TYPES OF COMPUTERS

What is a computer?

A computer is an electronic device that executes the instructions in a program.

A computer has four functions that form the information processing cycle :

1. accepts data
Input
2. processes data
Processing
3. produces output
Output
4. stores results
Storage

In the lessons that follow we will study the parts of the computer and each of
the four parts of the Information Processing Cycle.

SOME BEGINNING TERMS

The physical parts of the computer.
HARDWARE 
The programs (instructions) that tell the computer what to do
SOFTWARE 
Individual facts like first name, price, quantity ordered
DATA 
Data which has been massaged into a useful form, like a
INFORMATION  complete mailing address
The original settings; what will happen if you don't change
DEFAULT  anythin
WHAT MAKES A COMPUTER POWERFUL?
Speed A computer can do billions of actions per second.

Reliability Failures are usually due to human error, one way or another.

Storage A computer can keep huge amounts of data.

There is a computer for every use under heaven, or so it seems. Let's look at the kinds of computers that
there are, based on general performance levels.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

PERSONAL OR MICRO COMPUTERS

These are the smallest and least expensive category of general purpose computers. They are
normally stand alone machines operated by the end users for their own particular processing
needs. They can be divided as follows:

i) Desktop
ii) Laptop
iii) Notebook
iv) Thin-client Systems. (Network terminals/network computers). These are low cost
computers and most of them do not have hard disk drives instead they rely much on a
host computer or a server for applications and system software.

They can also include computers that come in all shapes and sizes, from tiny PDAs (personal
digital assistant) and smart phones to hefty PC (personal computer) towers. More specialized
models are announced each week - trip planners, expense account pads, language translators... To
make things even more interesting, categories are blending together. Phones are getting really,
really smart.

Smart phone PDA Tablet PC Laptop/Notebook

 Desktop Tower Workstation

Descriptions of Personal Computers

When talking about PC computers, most people probably think of the desktop type, which are
designed to sit on your desk. (Bet you figured that one out!) The tower and the smaller mid- and
mini-tower style cases have become popular as people started needing more room for extra
drives inside. Repairmen certainly appreciate the roominess inside for all the cables and circuit
boards ... and their knuckles.

A workstation is part of a computer network and generally would be expected to have more than
a regular desktop PC of most everything, like memory, storage space, and speed. It's hard to tell
the difference any more.

The market for the smallest PCs is expanding rapidly. Software is becoming available for the
small types of PC like the palmtop (PPC) and handheld (HPC). This new software is based on
new operating systems like Windows CE (for Consumer Electronics). You may find simplified
versions of the major applications you use. One big advantage for the newer programs is the
ability to link the small computers to your home or work computer and coordinate the data. So
you can carry a tiny computer like a PalmPilot, Blackberry, or a smart phone around to enter new
phone numbers and appointments and those great ideas you just had. Then later you can move
this information to your main computer. You may be able to use the Internet to view documents
and even do some editing.

With a Tablet PC you use an electronic stylus to write on the screen, just like with a pen and
paper, only your words are in digital ink. The Tablet PC saves your work just like you wrote it
(as a picture), or you can let the Hand Recognition (HR) software turn your chicken-scratches
into regular text.
MINICOMPUTERS

These computers have a more processing power than a PC but less than a mainframe and also
physically smaller than a mainframe. It supports multi-tasking and can serve thousands of users
at the same time. These are used by medium sized organisations that do not require a power
mainframe.

The cost, power and number of users supported are sometimes used as the distinguishing
features.

The minicomputer has become less important since the PC has gotten so powerful on its own. In
fact, the ordinary new PC is much more powerful than minicomputers used to be. Originally this
size was developed to handle specific tasks, like engineering and CAD calculations that tended
to tie up the main frame.

MAIN FRAME COMPUTERS

Mainframe computers these are very powerful and large computers used in large universities,
factories, large scientific installation and other big organizations handling large volumes of data.
A main frame is the heart of a network of computers or terminals which allows hundreds of people to
work at the same time on the same data. It requires a special environment - cold and dry.

SUPERCOMPUTERS COMPUTERS
The supercomputer is the most powerful computer. It is top of the heap in power and expense.
These are used for jobs that take massive amounts of calculating, like weather forecasting,
engineering design and testing, serious decryption, economic forecasting, etc.
 

OTHER IMPORTANT TERMS

SERVER
The term server actually refers to a computer's function rather than
to a specific kind of computer. A server runs a network of
computers. It handles the sharing of equipment like printers and the communication between
computers on the network. For such tasks a computer would need to be somewhat more capable
than a desktop computer. It would need:

 more power
 larger memory
 larger storage capacity
 high speed communications

OUTPUT

This is data that has been processed into useful form. Computers process data (input) into
information (output). There are basically four (4) types of outputs which are:

i. Text
 These primarily contain memos, letters, press releases, reports, text messages etc.

ii. Graphics

These contain graphics to enhance visual appeal and convey information, business letters
have logos, reports include charts newsletters include drawings, clipart and photos etc

iii. Audio

Users listen to music while working on a computer. Software games, speeches, radios,
television and also offers real-time conversations over the Internet with friend and
families

iv. Videos

These include video clips to enhance understanding. Video blogs, watching live
prerecorded news report.

