CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY

8-1 Explain why employees join informal groups, and discuss the benefits and
limitations of teams. 

Teams are groups of two or more people who interact and influence one another, are
mutually accountable for achieving common goals associated with organizational
objectives, and perceive themselves as a social entity within an organization. All teams
are groups, because they consist of people with a unifying relationship; not all groups
are teams, because some groups do not exist to serve organizational objectives.

People join informal groups (and are motivated to be on formal teams) for four reasons:
(1) They have an innate drive to bond, (2) group membership is an inherent ingredient
in a person’s self-concept, (3) some personal goals are accomplished better in groups,
and (4) individuals are comforted in stressful situations by the mere presence of other
people. Teams have become popular because they tend to make better decisions,
support the knowledge management process, and provide superior customer service.
Teams are not always as effective as individuals working alone. Process losses and
social loafing drag down team performance.

8-2 Outline the team effectiveness model and discuss how task characteristics,
team size, and team composition influence team effectiveness.

Team effectiveness includes the team’s ability to achieve its objectives, fulfill the needs
of its members, and maintain its survival. The model of team effectiveness considers
the team and organizational environment, team design, and team processes. Three team
design elements are task characteristics, team size, and team composition. Teams tend
to be better suited for situations in which the work is complex yet tasks are well-
structured and have high task interdependence. Teams should be large enough to
perform the work yet small enough for efficient coordination and meaningful
involvement. Effective teams are composed of people with the competencies and
motivation to perform tasks in a team environment. Team member diversity has
advantages and disadvantages for team performance.
8-3 Discuss how the four team processes—team development, norms, cohesion,
and trust—influence team effectiveness.

Teams develop through the stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and
eventually adjourning. Within these stages are two distinct team development
processes: developing team identity and developing team mental models and
coordinating routines. Team development can be accelerated through team building—
any formal activity intended to improve the development and functioning of a work
team. Teams develop norms to regulate and guide member behavior. These norms may
be influenced by initial experiences, critical events, and the values and experiences that
team members bring to the group.

Team cohesion—the degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their
motivation to remain members— increases with member similarity, smaller team size,
higher degree of interaction, somewhat difficult entry, team success, and external
challenges. Cohesion increases team performance when the team has high
interdependence and its norms are congruent with organizational goals. Trust refers to
positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations involving risk.
People trust others on the basis of three foundations: calculus, knowledge, and
identification.

8-4 Discuss the characteristics and factors required for the success of self-directed
teams and virtual teams.

Self-directed teams (SDTs) complete an entire piece of work requiring several

interdependent tasks, and they have substantial autonomy over the execution of their
tasks. Members of virtual teams operate across space, time, and organizational
boundaries and are linked through information technologies to achieve organizational
tasks. Virtual teams are more effective when the team members have certain
competencies, the team has the freedom to choose the preferred communication
channels, and the members meet face-to-face fairly early in the team development
process.
8-5 Identify four constraints on team decision making and discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of four structures aimed at improving team decision making.

Team decisions are impeded by time constraints, evaluation apprehension, conformity

to peer pressure, and overconfidence. Four structures potentially improve decision
making in team settings: brainstorming, brainwriting, electronic brainstorming, and
nominal group technique.
CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY

9-1 Explain why communication is important in organizations, and discuss four

influences on effective communication encoding and decoding.

Communication refers to the process by which information is transmitted and

understood between two or more people. Communication supports work coordination,
organizational learning, decision making, the changing of others’ behavior, and
employee well-being. The communication process involves forming, encoding, and
transmitting the intended message to a receiver, who then decodes the message and
provides feedback to the sender. Effective communication occurs when the sender’s
thoughts are transmitted to and understood by the intended receiver. The effectiveness
of this process depends on whether the sender and receiver have similar codebooks, the
sender’s proficiency at encoding that message to the audience, the sender’s and
receiver’s motivation and ability to transmit messages through that particular
communication channel, and their common mental models of the communication
context.

