THE CORRELATION OF HEAD FOOTBALL COACH’S AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP

FACTOR WITH DEGREE OF TEAM SUCCESS

by

Adam J. Tracy

PATRICIA PARHAM, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

JANE PETRICK, PhD, Committee Member

CHRISTOPHER LUCARELLI, PhD, Committee Member

Rhonda Capron, EdD, Dean, School of Business and Technology

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

September 2016
 ProQuest Number: 10196142

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© Adam J. Tracy, 2016
 Abstract

American football is the most common high school sport and a core event in communities across

the United States. The top competitive priority in sport is winning. As a result, the prominent

measure of a high school football teams’ success is their winning percentage. Not much about a

high school football program is consistent from year-to-year, nor from one high school football

program to another. Therefore, the head football coach’s leadership behavior is critical to

developing a successful program. Unfortunately, current leadership research in high school sport

is scarce. The authentic leadership construct is a theory-based measure comprised of four

dimensions: self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced

processing. There is a gap in the literature related to authentic leadership and team success in

high school football programs. This study addresses the gap with the following RQ: To what

extent, if any, is there a correlation between a Midwestern state high school head football

coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success? The population for the

study consisted of all high school football programs in a Midwestern state (N = 716). This study

utilized the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) to measure the level of leadership

authenticity of head football coaches; the team’s winning percentage was used to measure team

success. Spearman’s Rho was .509 (p <.001), indicating a significant positive relationship

between a head football coach’s level of authentic leadership and their team’s success. A two-

step hierarchical regression of two models was performed; both were statistically significant.

The addition of ALQ score to model 2 provided a significant increase in R-squared (R2 change =

.12, p <.01) demonstrating the difference in variability and increase in predictive power

associated with authentic leadership behavior. A high school football team success model

equation was developed. The research addresses the gap in the existing literature by contributing
to the emergence of authentic leadership theory in sport and has practical implications for current

and future high school athletic directors and head football coaches.
 Dedication

This journey is dedicated to my son, Liam. Unbeknownst to you, my determination to

achieve this goal is because of and for you. I strive to be the greatest father and role model that

you deserve. I want you to know that you can achieve anything you choose in life if you set your

mind to it. I will always lead your support system and help you by anticipating the obstacles that

may lie ahead on your path through life.

To my support system and wife, Christina. Thank you. I appreciate the sacrifices that

you made so I could pursue this important personal goal. Thank you for believing in me.

iv
 Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge my mentor, Dr. Patricia Parham, for her consistency and

support throughout this journey. I appreciate the relationship we have established and your

guidance to ensure I achieved this goal. I would like to acknowledge my committee members,

Dr. Jane Petrick and Dr. Christopher Lucarelli, for the insight and feedback that helped form my

research. Your encouraging words and support were valuable and directly contributed to my

success. Lastly, I want to acknowledge Dr. Rubye Braye and Dr. Edward Mason for their timely

support and genuine commitment to my research and me.

v
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgments....................................................................................................v

List of Tables ......................................................................................................... ix

List of Figures ..........................................................................................................x

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1

Introduction ..............................................................................................................1

Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................2

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................3

Research Question ...................................................................................................4

Significant of the Study ...........................................................................................4

Definition of Terms..................................................................................................5

Limitations and Assumptions ..................................................................................6

Organization of the Remainder of the Study ...........................................................7

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................9

Introduction ..............................................................................................................9

Authentic Leadership Style ....................................................................................10

Sports Industry .......................................................................................................26

Authentic Leadership Style and Team Success .....................................................34

Literature Review Summary ..................................................................................36

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................38

Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................38

Research Questions and Hypotheses .....................................................................38

Research Design.....................................................................................................38

vi
 Target Population and Sample ...............................................................................39

Population .......................................................................................................39

Sample ............................................................................................................39

Power Analysis ...............................................................................................40

Procedures ..............................................................................................................40

Participant Selection .......................................................................................40

Protection of Participants ................................................................................40

Data Collection ...............................................................................................41

Data Analysis ..................................................................................................41

Instruments .............................................................................................................42

Authentic Leadership Questionnaire ..............................................................42

Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................44

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS ...................................................................................................46

Introduction ............................................................................................................46

Description of the Sample......................................................................................47

Descriptive Statistics ..............................................................................................48

Hypothesis Testing.................................................................................................49

Summary ................................................................................................................53

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS ....................56

Summary of the Results .........................................................................................56

Discussion of the Results .......................................................................................56

Implications Based on the Study Results ...............................................................57

Applications Based on the Study Results ..............................................................59

vii
 Limitations .............................................................................................................60

Recommendations for Further Research ................................................................61

Conclusion .............................................................................................................62

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................65

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL WORK ............................................................................77

viii
 List of Tables

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics: Authentic Leadership Score; Win Percentage; Coach’s Age;
Coach years’ experience; coach number of titles ...............................................48

Table 2. Frequencies for Division: Study Participants .....................................................48

Table 3. Summary: Hierarchical Regression predicting win percentage ..........................51

Table 4. Details: Hierarchical Regression predicting win percentage ..............................52

Table 5. Model Summary..................................................................................................53

ix
 List of Figures

Figure 1. Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................21

Figure 2. Frequency Histogram of Coach Experience .......................................................49

Figure 3. Scatterplot of Authentic Leadership Score and Win Percentage........................50

Figure 4. Hypothesized Model Equation ...........................................................................53

Figure 5. High School Football Team Success Model Equation .......................................55

x
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Every year in communities across the United States, high school football coaches and

players take the field for 48 minutes attempting to bring their preparation, hard work, and team

together in their pursuit of success. They succeed by winning the game. The sport industry is an

industry, where unlike others, success is easily measured and always clear. However, it is not

always clear what contributes to team success. A strategic football approach that works with one

high school football program may not work with another. The athletic ability of athletes may

vary by region. The number of available sport programs at each school may vary, which could

impact which athletes join the football program. The available resources may vary from a

Division I to Division VII program causing an inconsistency that may allow some high school

football programs to utilize better facilities and equipment. However, all high school football

programs have one thing in common – a head football coach. The head football coach is the

leader who manages all assistance coaches and leads the athletes’ performance on the field. As a

result, through their leadership style, they may positively or negatively impact the team’s

success.

For decades, authentic leadership was widely considered by researchers as an extension

of other leadership theories, most notably transformational leadership, as scholars believed it was

a broader concept that encapsulated transformational and other positive forms of leadership

(Lloyd-Walker & Walker, 2011; May, Chan, Hodges & Avolio, 2003). A number of scholars

have defined authentic leadership differently based on their perspective and experience.

Although the definitions have varied, leaders are consistently portrayed as possessing self-

1
knowledge and a personal point of view, which reflects clarity about their values and convictions

(Avolio, Luthans, & Walumbwa, 2004). Authentic leaders use their strong values and

convictions to lead others (Shamir & Eilam, 2005). As a result, they lead in a manner that the

follower recognizes as authentic. As a new construct, there is little empirical research that

examines authentic leadership and its possible relationship to team success in the sport industry.

As the construct authentic leadership took form, Walumbwa et al. (2008) created a

theory-based measure of authentic leadership comprised of four dimensions: self-awareness,

relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced processing. Since then,

research using the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) supports relationships between

authentic leadership and performance (Wong & Cummings, 2009b).

Current research findings suggest there is a relationship between a leader’s level of

measured authenticity and trust, job satisfaction, and follower emotions (Harvey, Martinko, &

Gardner, 2006). According to Heinze, Soderstrom, and Zdroik (2014) the sport industry is an

important component of the continued evolution of authentic leadership. Baron and Parent

(2015) contend that the debate surrounding the development of authentic leadership continues

today because it is an attitude and behavior that cannot be imitated. This research added

important findings on whether there is a correlation between high school head football coach’s

measured level of leadership authenticity and their team’s success.

Statement of the Problem

The research problem of this study is that scholars do not know whether there is a

correlation between a high school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity

and their team’s success. Leader behavior that exhibits the four dimensions of authentic

2
leadership theory is expected to contribute to higher percentages of team success. Although

scarce, leadership research in high school sport dates back decades when Penman, Hastad, and

Cords (1974) examined high school football and basketball coaches in two different mid-west

states to determine whether there was a correlation between their authoritarian leadership style

and team success. Current research literature on authentic leadership indicates that we know

there is a relationship between a leader’s level of authenticity and trust, job satisfaction, and

follower emotions (Harvey, Martinko, & Gardner, 2006). Yammarino (2008) documents a need

in authentic leadership research to further articulate theoretically and empirically test additional

variables. Walumbwa, Luthans, Avey, and Oke (2011) suggest future authentic leadership

research needs to explore other organizational cultural dimensions in order to extend the

generalizability of their findings regarding authentic leadership and group performance to

different organizational contexts. Soebbing and Washington (2013) highlight that while studies

are investigating sport coaches, they may not be studying the true leader because some sport

organizations have shared leadership roles involving the head coach and administrators. Baltzell

et al. (2014) recently studied high school coaches to understand the sources of joy and

unhappiness of their role. The research results showed that coaches identified success on the

field as their greatest source of joy. By understanding whether a coach’s authenticity correlates

to team success within a high school football program, the study contributes to the understanding

of the phenomenon of authentic leadership in the field of sport organizations.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to determine whether there is a correlation between a high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and their team’s success.

3
The study will contribute empirical results related to authentic leadership in high school football

programs that does not exist in the existing literature. Prior studies in other domains have found

that authentic leadership has an effect on or leads to higher performance (Leigh, 2014; Onorato

& Zhu, 2014; Wang, Sui, Luthans, Wang, & Wu, 2014).

Research Question

RQ1 - To what extent, if any, is there a correlation between a Midwestern state high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success?

Significance of the Study

This research is significant to the field of leadership because it provides a continuation of

recent theoretical research and new empirical results related to the correlation of authentic

leadership and team success at the high school level in the sport industry. The results will

contribute to the theory of authentic leadership and performance of head football coaches. Given

that the research on authentic leadership in high school sport is scarce, this research topic is

significant because it will provide evidence to demonstrate how the leader’s behavior in high

school football may impact team success.

This research study will provide empirical research on authentic leadership theory in a

new domain that could extend the understanding of how a leader who demonstrates authentic

leadership behaviors can positively impact their team’s success. The current literature and

research shows mixed study results regarding authentic leadership (Gardner et al., 2011) and

team performance measured by winning percentage (Dohrn, Lopez, & Reinhardt, 2015). This

study will continue the focus on authentic leadership theory related to the broader phenomenon

of leadership and provide new findings in a new domain.

