1 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD: RISE

AND FALL OF THE ROMAN

EMPIRE

National Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to:
• Identify the causes and effects of the decline of the Roman Empire.
• Define Feudalism.
• Describe the powers, responsibilities, and the significance of the Feudal system.
• Briefly describe the Byzantine Empire and its relations with neighbouring countries.

An ancient Roman amphitheatre in Rome

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 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD: Rise and fall of the roman empire 1 Chapter

Introduction
Some of the well-known civilisations of the world began and flourished near rivers
because people could access water and find food from hunting and fishing. People
developed agriculture as they learned that alluvial soil deposited near riverbanks
were suitable places to grow food crops. Rivers also provided the means to
facilitate trade.

The early river valley civilisations include the Mesopotamian Civilisation along the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, the Indus Valley Civilisation near the River Indus,
Ancient Egypt near River Nile, and the Chinese Civilisation along the Yellow River.

In Europe, the Roman Civilisation grew near the River Tiber. The Mediterranean Sea
route connected the ancient Roman empire with other regions for trade.

N
W E
S
London
Europe

Atlantic
Ocean
Asia
Milan
Massilia
Black Sea

Casp
Rome Byzantium

ian S
Toledo

ea
Athens
Carthage

Mediterranean Sea Damascus

Jerusalem
Alexandria

Memphis
Africa
Key
0 250 500 mi.
Roman Empire
0 250 500 km. Roman road
Map of the Roman Empire

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Chapter 1 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD: Rise and fall of the roman empire

The beginning of the Roman Empire

In the 753bce, a new settlement, Rome, thrived in the centre of Italy besides the River
Tiber. Rome was built on the Latium Plain, and consisted of groups of small villages that
were built on seven low hills. The fertile banks of the river were ideal for farming. Thus,
farming became the major profession of the Romans.

This small city-state turned into a strong and wealthy civilisation of its time by 250 bce, and
soon spread to most of Italy and Greece, and its colonies. The Romans organised a very
superior army called legion. These legions not only made great conquests but also helped
the government to keep peace in the empire.

By the middle of the 1st century ce, Roman legionaries had captured France, Britain,
Germany, some parts of northern Europe, and southern Russia. In the east, they
conquered southern Egypt and some parts of Iraq and Arabia.

The Roman system of governance was based on monarchy. The king ruled the empire as
the sole monarch. Due to corruption and cruelty by the rulers, monarchy was gradually
replaced by a Roman Republic. This was the first ever republic in the world.

The Roman Republic was a political system or form of government in which people elected
representatives to exercise power for them, through bodies like the Senate.

The Roman Empire

During the 1st century bce, the Roman influence had spread
far and wide due to its military conquests. The government
became weaker and the legionaries became so powerful that
they became a threat to the government. There was unrest
and unemployment, which resulted in a power struggle
within the government. The law and order was disturbed and
the people of Rome realised they needed a strong leader.

At this time, Julius Caesar (100bce–44bce) emerged as a

powerful leader. He was a Roman dictator and military
general who played an important role in the events that led
to the fall of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman
Empire.

The people of Rome admired him because he made laws for

them and brought peace. However, some senators felt
insecure due to his popularity, and plotted against him. On
Julius Caesar 15 March 44bce, Julius Caesar was assassinated.

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After his death, a civil war broke out and later his adopted
son, Augustus, ascended the throne to become the first
emperor of the Roman Empire. He ruled between 27bce–
14ce.

Achievements of the Roman Empire

The golden age of the Roman Empire was the peak time
of prosperity and progress. Millions of people from
different races, speaking different languages, and following
diverse religions and traditions were living together in an
atmosphere of tolerance. In 450bce, the first Roman law
code was inscribed on twelve bronze tablets, known as
the 'Twelve Tables'. These were publicly displayed in the
Octavian Augustus
Roman Forum—where processions, public speeches,
criminal trails, and commercial activities took place.
The Romans contributed a great deal to the modern world in many ways:
1. They were the first to introduce an urban civilisation.
2. The Romans built planned cities with public buildings like temples, theatres, and
public baths.
3. They were the first civilisation to use a central heating system, arches, domes, and
concrete in buildings and roads.