9-2 Compare and contrast the advantages of and problems with electronic mail,
other verbal communication media, and nonverbal communication.

The two main types of communication channels are verbal and nonverbal. Various
forms of Internet-based communication are widely used in organizations, with email
being the most popular. Although efficient and a useful filing cabinet, email (and most
other forms of written digital communication) is relatively poor at communicating
emotions; it tends to reduce politeness and respect; it is an inefficient medium for
communicating in ambiguous, complex, and novel situations; and it contributes to
information overload. Social media, which are Internet- or mobile-based channels that
allow users to generate and interactively share information, are slowly replacing or
supplementing email in organizations. Social media are more conversational and
reciprocally interactive than traditional channels. They are “social” by encouraging
collaboration and the formation of virtual communities. Nonverbal communication
includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance, and even silence. Unlike
verbal communication, nonverbal communication is less rule-bound and is mostly
automatic and nonconscious. Some nonverbal communication is automatic through a
process called emotional contagion.

9-3 Discuss the relevance of synchronicity, social presence, social acceptance, and
media richness when choosing the preferred communication channel.

The most appropriate communication medium depends on several factors.

Synchronicity refers to the channel’s capacity for the sender and receiver to
communicate at the same time (synchronous) or at different times (asynchronous).
Synchronous channels are better when the issue is urgent or the topic is complex.
Asynchronous channels are better when it is costly for both parties to communicate at
the same time or when the  receiver should have time to reflect before responding. A
channel has high social presence when it creates psychological closeness to the other
party and awareness of their humanness. This is valuable when the parties need to
empathize or influence each other. Social acceptance refers to how well the
communication medium is approved and supported by others. This acceptance depends
on organization or societal norms, each party’s preferences and skills with the channel,
and the symbolic meaning of a channel. Media richness refers to a channel’s data-
carrying capacity. Nonroutine and ambiguous situations require rich media. However,
technology-based lean media may be possible where users can multicommunicate, have
high proficiency with that technology, and don’t have social distractions.

9-4 Discuss various barriers (noise) to effective communication, including cross-

cultural and genderbased differences in communication.

Several barriers create noise in the communication process. People misinterpret

messages because of misaligned codebooks due to different languages, jargon, and the
use of ambiguous phrases. Filtering messages and information overload are two other
communication barriers. These problems are often amplified in cross-cultural settings,
where these problems occur, along with differences in the meaning of nonverbal cues,
silence, and conversational overlaps. There are also some communication differences
between men and women, such as the tendency for men to exert status and engage in
report talk in conversations, whereas women use more rapport talk and are more
sensitive to nonverbal cues.

9-5 Explain how to get your message across more effectively, and summarize the
elements of active listening.

To get a message across, the sender must learn to empathize with the receiver, repeat
the message, choose an appropriate time for the conversation, and be descriptive rather
than evaluative. Listening includes sensing, evaluating, and responding. Active listeners
support these processes by postponing evaluation, avoiding interruptions, maintaining
interest, empathizing, organizing information, showing interest, and clarifying the
message.

9-6 Summarize effective communication strategies in organizational hierarchies,

and review the role and relevance of the organizational grapevine.

Some companies try to encourage communication across the organization through

workspace design as well as through Internet-based communication channels. Some
executives also meet directly with employees by engaging in management by walking
around (MBWA) and by holding town-hall meetings.

In any organization, employees rely on the grapevine, particularly during times of

uncertainty. The grapevine is an unstructured and informal network founded on social
relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions. Although early
research identified several unique features of the grapevine, some of these features may
be changing as the Internet plays an increasing role in grapevine communication.
CHAPTER 10 SUMMARY

10-1 Describe the dependence model of power and the five sources of power in
organizations.

Power is the capacity to influence others. It exists when one party perceives that he or
she is dependent on the other for something of value. However, the dependent person
must also have countervailing power—some power over the dominant party—to
maintain the relationship, and the parties must have some level of trust.