OUTPUT DEVICES
These are hardware devices that produce processed data or information in printed form or in a
softcopy. Commonly used output devices are:

PRINTERS

Printers are devices that produce printed images on papers .The image to be produced is received
as signals from the controlling device which is mainly the central processing unit (CPU).A
printer that receives its data from the CPU in a parallel is said to be a parallel printer and that
which receive its data from the CPU in a serial manner is said to serial printer.

A printer can either be a non-impact printer or an impact printer.

IMPACT PRINTER

These form images, characters on a piece of paper by actually striking printing elements against
the paper through a printer ribbon.

Advantages of impact printers

 Impact printers offer the advantage of the producing carbon papers (multi-part output)
 Impact printers are cheaper.
 Impact printers may not require special printing paper but ordinary paper.

Disadvantage of impact printers

 Impact printers may be slow in operation as they are electromechanical.
  May not offer high resolution (good quality print)offered by non-impact printers
 Due to many moving parts (electromechanically),impact printers may not be as reliable
as non-impact printers.

TYPES OF IMPACT PRINTER

DOT MATRIX PRINTER

This one produces printed images when tiny wires on a print head mechanism strike an inked
ribbon. When a ribbon is pressed against the paper, it cerates dots that form characters and
graphics.

DAISY WHEEL PRINTER

This is an impact printer that produces letter-quality type. To print a character, the printer rotates
the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a hammer strikes the disk, forcing the
character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the character on the paper. You can
change the daisy wheel to print different fonts.

LINE PRINTER

This is an impact printer which is high speed and prints an entire line at a time.

NB

BRAILLE PRINTER

These printers are meant for the physically challenged people that have a visual impairment.

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

These printer do not need an impact on paper to produce the needed characters and graphics.

Advantages of non-impact printers

 They are non- electromechanical, hence they are faster than the impact printers and print
quietly.
 They offer a high and good quality resolutions (print page)
 Since they are fewer moving parts, non-impact printers are more reliable.
Disadvantage of non-impact printers
 Non-impact printers may be expensive (though the prices are coming down due to
technology advancement)
 Since there is no impact on paper, on-impact printers cannot produce carbon copies
(multi-part output)
 Some non-impact printers may require special printing paper which might be expensive
to acquire.

TYPES OF NON- IMPACT PRINTERS

INKJET PRINTERS

This one simply jets (sprays) ink onto the page to produce the required image. They are bale to
produce both in black-and-white and colour.

LASER PRINTER

This is a high-speed, high-quality nonimpact. It is available in both black-and-white and color.

They are usually more expensive than inkjet printers. It is also called a page printer because it
prints an entire page. Printer this uses electrostatic process similar to a photocopying machine to
produce the desired image.

PHOTO PRINTERS

This is a colour printer that produces photo-lab quality pictures. Many photo printers use inkjet
technology

MULTIFUNCTION PERIPHERALS (MFP)

This is also called all-in-one device. Is a single device that looks like a printer or a copy machine
but also provides the functionality of a scanner, printer, copy machine and perhaps a fax.

THERMAL PRINTER

These printers produce images by pushing electrically heated pins against heat-sensitive paper.

THERMAL WAX-TRANSFER PRINTER

This produces rich, nonsmearing images by using heat to melt colored wax onto heat-
sensitive paper. These are more expensive than inkjet.

DYE-SUBLIMATION PRINTERS
 This uses heat to transfer colored dye to specially coated paper

PLOTTERS

These are sophisticated printers used to produce high-quality drawings such as maps, blue-print
and circuit diagrams. They are used in engineering and drafting. They use inkjet technology but
at much larger scale.

NB

Due to the ever advancing technology the distinction between plotters and printer is becoming
more and more blurred.

Plotters can be operated off line or on line of the drawings must be save on tape.

SPEAKERS

These are able to produce high-quality sound for playing games, music and also interacting with
multimedia. It is also handy for the disabled as the speakers can produce sound of what is typed,
hence, enhancing communication of the dumb.

HEADPHONES, EARBUDS

These are used to produce sound as output form the computer enabling the user to listen to
speeches, music or interacting with multimedia.

DATA PROJECTORS

This is a device that takes the text and images displaying on a screen and projects them on a
larger screen for the audience to see the image clearly.

DISPLAY DEVICE
This is a device that visually conveys text, graphics and video information (softcopy).

CRT
The normal PC monitor uses a cathode ray tube( CRT) which contains an electron gun .this
shoots a stream of electros onto a screen coated with a phosphorescent substance .There are
control button on the monitor that the user can use to adjust the size ,brightness and position
of the display area .There is also a power button to indicate the status of the monitor on and
 off .There is a light next to the power button to indicate the status of the monitor ,whether on
or off. They take up more desk space and consume more power than LCDs.

NB

Wherever you shut down your computer remember also to switch off the monitor .The CPU
can run continuously for days because it has got an inbuilt fan but the monitor needs to be
switched off because of the absence of the in- built fan and it can become hot after some
time.

LCD MONITORS AND LCD SCREENS

This uses a liquid crystal display to produce images. They produce sharp and flicker-free
images. They don’t take up much desk space.

This type of screen that does not consume as much power as the normal PC monitor .They
are used in notebook and laptop computers .some digital watches and calculators also use this
type of display.