Paved roads in Roman cities

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4 Historians believe that the Romans were superior engineers and builders. They
constructed straight, paved roads which connected the cities and towns in the vast
empire. They supplied water to the cities, through wells and canals. As they were
known to be good engineers, they built aqueducts in 312bce. These aqueducts were
used to transport water to urban areas. Some of these aqueducts transported water
up to a distance of sixty miles from their source.

Education
Romans acknowledged the importance of education. They were greatly impressed with the
Greek system of education. Educated Romans were bilingual as they could speak Greek
and Latin. Formal schooling started at the age of 11 or 12 and young boys studied writing
and counting, and read the works of famous Greek and Latin writers. Oratory, (the art of
public speaking) was also taught at all schools.

1 = I 6 = VI
2 = II 7 = VII The word ‘barbarian’ also means uncivilised.
3 = III 8 = VIII But back in the times of Romans, anyone
4 = IV 9 = IX who could not read or write Latin was also
called a barbarian.
5 = V 10 = X
Roman numerals

Religion
Primarily, the Roman Empire was a polytheistic civilisation. This meant people worshipped
multiple gods and goddesses. The main Roman gods and goddesses included Juno,
Jupiter, and Minerva.
With the passage of time, Roman emperors also started claiming themselves to be gods
and asked people to worship them. During this time, a new religion, Christianity, emerged
in the Middle East, following the birth of Hazrat Isa() (also called Jesus Christ), and
began attracting many people. Christianity is based on the teachings of Hazrat Isa() and
the religion spread all over the Roman Empire.
The Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, also known as Constantine I, ruled between
306–337ce. He became the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity and gave
Christianity a legal status. He granted land to the clergy and built many churches. He
successfully defeated the Barbarians who attacked the Roman Empire. In 330ce, he moved
his capital to the city of Byzantium in Eastern Europe and renamed it Constantinople. It
was later known as the Byzantine Empire.

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A statue of Emperor Constantine

The fall of the Western Roman Empire

Following are some of the reasons for the decline of the Western Roman Empire:
1. The government became corrupt and a power struggle started.
2. The decision of Constantine to move the capital to Constantinople weakened the
empire.
3. The Church of Rome gained unlimited powers, even more than the emperors.
4. The army became weak, ultimately weakening the empire internally and externally.
5. Heavy taxes made the lives of the common people miserable which led to chaos in the
empire.
6. Provinces rebelled against the government and declared their independence.
7. Barbarians and Huns from Central Asia attacked and destroyed much of the empire.

The ancient Greek and Roman civilisations were the most advanced civilisations of their
time. Both contributed a great deal in the fields of science, engineering, architecture,
government, philosophy, etc. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire around 500ce,
the scientific and cultural development of Europe stopped. With this decline, Western
Europe entered the Dark Ages.

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Origin of feudalism and the medieval Europe

The feudal system in the medieval European societies was a political, economic, and social
system developed during 10th to 13th centuries. It became common during 11th century.
The feudal societies were divided into four social hierarchies, based on local administrative
control and distribution of land: the kings, the nobles, the knights, and the peasants. Each
hierarchy was linked to the other in different ways.

The kings
The kings were at the top of the hierarchy. They
owned all the land but as it was not possible for king
them to control the entire land by themselves,
they kept some part of the land for
tenants-in-
themselves and gave the rest to the chief / nobles
nobles. The kings provided help and
support to the nobles and protected knights
(lords)
them. To avoid rebellions, the lands
were given in different parts of the
peasant
country. The nobles were
responsible for providing
soldiers for the king's army,
especially during war.

The tenants-in-chief/nobles
The rich nobles were granted land by the kings. They had their own system of
governance, taxation, and law. They minted their own coins. The nobles were supposed to
protect their lands and the people who worked for them. Different officials were deputed
to keep a check on the workers and peasants. There were checks and balances to regulate
the whole system.