4
 This research will contribute to the emergence of authentic leadership theory in sport and

may result in practical changes by high school head football coaches and athletic administrators

with a commitment to developing head football coaches into more authentic leaders. High

school head football coaches may have increased self-awareness related to their behavior and

better understand how it correlates with the success of their team. The results may have

implications on other sport programs at the same high school, too, as the athletic department may

look to leverage the study results to benefit other head coaches. Lastly, the practical implications

could lead to better athlete and team performance due to an increased level of authentic

leadership from the head football coach and athletes.

Definition of Terms

The independent variable (IV) is the measured level of authentic leadership. The

construct is leadership. The operational definition of the IV is the authentic leadership

questionnaire (ALQ) score. Walumbwa et al. (2008) defines authentic leadership as a pattern of

“leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a

positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective,

balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders, fostering

positive self-development” (p. 94). A number of studies have used this operational definition

(Leigh, 2014; Leroy, Palanski & Simons, 2012; Peus et al., 2012; Wong & Cummins, 2009b;

Wong & Laschinger, 2013). The aggregate of all scored components on the ALQ questionnaire

were used to determine respondents’ measured level of authentic leadership. An aggregate ALQ

score between 64-80 indicates a very high level of authentic leadership; a score between 48-64

indicates a high level of authentic leadership; a score between 32-48 indicates a low level of

5
authentic leadership; and a score between 16-32 indicates a very low level of authentic

leadership.

The dependent variable (DV) is team success. The operational definition of the DV is the

winning percentage ratio of the 2015 completed high school football regular season calculated as

the number of wins divided by number of games played. Prior research studies in sports have

used the team’s winning percentage to measure team success (Dohrn, Lopez, & Reinhardt,

2015).

High School is defined as a Midwestern state public or private school with grades 9 -12

that is a member of the state High School Athletic Association. Each high school has a football

program.

Head coach is the individual with primary leadership responsibility of assistant coaches

and players. The head coach may be paid or unpaid and have a coaching staff consisting of two

or more paid or unpaid assistants. He is responsible for providing the vision for the football

program and has all final decision-making authority.

Assumptions and Limitations

Assumptions

The study consists of the following assumptions:

1. Head football coaches provided honest responses to all ALQ survey questions.

2. The survey instructions and terms were fully understood by respondents.

3. The sampling strategy and selection criteria represent the population of a

Midwestern state high school football programs.

4. The privacy and confidentiality of all participants and data was maintained.

6
 5. Data collection procedures were adequately established and followed in

accordance with Capella University guidelines.

6. There is a relationship between authentic leadership style and team success.

7. A quantitative correlational design is appropriate.

8. The sample size calculated using G*Power 3 is representative of the population.

Limitations

One limitation is that the study only examined the measured level of leadership

authenticity of head football coaches and team success of high school football programs in a

single state.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

Chapter 1 provided an introduction describing the background of the problem, purpose

and significance of the study, research question, definitions of terms, and assumptions and

limitations of the study. Chapter 2 provides a detailed review of the authentic leadership and

team success research literature, synthesizes the findings, and analyzes the research methods, test

procedures, and study results. It is a comprehensive review of the authentic leadership theory,

sport industry, and team success literature that includes all of the relevant published research and

primary scholarly sources to inform the study. Chapter 3 outlines the purpose of the study,

research question and hypothesis, research design, target population and sample, data collection

procedures used to conduct the study, instrument used to collect the data, and all ethical

considerations. Chapter 4 presents the testing results and a summary of the testing conclusions.

Chapter 5 discusses the research findings and how they inform the leadership field and sport

7
industry. It will elaborate on the implications for the research question. It will discuss the

application of the test results. Lastly, recommendations for future research will be presented.

8
 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Research shows that different forms of leadership are correlated to and influence

variables of performance and success. One form of leadership, specifically, authentic leadership

has been and continues to be evaluated as a factor in the United States and foreign countries and

in many different industries and domains. This literature review includes a review of the seminal

and current research that has been instrumental in forging the theoretical foundation of authentic

leadership theory. The literature review will document how authenticity was introduced to the

leadership literature and the work that researchers did to expand the construct. Additionally, the

literature review will include examples of how researchers are using authentic leadership theory

in contemporary studies.

Sport has always had leaders who practice leadership. The literature review includes

pertinent details about the sport industry and an analysis of how the growth and culture of sport

organizations is attracting an increasing number of leadership studies due to the collection and

availability of high quality quantitative data. Sport team success is defined and evaluated. The

sport industry is an environment where the rules of performance are strict, and noncompliance is

immediately flagged with consequences for each nonperforming action. Success in the sport

industry is widely measured by winning; the sport industry is built to ensure the winner is always

clearly determined. The result of this clarity has allowed researchers to consider how a sport

team’s winning percentage is influenced by or correlated to the behaviors of leaders or other

organizational factors.

9
 After analyzing the literature on authentic leadership and sport team success, the

literature review includes a discussion of prior studies of authentic leadership and team success

in similar and different domains. A summary of the literature review will critique the study

results and synthesize the findings to illustrate how they informed and framed the current study.

Lastly, the review supports the research design to aid in answering the research question.

Authentic Leadership Style

Authentic leadership theory traces back to ancient Greek philosophy where the

etymology of the word authentic is linked to the Greek word, authentu, which means to have full

power (Gardner et al., 2011; S. Harter, 2002; J. Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002). The earliest

documented reference to authenticity is Socrates’ work on self-inquiry where he noted that an

unexamined life is not worth living (Gardner et al., 2011); Aristotle would later use this

expression to expand his examination of ethics with a focus on self-actualization. Through this

philosophical foundation of how people objectively evaluate their core selves and assess their

ontological realities, the seminal work of authentic leadership theory began to take form (Kernis

& Goldman, 2005). Authentic leadership is communicated as a root construct of other leadership

theories, such as ethical and transformational leadership theories (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).

Novicevic et al. (2005) suggested that the earliest philosophical conceptions of

authenticity occurred in the 1960s where it was asserted that authenticity of an organization was

evidenced through its leadership. Rome and Rome (1967) supported this assertion with their

definition of authentic leadership, which stated in part, that an organization, like a leader, is

authentic to the extent “that it accepts finitude, uncertainty, and contingency; realizes its capacity

for responsibility and choice; acknowledges guilt and errors; fulfills its creative managerial

10
potential for flexible planning, growth, and chart of policy information; and responsibly

participates in the wider community” (p. 185). The years following their landmark work would

be marred with support and criticism that resulted in an inconsistent focus from scholars on

authentic leadership.

Decades passed before authentic leadership reemerged in social science research, where

work was again being done in the field of education. Researchers were being encouraged to

study how authentic leaders behaved and the associated outcomes. Luthans and Avolio (2003)

defined authentic leadership in organizations “as a process that draws upon both positive

psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both

greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of the leaders and

associates, fostering positive self-development” (p. 243). The authentic leader is believed to be

confident, optimistic, resilient, transparent, moral/ethical, future oriented, and given to setting

priorities to develop associates into leaders themselves. The authentic leader does not try to

intimidate or coax associates, but rather the leader’s authentic values, beliefs, and actions serve

to model the development of associates. This foundation provided the path for scholars to

dissect the current understanding of authentic leadership and expand on what it means for both

the leader and follower. In the work of Luthans and Avolio (2003), they recognized that

characteristics of an individual that enabled them to behave like an authentic leader. They take it

further to extend to the effects on followers, defining how the leader’s actions can lead to the

development of similar behaviors with followers. The importance of this behavior is that the

leadership researchers have added findings and a framework to the literature to support a better

understanding of the phenomenon. While scholars have found these contributions to be

11
important, they have also been important for practitioners, too, because they demonstrate that an

authentic leader positively impacts the growth and development of followers. The progressive

value of this relationship may lead to future studies investigating the leader-follower relationship

and its impact on organizational performance outcomes.

Though early researchers on authentic leaders provided descriptions of them, Avolio,

Luthans et al. (2004) would refine their description of authentic leaders “as those individuals

who know who they are, what they think, how they behave, and how they are perceived by

others as being aware of their own and others’ values/moral perspectives, knowledge, and

strengths” (p. 4). Authentic leaders are aware of the context in which they operate and

demonstrate confident behavior with high moral character. Their progressive work bridged the

work on positive organizational behavior and advanced the theoretical basis of authentic

leadership development. Their refined descriptions and definition came at a time when other

scholars were evaluating what was known about authentic leadership and how it was

transcending from other leadership theories to its own construct.

The developmental phase of the authentic leadership construct reached its first pivotal

point with the work of Kernis (2003), which was based on a comprehensive review of the

existing literature. Kernis (2003) focused on the element of self-esteem and its importance to a

leader’s approach when they have an optimal level of self-esteem compared to when it is lower.

He hypothesized that leaders with an optimal level of self-esteem are more likely to develop

open, quality relationships with others. The value of self-esteem is extended to a leader’s

behavior. In instances where a leader’s actions align with their values and beliefs, it is suggested

that they are demonstrating components of an authentic being. At this point, Kernis (2003) and

12
Avolio et al. (2004) corroborated each other’s understanding of the specific self-esteem

component of authentic leadership. A leader who demonstrates an optimal level of self-esteem

could also be seen as a leader who is confident, hopeful, and resilient.

Avolio and Gardner (2005) addressed the development of authentic leadership theory

amidst challenging times faced by different organizations, when they collaborated with scholars

and practitioners from diverse domains and with key leaders from business, educational,

military, and political arenas. The focus was on the emergence and development of authentic

leadership and followership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). This focus is significant to the field of

leadership because it demonstrates that leadership is critical to sustaining an organization

regardless of the industry, domain, or model of the product or service that is provided. The

development of authentic leadership is viewed as an integral component of continued growth

across many different domains. It also provides an opportunity for consideration from varying

perspectives, suggesting that the ongoing development of authentic leadership will be robust and

inclusive of different intangibles and factors.

