure and the floc
material is trapped in the sand matrix. Mixing, flocculation and sedimentation processes
are typical treatment stages that precede filtration. Chemical additives, such as

coagulants, are often used in conjunction with the filtration system. They are cleaned by
backwashing water through the bed to 'liftout' the particles, which involves reversing the
direction of the water and adding compressed air.
Figure 4.9 : Rapid sand Filter
4.4.1 Theory of filtration
When water is filtered through the bed of filter media, usually consisting of clean sand,
the following action takes place: sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and
bacteriological action.
During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-
chemical processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a
thin layer on the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even
smaller than the spaces between the sand grains. As this layer (referred to as
“Schmutzdecke”) develops, it becomes living quarters of vast numbers of micro-
organisms which break down organic material retained from the water, converting it into
water, carbon dioxide and other oxides. Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses,
are removed from the raw water as it passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter
bed sand just below. The purification mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx.
0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower
levels as the water becomes purified and contains less organic material. When the micro-
organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and produce high
quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and biodegradable
organic matter. They are suitable for treating waters with low colours, low turbidities and

low bacterial contents.
4.5 Disinfection
When water comes out of filter plants, it may contain and other micro-organism, some of
which may be pathogenic. When the aim is to kill all the micro-organisms in water so as
to make it sterile, the process is known as sterilization. The aim of disinfection, however,
is to reduce the number of micro-organism to safe limits.
Various methods of disinfection can be broadly classified as physical and
chemical methods. Physical method includes disinfection by heat (Boiling of water),
disinfection by light (sunlight,UV rays) chemical methods includes oxidizing chemicals,
metal ions, alkalis and acids, surface active chemicals etc.
4.5.1 Boiling method
It is the most effective in complete sterilization of water since boiling of water kills all
the bacteria’s and other micro-organism.
4.5.2 Excess lime treatment method
It has been found that when pH of water is greater than 9.5, E-Coli present in water will
die. Hence when enough lime is added to bring pH to this figure, sterilization of E-Coli
and other bacteria occurs.
4.5.3 Sliver treatment
Water can be disinfected with silver by the electro- catadynic action or oligodynamic
action. Silver when immersed in water has been observed to exert an inhibiting action on
bacterial life.
4.5.4 Ultra violet ray method
The UV ray offers an effective method for sterilization of water. UV rays are generated
by machines consisting of mercury vapour lamps enclosed in a quartz globe. This method
is costly and hence not commonly used.
4.5.5 Potassium permanganate treatment
It is the common method of disinfection in rural areas, where water mostly the water

supplies are from wells which contains lesser amounts of bacteria’s. Addition of
potassium permanganate to water imparts some pink colour. However well water should
not be used during the first 48 hours of addition of potassium permanganate to it.
4.6 Water Softening
Water is said to be hard when it contains relatively large amounts of bicarbonates,

carbonates, sulphates and chlorides of magnesium and calcium dissolved in it. These
materials react with soap, causing a precipitate which appears as a scum or curd on the
water surface.
Hard water causes more consumption of soap in laundry work. Wastage of 25
ppm of soap takes place per 1 ppm of hardness of water removed by it. This proves to be
uneconomical for washing processes in the textile industries. It also leads to the
modification of some of the colours and thus affects the working of the dyeing system. It
also causes choking and clogging troubles of house plumbing due to the precipitation of
salts causing hardness. Hardness leads to the formation of scales on the boilers and other
hot water heating system. Food becomes tasteless, tough or rubbery when hard water is
used. The softening of water removes all the above difficulties. In addition of these,
softening increases the efficiency of filtration, aids in the removal of colour, iron and
manganese, makes possible the production of non-corrosive water, improves the cooking
of foods and increases the efficiency of reduction of bacteria when filtration follows
softening.
Temporary hardness or bicarbonate hardness can be removed either by boiling or
by addition of Lime. Boiling has practical limitations on large scale. Hence the lime
process of removal is adopted. Removal of permanent hardness can be achieved by lime-
soda process, zeolite process and demineralization or de-ionization process.
4.6.1 Lime soda process
Addition of lime reduces only the bicarbonate hardness. By addition of lime and soda ash
both the temporary and permanent (non-carbonate) hardness can be removed. This
method is therefore known as lime soda process, in which lime and soda are added to the
raw water either separately or together. The aim of this process is to make the calcium
and magnesium content of the hardwater take their insoluble form such as calcium

carbonate and magnesium hydroxide so that they can be precipitated out. The drawbacks
of this method are that it is not possible to produce zero hardness; a problem of disposal
occurs due to large quantity of sludge formation in this process it also requires
recarbonation and also skilled supervision.
4.6.2 Zeolite process
In the zeolite process, also known as Base Exchange or ion-exchange process, no

chemicals are added to water. Instead, hardwater is passed through a bed of special
material, loosely called the zeolite, which has the property of removing calcium and
magnesium from the water and substituting sodium in their places by ion-exchange
phenomenon. Zeolites are complex compound of aluminum, silica and soda. The
common artificial zeolite is Permutit. It has larger grains and its colour is white and it has
got high exchange value. Unlike lime soda process no sludge is formed and hence there is
no problem of sludge disposal. Zeolite unit is compact and hence small space is required.
The unit can be easily operated highly skilled labour is not required. In the zeolite process
any desired reduction of hardness is attainable. It is possible to get water of zero
hardness. Hence this process is more useful to water softening of boilers and certain
textile industries. This method is unsuitable for highly turbid waters, for water containing
iron and manganese acidic waters. There is likelihood of growth of bacteria on the beds
of zeolite. It should therefore be flushed annually with chlorinated water.
Figure 4.10 : Zeolite process

Source : www.ques10.com

4.6.3 Demineralization process
In this process two zeolites are used one which exchanges the sodium cation for the
cations of calcium, magnesium and ions in water and the other is used which exchanges
all the cations including sodium. This process is too costly for municipal water uses.

CHAPTER 5
STUDY ON MUTTAR RIVER
India has seven major rivers running through various states. Within the twenty nine
states, Kerala is one amongst them to have around forty four rivers. However, this has
come to one’s notice that there are several rivers which are in their dying state and has an
accelerated growth of pollution making it to ebb away slowly. Water scarcity and
pollution are the few amongst the major causes that is making our rivers die. Accelerated
growth of algae and hyacinths are due to the excessive chemicals present within the water
making it unsuitable for domestic purposes.
The Muttar River is an extremely polluted fresh water source with degrading
water quality and flow. Industrial growth is one of the main factors that contribute to this
condition. Most of the industries have their effluents flowing into the adjacent rivers
without much treatment and the Muttar river one such severely polluted and dying river.
It has a big collection of industries in its neighbourhood and the major danger is that the
river connects the Periyar river at its mouth as well as at its end.
The Muttar river originating from Cheranalloor is so, taken up as the water body
that has to be treated and purified. The river stretches for a total length of twelve
kilometers with the width varying being different at each area with an average of fifty
meters. The condition of the river is so hoarse and yet severe that it is under heavy
influence of pollution due to the dumping of wastes from industries, homes etc. Due to
this matter, there is almost no sustaining aquatic life in the waters because all the
dumping of waste and pollution causes the marine life to ebb away at a very rapid rate.
With the quality of water being drawn from Muttar, a tributary of Periyar, deteriorating
and questions being raised over using it for domestic purposes, Eloor Municipal
authorities have decided to seek state government’s intervention into the issue. According
to greens and researchers, the lack of oxygen in the water, the toxic effluents being
discharged by various industrial units, illegal dumping of waste and the growth of water
hyacinth have affected the quality, flow and colour of the river water.
According to an epidemiological study that Greenpeace conducted at Eloor, an
island in the Periyar River, unchecked pollution from HIL has resulted in diseases like

cancer, congenital birth defects, bronchitis, asthma, allergic dermatitis and stomach ulcers
in the local population. Greenpeace collected samples of water and sediments from an
adjacent creek and soil from the nearby wetlands. Its detailed analysis found that the
water at Eloor contained 100 organic compounds that included DDT and its metabolites,
endosulfan and several isomers like hexa chloro cylco hexane, a persistent pesticide.
Locals of Manjummel, under Eloor municipal area, reported a colour change in
the Muttar river near the Manjummel regulator-cum-bridge. Fish kill has also occurred on
the stretch of the Muttar, confirmed the PCB (Pollution Control Board) officials, which is
a clear case of eutrophication, and the black colour is due to the decaying of the algal
bloom that occurred in the water due to the excess nutrients that came with the domestic
waste and sewage wastes from nearby banks of the river.
Massive fish kill was reported near the Pathalam bund in river of Periyar due to
excessive chemical effluent discharge from companies near the industrial belt of Eloor
region. The river has numerous industries in its neighbourhood among which most of
them discharge the industrial effluents into the river without much treatment. The
industrial population in the area included chemical, medical as well as food industries.
Figure 5.1 : Colour classification of the industrial accumulation near the river
High level of heavy metals is damaging the kidney, liver, muscle, tissues and gills
of fish.“The Kochi coastal zone is under increased industrial activity with over 250 large
and medium industries causing heavy metal contamination leading to ecological decay in

the region,” according to principal investigator and head of the Cusat Marine Biology,
Microbiology and Biochemistry Department S Bijoy Nandan . “The volume of industrial
effluents discharged from the Eloor-Kalamassery industrial belt is about 260 million
litres per day, much of which is directly discharged into the Periyar River from where it
enters the backwaters. There is a need to study the heavymetal contamination of drinking
water projects in view of the increase in renal diseases in Kerala.” The Cusat study found
an alarmingly high concentration of metals like zinc, lead, cadmium and copper in the
sediment samples collected from the Kochi Estuarine system, which would have
deleterious effects on organisms and would impose serious health issues leading to
bioaccumulation and biomagnification trends. The increased heavy metal content in
water has led to an abnormality of the blood cells, structural changes in the gills, liver,
kidney and spleen of the aquatic organisms, the report said.
The team studied the impact of contamination in pearlspot, mussels, black clam,
shrimp, tiger prawn, jellyfish, copepods, and micro algae. The team prepared a definitive
Water Quality Criteria for copper, zinc and lead adopting the guidelines from United
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). While the USEPA benchmark for
permissible level of heavy metals in water bodies are 1.3 micrograms per litre for copper,
81 micrograms per litre for zinc and 8.1 micrograms per litre for lead, the concentration
of these metals was 5.08 micrograms, 54.96 micrograms and 25.40 micrograms
respectively.