There are five power bases. Legitimate power is an agreement among organizational
members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others. This power
has restrictions, represented by the target person’s zone of indifference. It also includes
the norm of reciprocity (a feeling of obligation to help someone who has helped you),
as well as control over the flow of information to others. Reward power is derived from
the ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative
sanctions. Coercive power is the ability to apply punishment. Expert power is the
capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they value. An
important form of expert power is the (perceived) ability to manage uncertainties in the
business environment. People have referent power when others identify with them, like
them, or otherwise respect them.

10-2 Discuss the four contingencies of power.

Four contingencies determine whether these power bases translate into real power.
Individuals and work units are more powerful when they are nonsubstitutable.
Employees, work units, and organizations reduce substitutability by controlling tasks,
knowledge, and labor and by differentiating themselves from competitors. A second
contingency is centrality. People have more power when they have high centrality,
which means that many people are quickly affected by their actions. The third
contingency, visibility, refers to the idea that power increases to the extent that a
person’s or work unit’s competencies are known to others. Discretion, the fourth
contingency of power, refers to the freedom to exercise judgment. Power increases
when people have the freedom to use their power.

10-3 Explain how people and work units gain power through social networks.

Social networks are social structures of individuals or social units (e.g., departments,
organizations) that connect to one another through one or more forms of
interdependence. People receive power in social networks through social capital, which
is the goodwill and resulting resources shared among members in a social network.
Three main resources from social networks are information, visibility, and referent
power.

Employees gain social capital through their relationship in the social network. Social
capital tends to increase with the number of network ties. Strong ties (close-knit
relationships) can also increase social capital because these connections offer more
resources more quickly. However, having weak ties with people from diverse networks
can be more valuable than having strong ties with people in similar networks. Weak ties
provide more resources that we do not already possess. Another influence on social
capital is the person’s centrality in the network. Network centrality is determined in
several ways, including the extent to which you are located between others in the
network (betweenness), how many direct ties you have (degree), and the closeness of
these ties. People also gain power by bridging structural holes—linking two or more
clusters of people in a network.

10-4 Describe eight types of influence tactics, three consequences of influencing

others, and three contingencies to consider when choosing an influence tactic.

Influence refers to any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior.
The most widely studied influence tactics are silent authority, assertiveness,
information control, coalition formation, upward appeal, impression management,
persuasion, and exchange. “Soft” influence tactics such as friendly persuasion and
subtle ingratiation are more acceptable than “hard” tactics such as upward appeal and
assertiveness. However, the most appropriate influence tactic also depends on the
influencer’s power base; whether the person being influenced is higher, lower, or at the
same level in the organization; and personal, organizational, and cultural values
regarding influence behavior.

10-5 Identify the organizational conditions and personal characteristics associated

with organizational politics, as well as ways to minimize organizational politics.

Organizational politics refer to influence tactics that others perceive to be self-serving

behaviors, sometimes contrary to the interests of the organization. It is more common
when ambiguous decisions allocate scarce resources and when the organization
tolerates or rewards political behavior. Individuals with a high need for personal power
and strong Machiavellian values have a higher propensity to use political tactics.
Organizational politics can be minimized by providing clear rules for resource
allocation, establishing a free flow of information, using education and involvement
during organizational change, supporting team norms and a corporate culture that
discourages political behavior, and having leaders who role model organizational
citizenship rather than political savvy
CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY

11-1 Define conflict and debate its positive and negative consequences in the
workplace.

Conflict is the process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed
or negatively affected by another party. The earliest view of conflict was that it was
dysfunctional for organizations. Even today, we recognize that conflict sometimes or to
some degree consumes productive time, increases stress and job dissatisfaction,
discourages coordination and resource sharing, undermines customer service, fuels
organizational politics, and undermines team cohesion. But conflict can also be
beneficial. It is known to motivate more active thinking about problems and possible
solutions, encourage more active monitoring of the organization in its environment, and
improve team cohesion (where the conflict source is external).