The knights
Medieval lords and wealthy merchants gave
The knights, also called lesser nobles, large amount of money to churches and
were considered the representatives of monasteries. Some wealthy people paid
the powerful nobles. To attain to have special chapels built where priests
could pray for their souls to go to heaven.
knighthood, they had to follow a code of
conduct known as chivalry. The knights
had to be loyal to the nobles and the
Church. The nobles sublet their lands to
the knights, who in turn granted the lands to the peasants on lease. If the knights did not
perform their duties well, their titles were revoked and their lands were taken back.

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The peasants
The most important group of the feudal hierarchy were the peasants. They worked on the
lands given by the knights. The peasants were categorised into two groups: free and
bonded. Free peasants cultivated the rented land and paid the lord. The bonded peasants
worked on their lord’s lands and in return they were given a small piece of land to farm
and live on. They supplied food to the knights.

The chief characteristics of feudalism

Feudalism was a dominant and complex social
system in the medieval Europe. There were
different types of relationships in feudal
societies especially in medieval France and
Germany. In England, feudalism evolved in its
own ways. Different terms were coined for
different kinds of arrangements. However,
certain features were attributed to all
societies in medieval Europe.

1. The kings received taxes, military aid, and

sometimes food from their vassals. The
peasants in return were protected by the
Crown. This system was based on the rule
A medieval castle in Europe
of ‘give and take’.
2. The lands were not given at one place to avoid the threat of rebellions, which brought
peace in the empire. Loyalty was very important in this system.
3. All parts of the feudal system, from the crown to peasants, depended on each other.
The king was answerable only to the Church.
4. The Church was also granted a large piece of land. Since the Church was an
independent institution, it did not pay tax
to the king. The ‘Three Field System’ was practised
during the medieval period for cultivation.
The end of feudalism Each year one field was planted and other
From 14th century onwards, feudalism began two were not, so that the soil could rest.
The remaining two fields were used as a
to weaken due to the following reasons: pasture where the farm animals grazed. This
1. The Black Death spread throughout rotational cycle ensured that each field was
Europe, killing more than a quarter of the rested and a good crop yield was achieved
year after year. It ensured that the land
population of Europe in 1347– was not over-cultivated
1352ce. Since the crisis caused severe
shortage of labour, the bonds of
feudalism weakened.
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Chapter 1 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD: Rise and fall of the roman empire

2. The growing power of monarchy and

nobility led to rebellion by the peasants, The Black Death
The Black Death plague was brought
as they wanted to liberate themselves to Europe by the Mongol invaders. Most
from the chains of feudalism. historians believed that it was caused by
3. By the end of 13th century, commerce germs that infect black rats and the disease
spread to humans by the fleas that live off
evolved and coin money was these infected rats. It is also possible that
established. Hence, specific local lords due to poor hygiene, the disease rapidly
could pay money instead of performing turned into an epidemic. Whatever the
truth, the causes of the plague were not
military services for the king. identified because of lack of knowledge
4. Trading activities flourished and the about germs at that time.
peasants moved to the towns where
they were free to make a living of their
own choice.
5. The nobles became weaker; hence, their land and power was lost, the soldiers were
paid wages, and a centralised government was established.

The Byzantine Empire

The Roman Emperor Constantine’s decision to move his capital to Byzantium had
enhanced its worth, as it became the centre of the Roman Empire. Byzantium was a
former Greek town in the east with an important geographical location. It was located in

Key
Eastern Empire
Western Empire

Western
Empire

Rome Byzantium

Eastern
Empire

N
W E

The division of the Roman Empire in 395ce S

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the middle of the Bosphorus, Black Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. All the important
trade-routes passed through it and the ships that used to anchor there paid heavy taxes.