CHAPTER 6
WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
Water, whether for a pubic municipality, water facility or business/home, must be tested
regularly to keep the source safe and free of potential health/environmental risks. The
type of test needed, and to what frequency, will depend on the unique components
specific to the water source in question. The necessary water test can be impacted by
factors such as local and federal regulations, location, climate/weather, infrastructure,
agriculture and even the desired detection level.
Testing the water allows a knowledgeable approach to address the specific
problems of a water supply. This helps ensure that the water source is being properly
protected from potential contamination, and that an appropriate treatment system is
selected and operating. It is important to test the suitability of your water quality for its
intended purpose, whether it is livestock watering, irrigation, spraying, or drinking water.
This will assist you in making informed decisions about your water and how you use it.
The following are some of the tests conducted on water to determine its quality.
6.1 Qualitative Analysis of Water
A variety of chronic disorders may develop from the accumulation of non-essential trace
elements. Humans have been exposed to such elements only recently due to extensive
mining. Because humans did not encounter these elements during the course of evolution,
they have not developed homeostatic mechanisms to accommodate or eliminate these
elements from their bodies. Patients all originating from one manufacturing town and its
environs have been reporting at various hospitals with wide-ranging symptoms, including
headache, vomiting, muscle pain, memory loss, constipation, and high blood pressure. To
determine what may be responsible, an investigator can use qualitative analysis to
identify the ions present in a sample by systematically conducting different chemical
tests. The most common test is selective precipitation, which separates cations into
groups based on their solubility under specific conditions. The reagents are added
sequentially to the same solution throughout testing. After separation, the individual ions
can be identified by confirmatory tests, which can include observing their color, odour,

appearance, and solubility.
6.1.1 Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of water’s capability to pass electrical flow. This ability is

directly related to the concentration of ions in the water. These conductive ions come
from dissolved salts and inorganic materials such as alkalis, chlorides, sulfides and
carbonate compound .Compounds that dissolve into ions are also known as electrolytes .
The more ions that are present, the higher the conductivity of water. Likewise, the fewer
ions that are in the water, the less conductive it is. Distilled or deionized water can act as
an insulator due to its very low (if not negligible) conductivity value. Sea water, on the
other hand, has a very high conductivity. Standard value of conductivity is 2.25x10-3.
The electrical conductivity of each sample was measured using pre-calibrated

conductivity meter. Before measurement, the beaker and conductivity cell must be
washed several times in the distilled water and the measurements were taken at room
temperature. The instrument was calibrated first with standard KCl solution. Then the
samples were taken into the beaker, in enough capacity to dip the electrode, after that the
button was adjusted to desired conductivity scale conductivity of each sample was then
noted.
6.1.2 Turbidity
Turbidity may be due to presence of colloidal impurities and suspended impurities in the
form of sand, clay and other organic debris. The transparent nature of water decreases
due to high turbidity level, which is harmful for industrial processes. A device called
nephelometric turbidity meter measures the turbidity of water in NTU the intensity of
light after passing through the water gives the turbidity of water. The permissible limit of
turbidity is 5 NTU and acceptable limit is 1 NTU as per IS 10500: 2012.
The turbidity of water was measured using nephelometer. Turbidity is measured

immediately after collecting the sample. Firstly calibrate the nephelometer in the required
range. Gently agitate the sample. Wait till air bubbles disappear and pour the sample into
sample cell and then read the turbidity directly from the nephelometer.

6.1.3 Total Coliforms
Total coliforms are a group of bacteria commonly found in the environment, for example
in soil or vegetation, as well as the intestines of mammals, including humans. Total
coliform bacteria are not likely to cause illness, but their presence indicates that your
water supply may be vulnerable to contamination by more harmful microorganisms.
Escherichia coli (E.coli) is the only member of the total coliform group of bacteria that is
found only in the intestines of mammals, including humans. The presence of E.coli in
water indicates recent fecal contamination and may indicate the possible presence of
disease-causing pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Although most strains
of E.coli bacteria are harmless, certain strains, such as E.coli 0157:H7 may cause illness.
As per IS1622:1981 total coliforms should be absent in drinking water.
6.2 Quantitative Analysis
Analytical chemistry, or the art of recognizing different substances and determining their
constituents, takes a prominent position among the applications of science, since the
questions which it enables us to answer arise wherever chemical processes are employed
for scientific or technical purposes. Its supreme importance has caused it to be
assiduously cultivated from a very early period in the history of chemistry, and its records
comprise a large part of the quantitative work which is spread over the whole domain of
science." Quantitative analyses are used in one form or another in the processing of all
raw materials, from the determination of carbon, nickel and chromium to determine the
hardness of steel to the analysis of sugar content of grapes hour by hour near the time of
harvest so as to give the vintner the best quality grape for fermentation into wine.
Four methods of quantitative analysis: gravimetric, acid-base volumetric, iodometric
volumetric and spectroscopic. Some other methods, certainly equally as important as the
ones with which you will come in contact ought at least to be mentioned: mass
spectrometry for the determination of the masses of molecular fragments and their
quantities, radioactivity for the determination of the abundance of certain isotopes, heat
and rate of reaction, thermal conductivity, optical activity and refractive index.

6.2.1 pH
pH usually has no direct impact on water consumers, it is one of the most important
operational water-quality parameters. Careful attention to pH control is necessary at all
stages of water treatment to ensure satisfactory water clarification and disinfection. For
effective disinfection with chlorine, the pH should preferably be less than 8. The pH of
the water entering the distribution system must be controlled to minimize the corrosion of
pipes in household water systems. Failure to do so can result in the contamination of
drinking-water and in adverse effects on its taste, odor, and appearance. The optimum pH
will vary in different supplies according to the composition of the water and the nature of
the construction materials used in the distribution system, permissible pH range for
drinking water as per IS 10500: 2012is 6.5 to 8.5. Extreme pH values can result from
accidental spills, treatment breakdowns, and insufficiently cured cement mortar pipe
linings.
pH of all three water samples were measured with the help of portable electrically
operated pH meter with the help of glass electrode. The calibration was done by using
two standard buffer solutions of pH 4.0 and 7.0.Rinse the electrode with distilled water
and dries it using a tissue paper. Immerse the electrode in a suitable buffer solution
nearest to the range to be measured. Make the necessary corrections for temperature.
Measure the pH and adjust the calibration knob to bring the reading to the correct value.
Rinse the electrode with distilled water and dry it using a tissue paper. Immerse the
electrode in a buffer solution at the other extreme of the range and adjust the value using
slope correction knob. Wash the electrode with D.W and dry it using a tissue paper. Place
the electrode in the sample whose pH is to be measured and note the reading.
6.2.2 Alkalinity
Water shows alkaline nature due to presence of hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate
ions. Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids or hydrogen ions.
It can sometimes be refereed as "Carbonate hardness". It acts as a buffer if any changes
are made to the water's pH value. The Alkalinity in the water will help keep the water's
pH stabilized. The drinking water and all water should be a pH of 7 meaning that it's
neutral. High alkalinity is good to have in our drinking water because it keeps the water

safe for us to drink. The amount of Alkalinity that should be in our water is 20-200 mg/L
for typical drinking water. Alkalinity is basically dissolved minerals in the water that help
neutralize the water we drink.
Alkalinity can be determined by titrating water sample with standard acid solution
of H2SO4 and using Methyl Orange as indicator. Collect 20 mL water sample, add 1 to 2
drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate the 20 mL sample with 0.02N sulphuric acid
to pH 8.3 and estimate phenolphthalein alkalinity phenolphthalein indicator will change
color, from pink to colourless. Note down the titrate value as V1. To the same sample add
1 to 2 drops of methyl orange indicator. The color turns yellow. Titrate the sample with
0.02N sulphuric acid to pH 4.5 till color changes to orange yellow and estimate total
alkalinity.
6.2.3 Acidity
In general, water with a low pH (< 6.5) could be acidic, soft, and corrosive. Therefore,
the water could leach metal ions such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, and zinc from the
aquifer, plumbing fixtures, and piping. Therefore, water with a low pH could contain
elevated levels of toxic metals, cause premature damage to metal piping, and have
associated aesthetic problems such as a metallic or sour taste, staining of laundry, and the
characteristic "blue-green" staining of sinks and drains. The primary way to treat the
problem of low pH water is with the use of a neutralizer. The neutralizer feeds a solution
into the water to prevent the water from reacting with the house plumbing or contributing
to electrolytic corrosion; a typical neutralizing chemical is soda ash. Neutralizing with
soda ash increases the sodium content of the water.
Acidity can be determined by titrating water sample with standard NaOH. Collect
20 mL water sample, add 1 to 2 drops of methyl orange indicator. Titrate the 20 mL
sample with 0.02N standard NaOH till the color changes from orange red to yellow. Note
down the titrate value as V1. To the same sample add 1 to 2 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Continue the titration till the color changes to pink.
6.2.4 Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the volume of oxygen that is contained in water. A high