Shamir and Eilam (2005) build on the work of Luthans and Avolio (2003) and Avolio et

al. (2004) by proposing that an individual’s life story is a contributing factor to their ability to be

self-aware and attach meaning to their values, which leads to how they interact with followers

and develop as an authentic leader. Sparrowe (2005) agreed that an individual’s life story is at

the root of how a leader may identify with their true self, subsequently providing additional

context regarding what may encourage the development of authentic leadership tendencies. In

contrast, Michie and Gooty (2005) viewed authentic leadership through a different lens that

suggested self-transcendent values (equality, honesty, and responsibility) and positive emotions

13
(gratitude, appreciation, and concern for others) are the critical elements that contribute to the

development of authentic leadership. Although they asserted that the foundational elements of

development for authentic leadership are different, the researchers still explained that positive

psychological capacities and values are the result that leads to leader authenticity. This quality

progression indicates advances toward understanding authentic leadership given that the initial

intent in describing and defining authentic leadership was to develop a construct that was multi-

dimensional and multi-level (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). However, this could present difficulties

in measuring authentic leadership for scholars.

Gardner et al. (2005) used the collective scholarly insight and developed a self-based

model of authentic leader and follower development that consisted of antecedents of personal

history and trigger events. The theoretical framework for the model was grounded in literature

of the self and identity given the current definitions of authentic leadership, which focuses on

being true to the self (Gardner et al., 2005). The central theme of their model framework was

that authentic leaders continuously demonstrated for others through their words and actions high

levels of self-awareness, balanced processing, transparency, and authentic behavior. Ultimately,

they assert that they act as a positive role model, positively effecting the development of

authentic followers. The framework supports earlier work that asserted that authentic leaders are

able to model the development for associates (Luthans & Avolio, 2003) and provides some

consistency to the evolution of the authentic leadership construct.

Jensen and Luthans (2006) did a study focused on entrepreneurs as authentic leaders to

evaluate their impact on employees’ attitudes. The topic was the perceived leadership of

entrepreneurs by their employees, which they noted had received limited research attention. The

14
researchers used the Authentic Leadership Model to conduct the exploratory examination of the

relationship between employee perception of a founder as an authentic leader and the employees’

attitudes and happiness. Participants were employees of new small businesses, which were all

founded by a single individual. A quantitative methodology and hierarchal linear modeling was

used to analyze the data for the employee participants (n = 179). Findings showed that the

employees’ perception of authentic leadership serves as a predictor of employee job satisfaction,

organizational commitment, and work happiness (Jensen & Luthans, 2006). In addition to

collecting data on the perception of the founders’ authentic leadership, each founder was asked

to complete an assessment of their own authentic leadership using the same measure. A

significant positive correlation was found between the leaders’ self-assessment of authentic

leadership and the employees’ perception of their authentic leadership. One limitation of the

study was the sampling strategy. A convenience sampling method limited the generalizability of

the study results. The researchers note that experimental and longitudinal future research should

evaluate issues of causality, as well as the strength of the noted relationships. Future research

should expand beyond employee attitudes to focus on how authentic leadership by the

entrepreneur impacts organizational performance. This study offered the first application of the

Authentic Leadership Model within an entrepreneur and new business-oriented domain.

In a separate empirical study, Jenson and Luthans (2006) addressed a void in the

literature related to how positive psychological capacities may be linked to components of

authentic leadership as defined by Avolio and colleagues. The study did not explore any

organizational performance factors; however, the findings were intended to support progressive

research related to authentic leadership. The theoretical framework drew upon Avolio and

15
colleagues concept of authentic leadership defined as knowing one’s self, owning one’s personal

experiences, and behaving in a pattern consistent with these understandings (Jenson & Luthans,

2006). The researchers hypothesized that entrepreneurs’ level of optimism is positively related

to perceptions of their authentic leadership. Entrepreneurs of small businesses in the Midwest

were recruited to participate in the study, which resulted in 76 participants (n =76). This study

preceded the development of Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (Walumbwa et al., 2008)

instrument to measure authentic leadership behaviors. As a result, a multiple measures approach

was used that leveraged components of the following valid and reliable instruments: Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire Form 5X (Bass & Avolio, 1990), the ENTRESCALE (Knight, 1997),

and Ethical Climate Questionnaire (ECQ) (Victor & Cullen, 1988). Each of these instruments

consists of multiple items; only the items reflecting the focus of this study were obtained and

assessed. The results of the exploratory factor analysis showed strong positive correlations

between optimism, resiliency, and hope with overall positive psychological capital and the self-

perception of authentic leadership (Jenson & Luthans, 2006). The researchers noted the

limitation associated with relying on self-reported measures and suggested that future research

should focus on the concept of trust and how the perception of trust in a leader could be a

predictor of success. Ultimately, the study proved to be another step toward applying authentic

leadership.

Tate (2008) conducted a study examining self-monitoring and authentic leadership as

individual difference predictors to evaluate how the perception of an individual as a leader

changes over time. This study has importance to the leadership field as it used a longitudinal

research design and a random coefficients modeling (RCM) approach, which are less often used

16
in leadership research and were previously noted as recommendations. The researcher

contended that how others perceive an individual as a leader is inconsistent over time and

individual differences could predict the extent of change. The researchers hypothesized that

individuals high in authentic leadership will be more likely than those low in authentic leadership

to be perceived as leaders early in a groups’ tenure. The participants for the study were

undergraduate students who were enrolled in a leadership course. Given that no valid and

reliable measure for authentic leadership existed at the time of this study, the researchers created

an 18 item self-report instrument based on five dimensions of authentic leadership:

Demonstrating self-discipline, leading with heart, establishing enduring relationships, practicing

solid values, and passion for purpose (George, 2003). Similar to the study by Jenson and

Luthans (2006), an exploratory factor analysis was used primarily because no prior research on

authentic leadership was available to use other statistical analysis options like a confirmatory

factor analysis. This is important as it demonstrates how research designs are impacted when a

new construct is developed and there is minimal or no prior research available. Correlational

analysis and a two-level hierarchical linear regression (HLM) were used to test the hypotheses.

The findings do not support the hypothesis, suggesting that self-monitoring and authentic

leadership did not predict the extent to which an individual was perceived as a leader (Tate,

2008). However, the analysis did show that, in general, an individual higher in authentic

leadership might have a more accurate perception of their own level of authentic leadership that

is closely aligned to how they are perceived, than an individual lower in authentic leadership

behaviors. In essence, an individual who others perceive as low in authentic leadership is less

likely to be higher in authentic leadership even if their self-assessment determines otherwise.

17
This is important because a number of authentic leadership measures consist of a self-report

version. The limitations and recommendations for future research highlight key takeaways that

inform the current study. The main limitation of their study was associated with the small

sample size. This brings greater awareness to ensuring the required minimum sample size,

regardless of the method of determining it, is achieved in order to substantiate the study findings.

The researchers recommended the development of a measure of authentic leadership as a

positive step toward advancing authentic leadership.

The developmental phase would culminate with the work of Walumbwa et al. (2008) who

developed a refined definition of authentic leadership through numerous converged studies that

defined authentic leadership as a pattern of leader behavior that “draws upon and promotes both

positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness,

an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational

transparency on the part of the leaders, fostering positive self-development” (p. 94). The

definition served as the foundation for the theory-based measure of authentic leadership that was

developed and tested (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Walumbwa et al. (2008) performed a

confirmatory factor analysis consisting of a combination of 436 employees from two

independent samples who rated their leaders on authentic leadership behaviors. The study results

suggested that there is substantial convergent validity among self-awareness, relational

transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced processing measures that form a

higher-order authentic leadership factor. The measure is the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire

(ALQ). While presenting the ALQ, Walumbwa et al., (2008) noted that it has implications for

future research on authentic leadership in organizations. The measure provides a valid and

18
reliable way for researchers to study authentic leadership that will allow them to continue to

refine the construct through scale development. In an attempt to evaluate the effects of the

higher-order authentic leadership factor, it is recommended that future research adopt less

subjective measures of performance and take on a broader range of outcomes. This was

significant to the field of leadership and practitioners as organizational leaders searched for ways

to understand how their leaders were influencing positive or negative team outcomes. In many

instances, the most current literature on authentic leadership uses the Authentic Leadership

Questions (ALQ) self-report version when determining whether there is a relationship between

authentic leadership and other variables (Leigh, 2014; Onorato & Zhu, 2014).

Current literature and empirical research demonstrates and supports that authentic

leadership is a multi-dimensional construct that consists of self-awareness, relational

transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced processing (Algera & Lips-Wiersma,

2012; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Cianci et al., 2014; Diddams & Change, 2012; Datta & Gupta,

2015; Gardner et al., 2005; Gardner et al., 2011; Hinojosa et al., 2014; Leigh, 2014; Leroy &

Palanski, 2012; Men & Stacks, 2014; Peus et al., 2012; Rego et al., 2013; Rego et al., 2014;

Rego et al., 2015; Sendjaya et al., 2016; Walumbwa et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2014; Wong &

Laschinger, 2013; Zhu et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2015). A leader must demonstrate self-awareness

in order to develop the other three dimensions of the construct (Walumbwa et al., 2008). An

authentic leader is considered to be self-aware by the degree to which they are aware of their

strengths, limitations, how others perceive them, and how they impact others. In doing so, the

leader will obtain and bring meaning to his view of the world, which impacts his current

understanding of himself and will continue to be a factor in his outlook in the future. Relational

19
transparency is the leader’s ability to reinforce a level of openness with others that provides them

with an opportunity to be forthcoming with their ideas, challenges, and opinions. An authentic

leader engages in open and trustworthy dialogue that displays their true perspective and feelings

in an emotionally controlled manner (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Internalized moral perspective is

grounded in ethics and understood as the degree to which a leader sets a high standard for moral

and ethical conduct. In doing so, the leader will accept all data and information and objectively

evaluate it prior to making a decision. The leader will solicit views that may conflict with theirs

in order to ensure all relevant information is given adequate consideration (Walumbwa et al.,

2008). The leader’s effort to solicit opposing views connects to the balanced processing

dimension, as well. Balanced processing is the degree in which a leader solicits sufficient

feedback and viewpoints to make important decisions while also considering their ongoing self-

regulation of internal moral standards to ensure other external influences are not over-

influencing. Basically, the leader receives the information sought through other dimensions of

authentic leadership and assesses them against their own values and view of the world before

making an important decision that will impact their followers while keeping the follower’s best

interest in mind. Scholars are increasing the study of the interacting influence of authentic

leadership and one of the four core foundations as defined by Walumbwa et al. (2008). To this

end, some current research is studying authentic leadership using different leadership models

while investigating the core foundations. Leader behavior that exhibits the four dimensions of

authentic leadership theory is expected to contribute to higher percentages of team success (see

Figure 1).