Constantine rebuilt Byzantium and fortified it with defensive wall and towers. He renamed
the city ‘Constantinople’. The Byzantium
Empire lasted for a millennium after the fall In 980ce, Vladimir I became the ruler of
Russia. Impressed with Christianity and
of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th the Byzantium Empire, he converted and
century ce. It was ruled by different leaders proclaimed Christianity as the official
who turned it into one of the greatest and religion of Russia.
most powerful empires in Europe with a rich
culture. Some of the noted Byzantium
emperors include Arcadius and Constantine
XI.

Relations with neighbouring MEHMET SANI AL-FATEH conquered

countries Constantinople in 1453ce and gave an
option to the Christian scholars to stay in
As the Byzantine Empire was located on the the empire or to leave for Western Europe.
main sea-trade route, it had strong He gave a safe passage to all those who
desired to leave. Once these scholars arrived
diplomatic ties with other countries. On the in Western Europe, they rekindled the
other hand, the empire also faced attacks at Renaissance. So Western Europe owes a
different times by different invaders due to great deal to Mehmet Sani for the revival of
ideas and creativity during the Middle Ages.
its prosperity and economic strength. The
Byzantine Empire passed through different
periods of losses and gains. During the early
Muslim conquests, it lost Egypt
and Syria. Between the 10th and
11th centuries, it was defeated
by the Seljuk Turks. After the
Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine
Empire could not recover.

In 1453, Ottoman Sultan

Mehmet II, attacked Byzantium
and ended Europe’s long lasting
rule on the empire. This started
the golden period of the
Ottoman Empire in this region.

  Hagia Sophia, a church built during the Byzantine rule

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 EXERCISE

Review your learning

1. How did Rome become a powerful city state of its time?

2. Who was Julius Caesar? Describe his role in making the empire prosperous and
peaceful.
3. Why are the Romans considered as the greatest engineers and builders?
4. Explain the reasons that led to the fall of the Roman Empire.
5. Define feudalism. Outline the social hierarchy of feudalism.
6. Why were lands not granted to nobles in the same geographical location?
7. List the reasons for the decline of feudalism.
8. State the reasons for the importance of the Byzantine Empire. Why was it
invaded repeatedly?

Activity

1. Discuss why historians know very little about the Middle Ages as compared to
other periods in history. Consult reference books and the Internet to make notes
for this discussion.
2. Find more information from the Internet or your school library about the Black
Death in Europe.

Role-play

Conduct a research on the lives of lords, ladies, and warriors during the times of the
Roman Empire and write about them in diaries/journals.

a) attacks on their castle

b) a hunting expedition
c) an entertainment occasion
d) daily life in a castle

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 EXERCISE

Glossary
bilingual : a person who can speak two languages
chivalry : knight, nobleman, or a horseman
epidemic : outbreak of a disease
fortified : to make a place stronger to resist attack, especially by building
high walls
hierarchy : the categorisation according to importance
inscribed : written on
legion : large military units of the Roman army
millennium : p
 eriod of a thousand years
monarchs : kings
plague : epidemic spread by mice
prosperity : richness
urban : city settlement
vassal : a
 person or country in a subordinate position to another
paved : covered with flat stones or bricks

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 3 THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY
(661–750 ce)

National Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to:
• Describe the establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty.
• Identify the role of the Umayyads in the expansion of the Muslim State.
• Briefly describe the development of Islamic art and culture.
• Describe the economic system of the Umayyad Dynasty.
• Identify the important reasons for the downfall of the Umayyad Dynasty.

Amongst all the Quraysh tribes in Makkah, the tribes of Banu Hashim and Banu Umayya
were the most prominent. The Hashimite were looked upon as the most respectable tribe
as they had the trusteeship of the Kaaba; while Banu Umayya were tradesmen and very
wealthy.

The Alhambra Palace in Granada

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According to a famous historical account, the leader of the Umayyad tribe, Abu Sufyan
converted to Islam at the time of the conquest of Makkah in 632ce. Holy Prophet Hazrat
Muhammad(⁄) declared Abu Sufyan’s house as the ‘House of Protection’.