DO level in a community water supply is good because it makes drinking water taste
better. However, high DO levels speed up corrosion in water pipes. For this reason,
industries use water with the least possible amount of dissolved oxygen. The amount of
oxygen water can hold depends upon temperature (more oxygen can be dissolved in
colder water), pressure (more oxygen can be dissolved in water at greater pressure), and
salinity (more oxygen can be dissolved in water of lower salinity). Many lakes and ponds
have anoxic (oxygen deficient) bottom layers in the summer because of decomposition
processes depleting the oxygen. The amount of dissolved oxygen often determines the
number and types of organisms living in that body of water. Standard value of DO in
drinking water is 4 – 5 mg/l.
DO in water can be obtained by filling the sample in the BOD bottle up to the
neck, taking care to avoid any air bubbles. Add 1mL of MnSO4 solution followed by
1mL alkali iodide azide solution, holding the pippete tips just above the liquid surface.
Stopper the bottle carefully to exclude air bubbles and mix it by inverting it for 25 to 30
times. Allow the precipitation formed to settle down to leave a clear supernatant above
manganese hydroxide floc. Add 1 to 2mLconcentrated sulphuric acid, restopper and mix
immediately by inverting the bottle till all the precipitate dissolve. Take 20mL sample in
the flask and titrate against 0.025 sodium thiosulphate till it becomes pale yellow color.
Add 1mL starch and continue titration till dark blue color becomes colourless. Note down
the volume of sodium thiosulphate used as V1.
6.2.5 Biochemical oxygen demand
Microorganisms such as bacteria are responsible for decomposing organic waste. When
organic matter such as dead plants, leaves, grass clippings, manure, sewage, or even food
waste is present in a water supply, the bacteria will begin the process of breaking down
this waste. When this happens, much of the available dissolved oxygen is consumed by
aerobic bacteria, robbing other aquatic organisms of the oxygen they need to live.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen used by microorganisms
to decompose this waste. If there is a large quantity of organic waste in the water supply,
there will also be a lot of bacteria present working to decompose this waste. In this case,
the demand for oxygen will be high (due to all the bacteria) so the BOD level will be

high. As the waste is consumed or dispersed through the water, BOD levels will begin to
decline. Standard value of BOD in drinking water is 20 mg/l.
The BOD test takes 5 days to complete and is performed using a dissolved oxygen
test kit. The BOD level is determined by comparing the DO level of a water sample taken
immediately with the DO level of a water sample that has been incubated in a dark
location for 5 days. The difference between the two DO levels represents the amount of
oxygen required for the decomposition of any organic material in the sample and is a
good approximation of the BOD level.
Take the sample in inverted flask, taking care to avoid air bubbles. Keep the
sample in incubator at 200C.After 5 days add 1mL of MnSO4 solution followed by 1mL
alkali iodide azide solution, holding the pippete tips just above the liquid surface. Stopper
the bottle carefully to exclude air bubbles and mix it by inverting it for 25 to 30 times.
Allow the precipitation formed to settle down to leave a clear supernatant above
manganese hydroxide floc. Add 1 to 2mL concentrated sulphuric acid, restopper and mix
immediately by inverting the bottle till the entire precipitate dissolve. Take 20mL sample
in the flask and titrate against 0.025 sodium thiosulphate till it becomes pale yellow color.
Add 1 ml starch and continue titration till dark blue color becomes colourless. Note down
the volume of sodium thiosulphate used as V1.
6.2.6 Chlorides
Different types of chlorides may be present in water, which may impart salty taste to
water. These chlorides are in the salt form of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium
etc. Out of these salts, Sodium Chloride and Calcium Chloride are majorly responsible
for salty taste. The permissible limit of chloride content in water is 260 mg/Liter
according to WHO. High chloride content may be problematic to sewage water treatment,
boiler problems are associated with this and drinking water taste may be differ and saline.
Precipitation method of titration was used to determine chloride content with the help of
Silver nitrate as standard solution and Potassium dichromate as indicator. During
titration, chlorides will convert into brick red precipitate of silver chlorides. End point
can be observed as appearance of brick red colour.

Figure 6.1: Test for chloride
To test the presence of chloride in water take a known volume of sample in flask
and add 10 drops of potassium chromate indicator. Titrate against 0.0141N silver nitrate
solution until the color changes from yellow to pinkish yellow. Note down the volume of
silver nitrate used as V1.Take 10mL of distilled water in a flask and add 10 drops of
potassium chromate indicator. Titrate against 0.0141N silver nitrate solutions until the
color changes from yellow to pinkish yellow. Note down the volume of silver nitrate used
as V2.
6.2.7 Total dissolved solids
These are well defined as solid matter, suspended or dissolved substances in water. These
solids affect water quality adversely in many ways. Water with high dissolved solids is of
inferior quality and may show an unfavorable physiological reaction in the transient
consumer. It is because of this reason; there is a permissible limit of 500 mg for some
organic substances. The total dissolved solids (TDS) of the water samples were measured
using pre-calibrated total dissolved solid meter. Before measurement, the beaker and
electrode were washed with the distilled water. Conductivity cell was calibrated with the
help of KCl solution. All these measurements were taken at room temperature. After this,
the samples were taken into beaker in specific volume to dip the conductivity cell and
then the button was pressed. The scale was already set before the TDS of each sample

was noted.
To test total dissolved solids in water pipette out a known volume of sample so
that the tip of pipette is at the center of sample avoiding vortex formed and filter the
sample through a weighed ash less filter paper of suitable grade. Allow the filter paper
with residue to dry in hot air oven at 1030C overnight. After complete drying of sample,
allow to cool and weigh the filter paper. The difference in amount of filter paper gives the
amount of solids collected on the filter paper. Calculate the total suspended solids present
in one liter of sample as mg. Expressed as Suspended solids. The water that passes
through filter paper is collected in a clean beaker whose initial weight is known. Allow
the sample to dry in hot air oven at 1150C so that all the liquid is dried up. Weigh the
beaker. The difference in weight of the beaker gives the amount of dissolved solids
present in the sample.
6.2.8 Iron
Iron can be a troublesome chemical in water supplies. Making up at least 5 percent of the
earth’s crust, iron is one of the earth’s most plentiful resources. Rainwater as it infiltrates
the soil and underlying geologic formations dissolves iron, causing it to seep into aquifers
that serve as sources of groundwater for wells. Although present in drinking water, iron is
seldom found at concentrations greater than 10 milligrams per liter (mg/L) or 10 parts per
million. Iron is mainly present in water in two forms: either the soluble ferrous iron or the
insoluble ferric iron. Permissible limit of iron in water is 0.3 mg/l.
To test iron content in sample prepare a series of standards of 100 mL by

pipetting calculated volumes of stock iron solution to measure 0 to 2.5 mg/L in 100ml
nessler’s tubes. Add 4 mL dilute hydrochloric acid and 5 mL potassium thiocynate
solution. Add distilled water to the mark of 100 mL. Set the wavelength of
spectrophotometer to 520 nm. Make the zero absorbance or 100% transmission using
blank. Measure the absorbance or transmission of light at 510nm for the series of
standards prepared. Plot the calibration curve. Take a little sample whose iron content is
to be determined in nessler’s tube. Add 4 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid and 5 mL of
potassium thiocynate. Make up the volume to 100mL with the sample itself. Measure the
transmissibility for the sample and from the calibration curve, read out the iron content.
6.2.9 Sulphate
Sulphate may be leached from the soil and is commonly found in most water supplies.
Magnesium, potassium and sodium sulphate salts are all soluble in water. Calcium and
barium sulphates are not very easily dissolved in water. There are several other sources of
sulphate in water. Decaying plant and animal matter may release sulphate into water.
Numerous chemical products including ammonium sulphate fertilizers contain sulphate
in a variety of forms. The treatment of water with aluminum sulphate (alum) or copper
sulphate also introduces sulphate into a water supply. Human activities such as the
combustion of fossil fuels and sour gas processing release sulphur oxides to the
atmosphere, some of which is converted to sulphate. The permissible limit of sulphate is
200mg/l.
Figure 6.2: Test for sulphate
To test the presence of sulphate in water, prepare standards at 5mg/L increments

in the range of 0 to 40 mg/L by accurately pipetting calculated volume of standard
sulphate solution. Dilute to 100mL and transfer to conical flask. Add 20mL of buffer
solution to the conical flask. Place the whole solution in magnetic stirrer and stir at a
constant speed. Add as spatula of barium chloride crystals and stir for 60 seconds. The
solution is allowed to rest for 5 minutes after which the calorimeter reading is taken for
absorption or percentage transmission at 420nm.Plot the graph taking concentration along
x axis and absorbance % transmission along y axis.100mL sample in the magnetic stirrer
at a constant speed. Add one spatula of barium chloride to the solution and continue

stirring for 60 seconds. Allow reaction time of 5 minutes, and then take reading for
absorption /percentage transmissibility. Calculate the sulphate concentration from
calibration curve. Report the result in mg SO42/L.
6.2.10 Chromium
Chromium is an odorless and tasteless metallic element. Chromium is found naturally in

rocks, plants, soil and volcanic dust, and animals. The most common forms of chromium
that occur in natural waters in the environment are Trivalent chromium (chromium-3) and
Hexavalent chromium (chromium-6) Chromium-3 is an essential human dietary element.
It is found in many vegetables, fruits, meats, grains, and yeast. Chromium-6 occurs
naturally in the environment from the erosion of natural chromium deposits. It can also
be produced by industrial processes. There are demonstrated instances of chromium
being released to the environment by leakage, poor storage, or inadequate industrial
waste disposal practices. Permissible limit of chromium in drinking water is 0.05 mg/l.
6.2.11 Cadmium
Cadmium metal is used mainly as an anticorrosive, electroplated onto steel. Cadmium

sulfide and selenide are commonly used as pigments in plastics. Cadmium compounds
are used in electric batteries, electronic components and nuclear reactors. Fertilizers
produced from phosphate ores constitute a major source of diffuse cadmium pollution.
The solubility of cadmium in water is influenced to a large degree by its acidity;
suspended or sediment-bound cadmium may dissolve when there is an increase in acidity
(Ros&Slooff, 1987). In natural waters, cadmium is found mainly in bottom sediments
and suspended particles. Cadmium can be determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy
using either direct aspiration into a flame or a furnace spectrometric technique. The
detection limit is 5 µg/l with the flame method and 0.1 µg/l with the furnace procedure.
6.2.12 Manganese
Manganese is a mineral that naturally occurs in rocks and soil and may also be present
due to underground pollution sources. The U.S. EPA Secondary Drinking Water
Regulations recommend a limit of 0.05 mg/l manganese because of the staining which
may be caused. For many industrial purposes the manganese content should not exceed