20
Theoretical Framework

Self-Awareness

Relational Transparency
Authentic Team
Leadership Success
Internalized Moral Perspective

Balanced Processing

Figure 1

Wong and Cummings (2009b) conducted a study using a model linking authentic

leadership behaviors with trust and work outcomes, with secondary analysis procedures. The

hypothesized model was tested using structural equation modeling in the health care industry.

The theoretical foundation was based on the same four underlying dimensions of authentic

leadership as defined by Gardner et al. (2005) that other studies have used (Giallonardo et al.,

2010; Walumbwa et al., 2010). The study proposed that authentic leadership influences follower

behavior through a mediating variable, trust in the leader, that impacts self-rated role

performance (Wong & Cummings, 2009b). At the time of this study, little empirical research

existed in the health care industry that evaluated trust in leadership with organizational variables.

Therefore, this study was significant because it filled a gap in the health care domain, and

provided additional empirical results for the leadership field. The findings of the study were

mixed, as the only authentic leadership behaviors to impact an outcome was an indirect effect of

relational transparency. It suggests that a leader who is relationally transparent may be able to

earn higher levels of follower trust. Given that trust is thought to be an important aspect of any

relationship within the health care field, it is potentially a positive sign that an authentic leader

can elicit higher levels of trust from followers. It also presents an opportunity for a researcher to

21
conduct similar research within a different industry that may or may not have the perceived

inherent importance on trust in the culture. The main limitation of this study was related to the

challenges associated with using secondary analysis and finding accurate indicators for certain

variables. Ultimately, the conclusions of the study lead to multiple recommendations for future

research, which are beneficial. The most notable recommendation is for future research to

incorporate both leader and staff perceptions of authentic leadership and an objective measure of

performance instead of self-reported performance. Both recommendations are significant to

continued authentic leadership research in any industry as it acknowledges the differences

between self-reported and perceived leadership behaviors and measures of performance.

According to Gardner et al. (2011) the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ), that is

grounded in Avolio and colleagues’ work on authentic leadership, which is in turn derived from

Kernis and Goldman’s (2005) multi-dimensional conception of the authentic leadership

construct, is the most frequently used measure of authentic leadership. The ALQ consists of four

subscale measurements that are focused on four dimensions of authenticity: relational

transparency, balanced processing, self-awareness, and internalized moral perspective (Avolio et

al., 2007; Wong and Laschinger, 2013). Walumbwa et al. (2008) conducted a confirmatory

factor analysis, which determined the instrument was valid and reliable. As noted, prior to the

development of the ALQ, researchers were required to operationalize authentic leadership by

using selected components of other instruments used in the leadership field, like the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) and Ethical Climate Scale (ECQ). In most instances, this

approach has been replaced by the ALQ, which is valid and reliable.

22
 Recent studies that explored authentic leadership as an antecedent and follower and

organizational performance have supported findings of some level of significant relationship.

Gardner et al. (2011) highlight in a review of the authentic leadership literature and research that

quantitative research methods are used more than qualitative and the trend is increasing year-

over-year. Research strategies involving authentic leadership are most commonly performed

using a survey versus other quantitative methods as well (Gardner et. al, 2011). Recent studies

with an authentic leadership theoretical framework have used the ALQ to measure the level of

leadership authenticity (Wong & Laschinger, 2013) and descriptive statistics, in combination

with other correlation statistical methods, to determine if a relationship exists between authentic

leadership and performance.

Alegra and Lips-Wiersma (2012) recognize the importance of authentic leadership theory

and need for it to address the ethical crisis in organizations and to help people connect with

themselves and their profession, while enhancing the well being of their followers. Cianci,

Hannah, Roberts, and Tsakumis (2014) conducted a study to investigate the impact of authentic

leadership on followers’ ethical decision making when faced with temptation. Their results show

that authentic leadership significantly inhibited followers from making unethical decisions when

faced with temptation. In this study, the positive follower behavior was a result, in part, of the

leader’s authentic leadership. The findings demonstrate an area where an authentic leadership

style can have a positive influence on follower behavior. If follower behavior is positively

influenced, you could question whether their behavior could be a mediating variable to

performance. If a followers’ ethical decision making is enhanced, it could be argued that they

23
would be more likely to do what is best for their peers on the team, which may improve overall

team success.

While much of the literature on the construct authentic leadership focuses on the positive

behavior a leader demonstrates, Diddams and Chang (2012) explored the possibility that

unintended consequences stem from the overly positive approach. While recognizing that

authentic leadership is based, in part, on a balanced processing of information from self-

reflection, Diddams and Chang (2012) suggest that a singular focus on your strengths and high

self-esteem as a leader can divert attention from weaknesses or make it increasingly difficult for

a leader to emotionally and cognitively acknowledge their weaknesses. A result of this is self-

pride rather than pride in their and their team’s accomplishments. Ultimately, the researchers

take an opposing view to a vast majority of the authenticity literature by highlighting that the act

of leading authentically could be a front for public image. Ultimately, a leader’s authentic

behavior must be authenticated by the followers in order for the team to benefit (Diddams &

Chang, 2012).

As the evolution of authentic leadership research continued, Wang, Sui, Luthans, Wang,

and Wu (2014) looked to refine how recent research defined authentic leadership with a

particular focus on investigating the relationship between authentic leadership and followers’

performance. They highlight that authentic leadership has become widely recognized as a

positive approach to organizational leadership and one in which can be of a higher value when

organizations face challenges. The hypothesis was that authentic leadership has a positive effect

on follower performance. A Chinese logistics firm and 801 followers and their immediate leader

served as the target population. Descriptive statistics were gathered for both leaders and

24
followers. Leaders were asked to rate their followers’ performance; followers were asked to rate

their leaders’ authentic leadership using the ALQ (Walumbwa et al., 2008). A confirmatory

factor analysis was completed, which resulted in a significant and positive correlation between

authentic leadership and performance (Wang et al., 2015). This study added to the knowledge of

the effectiveness of authentic leadership and supports the relationship focused leadership

perspective in existing authentic leadership research (Wang et al., 2005). One limitation of this

research was that the followers’ performance rating was obtained from their leader and could

consist of subjectivity or bias. The researchers note the potential limitation related to the

generalizability of their findings since the study was conducted in one firm in China, and

subsequently recommend that future research of the possible correlation between authentic

leadership and follower performance be conducted in different organizational and societal

cultures to help validate the findings (Wang et al., 2015).

Sendjaya et al. (2016) examined the relationship between authentic leadership and moral

reasoning and moral action. Building on the internalized moral perspective believed to be a

component of a leaders’ authentic behavior, they defined moral reasoning as the implicit

rationale justifying one’s decisions. Moral action was defined as the verbal or non-verbal

behavior demonstrated. The findings showed no direct relationship between authentic leadership

and moral reasoning or moral action. The findings were unexpected (Sendjaya et al., 2016).

They are a significant contribution to the field because they appear to conflict with a core

antecedent of the authentic leadership construct. It highlights the need for continued research to

support or evolve the construct.

25
 Sport Industry

American football is a core event in communities across the United States and is the most

common high school sport (Skinner et al., 2013). Scholars and practitioners consider leadership

an essential factor in an organization’s success. Everhart and Chelladurai (1998) contributed to

the premise that a coach’s work is that of a leader. Success in the sport industry is first

recognized by performance, and measured by winning percentage. Recent studies in the sport

industry have used a correlational design to evaluate team success measured as a team’s winning

percentage (Reynolds et al., 2015). The sport industry offers a high volume of quality

quantitative data on individual and team performance that supports a quantitative study design.

Team performance metrics clearly define success, as measured by the number of wins divided by

the number of games played. As a result, the measure of team success for this study assumes a

quantitative measure of team success in the form of a ratio, winning percentage. Winning

percentage is a reoccurring dependent variable measure of team success, performance, or

effectiveness in the existing literature (Walumbwa et al., 2008; Wong & Cummings, 2009a); it

has shown to be an effective methodology in similar studies that have occurred.

Hastie (1993) was known late in the 20th century for arguing that a coach’s leadership

influence could also increase personal development and should not be just looked at as a positive

contribution to performance. Unfortunately, sport leaders were still commonly evaluated with a

strict focus on the winning percentage of their team at that time (Chelladurai & Quek, 1995).

This fact largely distracted researchers from evaluating the potential impact on other outcomes.

Pratt and Eitzen (1989) supported the approach by highlighting that the leadership role in

sport is critical because success can be measured accurately, which allows organizations to hold

26
a coach accountable for performance. They performed a study to assess the effect of leadership

style on winning of athletic teams by evaluating three dimensions of coaching: authoritarianism,

rigor, and a coaches’ intolerance for insubordination (Pratt & Eitzen, 1989). Their investigation

was unique because it was, in part, based on the presumption that coaches are held accountable

for uncertain events beyond their control: injuries, poor officiating, mental lapses by athletes, and

performance by an opponent. This is particularly interesting because the scholars assert that a

coach’s response to these uncertainties is to command as much control as possible, which may be

exerted through extraordinarily intense workouts and dehumanizing practices (Pratt & Eitzen,

1989). As a result, they noted that athletic teams have, with some exceptions, been primarily

characterized by the authoritarian leadership style. To conduct their study, a questionnaire

consisting of variables to measure the three dimensions was sent to head coaches of 600 high

school boy’s basketball teams. Team success was measured using the coach’s lifetime winning

percentage. The findings showed that none of the variables has a significant effect on team

success. The result is an important finding because it provides an opportunity for future research

to evaluate whether other forms of leadership behavior have an effect on team success in high

school sport. The study assumes that the coach’s leadership style did not vary over a lifetime. It

also suggests that coaches who demonstrate leadership behaviors that are more authoritarian than

democratic do not necessarily win more games. Recommendations for further investigation from

a longitudinal perspective are suggested.