The pious caliph Hazrat Usman(‹) belonged to the Umayyad clan. In 640ce, he appointed
Abu Sufyan’s son, Amir Muawiyah as the Governor of Damascus in Syria. After Hazrat
Usman(‹) embraced martyrdom, Hazrat Ali(‹) became the fourth caliph. During his six
years of caliphate, he was under immense pressure to avenge the death of Hazrat
Usman(‹) by Amir Muawiyah. In order to curb the continuous civil war and ongoing
retaliation, Hazrat Ali(‹) made a peace agreement with Amir Muawiyah. He
acknowledged Muawiyah’s rule in Syria, Egypt, and the areas towards the west.

The shrine of Hazrat Ali(‹) in Najaf, Iraq

Foundation of the Umayyad The event of Karbala took place on 10th

Dynasty
When Hazrat Ali(‹) embraced martyrdom in
661ce, his eldest son, Hazrat Imam
Hasan(‹) became the leader of the
caliphate. Amir Muawiyah refused to accept
him as the caliph. As Hazrat Imam Hasan(‹)
was a peaceful man by nature and never
wanted the Muslim Ummah to shed blood
Muharram, 61 ah (680ce). It is remembered
by the Muslims as a day when Hazrat
Imam Hussain(‹), the grandson of the
Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad(⁄)
fought bravely against the forces of Yazid
and embraced martyrdom but did not
accept tyrannical rule of Yazid. Through his
martyrdom he taught the Muslims to always
uphold the truth and never to surrender in
the face of adversity.

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Chapter 3 the Umay yad Dynast y (661–750 ce)

unnecessarily, he made a peace treaty with Amir Muawiyah, and resigned from his
position.

Amir Muawiyah took over the caliphate in 661ce. The Umayyad Dynasty was established in
676ce, when Amir Muawiyah declared his son, Yazid I, as his successor. This was the first
time in Islamic history when a caliph nominated his own son to be the next caliph and this
became a legacy for later caliphs. The Umayyad Caliphate stayed in power for about 90
years (661–750ce).

The expansion and the consolidation of the Muslim State

Islam spread rapidly in and around the Arabian Peninsula during the reign of Khulfa-e-
Rashideen, i.e. Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique(‹), Hazrat Umar(‹), Hazrat Usman(‹), and
Hazrat Ali(‹). It continued to expand under the Umayyad Caliphate over the next 90
years and encompassed the Middle East, parts of India, much of North Africa, and Spain.

Map showing the spread of Islam from the seventh till the thirteenth centuries

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Timeline of prominent Umayyad Caliphs

Walid ibn al-Malik Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
(705–715ce) (717–720ce)

Amir Muawiyah Sulayman ibn Abd

(661–680ce) al-Malik
(715–717ce)

1 2 3 4

The conquest of Sindh: Muhammad-bin-Qasim

During the rule of Amir Muawiyah, the Muslim army conquered
the area of Sindh called Makran. While Makran was under the
rule of the Umayyads, Sindh was under the rule of Raja Dahir,
who was not on good terms with the Muslims. Raja Dahir gave
shelter to the killers of the Umayyad governor of Makran. This
alerted the Muslims about his intentions.

One incident in 712ce proved to be a catalyst—when Arab

widows and orphans who were going to Arabia from Sri Lanka,
were robbed and captured by pirates from Sindh. When Hajjaj-
Muhammad-Bin-Qasim
bin-Yousuf came to know about this incident, he asked Raja Dahir
to punish the pirates but he refused. As the safety and security of people was the
responsibility of the Caliphate, Hajjaj-bin Yousuf-sent a commander to liberate the captives
but he was killed by the troops of Raja Dahir. Hajjaj-bin-Yousuf then sent Muhammad-bin-
Qasim, a young general, with an army of twelve thousand soldiers, equipped with the
latest weapons such as manjaneeq or catapult (a large, heavy war machine used to hurl
heavy stones at enemies to destroy their forts). The Muslim army first conquered Debal,
then one by one, conquered other areas of Sindh and Multan. The conquest of Sindh
brought Islam to this region.