PLASMA MONITORS

This is a display device that uses gas plasma technology which sits in between glass plates.
These are more expensive than LCDs, offer higher-quality picture resolution. They are light
and can hang directly on the wall.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDS)

These are small electronic components that emit light when a voltage is passed through them
.They are 3- 10mm in diameter .They normally display hard disk and network activities and are
also used to monitor the logic state of some control applications that is ON and OFF.
ACTUATORS
These are devices that can generate physical movement from signals sent by computers. These
signals can be sent through wireless (remote) transmission or through the cables. There are least
four types of actuators and these are;

Motors (produce the most accurate movement)

Hydraulics (use oil and are the most powerful)

Pneumatics (use gas and are the fastest)

Solenoids (their movement can be used to open gates/locks or to control the flow of gases and
liquids in a pipe)

MOTORS
These are driven by the output of the computer and this output is displayed by the turning of this
motor. These motors are called stepper motors because each electrical impulse from the
computer rotates the motor shaft by very tiny amount such as 1.80. They give very precise
movement and they are used on devices such as flatbed plotters or on robotic arms.

A robot arm can be controlled by motors, hydraulics or pneumatics. The type of the system used
depends on the application.

OTHERS
Some devices such as modem can be input or output devices. This is used to receive and down
load mail but can be used to send e-mail. A touch screen can display a menu system and accept
input when the screen is touched. Some digital cameras can be used to down load pictures stored
in the memory and can also upload pictures previously down loaded to the computer.

INPUT
This is any data and instructions entered into the memory of a computer.
INPUT DEVICES
This is any device that allows a user to enter data and instructions into a computer.

KEYBOARD

It is a human touch device.

For general areas of the keyboard,

1. Function {f1 to f12}

2. Type writer greg in the QWERTY format.
3. Numeric keypad.
4. Curser motion and control keys.

Keyboard ergonomics

These keyboards reduce the chance of wrist and hand injuries. Ergonomics’ aim is at integrating
comfort, efficiency and safety in the design of workplace.

THE MOUSE
This is a pointing device that fits under the palm of your hand comfortably. This is used for all
point and click operations. It is very handy for graphical user interface type of programs.

TRACKBALL

It has a small ball underneath or on top which rolls when the mouse is moved you rotate the ball
with your thumb.

TOUCHPAD

This is a small, flat, rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to pressure and motion. To move
the pointer using a touch pad, slide your fingertip across the surface of the pad.

POINTING STICK

This a pressure-sensitive pointing device shaped like a pencil eraser that is positioned between
keys on the keyboard. To move the pointer, you push the pointing stick with a finger.
JOYSTICK
Cursor movement on the screen is controlled by a vertical stick. Exert pressure on the stick to
perform the movement and the speed of the computer games.

LIGHT PEN
It is a device within the size of a normal pen at is end. It is connected to the computer through a
cord. Screen should be a special pad then makes writing / drawing especially for artists and
designers. The computer uses handwriting recognition software.

TOUCH SCREENS (mostly used for ATMs and kiosks)

You can touch any positions on the screen to execute a particular instruction. They have touch-
sensitive screen. These require a lot of arm and hand movement and as such you don’t need to
enter a large amounts of data using a touch screen.

MICROPHONE
This allows the entering of input into a microphone. It translates sound into electric current.
VoIP enables users to speak to other users over the Internet.

It is designed for the handicapped as they can give instructions to the computer using their voice
via a microphone. Voice recognition software is becoming widely available and user can speak
text rather than type it or vice-versa.

WEB CAM

This is also called a PC video camera which is digital video that enables a home or small
business user to capture video and still images, e-mail messages with video attachments and live
images to instant messages, broadcast live images over the Internet and make video telephone
calls.

SCANNER
It is used to capture data (image and text) from a source document.

OPTICAL SCANNER

This is a light-sensitive input device that reads printed text and graphics and then translates them
in a form that a computer can process (understand).

TYPES OF OPTICAL SCANNERS

Flatbed scanners
This is similar to a photocopy machine. It passes under the item to be scanned which is placed on
a glass surface and stored in the memory.

Drum scanners

The item to be scanned rotates around stationary scanning device mechanism. These are very
expensive and used in large businesses.

Sheet-fed scanner

The item to be scanned is pulled into a stationary scanning mechanism. It is smaller than a
flatbed. A model that is specifically for photos is called a photo scanner.

Handheld or pen scanner

Move pen over text o be scanned, then transfer data to computer. This is ideal for mobile users,
students and researchers. Some connect to smart phones.

OPTICAL READER

This is a device that uses a light source to read characters, marks and codes and then converts
them into digital data that a computer can process.

OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION

This is a technology that involves reading typewritten, computer printed or hand-printed

characters from ordinary documents and translates them into a form that a computer can process.

They read OCR font. You use turnaround documents. They are mostly used for bills as the
receiver will tear off a particular portion and return it with a payment.

OPTICAL MARK RECOGNITION

This a technology which reads hand-drawn marks such as a circle or a rectangle. A person places
these marks on a pre-printed form.

These can be used for questionnaires and exams that have possible answers.

BAR CODE READER (BAR CODE SCANNER)

It is an optical reader that uses laser beams to read bar codes using light patterns that pass
through the bar code lines.
It is similar to a hand held scanners that reads a service of bars to identity an item/product. Gives
fast and reliable service to both the sales person and customer. The bar code is swiped past the
reader the computer look up price in the shops database.