0.01 to 0.02 mg/l and in some cases this is even considered excessive. In concentrations
higher than 0.05 mg/l the manganese may become noticeable by impairing color, odor, or
taste to the water. However, according to the EPA health effects are not a concern until
concentrations are approximately 10 times higher.
6.2.13 Mercury
Mercury is a naturally occurring metal that combines with other elements to form
inorganic mercury compounds. Mercury also combines with carbon to make organic
mercury compounds. The major source of mercury is from natural degassing of the
earth's crust. The U.S. EPA has found mercury in water has the potential to cause kidney
damage from short-term exposures at levels above the maximum contaminant level
(MCL). No health advisories have been established for short-term exposures. However,
on a chronic basis, mercury has the potential to cause kidney damage from long-term
exposure at levels above the MCL. The EPA has not discovered sufficient evidence to
state whether mercury in drinking water has the potential to cause cancer over a lifetime.
6.2.14 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of water and wastewater quality. The
COD test is often used to monitor water treatment plant efficiency. This test is based on
the fact that a strong oxidizing agent, under acidic conditions, can fully oxidize almost
any organic compound to carbon dioxide. The COD is the amount of oxygen consumed
to chemically oxidize organic water contaminants to inorganic end products
The COD is often measured using a strong oxidant (e.g. potassium dichromate,
potassium iodate, potassium permanganate) under acidic conditions. A known excess
amount of the oxidant is added to the sample. Once oxidation is complete, the
concentration of organics in the sample is calculated by measuring the amount of oxidant
remaining in the solution. This is usually done by titration, using an indicator solution.
COD is expressed in mg/L, which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of
solution.

6.2.15 Copper
Copper is a naturally occurring metal found in rock, soil, water, and sediment. The major
source of copper in drinking water is corrosion of household plumbing, faucets, and
water fixtures. Water absorbs copper as it leaches from plumbing materials such as pipes,
fittings, and brass faucets. The amount of copper in your water depends on the types and
amounts of minerals in the water, how long water stays in the pipes, the water
temperature and acidity. If more than 10 percent of the tap water samples exceed the EPA
copper action level of 1.3 mg per liter, water systems must use treatment to reduce
corrosion. Consumers should take steps to reduce exposure to copper if they learn their
water exceeds the action level.

CHAPTER 7
RESULT ANALYSIS
The tests both qualitative and quantitative were carried out on the 3 water samples along
the river Muttar flowing through Eloor municipality. A total of 17 tests were performed
and the results tabulated as shown in table 7.1 below. Out of the 17 tests which were
performed 10 tests are done in AISAT environmental engineering lab and 7 tests were
performed in Poluchem laboratories pvt ltd.
All of the three samples tested were found to have their pH less than 6.5 making
them unfit for drinking. A pH greater than 6.5 is acidic in nature and cannot be used as
such for drinking. Sample 3 was the most acidic with pH 5.43.
The three samples also were found to be highly turbid as their values were much
higher than the standard value of 1 NTU. Sample 3 had the greatest turbidity of 24 NTU.
The conductivity of sample 1 and sample 2 were found to be greater than the
standard value of 2.25 x 10-3. Highest conductivity observed in Sample 2.
The acidity of Sample 1 and Sample 2 were found to be same as 10 mg/l and the
highest was found in Sample 3 as 15mg/l against the standard value of mg/l.
The alkalinity values of all the three samples were within the limiting value of
200mg/l.
The chloride content of all the three samples was tested as higher than the
standard value of 250mg/l. The greatest amounts of chlorine were observed in Sample 3
and were found as 373mg/l.
The dissolved oxygen content of all the three samples does not lie between the
standard values of 4-5mg/l. The highest dissolved oxygen was marked in sample 7 as
5.8mg/l.
The Biochemical Oxygen Demand of all the three samples is within the limit of
20mg/l.
Sample 1 and sample 3 was tested positive for the presence of iron in water above
standard limit of 0.3mg/l. The highest iron content was in Sample 3 with concentration
0.58mg/l.

The concentration of sulphate was found to be within the limits of 200mg/l for all
the three samples which were tested.
The three water samples were tested for the presence of five toxic metals
Cadmium, Chromium, Manganese, Copper and Mercury. Sample 1 and Sample 3 tested
positive for heavy metals. Sample 1 contained cadmium and copper and Sample 3
contained cadmium, copper and chromium above their standard values.
All of the three samples had their COD values greater than the standard value of
10mg/l. the highest COD value was observed in Sample 3 as 105mg/l.
All the three samples also contained total coliform content. The drinkable water
should have zero amounts of the same. The largest amount of total coliform in water was
observed in Sample 1.
The results clearly show that the Muttar river water in Eloor is polluted. The
sample 3 collected from Muppathadam region was found to have the most number of
pollutants. The water has organic as well as inorganic chemicals in it. The result strongly
implies that the Muttar river water should be treated before being used for domestic
purposes.

Table 7.1 Test results
SL Test Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Standard
No. value
1 pH 5.72 5.78 5.43 6.5-8.5
2 Turbidity 11 16 24 1 NTU
3 Conductivity 3.56x 10¯ ³ 4.23x 10¯ ³ 2.252x10¯ ³ 2.25 x 10¯ ³
4 Acidity 10 10 15
5 Alkalinity 40 45 85 200 mg/l
6 Chloride 333 365 373 250 mg/l
7 Dissolved 5.3 5.8 5.4 4-5 mg/l

oxygen
8 Biochemical 1.10 1.78 1.64 20 mg/l
oxygen
demand
9 Iron 0.35 0.04 0.58 0.3 mg/l
10. Sulphate 11.86 44.48 123.48 200 mg/l
11 Chromium < 0.05 < 0.05 > 0.05 0.05 mg/l
12 Cadmium >0.003 < 0.003 > 0.003 0.003 mg/l
13 Manganese <0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 mg/ l
14 Copper >0.05 < 0.05 > 0.05 0.05 mg/l
15 Mercury < 0.001 <0.001 < 0.001 0.001 mg/l
16 COD 73.5 86.58 105 10 mg/l
17 Total 150 110 140 Absent

coliforms

CHAPTER 8
WATER DEMAND
Water is essential to human life and to many industries. While by far the largest body of
water on Earth is the saltwater of the oceans, freshwater is required for most human
activities. However, most freshwater is locked up in glaciers and polar ice caps. Water
supplies are drawn mainly from rivers, lakes, and groundwater. The hydrologic or water
cycle renews water supplies by moving water from the oceans, as freshwater, to land.
Water consumption varies widely from place to place, but is increasing

everywhere as global population rises. Sometimes supply cannot meet local demand,
which creates conflict. Climatic factors, such as drought and global warming, water
management practices, and over-exploitation place pressure upon water supplies.
Diversion of water resources to increase water supplies often has an adverse impact on
water quality and the local ecology. Water conservation measures and water management
based on sound scientific principles are needed to avert a global water crisis.
Water demand comes from the agricultural, industrial, and domestic sectors.
Agriculture accounts for the greatest use and consumption of water worldwide. Crop
irrigation accounts for two-thirds of water withdrawals and 85% of consumption
worldwide. Industry accounts for 20% of water withdrawals worldwide. Industrial water
withdrawals vary from up to 70% in countries with a lot of industry, to less than 5% in
some less-developed nations. Power production and mining account for the most
industrial water use, with water being required for cleaning and cooling processes. Unlike
agricultural water, most industrial water can be returned to the water supply, only it will
be degraded if it is not treated first.
8.1 Types of Demand
Following are the various types of water demand of a city or town:

1. Domestic Water Demand
2. Commercial and Industrial Demand
3. Fire-Demand
4. Demand for Public Use

5. Compensate Losses Demand.
8.1.1 Domestic water demand
Domestic water demand includes the quantity of water required in the houses for
drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc. The quantity of water required for domestic use
mainly depends on the habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs of the
people. In India on an average, the domestic consumption of water under normal
condition is about 135 litres per head per day as per IS: 1172-1171. The average water
demand for small Indian towns or cities is given in Table 8.1 below.
Table 8.1 Average Water Demand for Small Indian Towns or Cities
WATER USE CONSUMPTION IN

L/head / day
Drinking 5
Cooking 5
Bathing 55
Washing of cloths 20
Washing of utensils 10
Washing of houses and residences 10
Flushing of water closets etc. 30
Total 135
As per the Indian Standard, IS: 172-1993 in the design of a water supply scheme
for a town or city with full flushing system minimum water supply of 200 litres per head
per day should be provided for domestic water demand. Out of 200 litres per head per
day of water, 45 litres per head per day of water may be taken for flushing requirements
and the remaining quantity of water is for other domestic purposes. The breakup of 200
litres per head per day may be approximately taken as shown in table 8.2.