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Conquest of Spain (Al-Andalusia)

Spain (also known as Al-Andalusia in the
Arabic language), a country of great
‘Burn your boats,’ said Tariq-bin-Ziyad while
historical importance in Europe on the addressing his small army on the beach in
Iberian Peninsula, was mostly ruled by Gibraltar, before entering Spain in 711 ce.
feudal lords. The natives of Andalusia, The order was instantly followed by his
forces, despite the fact that a huge army of
especially the Jews, led oppressed lives. opponents was ready to attack them.
When the Umayyad Governor, Musa bin
Nusair received a complaint from a
nobleman, Count Julian of Cueta about the
misconduct of the Visigoth King Rodriguez, he sent Tariq bin Ziyad with an army of seven
thousand men to defeat the king.

Tariq bin Ziyad and his army arrived in Gibraltar in 711ce. The Muslims fought bravely
against the Visogoth army led by King Rodriguez. The Muslims achieved a decisive victory
at the Battle of Guadalete at Gibraltar, Spain, on 19 July 711ce.

Battle of Guadalete

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The Spanish forces could not fight back, hence, Tariq-bin-Ziyad conquered almost the
entire Spanish territory. The oppressed peasants and Jews of Al-Andalusia welcomed the
Muslim armies. The Muslim rulers established a system governed by justice and equality
and gave religious freedom to the people of all religions.

The Rock of Gibraltar in Spain

Further conquests
Between 706–710ce, Balkh in Afghanistan, Bukhara, Samarkand, Khwarizm, and Farghana
were conquered under the leadership of Qutayba-bin-Muslim. Bukhara was made the
centre of Islamic culture and learning. Under the leadership of able Muslim Generals like
Muhammad bin Qasim, Tariq bin Ziyad, Musa bin Nusair, and Qutayba bin Muslim, the
Muslim states witnessed a time of great expansion and glory.

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The spread and zenith of the Islamic civilisation and

culture
The Umayyad society
The Umayyad Caliphate brought about many developments in the Islamic society,
education, and culture. The Umayyad society was formed by people belonging to different
socio-economic and religious backgrounds, such as Arabs, non-Arabs, Muslims, Jews,
Christians, and Zoroastrians. The Umayyad rulers allowed the residents of the conquered
territories to lead their lives according to their customs and religions. This facilitated the
assimilation of cultures during the Umayyad rule.

Cultural life
Town life under the Umayyad Caliphate was of ease and luxury. The simplicity of the earlier
times was replaced with luxuries and pleasures. Byzantine and Persian culture were adopted
by the Arabs. Damascus, the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate, was the centre of opulence.
It became the most beautiful city of its age, adorned with magnificent buildings, mosques,
fountains, and palaces. Kufa, Basra, Cordoba, and Granada were important cities of the
Umayyad Caliphate where Islamic culture flourished.

Arabic literature
The Arabs had a natural flair for poetry and literature, hence during this period, Arabic
poetry and literature evolved greatly. Many books were written during that period.

Science
The military organisation of the
It is believed that Khalid-bin-Yazid I facilitated the Umayyad was distinct in several
translation of Greek scientific works in Arabic ways. The Umayyad borrowed
language. This is how scientific development may military equipment, such as
weapons of siege, etc. from the
have started in its initial form during the Umayyad Byzantines.
period. They made significant contributions in They made great advances in
chemistry and are considered the founders of naval warfare. Their navy ruled
the Mediterranean Sea.
Alchemy.

Education
During the Umayyad period, for the first time in
Islamic history, teachers were appointed and paid by the government. Mosques were the
main centres of education and secular learning.

Architecture
A new style of Islamic architecture was introduced during this period. The religious
buildings were mostly built as monuments on historical sites. The Dome of the Rock in

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Jerusalem was the first significant Umayyad architectural building built in 691 ce. It was
completed during the reign of Caliph Abdul Malik (685–705ce). During the Umayyad
period, Masjid-e-Nabvi in Madina was also expanded.