It is used mostly in supermarkets and other stores.

RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID) READERS

This is a technology that uses radio signals to communicate with a tag attached to an object,
animal or person. Many retailers see RFID as an alternative to bar code reading as each product
will have to identify a product. Even ATMs, no need to push in the debit into the machine slot
but just being in the radius is enough.

MAGNETIC STRIPE CARD READERS

These read the magnetic stripe on the back of the credit cards, entertainment cards, bank cards
and other similar cards.

Information on the magnetic card stripes is used to make payments, authenticate users, record
attendance and provides access to secure areas.

MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION

It converts MICR characters into a form that a computer can process. The banks exclusively uses
the MICR for checking process.

The characters can be interfered with but the system will be able to recognize the original
characters.

BIOMETRIC DEVICE

This translates a personal characteristic into a form that a computer can process. It compares with
what is stored in the computer to grant one access.

A fingerprint or retina scanners are widely used today.

DIGITAL CAMERA
It captures images (pictures) and stores them in digital form. You can later down load into a
computer for editing and printing.
Advantages of a digital image
You can attach them to the electronic mail and send them quickly and easily to distance hence
this floppy disk or chip is re-useable.

COMPUTER HARDWARE

SYSTEM UNIT

This is a case which contains electronic components of the computer used to produce data.

MOTHERBOARD

This is also called the system board which is the main circuit board of the system unit. All
electronic components attach to the motherboard.

CHIP

This is a small piece of semi-conducting material on which integrated circuits are built. These are
microscopic pathways capable of carrying electric current.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (PROCESSOR)

Control all the activities of the computer. It interprets and caries out instructions that operate a
computer.

 MULTI-CORE PROCESSRS

This is where a single chip with two or more separate processors.

 DUAL-CORE PROCESSOR

A chip that contains two separate processor cores

 QUAD-CORE PROCESSRS

A chip has four separate processor cores

The processor retrieves instructions/data from memory and performs each operation.

SPEED OF PROCESSOR
Is measured in megahertz (MHz) =million cycles or instructions per second.

Processor is made up of two functional units and a set of work spaces.

 Control unit (CU)

  ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

CONTROL UNIT
This is the responsible for supervising the operations of the processor. It fetches instructions
from the memory and executes the jobs accordingly.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

Arithmetic logic unit is responsible for all mathematical operations and logical operations.

Receives data from the CU and performs either arithmetic operations(+,_,*,/,^)or

logical(=,>,<,>=<>).

MACHIN CYLE

FETCHING
 This is the process of getting a program instruction from RAM
DECODING
The process of translating the instructions into signals the computer can execute
EXECUTING
The process of carrying out commands
STORING
The process of writing the results back into RAM

REGISTERS
vvThese are small high-speed storage locations inside the processor. They temporarily store data.

Registers inside the CU keep current instructions and the operation of the instruction.

A+B=C} Registers

ALU registers=store data that are to be added, subtracted multiplied, divided or compared.

INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE (IPC)

This is the sequence of events in processing information. This includes:

1 Input
2 Processing
3 Output
4 Storage
Input

This is the activity of entering data into a computer using different input devices such as
Keyboards, mouse, joysticks, etc. Examples of input are:

- Hours worked by employees

- Meter readings for a water or power company
- Bank charges

Processing (Calculations, comparisons and decisions)

This involves the manipulation of data. Data is worked on or processed to produce information
and executed as per instruction such as:

(Total hours worked * rate per hour) – Total deduction, that is, the tax, union contributions,
NAPSA etc.
Output

When data is processed it is given out as information using the output devices such as monitor,
printer, etc. The processed information is the Net Pay taking the example given above into
account.

Storage

After data has been processed into information it can be stored (saved) on different storage
devices such as HDD, floppy, flush, etc. to be retrieved and used later (Secondary storage). Data
to be processed immediately or has just been processed is stored in the RAM (Random Access
Memory).

COMPUTER MEMORY (STORAGE)

When ever a computer is started, it loads an operating system from the hard disk onto RAM.
The operating system is resident on the hard disk drive (HDD). Primary Memory comprises
RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read only memory) while secondary would be the
HDD, CD, floppy disks etc.

RAM is volatile, that is, data is lost when there is a power blackout.
ROM not volatile, that is, data is retained even there is a power blackout.

The computer’s main memory is also called RAM. It is used to store data that the CPU is
currently working on. By so doing, it speeds up the processing process, hence, improving the
performance of the computer.

Memory (RAM) holds the following:

 Programs - The control unit acts on program instructions that are held in the
store which includes the operating system
 Input data - A small area of internal store is needed to take in the data that will
be processed next.
 A working area - The computer will need an area of store to hold data that is
currently being processed or is used for processing other data.
 Output data - A small area of store is needed to hold temporarily the data or
information that is ready for output to an output device.
CACHE MEMORY
This is a small capacity but extremely fast type of RAM. It is places inside the CPU and also
right outside the CPU so as to store data that is processed or to be processed immediately. When
the cache is full the older entries are flushed out to accommodate new entries.

STORAGE MEDIUM
This is the physical material on which a computer keeps data, instructions and information.