Table 8.2 Average Water Demand for Indian Towns or Cities with Full Flushing System
WATER USE CONSUMPTION IN
L/head / day
Drinking 5
Cooking 5
Bathing 75
Washing of cloths 25
Washing of utensils 15
Washing of houses and residences 15
Lawn watering and gardening 15
Flushing of water closets etc. 45
Total 200
In developed countries this figure may be as high as 350 litres/day/ capita. The
increase in water consumption in developed countries is mainly due to use of air coolers,
air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, automatic household appliances such as home
laundries, dish washers etc. In India the domestic water demand is 4.1 % of the total
water use.
8.1.2 Commercial and industrial water demand
Commercial building and commercial centres include office building, warehouse, stores,
hotels, shopping centres, health centres, schools, temples, cinema houses, railway and bus
stations etc. The water requirements of commercial and public places may be up to 45
litres/day/capita.
The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type and size of
industries which are existing in the city. The quantity of water required by industries is
also expressed in terms of per capita demand. The water required by factories, paper
mills, clothe mills, cotton mills, breweries, sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial
use. The quantity of water demand for industrial purposes is around 20 to 25% of the
total demand of the city. Most of the big industries, universities and institutions generally
have their own water supply arrangements from the private tube-wells.

8.1.3 Fire demand
Fires generally break in thickly populated localities and the industrial area, and cause
serious damages of properties and sometimes lives of the people arc lost. Fire may take
place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching materials, explosions,
bad intention of criminal people or any other unforeseen mishappenings. If fires are not
properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to serious
damages and may burn the cities.
All the big cities have full fire-fighting squads. As during fire-breakdowns large
quantity of water is required for throwing it over the fire to extinguish it, therefore
provision is made in the water works to supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as
reserve in the water mains for this purpose, in the cities fire-hydrants are provided on the
water mains at 100 to 150 m apart. Fire brigade men immediately connect these fire-
hydrants with their engines and start throwing water at very high rate on the fire.
8.1.4 Demand for public use
Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and sprinkling
of roads cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc.,
comes under public demand. To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5%
of the total consumption is made while designing the water works for a city.
8.1.5 Compensate losses demand
All the water which goes in the distribution pipe does not reach the consumers. Some
portion of this is wasted in the pipe lines due to defective pipe-joints, cracked and broken
pipes, faulty valves and fittings. Sometimes consumers keep open their taps or public taps
even when they are not using the water and allow continuous wastage of water.
In some way, some quantity of water is lost due to unauthorized and illegal
connections. While estimating the total requirement of water of a town, allowance for
these losses and wastages should also be done. Generally allowance of 15% of the total
quantity of water is made to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.

8.2 Population Forecasting
Design of water supply and sanitation scheme is based on the projected population of a
particular city, estimated for the design period. Any underestimated value will make
system inadequate for the purpose intended; similarly overestimated value will make it
costly. Changes in the population of the city over the years occur, and the system should
be designed taking into account of the population at the end of the design period. Factors
affecting changes in population are:
 Increase due to births
 Decrease due to deaths
 Increase/ decrease due to migration
 Increase due to annexation.
The present and past population record for the city can be obtained from the
census population records. After collecting these population figures, the population at the
end of design period is predicted using various methods as suitable for that city
considering the growth pattern followed by the city. The adopted method for population
determination after 38 years in Eloor municipality is geometric increase method.
8.2.1 Geometric increase method
In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is assumed to
remain constant. Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment in
population. Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new
industrial town at the beginning of development for only few decades. The population at
the end of nth decade ‘Pn’ can be estimated as:
Pn = P0 x (
Where, r- geometric mean (%)

P0-Present population
n -no. of decades
Pn= P0 x (
Population of Eloor in 2011,

P0 = 31468
Growth rate,
r = 4.6
n=
= 3.8 years
Population of Eloor after 38 years,
Pn = 31468 x
= 37333

CHAPTER 9
COAGULATION CUM SEDIMENTATION TANK
Very fine suspended clay particles are not removed by plain sedimentation. Silt particles
of 0.06 mm size requires 10 hours to settle in 3 m deep plain sedimentation tank and 0.02
mm particles will require about 4 days for settling. This settling time is impracticable,
because water cannot be detained for such a long time. In plain sedimentation tanks
detention time of about 2 hours for mechanically cleaned basins and about 6 hours for
ordinary tanks, can be allowed.In addition to fine suspended matter, water also contains
electrically charged colloidal matters which are continuously in motion and never settle
down due to gravitational force.When water contains such fine clay particles and
colloidal impurities, it becomes necessary to apply such process which can easily remove
them from the water. After long experience it has been found that such impurities can be
removed by sedimentation with coagulation.
Figure 9.1 : Coagulation cum sedimentation tank
It has been found that when certain chemicals are added to water an insoluble,
gelatinous, flocculent precipitation is formed. This gelatinous precipitate during its
formation and descent through the water absorb and entangle very fine suspended matter
and colloidal impurities. The gelatinous precipitate therefore has the property of
removing fine and colloidal particles quickly and completely than by plain sedimentation.
These coagulants further have the advantages of removing colour, odour and taste from

the water. These coagulants if properly applied are harmless to the public.First the
coagulants are mixed in the water to produce the required precipitate, and then the water
is sent in sedimentation basins where sedimentation of fine and colloidal particles takes
place through the precipitate.
9.1 Devices in Coagulation cum Sedimentation Tank
There are certain devices used in coagulation cum sedimentation process. These are
mainly divided into two; feeding devices and mixing devices. Feeding devices are used to
feed coagulants to the water to be treated. Feeding can be done either in dry form or wet
form. Mixing devices are used to mix the coagulants thoroughly in water. Mixing can be
done by using baffle type basins or deflector plate mixers or flash mixers.
9.1.1 Feeding devices
Coagulants can be fed in dry or liquid form. Dry feed devices are desirable because they
are simple, require small space for installation, keep neatness, are free from corrosion and
are economical. But all the coagulants cannot be fed by dry feed devices, because some
coagulants have characteristics of clogging, caking and deliquescence. The coagulants
which have uniformity in grain size, constancy in composition, free from being
hygroscopic or efflorescent and remain dry under various conditions of temperature and
pressure are suitable for feeding in dry form. Aluminium sulphate can be fed in dry
condition. The coagulants which are of corrosive nature and create difficulties in solution
feed method should also be fed in dry form. The water of crystallization of ferrous
sulphate changes with temperature therefore it is difficult to be fed in dry form because
its powder may change to a solid mass, in the same way hydrated lime cannot be easily
fed in dry form, because it may absorb moisture from air and become slaked lime.
The choice of feeding device depends on the type of coagulant and the economy
in total cost of plant. In large water works where large quantity of coagulants is required,
the chemicals are purchased in the cheapest form and then feeding device is decided. In
the case of small waterworks or where small quantity of water is to be treated the cost of
feeding device is the main deciding factor. At such places cheapest type of feeding device
is installed and the coagulants which suit it are used.

 Dry Feed Devices
These devices are designed on volumetric or gravimetric displacement of dry-chemicals.

The chemicals are kept in the hoppers. Required amount of coagulant is fed by revolving
the helical screw or the toothed wheel fixed at the bottom of the conical hopper. Only
required amount of coagulant is drawn off continuously. The speed of rotation of helical
screw or toothed wheel is controlled by means of a venturi device installed in the raw
water channels or pipes through which raw water flows to the treatment plant. When the
quantity of raw water increases automatically the speed of rotation is increased and
required amount of coagulant is fed in water at every time.
 Solution Feed Devices (Wet Feeding)
The chemicals whose solutions can be easily prepared are suitable to be fed by this
method. First of all solution is prepared by placing the coagulants in a metal basket,
perforated concrete box or perforated wooden box and then spraying warm water over it.
The solution so prepared is kept in large tanks to hold sufficient quantity for one
operation shift. Sometimes solution pot is used for this purpose which is most satisfactory
method. In the pot coagulants are kept through which the water flows. The rate of flow in
the solution pot is directly proportional to the flows in the main channel. Sufficient
coagulants are kept in the pot to maintain a saturated solution in the effluent pipe. The
solution is kept in a constant solution level tank, having a tapered hole in the bottom,
which is controlled by a conical plug operated by a rod connected to the pulley. A small
float chamber is constructed and connected to the raw water channel by means of a pipe.
A float is kept in float chamber and it operates the pulley by means of a rack and pinion
arrangement. When the quantity of raw water increases, the water level in float chamber
also increases and lifts the float.
The lifting of float operates the pulley and the conical plug is also lifted thus
increases and lifts the float. The lifting of float operates the pulley and the conical plug is
also lifted thus increasing the opening of tapered hole causing more solution to reach the
raw water. The float and conical plugs are so interconnected by means of pulley, shaft,
rack and pinion arrangement that only required amount of solution reaches the raw water

channel in every case. Thus, this device is an automatic device for feeding solution of
coagulants.
9.1.2 Mixing devices
After adding coagulants in water, the next operation is to mix them thoroughly in water
so that they fully disperse in the whole water. This mixing is done by mixing devices. In
these devices first the coagulants are vigorously and rapidly mixed for about one minute.
Then the mixture is gently agitated for about half an hour so that coagulants may react
and start coagulation. The velocity of flow of water in mixing basins is kept between 15-
30 cm/sec. The velocity in no case should be less than 10 cm/sec. and more than 75
cm/sec., because in first case the floe will settle down and in second case disintegrate.
Mixing can be done by one of the following devices.
 Baffle Type Basins
In these basins water may flow round about the end baffles or up and down past under
and over baffles, the baffle walls are placed 60-100 cm apart and the velocity of water is
kept between 15-30 cm/sec. The detention period in these basins is kept 20-50 minutes.
These are not suitable for small plants because these are costly in construction, have less
flexibility of control, and greater loss of head.
 Flash Mixer
In this device the solution of coagulants is mixed thoroughly in the water by means of a
fan operated by electric motor suitable drive. The water enters in through the inlet; the
deflecting wall deflects the water towards fan blades where chemicals also reach through
chemical pipe. The rotating fan mixes coagulants with water which finally goes out from
outlet.
 Deflector Plate Mixer
In this device the mixing is done by diffusing the water through a deflector plate. Water
enters from inlet pipe, and then it comes out from the holes provided below the deflector
plate where it is agitated rapidly. Chemical pipe brings the coagulants near deflector
plate, where they are thoroughly mixed with water.