Umayyad mosque was built by Caliph al-Walid I during 706-715ce in Syria.

New Arabic coins

Greek and Arabic coins were in use in the Muslim territories during the Umayyad period.
Abdul Malik was the first Umayyad Caliph who introduced Arabic coins in 695ce. The
caliphate mints were established in Damascus and Kufa and the silver coin was called the
Dirham.

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Chapter 3 the Umay yad Dynast y (661–750 ce)

The ruins of Anjar, an Umayyad city founded by Caliph Walid I

Reforms of the Arabic script

The reforms of the Arabic script were essential to facilitate the non-Arab Muslims, so they
could recite the Holy Quran with proper pronunciation. Hajjaj-bin-Yousuf undertook the
task of forming a new Arabic script with ‘Aa’rabs’. This script is still used in many non-
Arab, Muslim countries for proper recitation of the Holy Quran.

Administration and economy

Central government
The central government of the Umayyad Caliphate
consisted of the khalifa (caliph) as the Imam or the
Amir-ul-Momineen, who performed similar duties as
previous caliphs but with a different perspective
and spirit.
Under the Umayyads, the Shura (a group of
scholars) was replaced by the court. The life and
work of the court varied to match the personal
character of the caliph.
The organisation of the central government of the
Umayyad consisted of five departments called
The Umayyad Caliphate
expanded the Islamic Empire
into one of the largest empires
in the history of the world. At
its peak, the Umayyad Caliphate
controlled the Middle East, parts
of India, much of North Africa,
and Spain. Historians estimate
the Umayyad Caliphate had a
population of around 62 million
people, which was nearly 30
percent of the world’s population
at the time.

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‘diwans’ (branches). Each diwan was headed by one or more officials called the katib
(in-charge of documentation).
Provincial administration
The Umayyad Caliphate was divided into 114 provinces, both large and small. There were
three tiers of provincial divisions. Moreover, the caliphate was divided into five vice-
royalties called Al-Iqleem. They were named, from east to west, Ira, Al-Jazirah, Egypt, and
Africa, with the home provinces of Syria, and were directly administrated by the caliph.

Provincial officials
The sphere of state activities was confined to four essential functions:
1. The political administration to preserve peace and order
2. Revenue collection to ascertain taxes
3. Police functions to control law and order
4. Judicial functions to provide justice for all

Revenue generating sources of the Umayyad

The sources of revenue under the Umayyads grew as compared to the early days of the
caliphate. The revenue increased due to the extension of the empire and the imposition of
five traditional Islamic taxes:
1. Zakat: paid by the rich Muslims and distributed among the deserving Muslims
2. Ushr: paid on the income of the agricultural land and its produce
3. Khums: share of the state in the war-spoils
4. 
Kharaj: payment from non-Muslim landowners
5. 
Jizya: payment made by non-Muslims to the Muslim government
These taxes and tributes were collected by the provincial revenue officials and deposited
in the provincial treasury called the Bayt-al-maal. All
the welfare and development projects of the state
Masudi records the opinion of
were funded from the treasury. an Umayyad prince who had
held a high office under Marwan
Decline of the Umayyad Dynasty II in these words:
After conquering massive areas of Spain, North ‘We gave in to pleasure the time
which was our duty to devote to
Africa, and Asia between the 7th and early 8th public affairs. Our ignorance of
century, the Umayyad Caliphate began to decline the public affairs and the events
during the mid-8th century, whereas, the Abbasids which were passing around us,
was one of the principle causes
started to become increasingly influential. of the fall of our Empire.’