MEMORY STORAGE DEVICE

 Bit—is the smallest element of data(binary digit)
 Byte—is a group of eight bits
1. KB 1 Thousand = Kilobyte
2. MB 1 Million = Megabytes
3. GB 1 Billion = Gigabytes
4. TB 1 Trillion = Terabytes
5. PB 1 Quadrillion = Petabyte
6. EB 1 Quintillion = Exabyte
7. ZB 1 Sextillion = Zettabyte
8. YB= 1 Septillion = Yottabyte
STORAGE DEVICES
1. HARD DISKS (C DRIVE)
This is the most common form of secondary storage.
 Can have the capacity from 160GB to 1.5TB = higher capacity
 Direct access memory.

EXTERNAL AND REMOVABLE HARD DISKS

EXTERNAL DISK -This is a separate hard disk that connects with a cable to a USB port or FireWire port
on the system unit.

REMOVABLE HARD- This is a hard disk that a user can insert and remove from the drive.

Some may employ RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) which is a group of two or
more integrated hard disks.

FLASH MEMORY STORAGE

This is a type of nonvolatile memory that can be erased electronically and rewritten. It a durable
storage device because it does not contain any moving parts( solid state media). It is more shock
resistant than other types of media. Examples of flash memory are:

 Memory cards
 USB flash drives( memory stick) etc
ADVANTAGES
i. Access time is faster than HDD
ii. Convenient for moving data or files
iii. Transfer rates are higher than HDD
iv. They generate less heat and consumes less power
v. Its life span is much longer than an HDD
DISADVANTAGES
i. They are expensive
ii. Higher failure rate than HDD

2. FLOPPY DISK (1.4 MB)

These storage media are almost obsolete. They are removable part of secondary storage
ADVANTAGES
i. They are cheaper than hard disks/CD
ii. They are portable hence used to transfer data/information from one computer to
another.
iii. They offer direct access and are faster than the magnetic tapes (sequential access)

DISADVANTAGES
 i. They are prone to viruses.
ii. They are difficult to handle.
iii. They can easily be corrupted.
iv. Shorter life span.
v. Hold small amount of data.
vi. They are not 100% reliable.

TAPE STORAGE DEVICES

This is the storage that is able to store large amounts of data and information at low a cost. They
are especially used on the mainframe computers. They are still used as backing storage medium
by some organisations. This requires sequential access which refers to reading and writing data
consecutively

Tape streamer is a fast tape that can be used to create a back-up file very quickly.

OPTICAL DISCS

CDs
CD-ROM (COMPACT DISK-READ ONLY MEMORY)

This is a type of optical disc that users can read but not write (record) or erase. Software is
usually distributed on CD-ROMs such as the distribution of dictionaries, bibles, and games.

These are mostly used for distributing software to PCs and store large amount of information up
to 650MB.

CD-RS (READABLE)

These are CDs that are blank, user can write on but only once. To do that you use a CD writer
which could either be internal or external.

CD-RWs (COMPACT DISK -REWRITABLES)

Rewritable CDs enables a user to read and write as many times as though using a hard disk drive.
This has been developed to overcome the challenge imposed by CD-R

DVD- DIGITAL VERSITLE DISK

These use the same principle as the CD ROM but store many information. They are able to store
as much as 17 Gigabytes, that is, they are able to store a larger amount of data than the CD

DVD-ROM ( DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK-READ ONLY MEMORY)

This is a type of DVD that users can read but not write (record) or erase. It contains movies,
music, music videos and large databases. They are able to store as much as 17 Gigabytes, that is,
they are able to store a larger amount of data than the CD

DVD-R (DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK-READABLE)

These are DVDs that are blank, user can write on but only once. To do that you use a DVD
writer which could either be internal or external. They are able to store as much as 17 Gigabytes,
that is, they are able to store a larger amount of data than the CD.

DVD-RW (DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK-REWRITABLES)

Rewritable DVD enables a user to read and write as many times as though using a hard disk
drive. This has been developed to overcome the challenge imposed by DVD-R. They are able to
store as much as 17 Gigabytes, that is, they are able to store a larger amount of data than the CD.

COMPUTER NETWORKS
DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES

BATCH PROCESSING

Data is collected, accumulated for a certain period of time, say, weekly, mothly and then
captured as a unit. The job is not processed until the job is fully input. No amendments are made
during processing. Examples: payroll, water billing systems.

Charatecteristics of batch processing

 Processes large volumes of data.

 Turnaround times are not critical (Response time is not immediate).
 Processing efficiency is considered to be more important than rapid response time.

ON-LINE SYSTEMS (machine being under direct control of the main processor of the system)

Transaction being input is processed immediately. There is fast response time. The terminals are
used such as VDUs, keyboards, transmission lines to me the response and volume of data.

Characteristics

 Integration of separate functions, decision and files. Common up-to-date picture to all is
achieved to all users.
 Fast information services.
 Efficient data collection.
 Fast turnaround times which is an advantage for multi-user situations.
 Possible use of distant computers.

REAL-TIME SYSTEMS

In these systems there is a higher constraint on response time, that is, results are must be
available within a specific time scale. Examples, bank system planes seats.

Characteristics

 Deals with small amount of data

 Response time is critical
 Processing efficient is subordinate

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
Several independent computers located at different geographical places but interact with each
other. This system is common in decentralized organizations.

VIDEO DISPLAY (OUTPUT)

Switch off the monitor, the information is never late.