9.2 Design Calculations
9.2.1 Design of sedimentation tank
A sedimentation tank allows suspended particles to settle out of water or wastewater as it

flows slowly through the tank, thereby providing some degree of purification. A layer of
accumulated solids, called sludge, forms at the bottom of the tank and is periodically
removed. In drinking-water treatment, coagulants are added to the water prior to
sedimentation in order to facilitate the settling process, which is followed by filtration
and other treatment steps. In modern sewage treatment, primary sedimentation must be
followed by secondary treatment (e.g., trickling filter or activated sludge) to increase
purification efficiencies. Sedimentation is usually preceded by treatment using bar
screens and grit chambers to remove large objects and coarse solids.
Maximum daily demand = population x maximum daily rate of supply

= 37333 x ( 1.8 x 200 )
= 13439880
= 13.4 million litres
= 13.4 x 106 litres
Assuming detention time of 4 hours,
Quantity of water to be treated = 13.4 x 106 x
= 2.23 x 106 L
= 2.23 x 103 m3
Assuming an overflow rate of 1000 L / hour / m2,
Surface overflow rate = discharge / area
1000 =
Q = volume / detention time
= 558.33 x 103 L / hour
BL =
= 558.33 m2

Assume B = 12 m,
L = 558.33 / 12
= 46.53 ≈ 47 m
Assume depth of 4 m with an extra depth of 0.5 m
Hence provide a tank of size 47 m x 12 m x 4.5 m.
9.2.2 Design of floc chamber
Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from submicroscopic
microfloc to visible suspended particles. Microfloc particles collide, causing them to
bond to produce larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. Floc size continues to build with
additional collisions and interaction with added inorganic polymers (coagulant) or
organic polymers. Macroflocs are formed and high molecular weight polymers, called
coagulant aids, may be added to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight,
and increase settling rate. Once floc has reached it optimum size and strength, water is
ready for sedimentation.
Depth of floc chamber = 4.5 / 2

= 2.25 m
Assume a detention time of 20 minutes,
Capacity of chamber = flow required in 20 minutes
= 186.11 x 103 L
= 186.11 m3
Area = capacity / depth
= 186.11 / 2.25
= 82.72 m2
Taking B = 12 m,
Length L = area / width
= 82.72 / 12
= 6.89 m ≈ 6.9 m
Hence provide a floc chamber of size 6.9 m x 12 m x 2.25 m.

Figure 9.2 : Coagulation cum sedimentation tank
9.3 Coagulants
Coagulation/flocculation is a process used to remove turbidity, colour, and some bacteria

from water. In the flash mix chamber, chemicals or coagulants are added to the water
and mixed violently for less than a minute. These coagulants consist of primary
coagulants and/or coagulant aids. Then, in the flocculation basin, the water is gently
stirred for 30 to 45 minutes to give the chemicals time to act and to promote floc
formation. The floc then settles out in the sedimentation basin.
Coagulation is a chemical process that involves neutralization of charge
whereas flocculation is a physical process and does not involve neutralization of charge.
The coagulation-flocculation process can be used as a preliminary or intermediary step
between other water or wastewater treatment processes like filtration and sedimentation.
Iron and aluminium salts are the most widely used coagulants but salts of other metals
such as titanium and zirconium have been found to be highly effective as well.
Coagulation is affected by the type of coagulant used, its dose and mass; pH and
initial turbidity of the water that is being treated; and properties of the pollutants
present. The effectiveness of the coagulation process is also affected by pretreatments
like oxidation. In a colloidal suspension, particles will settle very slowly or not at all
because the colloidal particles carry surface electrical charges that mutually repel each
other. A coagulant (typically a metallic salt) with the opposite charge is added to the

water to overcome the repulsive charge and destabilize the suspension. For example, the
colloidal particles are negatively charged and alum is added as a coagulant to create
positively charged ions. Once the repulsive charges have been neutralized (since opposite
charges attract), the van der Waals force will cause the particles to cling together
(agglomerate) and form micro floc.
9.3.1 Use of alum (aluminum sulphate) as coagulant
One of the first steps that municipal water suppliers do before preparing the water for
distribution is getting it as clear and as particulate free as possible. There are a variety of
primary coagulants which can be used in a water treatment plant. One of the earliest, and
still the most extensively used, is aluminum sulphate, also known as alum. Raw water
often holds tiny suspended particles that are very difficult for a filter to catch. Alum
causes them to clump together so that they can settle out of the water or be easily trapped
by a filter.
Alum can be bought in liquid form with a concentration of 8.3%, or in dry form
with a concentration of 17%. When alum is added to water, it reacts with the water and
results in positively charged ions. Usually a mixture of water with 48 percent filter alum
is injected into the raw incoming water at a rate of 18 to 24 parts per million. The alum
promotes coagulation of fine particles which helps resolve problems of colour as well as
turbidity. If the process is given enough time to work and is applied properly, it not only
corrects problems in the water but actually results in removing most of the aluminum
used in the process.
Although concern over the safety of treating water with aluminum has often been
voiced, there is no evidence that aluminum in water, whether it comes from the aluminum
sulphate used in treatment or from other sources, is a health issue. Actually, most
aluminum that we take in does come from other sources. One study showed that only
between 0.4% and 1.0% of our lifetime intake of aluminum comes from alum used to
prepare municipal water.
Aluminum sulphate is widely used as a coagulant in water treatment plants in the
United States. It is also widely available in developing countries, sold in blocks of soft
white stone. There are numerous ways to use alum as a coagulant, including crushing it
into a powder before adding it to water, stirring and decanting or stirring the whole stone
in the water for a few seconds and waiting for the solids to settle. The benefits of alum
are that it is widely available, is proven to reduce turbidity, and is inexpensive. The
drawback of alum is that the necessary dosage varies unpredictably. Laboratory studies
have shown that alum is effective at reducing turbidity and chlorine demand.
9.3.2 Calculation of alum quantity
Quantity of water to be treated = 13.4 ML/day

= 13.4 x 106 L/day
Taking the alum dose to be 12 mg/l,
Amount of alum required per day = 13.4 x 106 x 12
= 160.8 x 106 mg
=160.8 kg

CHAPTER 10
RAPID SAND FILTER
Rapid sand filtration is a technique common in countries for treating large quantities of
drinking water. It is a relatively sophisticated process usually requiring power-operated
pumps for backwashing or cleaning the filter bed, and flow control of the filter outlet. A
continuously operating filter will usually require backwashing about every two days
when raw water of relatively low turbidity is used. Pretreatment of the raw water, using
chemical flocculation agents in combination with setting tanks, is common where
turbidity is high. Relatively large quantities of filter backwash water, as well as sludge
from the settling process, may be generated and require some form of treatment before
discharge to the environment.
Operation of a rapid sand filter consists of regular backwashing. The period
between backwashes depends on the quality of the water being filtered. The purpose of
backwashing is to remove the suspended material that has been deposited in the filter bed
during the filtration cycle. Periodic repacking of the filter bed may be required at
infrequent intervals to ensure efficient operation.
The technology is proven and is very effective in removing suspended materials
from the water. However, the technology often requires that the water be pretreated,
usually by sedimentation of particulates in the raw water supply. The water is normally
disinfected after filtration.
The construction cost of rapid sand filters is determined primarily by the cost of
materials such as cement, building sand, gravel, reinforcing steel, filter media, pipes, and
valves. The cost of labor is usually of lesser importance. However, the cost of land and
transport of materials could add substantially to the total cost. The cost of energy required
to operate a rapid sand filter may also add significant costs.
Rapid sand filters have high capital and operation costs, which may be increased
further if there is a need for pretreatment of the raw water. The technology uses energy
for pumping, and requires a relatively high degree of training for the plant operator.