11-2 Distinguish task from relationship conflict and describe three strategies to
minimize relationship conflict during task conflict episodes.

Task conflict occurs when people focus their discussion around the issue while showing
respect for people with other points of view. Relationship conflict exists when people
view each other, rather than the issue, as the source of conflict. It is apparent when
people attack each other’s credibility and display aggression toward the other party. It is
difficult to separate task from relationship conflict. However, three strategies or
conditions that minimize relationship conflict during constructive debate are (1)
emotional intelligence and emotional stability of the participants, (2) team cohesion,
and (3) supportive team norms.

11-3 Diagram the conflict process model and describe six structural sources of
conflict in organizations.

The conflict process model begins with the six structural sources of conflict:
incompatible goals, differentiation (different values and beliefs), interdependence,
scarce resources, ambiguous rules, and communication problems. These sources lead
one or more parties to perceive a conflict and to experience conflict emotions. This
produces manifest conflict, such as behaviors toward the other side. The conflict
process often escalates through a series of episodes.

11-4 Outline the five conflict-handling styles and discuss the circumstances in
which each would be most appropriate.

There are five known conflict-handling styles: problem solving, forcing, avoiding,
yielding, and compromising. People who use problem solving have a win–win
orientation. Others, particularly forcing, assume a win–lose orientation. In general,
people gravitate toward one or two preferred conflict handling styles that match their
personality, personal and cultural values, and past experience.

The best style depends on the situation. Problem solving is best when interests are not
perfectly opposing, the parties trust each other, and the issues are complex. Forcing
works best when you strongly believe in your position, the dispute requires quick
action, and the other party would take advantage of a cooperative style. Avoidance is
preferred when the conflict has become emotional or the cost of resolution is higher
than its benefits. Yielding works well when the other party has substantially more
power, the issue is less important to you, and you are not confident in the logical
soundness of your position. Compromising is preferred when the parties have equal
power, they are under time pressure, and they lack trust.

11-5 Apply the six structural approaches to conflict management and describe the
three types of thirdparty dispute resolution.

Structural approaches to conflict management include emphasizing superordinate goals,

reducing differentiation, improving communication and understanding, reducing
interdependence, increasing resources, and clarifying rules and procedures.

Third-party conflict resolution is any attempt by a relatively neutral person to help the
parties resolve their differences. The three main forms of third-party dispute resolution
are mediation, arbitration, and inquisition. Managers tend to use an inquisition
approach, though mediation and arbitration often are more appropriate, depending on
the situation.
11-6 Discuss activities in the negotiation preparation, process, and setting that
improve negotiation effectiveness.

Negotiation occurs whenever two or more conflicting parties attempt to resolve their
divergent goals by redefining the terms of their interdependence. Effective negotiators
engage in several preparation activities. These include determining their initial, target,
and resistance positions; understanding their needs behind these goals; and knowing
their alternatives to the negotiation (BATNA). They set higher initial offer and target
positions, which anchor the negotiation at a higher level.

During the negotiation process, effective negotiators devote more attention to gathering
than giving information. They try to determine the other party’s underlying needs rather
than just their stated positions. They make fewer and smaller concessions, but use
concessions strategically to discover the other party’s priorities and to maintain trust.
They try to avoid time traps (negotiating under deadlines set by the other side), and they
engage in practices to maintain a positive relationship with the other party.
Characteristics of the setting—including location, physical setting, and audience
characteristics—are also important in successful negotiations
CHAPTER 12 SUMMARY

12-1 Define leadership and shared leadership.

Leadership is defined as the ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to

contribute to the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are
members. Leaders use influence to motivate followers and arrange the work
environment so they do the job more effectively. Shared leadership views leadership as
a role rather than a formal position, so employees throughout the organization act
informally as leaders as the occasion arises. These situations include serving as
champions for specific ideas or changes, as well as filling leadership roles where it is
needed.