Branch (1990) completed a study to examine athletic directors and perceptions of their

leadership behavior to determine whether they contributed to organizational effectiveness. For

the purposes of this study, the behavior of the athletic directors was self-reported and provided

27
based on the perception of selected assistants and assistant athletic directors using the Perceived

Athletic Organizational Effectiveness Index. Organizational effectiveness was defined as the

ability of the athletic organization to be productive, efficient in their operations, to adapt to

changes, and be flexible in handling unexpected crisis (Branch, 1990). Pearson correlation

coefficient was performed to examine the relationship between the variables. An anticipated

finding showed that when an athletic director believes they have initiated structure, it correlates

to organizational effectiveness. Findings also indicated that leaders who are goal and task

accomplishment focused contributed to more effective organizations than leaders who seek to

develop good interpersonal relationships with their followers (Branch, 1990). The most effective

organization is one where leaders are able to do both. This is an important empirical

contribution because it suggests a scenario where leaders give less time to developing followers

and nurturing them could be a more effective leadership approach for an organization. This is

likely to conflict with other research in the behavioral science field where, generally speaking,

the positive interaction between leader and follower is believed to contribute to greater

organizational effectiveness. Nonetheless, the assumption that leadership is essential to team

success in the sport industry has and continues to be the foundation of scholarly research for a

myriad of reasons, but primarily because sport is viewed by many as a microcosm of the larger

society (Day, Gordon, & Fink, 2012).

Given that a higher winning percentage by a team in sport has shown a relationship with

other important organizational factors (Padgett & Hunt, 2011), it is important to understand how

leadership may positively effect team success measured by winning percentage. Quinn et al.

(2003) noted the ongoing debate about a sport team’s winning percentage and its effect on other

28
interacting variables of the organization. One of the biggest factors impacting research outcomes

is the varying perception of how leadership should be defined and which characteristics of a

leader’s behavior are the most important and contribute to the demonstration of leadership.

However, there is a clear body of literature dating back four decades that suggests sport coaches

are leaders (Kellett, 1999), which demonstrates why there is a growing importance to understand

authentic leadership in the sport domain. A team’s winning percentage has been used to measure

success in sport to determine how it is related to a change in coaching (Johnson et al., 2016),

how a new player impacts success (Reynolds et al., 2015), and how it impacts or is impacted by

variables such as player position (Skinner et al., 2013), attendance (Quinn et al., 2003), and

recruiting (Dronyk-Trosper & Stitzel, 2016). This is important because it demonstrates that

scholars are using this measure of success in a wide variety of studies, which suggests that it is a

reliable way to measure team success in sport.

Another study that explored a head coach’s transformational leadership and its effect on

objectively measured individual performance of basketball players noted the value of survey data

and objective performance data (Bormann & Rowold, 2016). Results supported a relationship

between transformational leadership and individual player performance in the sport domain.

Today, in the 21st century, coaches continue to be evaluated on the winning percentage of their

team (Skinner et al., 2013), but the criteria and consequences of poor performance have evolved

to higher levels.

The field of sport science offers a context that eliminates some of the organizational

difficulties and cultural contingencies that can complicate the leadership relationship. Day,

Gordon, and Fink (2012) suggest these aspects of the sport environment make it an enticing

29
context for leadership researchers, which has resulted in a growing number of studies in recent

years. Sport offers informative contexts that can enhance a scientific understanding of how

groups perform. Hughs et al. (2010) support the suggested value of empirical studies related to

leadership style or organizational outcomes by noting that football is a domain that can provide

insight to managers in other industries related to leading people, change, and the organization.

The study of team success in sport offers an opportunity to evaluate the high degree of

precision and collaboration required for them to succeed. Successful performance is contingent

upon followers, each with an innate skill set, individual intention, behavioral pattern and

cognition, coming together at a precise point in time (Williamson & Cox, 2014). This is difficult

at all levels of sport given the many interacting variables leaders and followers must navigate.

As a result, Williamson and Cox (2014) assert that theoretical and empirical investigations of

sport team performance can provide important insight into the central point between philosophy

of mind and sport, social ontology, and the cognitive sciences. The literature shows that team

performance in sport can vary in unpredictable ways, similar to individual performance. There is

also evidence that there can be disconnect between how a sport team “looks on paper” and the

actual measured performance. One possible explanation for this variance in expectations is the

team’s ability to create an emerging value from their interdependent roles on the team. In other

words, it is through the sharedness and progression toward the leader’s vision by each follower

that makes the whole greater than the sum of the parts. The sharedness can be further described

through player emotions, knowledge, and goals; players are believed to mutually influence each

other’s attitudes, too (Williamson & Cox, 2014). Based on the literature, coaching competency

is a factor in the outcome of organizational performance as well (Soebbing & Washington,

30
2011). However, it appears, coaching competency is not the only factor impacting team

performance. A player on a team is able to influence others, in part, by having knowledge of

their own skills. Self-reflection of their strengths and weaknesses related to the sport and ability

to articulate it to others can enhance their impact on team performance, as well as enable other

players to enhance their performance through complimentary actions that align with their

strengths. As authentic leaders demonstrate the self-awareness required to develop the other

dimensions essential to being authentic, there appears to be a commonality between the

behaviors of a player to enhance the team’s performance. One could ask whether a higher level

of head coach authenticity would enhance the consistency and level of player self-reflection,

ultimately having an impact on the emerging value that is generated between players. This could

add another element of value outside of the coach-player exchange that is based on an authentic

leadership style of coaching.

Empirical research on high school football programs dates back decades and has looked

to better understand team performance measured by the number of wins, winning percentage,

among other dependent variable measurements. Theoretical approaches have varied from

production theory (Callan & Thomas, 2011) to common sense theory (Dohrn, Lopez, &

Reinhardt, 2015). In a separate study, Dohrn, Lopez, and Reinhardt (2015) examined the impact

of leader succession on team on-field performance, measured by winning percentage, and

financial performance of the football program. They expanded on the argument that a coach is

required to make calculated decisions that impact performance, which is contributing to the

wider interest of organizational performance within the sport domain. Their study was supported

by the work of Soebbing and Washington (2011) who also extended the leadership literature in

31
sport by examining how a change in head coach impacts team success. The study by Soebbing

and Washington also measured team success by winning percentage, but over a two-year span.

A recent study obtained and used the win/loss record data publically available through

the North Carolina High School Athletic Association (NCHSAA), which is the governing body

for high school sport programs in North Carolina (Skinner et al., 2013). The data provided a

method to identify the school so the researchers could assign the appropriate winning percentage

to each football program to measure team success. This research method supports the literature

that suggests the sport industry is an attractive domain for leadership studies given the objective

quality quantitative data immediately available to scholars. A more recent study in the sport

industry also calculated every team’s winning percentage as the measure of success to explore its

relationship with recruiting (Dronyk-Trosper & Stitzel, 2016). The results showed a statistically

significant relationship between the addition of quality players and team success when the team

is a consistently winning program. The relationship was less significant with teams whose

success was already marginal. Essentially, if the football program has a low winning percentage

for multiple seasons, it is less likely that adding a quality player will increase their winning

percentage. This could suggest that a higher quantity of quality players would be required to

significantly increase the winning percentage of an unsuccessful football program. The

researchers indicate that future research related to football team success should consider other

factors more closely related to team-characteristics as opposed to player quality. They

specifically state that coaching is an example of a less studied factor that may influence team

success (Dronyk-Trosper & Stitzel, 2016).

32
 LoPilato, Hoffman, and Overstreet (2014) support the position that athletics provide

objective data on team performance in the form of team statistics that make it useful for studying

the performance of teams. The study evaluated how three different levels of performance,

typical, peak, and variable performance, predicted objective team-level outcomes. The primary

outcome used to assess team success was the team’s winning percentage, which was calculated

as the number of wins during the season divided by the total number of games played. Results

showed that team success was predicted by typical and peak performance, while offensive

variability in performance was also a predictor of team success, determined by a higher winning

percentage. Defensive variability in performance was unrelated to the team-level outcomes.

Williamson and Cox (2014) outline that team performance in the sport domain is difficult

and typically varies even when common factors between multiple teams exist because it requires

a team of individuals to collaborate, which is a skill that may not be inherent in their ability even

as a high performing individual in a sport. Essentially, although a football program could field a

team of eleven individual experts in their respective role, the team may not succeed. Leading is

at the core of the strategies that could be used to increase team success, even when individual

success may already be high. Expectation of performance is also a factor in the sport industry.

Given the ability to operationalize performance by evaluating a predetermined expectation of

performance, also viewed as team success (Soebbing, Wicker, & Weimar, 2015), a coach’s

actions are dissected and linked to outcomes that may be under outside influences or

circumstances outside their control. It leads to the question of how do you define a particular

coach’s leadership style and behavior, and how did it positively or negatively influence the

team’s success. Without defining the characteristics of the coach and their leadership style, it is

33
unclear whether the coach or another factor primarily contributed to the team’s success or failure

to meet performance expectations (Soebbing, Wicker, & Watanabe, 2016). Assessing whether

coaches’ leadership style impacts the teams’ success is further complicated by the fact that some

sport settings have shared leadership roles amongst coaches, which is an issue evident in recent

studies (Soebbing & Washington, 2011). It is important to ensure the actual leader is the coach

that is being evaluated. This is an important assessment from the field scholars that contributed

to the current study and explicit designation of head football coaches, which is a clearly defined

role in high school football programs.

Even though the sport context provides a researcher an organizational setting with

reduced constraints in key fundamental areas that inhibit insightful leadership research, questions

continue to surround the field of leadership and what has been learned from studying teams in a

sport context (Day, Gordon, & Fink, 2012).

Authentic Leadership Style and Team Success

Scholars argue that leadership is significant for organizational performance; while they

agree, according to Rego et al. (2015), that leadership must be more than just effective to

increase performance. The scholars believe that it must also be good and enhance the quality of

the “moral fabric” of the organization. They point out that authentic leadership is considered

both effective and good (Avolio, 2010; Avolio & Mhatre, 2012), which supports the theoretical

and empirical evidence in the literature. Rego et al. (2015) acknowledge the limited studies

assessing group performance even though studies have shown authentic leadership to influence

followers’ behaviors and performance. Scholars and practitioners who have explored authentic

leadership in relation to team performance and success largely attribute this fact to the ongoing

34
growth and increasing interest. The researchers of this study hypothesized that authentic

leadership predicts store performance; the store’s sales achievement in terms of a percentage a

store achieves the monthly sales target was used to define team performance. The ALQ

instrument was used to measure authentic leadership. The study results showed that authentic

leadership predicts team performance, which corroborated other recent studies within different

domains. The significance of this study is that it demonstrates the statistical relationship

between authentic leadership and team performance (Rego et al., 2015) in the retail industry, and

does it by measuring performance with ratio data.