Figure 10.1: A typical rapid sand filter
Source: thewatertreatments.com
10.1 Advantages of Rapid Sand Filter
 Rapid sand filter can deal with raw water directly, i.e. no preliminary storage is
needed.
 The filter beds occupy less space.
 Filtration is rapid than slow sand filter
 Filtration is rapid.
10.2 Design Calculations
10.2.1 Design of rapid sand filter
The design of rapid sand filter mainly consists of 2 steps, finding the maximum water
demand per day and the size of the tank.
Maximum water demand per day = population x maximum daily rate of supply
= 37333 x ( 1.8 x 200 )
= 13439880 = 13.4 x 106 litres
= 13.4 million litres
Assuming 4% of water is required for backwashing,
Total filtered water per day = 13.4 / 0.96
= 13.96 ML / day

Assuming 0.5 L is lost everyday,
Filtered water required per hour = 13.96 / 23.5
= 0.59 ML / hour
Assume rate of filtration is 5000 L / hour / m2,
Area of filter required = 0.59 x 106 / 5000
= 118 m2
Assume length L is 1.5 B and providing 2 filter beds,
Total area provided =2LB
= 118 m2
i.e, 2 x 1.5 B x B = 118
1.5 B2 = 59
B = 6.3 m2
L = 1.5 x 6.3= 9.5 m
10.2.2 Under drainage system
In the case of rapid sand filters (gravity type) the under drainage system serves two
purposes:
 It collects the filtered water uniformly over the area of gravel bed.
 It provides uniform distribution of backwash water without disturbing or upsetting
the gravel bed and filter media.
Assume total area of perforations in all the laterals is 0.2 % of the total filter area,
Total area of perforations = 0.2 % x filter area
= 0.2 / 100 x 9.5 x 6.3
= 0.12 m2
Assuming area of each lateral is 2 times area of perforations,
Total area of laterals = 2 x 0.12
= 0.24 m2
Assuming area of manifold is 2 times area of laterals,
Area of manifold = 2 x 0.24
= 0.48 m2
Diameter of manifold d = x d2

= 0.48
d = 0.78 m ≈ 0.8 m
= 80 cm
Assume the spacing of laterals is 20 cm
Number of laterals =
= 47.5 ≈ 48
Total number of laterals = 2 x 48 = 96
Length of each lateral =
= 2.75 m
Adopting 18 mm diameter perforations,
Total area of perforation = 0.12 m2
Total number of perforations :
1200 = x π / 4 x 1.32
x = 904
Number of perforation in each lateral = 904 / 96
= 9.42 ≈ 10
Area of perforations per lateral = 10 x π / 4 x 1.32
= 13.27 cm2
Area of each lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral
= 2 x 13.27 =26.54 cm2
Diameter of each lateral d =
= 5.81 cm
Hence 96 laterals each of 5.81 cm diameter spaced at 20 cm c/c, each having 10
perforations of 13 mm diameter with 80 cm diameter manifold.
Check :
= 47.33 60
Hence ok.
Assume rate of washing filter is 60 cm rise per minute,
Wash water discharge =
= 0.6 m3 / s
Velocity of flow in laterals for wash water ,
=
= 2.36 m / s
Velocity of flow in manifold =
= 1.19 m/ s 1.8 to 2.4

Hence ok.
10.2.3 Design of wash water trough
Providing 4 troughs in the width of 6.3 m,

Spacing = 6.3 / 4 = 1.58 m
Total wash water discharge of 0.6 m3 / s enter in these 4 troughs.

Discharge in each trough = 0.6 / 4
= 0.15 m3 / s
= 1.376 by3/2
Assume b =y
0.15 = y5/2
y = 0.47 m =b
Keeping 5 cm freeboard,
Depth of trough = 47 + 5
= 52 cm
Hence provide 4 numbers of wash water troughs of size 47 cm x 52 cm.

Figure 10.1: Rapid sand filter
The figure 10.1 shows the design of rapid sand filter with under drainage system drawn
using AutoCad 2016. It consists of the filter and under drainage as well as the
backwashing arrangements of air compressor units, wash water storage tanks and wash
water gutter.

CHAPTER 11
NATURAL METHOD OF HARD METAL REMOVAL
Heavy metal contamination in groundwater and surface water used for drinking purposes
has been envisaged as a problem of global concern as millions of human beings have
been exposed to excessive heavy metal concentrations. Various remediation technologies
have been developed to treat the heavy metals contaminated groundwater and surface
water. But conventional treatment technologies further generate huge amount of toxic
chemical by-products. So, a feasible technology for rural application is required that
generates less or no toxic by-products.
Unlike organic pollutants, heavy metals do not biodegrade and thus, pose a
different kind of challenge for remediation. To alleviate the problem of water pollution
by heavy metals, various methods have been used to remove them from waste water as
chemical precipitation, coagulation, floatation, adsorption, ion exchange, reverse osmosis
and electrodialysis .The production of the sludge in the precipitation methods poses
challenges in handling treatment and hand filling of the solid sludge. Ion exchange
usually requires a high – capital investment for the equipment as well as high operational
cost. Electrolysis allows the removal of metal ions with the advantage that there is no
need for additional chemicals and also there is no sludge generation. However, it is
inefficient at a low metal concentration. Membrane processes such as reverse osmosis
and electrodialysis tend to suffer from the in-stability of the membranes in salty or acidic
conditions and fouling by inorganic and organic substances present in waste water .Most
of these techniques have some pretreatments and additional treatments. In addition, some
of them are less effective and require high cost. For these reasons bio-adsorption using
low cost waste products as adsorbents emerged as potential alternatives to existing
conventional technologies.
The bio-adsorbents have affinity for heavy metal ions to form metal complexes or
chelates due to the presence of functional groups including carboxyl, hydroxyl,
imidazole, sulphydryl, amino, phosphate, sulfate, thioether, phenol, carbonyl and amide
etc. Coconut husk , Neem leaves powder , Mango peel etc are some of the low cost bio-
adsorbents which have been used intensively for the removal of various heavy metals and

metalloids (such as Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni, Cr, Cu and As) from both groundwater and surface
water.
11.1 Removal of Toxic Metals by Coconut Husk
The method of removal of hard metal using coconut husk powder can be adopted in
households itself as a safety measure to obtain good quality drinking water. This method
is cost effective, cheap and easy and also does not require any technical knowledge.
Coconut coir pith and coconut shell are coconut wastes suitable for heavy metal removal.
Coir pith is a light fluffy biomaterial and is generated during the separation process of
fibre from coconut husk .Notably, 7.5 million tons per year of coconut is produced in
India. The maximum removal obtained with this material was reported as being higher
than 90% at an optimum pH of 2 and the maximum adsorption capacity was 76.3 mg/g.
The dry coconut shell is powdered and mixed with the water to be treated. This mixture is
then kept for 3 hrs to overnight. After the contact time the coconut husk can be sieved
and then used.
Figure 11.1: Coconut husk

The sample containing maximum amounts of different varieties of hard metals
were selected for the coconut husk powder method for water treatment. The Sample 3:
Muppathadam contained hard metals chromium, copper and cadmium. The concentration
of chromium was found to be greater than 0.05 mg/l, cadmium more than 0.003mg/land
copper more than 0.05 mg/l compared to their standard values. The sample 3 was tested

again after the treatment using coconut husk powder and the concentration of hard metals
is determined.
For conducting the test sample 3 containing heavy metals is collected in a 1 l
bottle. Coconut husk is collected, washed and dried. After complete drying the coconut
husk is then added to water sample to be tested. The bottle with the mixture is thoroughly
mixed and then kept to settle overnight. The water after 24 hours is then filtered using a
sieve and collected in another bottle and tested for chromium, cadmium and copper.
Figure 11.2: Coconut husk in sample water.
Table 11.1: Test result comparison

Sl No Heavy Metals Before Treatment After Treatment Standard
(mg\l) (mg\l) values
(mg\l)
1 Cadmium >0.003 <0.003 0.003
2 Copper >0.05 <0.05 0.05
3 Chromium >0.05 <0.05 0.05