12-2 Describe the four elements of transformational leadership and explain why
they are important for organizational change.

Transformational leadership begins with a strategic vision, which is a positive

representation of a future state that energizes and unifies employees. A vision is values-
based, a distant goal, abstract, and meaningful to employees. Transformational leaders
effectively communicate the vision by framing it around values, showing sincerity and
passion toward the vision, and using symbols, metaphors, and other vehicles that create
richer meaning for the vision. Transformational leaders model the vision (walk the talk)
and encourage employees to experiment with new behaviors and practices that are
potentially more consistent with the visionary future state. They also build employee
commitment to the vision through the preceding activities, as well as by celebrating
milestones to the vision. Some transformational leadership theories view charismatic
leadership as an essential ingredient of transformational leadership. However, this view
is inconsistent with the meaning of charisma and at odds with research on the dynamics
and outcomes of charisma in leader–follower relationships.

12-3 Compare managerial leadership with transformational leadership, and

describe the features of taskoriented, people-oriented, and servant leadership.
Managerial leadership includes the daily activities that support and guide the
performance and well-being of individual employees and the work unit to achieve
current objectives and practices. Transformational and managerial leadership are
dependent on each other, but they differ in their assumptions of stability versus change
and their micro versus macro focus.

Task-oriented behaviors include assigning employees to specific tasks, clarifying their

work duties and procedures, ensuring they follow company rules, and pushing them to
reach their performance capacity. People-oriented behaviors include showing mutual
trust and respect for subordinates, demonstrating a genuine concern for their needs, and
having a desire to look out for their welfare.

Servant leadership defines leadership as serving others to support their need fulfillment
and personal development and growth. Servant leaders have a natural desire or
“calling” to serve others. They maintain a relationship with others that is humble,
egalitarian, and accepting. Servant leaders also anchor their decisions and actions in
ethical principles and practices.

12-4 Discuss the elements of path–goal theory, Fiedler’s contingency model, and
leadership substitutes.

The path–goal theory of leadership takes the view that effective managerial leadership
involves diagnosing the situation and using the most appropriate style for it. The core
model identifies four leadership styles—directive, supportive, participative, and
achievement-oriented—and several contingencies related to the characteristics of the
employee and of the situation.

Two other contingency leadership theories include the situational leadership theory and
Fiedler’s contingency theory. Research support is quite weak for both theories.
However, a lasting element of Fiedler’s theory is the idea that leaders have natural
styles and, consequently, they should be assigned to work units that fit their managerial
style. Leadership substitutes theory identifies contingencies that either limit the leader’s
ability to influence subordinates or make a particular leadership style unnecessary.
12-5 Describe the two components of the implicit leadership perspective.

According to the implicit leadership perspective, people have leadership prototypes,

which they use to evaluate the leader’s effectiveness. Furthermore, people form a
romance of leadership; they want to believe that leaders make a difference, so they
engage in fundamental attribution error and other perceptual distortions to support this
belief in the leader’s impact.

12-6 Identify eight personal attributes associated with effective leaders and
describe authentic leadership.

The personal attributes perspective identifies the characteristics of effective leaders.

Recent writing suggests that leaders have specific personality characteristics, positive
self-concept, drive, integrity, leadership motivation, knowledge of the business,
cognitive and practical intelligence, and emotional intelligence. Authentic leadership
refers to how well leaders are aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with
their self-concept. This concept consists mainly of two parts: selfawareness and
engaging in behavior that is consistent with one’s self-concept.

12-7 Discuss cultural and gender similarities and differences in leadership.

Cultural values influence the leader’s personal values, which in turn influence his or her
leadership practices. Women generally do not differ from men in the degree of people-
oriented or task-oriented leadership. However, female leaders more often adopt a
participative style. Research also suggests that people evaluate female leaders on the
basis of gender stereotypes, which may result in higher or lower ratings.