Video monitors VDU=video display unit uses the cathode ray tube (CRT) similar to the pictures
tube used in home televisions

Clarity cleanness of the video display is dependent on type of the video monitors and graphics
circuit board installed.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

 Differentiate between data/information

 Single tasking--MS DOS-only one task at a time.
 Multitasking-WIN XD-single process
 Multiprocessing—many processors.
 Expert system -–it is a system that’s simulates human intelligence.
 Real time system—real time system places a higher constraint on response time.
 On-- time system process is immediate.
 A batch processing system---data Is collected,accumulated for a certain period of time
until fully imput when processing,payroll,water billing.

What is a N/W? ,reasons for creating a N/W

INTRANET—is a private computer network that is within an organization (belong to an

organization) EXTRANET—is a private computer N/W that uses intranet that is extended to
users outside organization such as suppliers and other business partners.

INTERNET—This is the huge international network made up of smaller network linked together
(Global N/W).
 WHAT INTERNET OFFERS.

 Electronic –mail-fast and efficient.

 File transfer—you can enjoy sharing of files.
 Current information—you can use search engines to get information on amount
all subjects.
 Discussion groups—you can join discussion group no an topic of topics.
 Virtual classroom—expert lectures by many .
 Downloads—teachers can get lesson plans ,exam papers on the internet.
 Collaboration learning –you can share ideas and learn with others virtually

E-COMMERCE
Is the one time buying, selling ,marketing delivering ,services and paying for products or
services.

Advantages of E--commerce
 Services are available 24hours a day
 Varieties of choice of goods as there are competitors.
 Transactions can take place anywhere and at an time
 Transactions are completed very quikly.

Disadvantages
 Risk of insecurity of user payments methods ,security of your credit card
information against hackers.
 Luck of human element /contact
 Choosing goods from a virtual store.

BASIC OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are basically two types of operating systems which are:

 SINGLE PROGRAM
 MULTITASKING

SINGLE PROGRAM

This is an operating system that allows only one program to run at a time. If you are working in
spreadsheet and you want to go into word processor you must first shut down the spreadsheet
application and then open up a word processor.
MULTTASKING

This is operating systems that allow multiple programs to take turns with the processor. This
means that single user can be working in spreadsheet and the word processor at the same time.
And even more programs. The computer decides how many time slices are given each program
gets. The active program gets the most time while less active gets the less and those open ut
doing nothing gets the least time.

MULTIPLE USERS

On a network several users can be using the same computer or even the same program on that
computer. This is time-sharing.

MULTPROCESSING

Instead of single CPU giving out turns to various programs, the different CPUs can work
simultaneously. Speed increases immensely. The cost increases as well.

SOFTWARE ASSOCIATED WITH INFORMATION SYSTEMS

As earlier discussed, a computer comprises only two (2) parties, that is, the computer hardware
and computer software. Here, we are more interested in the computer software.

The computer software is divided into two software; Systems Software and Application
Software. Software simply refers to computer programs. The computer cannot do anything if not
instructed by software.

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

These are computer programs that serve as an interface or intermediate between computer
hardware and application programs. It refers to all those programs that handle the running of the
computer hardware. System software can be divided into the following:

OPERATING SYSTEM

These coordinate computer resources, provide an interface between computer users and the
computer and run applications. Examples are the following:

MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)

This is a command-driven OS. It uses the command language interpreter to turns all the
keystrokes in to 1s and 0s for the system to swallow.
WINDOWS 95 & WINDOWS 98(STAND-ALONE OS)

These were an upgrade from the use of MS DOS to these operating systems by adding a
Graphical User Interface which does the multitasking.

Graphical User Interface allows the user to use graphical elements such as the icons and
windows.

WINDOWS NT (New Technology)

This is an operating system for Client-Server type networks. The last version of NT has a user
interface that is typically identical to Windows 95. Since NT was designed for higher demands of
networks, it had a higher demand itself for disk space and memory.

Client operating system designed to work with Windows NT Server.

WINDOWS 2000 PROFESSIONAL

Upgrade to Windows NT rather than windows 98.

WINDOWS ME

Upgrade to windows 98 especially designed for home users. The system resources required for
this operating system are significantly higher than those of the previous versions of the windows.

WINDOWS XP

Upgrade to windows 2000 with improved interface, networking, stability, and reliability.

WINDOWS VISTA

Microsoft newest operating system with improved security and search capabilities

MACNTOSHI

This is a powerful easy-to-use multitasking operating system despite being designed to run on
Apple computers only. It was the first to provide the GUI making it easy for novice computer
users.

UNIX

This is an operating system developed by Bell Labs to handle complex scientific applications.
University networks love to use UNIX as Internet Service Providers. Old timers have experience
with UNIX from their colleges and love it and its command line interface. These commands are
not easy to remember for newcomers. XP-windows is a graphical interface for UNIX that some
think is even easier to work with than windows 98.

LINUX
 Is an operating system similar to UNIX that is becoming more and more popular. This is an
open source program created by Linus Torvalds at the University of Finland in 1991. Open
Source means that the underlying computer code is freely available to everyone. Programmer can
work directly with the code and add features. They can sell their customized version of Linux as
long as the source code is still open to others.