CHAPTER 12
CHLORINATION
Disinfection is the process designed to kill or inactivate most microorganisms in
wastewater, including essentially all pathogenic organisms. Contrast this to sterilization,
which is the removal and destruction of all living microorganisms, including pathogenic
and saprophytic bacteria, vegetative forms and spores. Pathogenic organisms are bacteria,
viruses, or cysts that can cause disease in a host.
Chlorine and its various forms are powerful oxidants that will kill or inactivate
most pathogenic organism that are harmful to human and animal life. Chlorination is the
most commonly used disinfection process for wastewater treatment. Chlorination
chemicals are relatively:
 Easy to obtain
 Economical
 Effective
 Easy to apply
Typical forms of chlorine used in wastewater treatment are:
 Elemental chlorine
 Hypochlorite
 Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant for the inactivation of waterborne
pathogens in drinking water supplies and historically has arguably made the greatest
contribution to the public health protection of consumers. In addition to its use as a
primary disinfectant post treatment, the residual level which remains in the distribution
systems ensures that the microbiological compliance can be quality assured to the
consumer tap as well as safeguarding against recontamination in the distribution system.
Chlorination is a relatively simple and cost effective process which does not require
extensive technical expertise and which is capable of dealing with supply systems of
varying size by altering dosing systems or storage for chemical contact accordingly.
While mixing chlorine and water the correct amount of powder should first be dissolved
in water in a bucket. Chlorine levels up to 4 milligrams per liter (mg/L) or 4 parts per
million (ppm) are considered safe in drinking water. At this level, no harmful health
effects are likely to occur. Chlorinated water can taste and smell different than untreated
water. Taste and smell problems may arise depending upon the water quality and amount
of chlorine in the water
Disinfection occurs from initial dosing and dispersion of chlorine at the inlet to a
contact volume (e.g. contact tank or length of pipe) to the outlet. Three approaches can in
principle be used for defining the value for chlorination:
 The concentration can be estimated from the area under the chlorine decay curve
in the tank;
 An average oxidant concentration can be derived from the arithmetic mean of the
initial dose and the residual concentration;
 The outlet residual can be used to provide a conservative estimate of
concentration.
The first of these is the most accurate estimate in relation to the effect of the
chlorine, but not readily derived in practical situations. It can be shown that the arithmetic
mean overestimates concentrations compared with the calculated decay values, whereas
the residual underestimates the effective Water Treatment Manual Disinfection
concentration. Free chlorine residual therefore provides a conservative value, which is
also practical to monitor, and it is recommended that the free chlorine residual be used for
control purposes.
12.1 Types of Chlorination
12.1.1 Plain chlorination
When the raw water contains turbidity less than 10 NTU, obtained from unpolluted lakes
or reservoirs, the water could be supplied to the public without any treatment except
chlorination. Such chlorination is called plain chlorination. The dosage of chlorine for
plain chlorination is about 0.5 mg/L.
12.1.2 Pre-chlorination
Pre-chlorination is the addition of chlorine to the raw water prior to treatment to produce
residual chlorine after meeting chlorine demand. The residual chlorine is useful in several
stages of the treatment process – aiding in coagulation, controlling algae problems in
sedimentation basins, reducing odor problems, and controlling mud-ball formation in
filters. In addition, the chlorine has a much longer contact time when added at the
beginning of the treatment process, so pre chlorination increases safety in disinfecting
heavily contaminated water.
Pre-chlorination is generally applied to the water before coagulation. It improves
the coagulation and reduces load on filters. It also reduces taste, colour, odour, algae and
other organisms. The chlorine dose for pre-chlorination should be 0.1 to 0.5 mg/L. The
pre-chlorination is always followed by post chlorination, so as to ensure final safety of
water.
12.1.3 Post chlorination
Post chlorination is the normal process of applying chlorine in the end, when all other
treatments are completed but before the water reaches the distribution system. At this
stage, chlorination is meant to kill pathogens and to provide a chlorine residual in the
distribution system. Post chlorination is nearly always part of the treatment process,
either used in combination with pre chlorination or used as the sole disinfection process.
The chlorine dose at post-chlorination stage should be such as to leave a residual-
chlorine of about 0.1 to 0.2 mg/L after a contact period of 20 to 30 minutes. This residual
chlorine will ensure the disinfection of water if at all any recontamination occurs in the
transmission and distribution system. Chlorine dose should not be generally greater than
2.0 mg/L as the excess residual concentration of chlorine may damage the pipelining and
pump impellers.
12.1.4 Break point chlorination
When chlorine is added to water, number of reactions taking place in water and the
residual chlorine in water is also changing (increasingly as well as decreasingly). A
typical breakpoint chlorination curve, showing the chemical reactions and the residual
chlorine levels at various stages is illustrated in below figure.

Figure 12.1 : Applied chlorine v/s chlorine residual curve
12.2 Chlorine Demand

Chlorine demand is the reduction in chlorine concentration that occurs due to reaction
between chlorine and contaminants in the water. Part of the reduction will be almost
instantaneous (e.g. reaction with ammonia), part will be gradual (e.g. reaction with
natural organic matter). The instantaneous demand is the difference between the initial
mass dose of chlorine and the subsequent measurement of chlorine residual immediately
downstream.
12.3 Chlorine Residual

The chlorine in combined forms (e.g., mono chloramine) that have disinfecting properties
plus any free chlorine is the chlorine residual. It is the component of the applied chlorine
that is available for disinfection. The residual is available in three forms:
 Chloramines: A form of combined chlorine
 Chlororganic Compounds: A weak form of combined chlorine
 Free Chlorine: The strongest form of residual for disinfection.
The sum of the chlorine demand and the chlorine residual is the chlorine dose.
Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual
Where, Chlorine Residual = Combined Chlorine Forms + Free Chlorine

12.4 Dechlorination
Dechlorination is the process of removing residual chlorine from disinfected wastewater

prior to discharge into the environment. Sulfur dioxide is most commonly used for
dechlorination. Some dechlorination alternatives include carbon adsorption, sodium
metabisulfite, sodium bisulfite, and hydrogen peroxide. Sodium metabisulfite and sodium
bisulfite are mainly used in small facilities because these materials are more difficult to
control compared to sulfur dioxide. Hydrogen peroxide is not frequently used because it
is dangerous to handle.
Dechlorination minimizes the effect of potentially toxic disinfection byproducts
by removing the free or total combined chlorine residual remaining after chlorination.
Typically, dechlorination is accomplished by adding sulfur dioxide or sulfite salts (i.e.,
sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite, or sodium metabisulfite). Carbon adsorption is also an
effective dechlorination method, but is expensive compared to other methods. Carbon
adsorption is usually implemented when total dechlorination is desired.
Figure 12.2: Flowchart depicting the water purification process

CHAPTER 13
CONCLUSION
Industrial growth is one of the main factors that contribute to the alarming water
pollution. Most of the industries have their effluents flowing into the adjacent rivers
without much treatment. And one such severely polluted and dying river in our locality is
the Muttar river flowing through Eloor municipality. It has a big collection of industries
in its neighborhood and the major danger is that the river connects the Periyar river at its
mouth as well as at its end. The Muttar River originating from Cheranalloor is so, taken
up as the water body that has to be treated and purified. The river stretches for a total
length of twelve kilometers with the width varying being different at each area with an
average of fifty meters. The condition of the river is so hoarse and yet severe that it is
under heavy influence of pollution due to the dumping of wastes from industries, homes
etc. Due to this matter, there is almost no sustaining aquatic life in the waters because all
the dumping of waste and pollution causes the marine life to ebb away at a very rapid
rate.
There are many useful tests available to determine the health, safety and
performance of the water sample depending upon the type of use as well as location. All
these tests are performed to make sure the water body is suitable for drinking or any other
domestic purposes or not. The testing interprets the quality of water from the particular
area and the quality of water over time. A total of 17 tests were carried out for the water
quality analysis and the observations were tabulated and compared with their standard
values as per IS 10500 2012.
After the completion of tests sedimentation cum coagulation tank and a rapid sand
filter is designed and their respective drawings are prepared using AutoCAD 2016. The
sedimentation cum coagulation tank measures 6.9 m in length and 12 in width and the
rapid sand filter measures 9.5 m in length and 6.3 m in width. The design of the rapid
sand filter is for 38 years.
The chemical tests conducted on the water sample showed that it contained
various toxic metals such as chromium, cadmium and copper. A natural method of using
coconut husk is therefore adopted as a cheap method for the removal of the same. The

sample 3 of Muppathadam region containing most amounts of toxic metals and pollutants
was selected for coconut husk treatment. This sample water after 24 hrs of being treated
with coconut husk powder was again tested for toxic metals. The result indicated absence
of chromium, cadmium and copper. It can therefore be concluded that coconut husk can
be used as an economical and natural adsorbent for the removal of toxic metals. The
water after being treated with coconut husk is also proposed to undergo chlorination as a
disinfection process.
With the growing population and the increasing demand of good quality water for
domestic as well as industrial purposes the significance of a water treatment system and
natural methods of pollutant removal cannot be undermined. It is the need of the hour for
cost effective and environment friendly water treatment methods.

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CHAPTER 1

Water pollution is a major environmental issue in India. The largest source of

Department of Civil Engineering 1 AISAT

1.2 Scope and Objective

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Figure 1.1: A flow chart depicting methodology

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1.3.2 Sample collection

1.3.3 Qualitative analysis of water samples

Qualitative analysis is the determination of the chemical composition of a sample. It

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1.3.4 Quantitative analysis of water samples

Quantitative analysis refers to the determination of how much of a given component is

1.3.5 Data examination

Department of Civil Engineering 7 AISAT

Sl No. Parameters Standard Permissible value

3 Total Dissolved Solids 500 2000

4 Total Hardness (as 200 600

5 Sulphates (mg/L) 200 400

6 Magnesium (mg/L) 30 No relaxation

7 Nitrate (mg/L) 45 No relaxation

8 Chloride (mg/L) 250 1000

9 Residual Free Chlorine 0.2 1

10 Calcium (mg/L) 75 200

11 Total Alkalinity (as CaCO3, 200 600

Department of Civil Engineering 8 AISAT

Figure 1.4: A typical water treatment plant

Department of Civil Engineering 9 AISAT

Department of Civil Engineering 10 AISAT

Masoumeh Sharafimasooleh (2016) discussed on Effect of High Chloride

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Department of Civil Engineering 12 AISAT

Department of Civil Engineering 13 AISAT

Department of Civil Engineering 14 AISAT

Department of Civil Engineering 15 AISAT

3.1 Causes of Water Pollution

3.1.1 Sewage and waste water

3.1.3 Oil pollution

3.1.4 Acid rain

3.1.5 Global warming

Due to global warming, there is an increase in water temperature. This increase in

Department of Civil Engineering 17 AISAT

Eutrophication is an increased level of nutrients in water bodies. This results in bloom of

3.2 Characteristics of Water

3.2.1 Physical characteristics

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3.2.1.3 Tastes and odours

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3.2.1.5 Specific conductivity of water

Electrical conductivity is the measure of ability of water to conduct electricity. Specific

3.2.2 Chemical characteristics

3.2.2.1 Total solids and suspended solids

3.2.2.2 pH value of water

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3.2.2.3 Hardness of water

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3.2.2.5 Nitrogen content

Presence of nitrogen in water is an indication of presence of organic matter .Occur in one

3.2.2.6 Metals and other chemical substances

Consumption of higher concentration of fluorides exceeding 1.5mg/L may cause mottling

Department of Civil Engineering 23 AISAT