Other studies of authentic leadership have looked to determine how authentic leadership

impacts other outcomes, such as organizational behavior and organizational trust. Onorato and

Zhu (2014) conducted a study intended to determine whether there is a correlation between

authentic leadership behaviors and organizational trust. The authors recognized how other

studies were built on a similar theoretical foundation that evaluated whether authentic leadership

predicted follower’s performance, which ultimately impacted organizational performance

through positive organizational behavior demonstrated by the leader. Based on the results of

earlier studies that showed when leaders are rated by followers as more authentic, the level of

follower performance was deemed more effective (Onorato & Zhu, 2014). A number of

empirical studies have evaluated whether trust mediates the relationship between authentic

leadership and success, which is why the work of Onorato and Zhu contributes to the literature of

authentic leadership. Their study expanded the use of the ALQ to assess the measured level of

leadership authenticity, too. A similar study assessed the effects of authentic leadership on

organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Valsania et al., 2012). Results showed that authentic

35
leadership positively impacted OCB. The researchers ultimately suggested that the results of the

study were the foundation for their belief that authentic leaders are the influence for advancing

elements of the organization. The caveat is that each organization may be comprised of different

functions and organizational elements.

Onorato and Zhu (2014) also point out that authentic leadership behaviors may vary by

industry; they evaluated whether there were any significant differences in authentic leadership

behaviors across multiple industries. This is an important contribution to the literature, as it

emphasizes that scholars need to consider how the correlation between authentic leadership and

organizational trust and performance may vary in different industries and organizations. The

study findings showed a high correlation between authentic leadership and organizational trust; it

also showed different levels of correlation between industry segments (Onorato & Zhu, 2014).

The study also demonstrates the variability in performance metrics across different domains.

The measure of team success in one industry is no more or less important than another; rather, it

is believed to be unique and a different opportunity to expand the authentic leadership theory.

Literature Review Summary

The current literature consistently supports a relationship between authentic leadership

and organizational outcomes, most notably team success (Rego et al., 2015). Previous research

methods have consistently shown that quantitative correlation design is an effective methodology

when evaluating authentic leadership and team success. Studies continue to use the ALQ

instrument to assess a leader’s level of authentic leadership and analyze how it impacts many

outcomes or performance based measures. Studies show a relationship between authentic

leadership and follower ethical decision-making (Cianci et al., 2014), trust (Onorato & Zhu,

36
2014), organizational citizen behavior (OCB) (Valsania et al., 2012), and performance (Rego et

al., 2015). Other research findings show no direct relationship between authentic leadership and

moral reasoning or moral action (Sendjaya et al., 2016). There is criticism and support regarding

the potential impact authentic leadership has on an organization, which is why researchers

consistently recommend further research that considers different domains to broaden and deepen

the understanding. Although the overall literature related to authentic leadership and team

success is growing, studies have not determined whether there is a correlation between authentic

leadership and team success in high school sport football programs.

37
 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there was a correlation between high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and their team’s success.

The study contributed empirical results related to authentic leadership in high school football

programs, which was a gap in the existing literature. Prior studies in other industries have found

that authentic leadership has an effect on or leads to higher team performance (Leigh, 2014;

Onorato & Zhu, 2014; Wang et al., 2014).

Research Question and Hypotheses

RQ1 - To what extent, if any, is there a correlation between a Midwestern state high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success?

H01 – There is no statistically significant relationship between a Midwestern state high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success.

HA1 – There is a statistically significant relationship between a Midwestern state high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success.

Research Design

This research was a quantitative non-experimental correlation study. The independent

variable was the measured level of leadership authenticity. It was determined by using the

Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) (Walumbwa et al., 2008). The research design of

numerous recent studies analyzing authentic leadership used the ALQ to measure the level of

leadership authenticity (Leroy, Palanski, & Simons, 2012; Peus et al., 2012; Rego, Reis, & Pina,

2015; Wang et. al, 2014). The dependent variable was the team’s success. The team’s winning

38
percentage for one completed regular season was obtained from archival data through the High

School Athletic Association (HSAA), which is the governing entity and system of record for all

high school sport performance outcomes of the Midwestern state. The winning percentage was

determined by the number of games won divided by the number of games played.

Target Population and Sample

Population

The population for the study was all high school head football coaches in a Midwestern

state. There were seven divisions of high school football in the Midwestern state, which

consisted of a total 716 football programs. Each high school was either a public or private

school and had to be a member of the High School Athletic Association (HSAA). Every high

school football program had one head football coach who had primary leadership responsibility

of assistance coaches and players.

Sample

A simple random sample was used. The Microsoft Excel function RANDBETWEEN

was used to generate random numbers between 1 and 716. The initial sample strategy consisted

of 200 participants with a target response rate of 17% in order to achieve the required minimum

sample size. The first 200 random numbers were used as the initial sample. The random sample

numbers were traced back to the coded list of high school football programs. These programs

were included in the test sample. The required minimum sample size was not achieved with the

initial 200 participants in the sample. Therefore, an additional sample of 200 participants was

used from the randomly generated numbers in order to achieve the required minimum sample

size. A total of 400 sample participants were ultimately invited to participate in the study.

39
Power Analysis

A G Power analysis calculation was used to determine the required minimum sample size

to achieve the desired level of confidence based on the characteristics of the study. Using a

power of .95, confidence interval of .05, and effect size of .5, the minimum required sample size

for this research study is 34.

Procedures

Participant Selection

The sample consisted of a random sample of high school head football coaches in a

Midwestern state. There were 716 high school football programs in the Midwestern state; each

program had one head football coach. After the programs were selected based on the coded

random numbers generated, the head football coach was identified via the High School Athletic

Association (HSAA) website, which is the governing body for high school sport programs.

Protection of Participants

Each head coach was provided an informed consent form and specific details related to

the study. The information outlined what the study was about, why they were being asked to

participate, the cost or benefits associated with their involvement, and contact information for

whom they can contact with questions about the study. They were told that any information

provided on their behalf would be kept confidential. All data was coded and research results

were only reported as aggregate and collapsed data across divisions to minimize risk of

identification.

Data Collection

40
 The data for this research study were collected utilizing the Authentic Leadership

Questionnaire (ALQ) that was sent to participants via email. The selected sample participants

received an email requesting their participation in the research study along with a brief study

overview. The researcher’s cell phone number and school email address were provided.

Participants were asked to answer three predetermined demographic questions. The following

demographic questions were included with the ALQ survey: Number of seasons as a high school

head football coach; number of division titles won as a high school head football coach; and your

current age. An informed consent form was provided to participants for review prior to

completing the demographic questions and ALQ survey. The participants were told it should

take 10-15 minutes to participant in the study. The participant completed the questionnaire and

returned the completed survey and demographic questionnaire to the researcher via email. A

reminder email was sent 2 weeks after the initial introductory email to sample participants whom

had not responded inviting their participation. Since the required minimum sample size was not

achieved in one month, another set of participants was sampled. The second sample received the

same informed consent form and study information; the entire recruiting process was identical.

The coded ALQ results were matched to the winning percentage for each program in the sample

frame.

Data Analysis

This study primarily used descriptive statistics and Spearman’s Rho correlation to

analyze survey results to determine whether there is a statistically significant relationship

between a Midwestern state high school head football coach’s measured level of leadership

authenticity and the team’s success. Based on the availability of data, a hierarchal regression

41
analysis was also performed to determine the strength of relationship between the head football

coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity, current age, number of years as a high school

head football coach, and the number of division titles they have won, and team success. IBM

SPSS statistics package was used to perform the data analysis.

Instruments

Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ)

The independent variable (IV) was the level of measured leadership authenticity. The

study utilized one instrument to measure the level of leadership authenticity. The Authentic

Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) is designed to measure the components that comprise

Authentic Leadership (Walumbwa et al., 2008) and consists of sixteen (16) questions.

The ALQ scales are based on a Likert scale ranging from not at all to frequently, if not

always and address the following questions:

Self-Awareness: To what degree is the leader aware of his or her strengths, limitations,

how others see him or her and how the leader impacts others?

Transparency: To what degree does the leader reinforce a level of openness with others

that provides them with an opportunity to be forthcoming with their ideas, challenges and

opinions?

Ethical/Moral: To what degree does the leader set a high standard for moral and ethical

conduct?

Balanced Processing: To what degree does the leader solicit sufficient opinions and

viewpoints prior to making important decisions? (Walumbwa et al., 2008).

42
 The measured level of leadership authenticity (IV) is discrete ordinal data and was

measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from not at all to frequently, if not always. The

instrument was obtained through MindGarden who granted approval for its use during this study.

For this study, the ALQ responses for the sixteen (16) questions were aggregated to one

authentic leadership total score factor, which was used to determine the level of leadership

authenticity of each participant. The authentic leadership total score was interpreted using the

following guidelines. Scores in the upper two ranges indicated stronger authentic leadership;

scores in the lower two ranges indicated weaker authentic leadership.

Very high = 64 – 80

High = 48 – 64

Low = 32 – 48

Very low = 16 – 32

The dependent variable (DV) is team success. It is continuous ratio data. It was not

measured with an instrument. It was determined by the winning percentage for the completed

2015 regular season for each high school football program. The winning percentage was

calculated as the number of wins by the number of games played.

Validity

Walumbwa et al. (2008) conducted a comprehensive literature review and confirmatory

factor analysis of the ALQ to conclude the model is valid and reliable. The comparative fit index

(CFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), chi-square (X2) were used as part of

their validation effort. The following values were used to determine adequate fit.

CFI value of .95

43
 RMSEA value of .06 or less

X2 of less than 3.00

The results of the second-order factor model are outlined below.

CFI value = .97

RMSEA value = .05

X2 = 2.39

Reliability

The estimated internal consistency alphas for each of the four measures of the ALQ were

at acceptable levels as outlined below.

Self-Awareness: a = .92

Transparency: a = .87

Ethical/Moral: a = .76

Balanced Processing: a = .81

Ethical Considerations

The Belmont Report (1979) outlines three basic principles relevant to the ethics of

research involving human subjects: respect of persons, beneficence, and justice. These principles

were carefully considered while conducting this research. Informed consent, confidentiality,

anonymity, and the participant’s right to privacy are some of the considerations that the

researcher abided by to ensure that the participants were treated with the principles of respect of

person, beneficence, and justice. A consent form was provided to the participant with

information about the study following the requirements and guidelines from the Institutional

44
Review Board (IRB). The following ethical considerations were demonstrated during this

research.

i. Individual confidentiality

ii. Survey responses will remain confidential

iii. Informed Consent

iv. No harm to participants

v. No researcher bias

The population and research topic were not at a greater than minimal risk to participants

because the research design was quantitative correlational research study, which used a survey

instrument. Ultimately, the potential participant decided if he or she wanted to take part in the

study. All head football coaches in the sampling frame had an equal chance of being in the

study. The researcher only reported aggregate and collapsed data across divisions to minimize

risk of identification. The data was coded prior to collection and kept confidential during

collection, analysis, and storage to protect participants.