UTILITIES PROGRAMS (SERVICE PROGRAMS)

These are also known as Service Programs., they perform specific tasks related to managing
computer health- hardware or data. Some are included in the operating system while others still
think there is a better version to buy.

 File management

This is program that helps users to find files, create and organize directories,copy,move
and rename files. A mouse may be used to point and click to accomplish these tasks. The
newer graphical interface coming with current operating system

 Disk management

This involves formatting and defragmenting disks. Defragmenting means puttying file on
a disk so that the whole file is in sequence. This reduces time to access the file.
Sometimes frequently used programs are placed at the front of the disk .

 Memory management

This is software that handles where programs put their current data in RAM. They move
certain resident items out of the way. This makes the memory available by getting all
unused pieces together in one spot, thus, making a bigger usable space.

 Backup

This helps protect you from a disk failure. It makes a copy of all files or selected files that
have been saved on a disk..

 Data recovery

DATA RECOVERY these program are for the deleted or damaged (corrupted files)
data.

 Data compression

They reduce the size of files so that they occupy less space and can be sent over the
Internet
SECURITY SOFTWARE

These are computer programs that try to protect your computer from and data from
attacks and damage and being controlled without permission. No one program can protect
against all of the bad guys out there.

You need protection from the following

Viruses

These copy themselves to other disks to spread to other computers. They can be merely
annoying or they can vastly destructive to your files.

Trojans

These hide inside something else to sneak in unwanted programs. You do not know that
they are there, like the famous Trojan Horse. These are used to capture your logins and
password

Worms

These are unwanted programs that are transferred over the network or Internet to spread
themselves quickly. Once a worm gets into the memory of a computer, it will be
duplicating itself until it fills up the entire space and the processing activities will come to
a halt. It is able to invade the entire network.

Spyware

These are computer programs that lurk on your computer to steal important information,
like passwords,, logons and other important information.

Zombie

These programs take control of your computer and use it and its Internet connection to
attack other computers or networks or to perform criminal activities.

Bombs

These come into types:

Time bombs

Like Trojan horses, they hide in usual files and do not duplicate themselves until a
particular date and time that’s when they start their destructive phase. They are preset.
Before preset time they are dormant.

Logic bombs
These also remain hidden and dormant until a logic event takes place, say, a computer is
cold booted 100 times, that’s when the logic bomb gets activated and then look for
particular data files or records and then edit them all or delete them.

Phishing

This is pronounced as “fishing”. This a message that tries to trick into providing
information such as your security number or bank account information or logon and
password for a website.

Spam

This is email you did not request or do not want. One person’s spam could another man’s
useful newsletter or sale ad. Spam is a common way spreading viruses. Trojans etc.

Browser hijacking

This takes place when one of the nasties takes control of the browser, sending you to sites
you did not mean to go to. This could be a porn site, or it may look like a real banking,
sales, or credit card site and then your personal and financial information is stolen.

Anti-virus

These programs monitor the computer for the activity of viruses and similar nasties.

Anti-spyware

These programs similarly monitor your computer, looking for known trouble makers as
well as suspicious behaviour.

Anti-spam

This software tries to identify useless or dangerous messages for you.

A firewall

This blocks attempts to access your files over a network or internet connection. Your
network router or modem or both may have a hardware firewall built into it. That will
block incoming attacks. But you still need a software firewall on your computer to block
outgoing attacks. Your computer can become infected through shared disks or even from
another computer on the network. So you need to monitor what your computer is putting
out over the network or internet.

DEVICES DRIVERS
These are specialized programs that allow a particular input or output devices to communicate
with the rest of the computer system.

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

Convert the programming instructions written by programmer into a language that a computer
can understand.

THE KEY FUNCTIONS OF THE SYSTEM SOFTWARE (OS)

(i) Initial set-up of the computer, when it is switched on.

(ii) Communication between the user and hardware.
(iii) Calling up of files from storage into memory.
(iv) File management.
OPERATING SYSTEMS

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

These are computer programs that are designed for the end-user. The following are the widely
used software applications:

SPREADSHEETS

These are computer screen into a ledger sheet or grip of coded rows and columns. Examples;
Microsoft Excel and Lotus 1-2-3.

DATA MANAGEMENT

This software allows the user to manipulate text rather than just numbers. Example is Microsoft
Word.

DESKTOP PUBLISHING

This goes a higher level of manipulating text than word processing.

GRAPHICS

This software allows the user to create, store and display charts, graphics, maps and drawing.
Example: Microsoft PowerPoint.

- Computer Aided Design (CAD)

- Computer Aided Engineering (CAE)
- Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) etc.
COMMUNICATION
Computers are interconnected to share information. The data is exchanged over public cables,
telephone lines, public relay systems or microwave circuits.

SPEECH RECOGNITION SOFTWARE

This software is used to control the PC software. Speech Recognition software is used when the
mouse and keyboard are impractical.

ETHICAL ISSUES DUE TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Ethics is as branch of philosophy that deals with what is considered to be right or wrong. A code
of ethics is a collection of principles intended as a guide for a member of the company or an
organization.