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Chapter 3 the Umay yad Dynast y (661–750 ce)

Causes of the downfall of the Umayyad Dynasty

The main causes of the downfall of the Umayyad Dynasty include:
1. Out of the fourteen caliphs of the Umayyad Dynasty, only a few were capable and
great rulers. The rest of them were incompetent who did not contribute to strengthen
the caliphate.
2. The administrative system of the Umayyad Dynasty was weak and inefficient for the
vast empire.
3. There was no well-established law of succession and the caliphate was made a
hereditary institution.
4. The later Umayyads were ruthless as they insulted their generals who had won laurels
for them. They ill-treated their administrators and governors, and tortured religious
scholars who spoke against them.
5. They treated the treasury or Bayt-al-maal as their private property.

6. The Umayyad Caliphate was established and ruled predominantly by the Arabs.
However, governors and other officials belonged to different tribes. This hampered
the integration of the empire and became a cause of many rebellions. The Umayyad
rulers imposed more taxes on their people than Islam justified; hence, causing unrest.

A castle, Qasr-al-Hayr; a Sharqi build by Umayyad Caliph Hisham Ibn Abd-al-Malik

during 728-29ce in Syria

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 the Umay yad Dynast y (661–750 ce) 3 Chapter

Battle of Zab (750ce)

To save the Umayyad Empire, the last Umayyad Caliph, Marwan II, decided to leave
Harran and tried to stop the advancing Abbasid forces. He had nearly one hundred and
twenty thousand soldiers with him, but most of them were disloyal. Both armies
confronted each other on the banks of River Zab, a tributary of River Tigris in Northern
Iraq. When the battle began, Marwan II had the upper hand, but his huge army deserted
the battlefield and the fleeing soldiers were pursued to death by the opponents.
Marwan II escaped to Egypt. He was killed in the ensuing battle. After the death of the
last Caliph Marwan II, in 750ce, the great Umayyad Dynasty ended, paving the way for the
Abbasid rule.

A young Umayyad prince, Abd-al-Rahman escaped the wrath of the Abbasids and reached
Al-Andalusia, where he established his rule. He improved the infrastructure of Al-Andalusia
by building roads, aqueducts, and buildings including the famous mosque of Cordoba.

The Great Mosque of Cordoba was started by Abd-al-Rahman in the 8th century and
completed by Al-Mansur in the 11th century.

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 EXERCISE

Review your learning

1. Describe the beginning of the Umayyad Dynasty.

2. Identify the role of the Umayyad Dynasty in the expansion of the Muslim state.
3. What was the role of the Umayyad Dynasty in the development of Islamic art and
culture?
4. Describe the economic system of the Umayyad Dynasty. How did it affect their
revenue generation system?
6. Describe the events that took place during the Battle of Zab.
5. List the main reasons for the downfall of the Umayyad Dynasty.

Think, choose, and reflect

1. Marwan II, the last caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, was defeated by the
Abbasids in the battle of .
a. Zab b. Karbala c. Hunain
2. introduced the new Arabic coins, which helped the Arabs to make
their revenue system strong.
a. Hasham b. Yazid II c. Abdul Malik bin Marwan
3. ordered his army to burn all ships, and conquered the whole of
Spain.
a. Musa b. Tariq-bin-Ziyad c. Abu Muslim
4. The khalifa was also called .
a. qazi b. shura c. Ameer-ul-Momineen
5. The conquest of Sindh was led by .
a. Musa bin Nusair b. Tariq bin Ziyad c. Muhammad bin Qasim

Activity
Collect pictures of the Umayyad art, architecture, and culture (artworks, artefacts,
mosques, calligraphy, etc.) and organise them into a collage. Display the work on the
soft-board with suitable captions.

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 EXERCISE

Internet search
Search the Internet, or use the library resources to find out the details of Allama
Iqbal’s experience during his visit to Spain. Find out which poems he has written on
Tariq-bin-Ziyad and the Mosque of Cordoba. Students should recite these as a group
presentation.

Glossary
catalyst : something that causes a change
influential : dominant; prominent
laurels : glories
mint : vicinity where government facilitates coin-making
natives : local people
retaliation : revenge
revenue : income, earnings
trusteeship : to look after the welfare
opulence : a display of great wealth
treasury : the funds of the state; reserves.

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