45
 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS

Introduction

The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to determine whether there is a

correlation between high school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity

and their team’s success. The study contributed empirical results related to authentic leadership

in high school football programs, which was a gap in the existing literature. Prior studies in

other industries have found that authentic leadership has an effect on or leads to higher team

performance (Leigh, 2014; Onorato & Zhu, 2014; Wang et al., 2014). Prior studies in the sport

industry found that coaches demonstrating high authoritarian leadership behaviors are no more

effective than democratic leaders (Pratt & Eitzen, 1989). It is also known that there is a

correlation between the size of skill position players and team success (Skinner et al., 2013).

For the study, the ALQ total score from the 16-question survey was aggregated into one

score, which was used to determine the level of authentic leadership. The authentic leadership

score was interpreted using the following guidelines: Very High = 64-80; High = 48-64; Low =

32-48; and Very Low = 16-32. Team success was measured using the winning percentage of

each high school football program. It was determined by the number of wins divided by the

number of games played. The winning percentage data for all programs included in this study

were publicly available and obtained through the High School Athletic Association (HSAA). All

statistical analyses were performed using SPSS for Windows. The following research question

guided the study: To what extent, if any, is there a correlation between a Midwestern state high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success?

46
 The following hypotheses were developed based on the RQ.

H01 – There is no statistically significant relationship between a Midwestern state high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success.

HA1 – There is a statistically significant relationship between a Midwestern state high

school head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success.

Chapter 4 outlines the results of the study designed to answer the RQ and respond to the

hypotheses. A series of tables and figures were used to present the data collection results and

provide support for the study findings.

Description of the Sample

A simple random sample was used. The Microsoft Excel function RANDBETWEEN

was used to generate random numbers between 1 and 716. The population for the study was all

high school head football coaches in a Midwestern state. The sample strategy consisted of 200

participants with a target response rate of 17% in order to achieve the required minimum sample

size. The first 200 random numbers were used as the sample. The random sample numbers were

traced back to the coded list of high school football programs. These programs were included in

the test sample. The required minimum sample size was not achieved with the 200 participants

in the sample. Therefore, an additional sample of 200 participants was used from the randomly

generated numbers in order to achieve the required minimum sample size. Of the 400 head

football coaches invited to participate in the study, 12.75 percent (n = 51) completed the

demographic questions and ALQ survey.

47
 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics for all study variables are included in Table 1 and Table 2. The

average coach had an ALQ score of 51.98, was 41.16 years old, with 6.12 years of experience,

and had won 1.71 conference titles. The average team had a win percentage of 55.10%, and was

most likely to be in Division VI. The distribution of coach experience was skewed to the right,

with more inexperienced coaches and one outlier with more than 25 years’ experience (see

Figure 2). Other variables were approximately normally distributed.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics

Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Authentic Leadership Score 48 57 51.98 2.65

Win percentage 0.00% 100.00% 55.10% 27.74%

Coach's age 28 58 41.16 6.55
Coach years’ experience 1 27 6.12 4.94

Coach number of titles 0 9 1.71 2.44

Table 2

Frequencies for Division

Division Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

1 6 11.8 11.8
2 7 13.7 25.5
3 8 15.7 41.2
4 8 15.7 56.9
5 6 11.8 68.6
6 12 23.5 92.2

48
7 4 7.8 100.0
Total 51 100.0

Hypothesis Testing

Frequency Histogram of Coach Experience

Figure 2

Spearman’s Rho was calculated to answer the primary research question: To what extent,

if any, is there a correlation between a Midwestern state high school head football coach’s

measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success? A preliminary scatterplot (see

Figure 3) shows a positive relationship between ALQ score and win percentage.

49
Scatterplot of Authentic Leadership Score and Win Percentage

Figure 3

Spearman’s Rho was .509 (p <.001), indicating a significant positive relationship

between ALQ score and win percentage. This suggests that a high school head football coach’s

authentic leadership has a direct correlation with their team’s success.

Hierarchical Regression

Given the availability of other variables that may be related to win percentage (division,

coach age, coach experience, and previous titles won), a hierarchical regression was conducted to

see whether ALQ score could predict win percentage over and above these other variables. A
50
two-step analysis was completed, with division, coach age, coach experience, and previous titles

won in step 1, and ALQ score added in step 2.

Both models were statistically significant (see ANOVA table in Table 3 and Table 4),

and the addition of ALQ score provided a significant increase in R-squared (R2 change = .12, p

<.01) (see Model Summary in Table 5). The increase in R-squared demonstrates the difference

in variability and shows the increase in predictive power. Thus, even after coach and team

variables were taken into account, ALQ predicted a significant amount of variability in win

percentage.

Table 3

Summary: Hierarchical Regression predicting win percentage

Sum of Mean
Model Squares df Square F Sig.
Division, Coach Age, Regression 15361.60 4 3840.40 7.64 .000
Coach Experience,
Division Titles Residual 23112.91 46 502.46
Total 38474.51 50

Division, Coach Age, Regression 19923.60 5 3984.72 9.67 .000

Coach Experience,
Division Titles Residual 18550.91 45 412.24
Total 38474.51 50
ALQ score

a. Dependent Variable: Win_Perc

b. Predictors: (Constant), Coach_titles, Division, Coach_age, Coach_exp
c. Predictors: (Constant), Coach_titles, Division, Coach_age, Coach_exp, ALQ_score

51
Table 4

Detail: Hierarchical Regression predicting win percentage

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
t
Model 1 B Std.Error Sig. Collinearity
(Constant) 53.273 25.123 2.121 .039
Division .865 1.747 .059 .495 .623 .915
Coach’s Age -.233 .710 -.055 -.329 .744 .466
Coach Experience -1.281 1.165 -.228 -1.099 .277 .303
Division Titles 9.245 1.955 .812 4.729 .000 .443

Unstandardized Standardized t
Coefficients Coefficients
Model 2 B Std. Error Sig. Collinearity
(Constant) -163.912 69.139 -2.371 .022
Division .697 1.583 .048 .440 .662 .914
Coach’s Age -.369 .644 -.087 -.0573 .570 .464
Coach Experience .429 1.174 .076 .365 .717 .245
Division Titles 5.962 2.027 .523 2.941 .005 .338
ALQ score 4.205 1.264 .402 3.327 .002 .735

A statistical evaluation of Spearman’s Rho correlation and Hierarchical Regression

analysis shows a Spearman Rho of .509 (p <.001) and Hierarchical Regression significance of p

<.000, respectively, which is less than the p-value of .05. Both statistical results support

rejecting the null hypothesis (H01) and accepting the alternative hypothesis (HA1).

52
 Based on the statistical analysis and results, a hypothesized model equation was

developed (see Figure 4).

Hypothesized Model Equation

Yi (Team Success) = Constant + a1(Division) + a2(Coach’s Age) + a3(Coach’s Experience) +

a4(Division Titles) + a5(ALQ Score)

Figure 4

Table 5

Model Summary

Change Statistics
Model R R Square Adjusted Std. Error of R Square F Change df1 df2 Sig. F
R Square the Estimate Change Change
1 .632a .399 .347 22.41550% .399 7.643 4 46 .000
2 .720b .518 .464 20.30375% .119 11.066 1 45 .002

a. Predictors: (Constant), Coach_titles, Division, Coach_age, Coach_exp

b. Predictors: (Constant), Coach_titles, Division, Coach_age, Coach_exp, ALQ_score

Summary

Chapter 4 presented statistical analyses of data collected from 51 participants. The

purpose of this study was to collect and analyze data to answer the RQ: To what extent, if any, is

there a correlation between a Midwestern state high school head football coach’s measured level

of leadership authenticity and the team’s success? Spearman Rho’s correlation was conducted

and had a value of .509 (p <.001), indicating a significant positive relationship between ALQ

score and win percentage. ALQ score was used to measure the level of leadership authenticity.

Win percentage was used to measure team success. Therefore, the analysis shows a direct

correlation between a Midwestern state high school head football coach’s measured level of

53
leadership authenticity and the team’s success. This would suggest that head football coaches

who demonstrate a high level of authentic leadership behavior have a higher winning percentage

compared to those with a lower level of authentic leadership behavior.

Given the availability of collected descriptive statistics that may be related to win

percentage, a hierarchical regression was also conducted to determine whether ALQ score could

predict win percentage over and above these other variables. Two models were developed where

ALQ score was added to Model 2 as shown in Table 4. Both models were statistically

significant; however, the addition of ALQ score in model 2 suggests it is a better model due to

the increase in variance accounted for by this model. It illustrates that ALQ score significantly

contributes to team success over and above a head football coach’s age, number of seasons as a

high school head football coach, and number of division titles won as a high school head football

coach.

Although still significant together in a model, the coach’s age and number of years as a

high school head football coach alone are not significant to the relationship between authentic

leadership behaviors from head football coaches and their teams’ success. However, the number

of high school division championships they have won as a head coach is significant with their

team’s success (Model 1 = .000; Model 2 = .005), which is less than the p-value of .05. This

suggests that high school head football coaches who have won division titles are able to build on

that experience and translate it into future team success.

54
 The results of this study were used to document the model equation using standard Beta

values from Model 2 as shown in Figure 4 (see Figure 5).

High School Football Team Success Model Equation

Yi (Team Success) = Constant (0) + .048(Division) + -.087(Coach’s Age) + .076(Coach’s

Experience) + .523(Division Titles) + .402(ALQ Score)

Figure 5

Where Yi equals team success, the model equation can be used to determine the expected

team success associated with a high school head football coach.

The results of the hierarchal regression analysis support the primary method of statistical

analysis for this study, Spearman Rho’s correlation. The hierarchal regression results support

accepting the alternative hypothesis (HA1): There is a statistically significant relationship

between a Midwestern state high school head football coach’s measured level of leadership

authenticity and the team’s success.