Ethical issues due to information technology are categorized into four (4) kinds:

(i) PRIVACY ISSUES

(ii) ACCURACY ISSUES
(iii) PROPERTY ISSUES
(iv) ACCESSIBILITY ISSUES

Privacy Issues

Collection, storage and dissemination of information about individuals. These cover the
following:

(i) What kind of information about one self should an individual is required to reveal to
others?
(ii) What kind of surveillance can an employer use on its employees?
(iii) What kind of things can people keep to themselves and to be forced to reveal to
others?
(iv) What information about individuals should be kept in database and how secure is
information there?
Accuracy Issues

Authenticity, fidelity and accuracy of information collected and processed. These cover the
following:

(i) How can we be sure that information will be processed properly and presented
accurately to others?
(ii) Who is responsible for authenticity, fidelity and accuracy of collected information?
(iii) How can we be sure that errors in database, data transmission and data processing are
accidental and not intentional?
(iv) Who is to be held accountable for errors in information and how should the insured
part be compensated.
Property Issues

Ownership and value of information (Intellectual Property).

(i) Who owns the information?

(ii) What are the fair prices for its exchange?
(iii) How should one handle software privacy?
(iv) Can corporate computers be used for private purposes?
(v) How should experts who contribute to creating expert systems be compensated?
(vi) How should access to information channels be allocated?

Accessibility Issues

Right to access information and payment of fees to access it.

(i) Who is allowed to access information?

(ii) How much should be charges for permitting accessibility to information?
(iii) How can accessibility to computers be provided for people with disabilities?
(iv) Who will be provided with equipment needed for accessing information?
(v) What information does a person or organisation have a right or the privilege to obtain
under what conditions and with what safeguards?

TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

(i) Machine Language

(ii) Low-Level Languages
(iii) High-Level Languages

Machine Language

It refers to the language that a computer speaks and understands (1s and 0s) as it is in binary.
Early programmers used this language to write computer programs.
Disadvantages

- Difficult to learn
- Difficult to correct errors or modify machine-coded programs
- Easy to make errors when using machine code
- Machine language is machine dependent

Low-Level Languages

These are computer programming languages which are machine oriented. They use Mnemonics
or symbolic codes to represent instructions (Programs are coded using mnemonics or symbols).
An assembler program is used to translate Assembly Language (Source code) into Machine
Language (Object Code).

Advantages

- Easier to learn than machine language

- Easier to locate, correct and modify instructions

Disadvantages

- They are machine dependent

Example: ADD, SUB, etc.

High-Level Languages

These are computer programming languages which are problem oriented and use English-like
statements. The language used is close to natural language. Examples: COBOL, FORTRAN, C#,
JAVA, PASCAL, etc.

Advantages

- Machine independent (Code is Portable).

- Problem-Oriented
- Written in statements close to English
- Easy to learn
- Translated into machine code by interpreters or compilers
Types of High-Level Languages
 (i) Commercial Languages e.g. COBOL
(ii) Scientific Languages e.g. FORTRAN
(iii) Special-Purpose e.g. SQL, QBE, SIMULATION
(iv) Multi-Purpose Languages e.g. PASCAL, C, BASIC

COMMERCIAL LANGUAGES

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language). This is mostly widely used in commercial and
business.

SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGES

FORTRAN was the first scientific language and is still widely used for engineering applications
and scientific use.

SPECIAL PURPOSE LANGUAGES

These are languages intended to be ‘tailor made’ for a particular type of problem. Examples:
SQL (Structured Query language), QBE (Query By Example) example of database query
languages, CSL a Simulation Language.

MULTI-PURPOSE LANGUAGES

These are languages that can be used for many purposes such as for both scientific and
commercial applications. Examples: PASCAL, C#, BASIC etc.

GENERATIONS OF LANGUAGES

FIRST GENERATION LANGUAGES (1ST GLs)

This is the lowest level language which is coded using machine language (1s and 0s) and is
directly understood and executed by the CPU. Only used by those good at programming.

SECOND GENERATION LANGUAGES (2ND GLs)

This is the second-level language that uses Mnemonics and symbols. It uses an interpreter to
translate source code into machine code (object code).

THIRD GENERATION LANGUAGES (3rd GLs)

These are the first high-level programming languages. They are much closer to natural language
(English-like statements). Translators are used to translate source code into machine language
before execution. (FORTRAN, COBOL)

FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGES (4TH GLs) (NON PROCEDURAL LANGUAGES)

These are also higher level programming languages and allow non-technical person to carryout
specific functional tasks such as there is no need to specify detailed procedures when coding.
These ease the programming process and also reduce the coding errors. Example: SQL,
Microsoft Visual Basic, etc.

FIFTH GENERATION LANGUAGES (NATURAL LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING) (5 TH

GLs)

These are sometimes called the intelligent languages. The 5 th GLs use the translator program to
convert natural language into machine-readable form i.e. into object code. These are extremely
complex and require many computer resources.
DATABASE

This is a collection of related information (an organized collection of integrated files).

FIELD

A unit of data consisting of one or more characters (bytes) such as names, address, SSN.

RECORD

A collection of related fields. A student’s record may comprise the student’ name, address, student ID etc.

KEY FIELD

Is a field that is chosen to uniquely identify a record so that it can easily be retrieved and processed?

FILE

A file is a collection of related files. Data collected on everyone from the school of Business Studies is
treated as a unit by a computer.

ENTITY

It is a distinct object (a person, place, thing, and concept) in the organization that is represented in the
database.

ATTRIBUTE

This is a property that describes some aspect of the object that we wish to record.

RELATIONSHIP

Is an association between entities