55
 CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of the Results

The research was designed to answer the RQ: To what extent, if any, is there a correlation

between a Midwestern state high school head football coach’s measured level of leadership

authenticity and the team’s success? The results of Spearman’s Rho correlation and a

hierarchical regression showed a statistically significant relationship between authentic

leadership and winning percentage. The authentic leadership factor was computed using the

ALQ survey results completed by participants. Winning percentage was used as the measure of

team success, which is determined by the number of wins divided by the number of games

played. As outlined in Chapter 4, the results of this study supported accepting the alternative

hypothesis that a Midwestern state high school head football coach’s measured level of

leadership authenticity correlates with the team’s success.

Discussion of the Results

The study results illustrate that high school head football coaches who demonstrate

authentic leadership behaviors is correlated with their team’s success. Fifty-one (51) high school

head football coaches participated in the study. The research provides insight into leadership

behaviors of high school head football coaches, indicating that when the head football coach’s

leadership is more authentic, the team experiences more success. The relationship between the

head football coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and team success remains

significant when other factors, such as the coach’s age, number of years as a high school head

football coach, and the number of high school division championships they have won as a head

coach, are modeled into the relationship. The unique finding is that when the other variables

56
(coach’s age; number of years as a high school head football coach; the number of high school

division championships they have won as a head coach) are modeled in collectively, the ALQ

score predicts win percentage over and above them. However, the coach’s age and number of

years as a high school head football coach alone are not significant to the team’s success. The

number of high school division championships they have won as a head coach is significant to

their team’s success. This suggests that high school head football coaches who have won

division titles are able to build on that experience and translate it into future team success. These

findings inform scholars and practitioners illustrating that a head football coach who is younger

or older may not be correlated with or alone predict a higher winning percentage. It also

suggests that a coach with more or less head coaching experience is no more or less likely to lead

a successful football program. These are critical findings for the sport industry, specifically at the

high school level. The results could affect the way athletic directors evaluate current head

coaches and head football coaching candidates.

Implications of the Study Results

The results of the current study have multiple implications for the leadership literature

and sport industry. The current study focused on determining if there was a relationship between

a head football coach’s authentic leadership and team success in high school football programs.

Based on the results, the level of authenticity in the leadership style of high school head football

coaches had a direct correlation with their team’s success. Although the industry of focus was

different, the results of the current study supported previous studies that found a relationship

between authentic leadership and team success (Peus et al., 2012; Rego et al., 2013).

57
 The sport industry is littered with mixed results in terms of determining if team success,

measured as winning percentage, has a relationship with other leadership styles (Pratt & Eitzen,

1989) and organizational factors (Soebbing, Wicker, & Weimar, 2015). Results from a different

study disagree with the study that evaluated whether athletic expenditures correlated with team

success (Jones, 2013); the study by Jones determined there was no statistically significant

relationship. However, Zimmer (2016) conducted a similar study that found that team success

was influenced by financial factors. These studies demonstrated that organizational factors

beyond a coach’s leadership may or may not be correlated to a team’s success.

The current study supports the findings that team success is correlated with other

characteristics of coaches or players in high school football programs. Skinner et al. (2013)

conducted a study examining obesity among North Carolina high school football players, and

variables of position, team division, and team success. They concluded that the size of skill

position players was correlated with team success. This highlights the relevance of the current

study and demonstrates that team success is correlated with other factors, as well. It also

presents an opportunity for further investigation to determine whether there is a relationship

between the coaches’ leadership style, the obesity of players, and team success.

Similar to the current study, LaForge, Sullivan, and Bloom (2012) conducted a study that

examined the behaviors of coaches in youth sport. Although their focus was not on authentic

leadership, they found that sport coaches exhibited positive and supporting coaching behaviors

regardless of their qualifications, determined by varying degrees of certifications. It informed

the sport industry and literature by suggesting that a perceived focus on these positive behaviors

by coaches creates a culture that fosters positive psychological development of youth sport

58
athletes. This study’s conclusion that a positive psychological environment develops youth sport

athletes aligns conceptually with authentic leadership where a leader’s behavior draws upon and

promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate (Walumbwa et al.,

2008). Their study results and the current study results, if assessed collectively, could provide a

broader understanding of the youth sport environment and how the head coach’s role extends

beyond the measurement of successful performance in terms of winning percentage. The present

study also extended previously published research in other industries on authentic leadership and

team outcomes (Datta & Gupta, 2015; Rego, Junior, & Pina e Cunha, 2015).

Applications Based on the Study Results

There are multiple ways this research could be applied. First, Athletic directors could use

the results of this study to articulate to head football coaches that their leadership style is

correlated with and in some instances predicts the success of their football team. Athletic

directors could use the findings of this study as probable cause to develop a training program that

is focused on leadership styles, specifically authentic leadership. In doing so, the applied

knowledge would encourage coaches to better understand authentic leadership style and the four

dimensions of the construct. Additionally, head football coaches could apply the findings to

their personal behaviors to discover their level of self-awareness, which is required in order to

develop the other dimensions of authentic leadership. The literature shows that the ability to

develop authentic leadership behaviors may be influenced by the life path and lived experiences

that inform the coaches’ values and precede the development of relational transparency with

followers (Avolio et al., 2004). The result of this effort will enable a head football coach to

understand how they currently respond in different situations and how it may be directly

59
correlated with their team’s success. After a head football coach understands his level of self-

awareness, they could begin to evaluate their values and ability to balance the processing of

information and better apply their understanding to the interactions with assistant coaches and

players. Given that the ability to lead authentically leads to the development of followers

(Luthans & Avolio, 2003), head coaches can apply the knowledge gained from this study to

advance the leadership style and self-examination effort of athletes, too. The ability to develop

players as authentic leaders could lead to increased value between players.

Although this study focused on high school football programs, the correlation between a

head coach’s measured level of leadership authenticity and the team’s success could be used as

information to guide other sport programs within the same high school athletic department. The

athletic director is best positioned to apply the knowledge across his/her sport programs. There

may also be value for head coaches of different sport programs within the athletic department to

jointly pursue personal growth associated with these study results. Ultimately, head coaches of

other sports could evaluate their level of authenticity and how it may be correlated to their teams’

success. Lastly, high school athletic directors and head football coaches from other states in the

United States and foreign countries could use the study results to inform their applied leadership

strategies.

Limitations

A limitation of this study was that it only focused on one leadership style, authentic

leadership, when there are many different leadership theories. Other studies in the sport industry

have considered additional leadership styles, but have not found a correlation to team success.

60
The study was also limited to high school head football coaches in one Midwestern state. The

ability to generalize the study results is impacted by these two limitations.

Lastly, the use of the ALQ self-report version is a limitation, as it only captures the

leader’s perceived level of leadership authenticity, at a particular point in time. A different

version of the ALQ instrument could be used that allows followers to report their perception of

the leader’s measured level of leadership authenticity. The results of this method of data

collection could have presented different findings; however, it has different limitations that were

not relevant to this study.

Recommendations for Further Research

The first recommendation for future research is a longitudinal study that involves the

current study variables over a period of multiple seasons. The study findings could be enriched

by evaluating a coach’s leadership behavior and the team’s success over an extended period of

time given the potential variability in both variables and external influences. The second

recommendation is for inclusion of additional measures of individual and team performance

(offensive efficiency, defensive efficiency, TDs, strength of wins, point differential components

with wins, etc.). Assistant coaches’ authentic leadership should be included in these studies. It

is important that scholars and practitioners continue to empirically investigate the relationships

between measurable factors in the sport industry. The third recommendation is that future

research evaluates the relationship between the authentic leadership style of head football

coaches reported by players and team success in the sport domain. Research dating back decades

has studied leadership styles and team success in the sport industry; however, the literature is

61
progressive and the continued focus within the sport domain may advance existing theories or

lead to the development of new ones.

The fourth recommendation calls for future research to use a qualitative research design

that seeks to obtain additional insight beyond what can be obtained using a quantitative design

and survey instrument. Researchers could observe coaching behavior or conduct interviews to

collect data that is unavailable using a quantitative survey design. An example of possible data

would be their assessment of the culture and governance of high school football programs from

athletic directors and the High School Athletic Association. The fifth recommendation is for

future research to consider possible mediating variables such as trust and team cohesion, when

evaluating the relationship between authentic leadership and team success.

The sixth recommendation for future research is that researchers consider other high

school sport team programs and focus on other factors related to gender of the head coach, the

number of athletes required to compete at any one point in time, and the possible differences

between team sports versus an individual sport that is lead by a head coach. The results of these

studies will further the understanding of how leadership does or does not correlate to or predict

success outcomes while determining whether there is a difference for male or female head

coaches and the size of the team.

Conclusion

Prior to this study there was a gap in the literature regarding whether authentic leadership

style correlated with team success in the sport industry. For many years, American football at

the high school level has been the centerpiece of communities across the United States. Coaches

and players practice and prepare year around for the football season. High school football in the

62
Midwestern state consisted of 716 different programs spanning seven different divisions. Each

program is lead by one head football coach who is charged with the leadership responsibility of

assistant coaches and player performance. Performance is most commonly recognized at the

team level given that eleven individual players perform on the field at the same time.

Success in the sport industry is clearly defined by winning games. High school head

football coaches, like other industries and domains, may demonstrate a different leadership style

from program to program, though. Given the clear distinction of success any given Friday night,

head football coaches can still be commonly evaluated based on their teams’ success.

Albeit scarce, some prior research has been conducted in the sport industry evaluating

leadership styles (Pratt & Eitzen, 1989). The measure of team success in sport, winning

percentage, has been consistently used in prior studies in the sport industry (Dronyk-Trosper &

Stitzel, 2016; LoPilato, Hoffman, & Overstreet, 2014; Soebbing & Washington, 2011;

Williamson & Cox, 2014). Although these studies preceded the present study, a gap in the

literature existed, as we did not know if authentic leadership correlated with team success in high

school sport. The gap provided an opportunity to conduct research to determine whether there

was a correlation between a Midwestern state high school head football coach’s level of

leadership authenticity and the team’s success. It was expected that the study results would

address the gap in the literature and provide practical implications for high school head football

coaches.

The study provides insightful results that head football coaches in the Midwestern state

and other states could use to inform their leadership style and the practical implications

associated with different approaches. This study will help high school football organizations

63
assess their current head football coach and their leadership style to determine if there is an

opportunity for continued development and targeted education related to authentic leadership.

Given the results, this study provides the foundation for additional research at the high school

level, as well as other levels of football in the sport industry.

64
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