Received: 5 October 2017

| Revised: 21 February 2018

| Accepted: 5 March 2018
DOI: 10.1002/col.22225

RESEARCH ARTICLE

A novel method for assessing the chromatic integration of

architecture in the Ksourian landscape of M’zab Valley, Algeria

Yacine Gouaich1,2 | Abdelkader Mebrouki1,2 | Racha Ghariri1,2 |

Abdelkhaliq Mebarki3 | Akila Belabbas3 | Banu Manav4 | Juan Serra5,6 |
Jorge Llopis5,6 | Ana Torres5,6

1
Department of Civil Engineering and
Abstract
Architecture, University Abdelhamid Ibn
Badis Mostaganem, Mostaganem, 27000, Ksour are original architectural models of fortified villages located in the north of
Algeria Africa. They offer, through their urban and natural visual sceneries, specific visible
2
LCTPE Laboratory, University features that we name them Ksourian Landscapes. The present research, accordingly,
Abdelhamid Ibn Badis Mostaganem, addresses an investigation; relying on a new methodic perspective, of the chromatic
Mostaganem, 27000, Algeria character of the Ksourian landscape of M’zab valley in Algeria which is listed as an
3
Department of Architecture, University UNESCO World Heritage Site. Using the Natural Color System (NCS), a natural pal-
of Sciences and Technology of Oran ette (NP) has been conducted; encapsulating 12 representative colors from the natural
Mohamed Boudiaf, Oran, 31000, Algeria
landscape of the site in congruence with a second palette (human settlements palette),
4
Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture, which includes around 16 colors from the urban landscape of the Mozabite Ksour.
Istanbul Ayvansaray University, Istanbul,
The primary purpose of this research article aims at identifying perceptual similarities
34087, Turkey
5
between the two palettes after comparison; which relies upon the NCS nominal iden-
Department of Architectural Graphic
tities (blackness [s], whiteness [w], chromaticness [c], yellowness [y], and redness
Expression, School of Architecture,
Polytechnic University of Valencia,
[r]); and the NCS relation identities (hue [u], saturation [m], delta [d], and beta [b]).
Valencia, 46022, Spain Graphical representations of these comparisons are demonstrated in the NCS triangle
6
Instituto de Restauraci

on del Patrimonio, and the NCS 3D color space. We have demonstrated through our experimental out-
Polytechnic University of Valencia, comes the strong chromatic integration of the urban settlements in their natural
Valencia, 46022, Spain landscape, the original chromatic character as being a constituent of the heritage val-
ues of the Mozabite Ksourian landscape, as well as its possible use in the urban
Correspondence restoration processes.
Yacine Gouaich, University Abdelhamid
Ibn Badis Mostaganem, Mostaganem,
KEYWORDS
27000, Algeria.
Email: yacine.gouaich@univ-mosta.dz Algeria, Ksourian landscape, M’zab Valley, natural color system, vernacular architecture

1 | INTRODUCTION an essential component of its construction, expression, and

By the end of the twentieth century, early twenty-first
century, there has been a growing interest in the study of
landscape as an essential perspective for a sustainable devel-
opment of cities. This scope of interest is being supported at
the global level by all of the most important institutions and
through important regional directives and policies in the
world.1
One of the major, if not vital, elements among others for
the study of landscape is the color factor which plays, again,
definition. Each region, just as each city cherishes on a sub-
identity/sub-culture/customs of its own ideological construc-
tion which is both influenced by its history, geography, geol-
ogy, and building materials—all of these aspects play a role
in expressing certain chromatic identity through colors; the
existence, selection, and integration of which in relation to
the concerned landscape mirrors the inhabitants’ historical
heritage. The aspect of color factor has, thereafter, a major
influence on the architectural heritage. It plays a great role in
the preservation and the conservation of urban architectural

Color Res Appl. 2018;1–18. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/col V

C 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1
2 | GOUAICH ET AL.

print/identity just as it also helps preserve the cultural values

and traditions of each heritage and historical site.2,3
In northern Africa, mainly, Algeria, Morocco, and Tuni-
sia, we find typical fortified villages called “Ksour.” The
term Ksar (singular of Ksour) is a Maghreb Arabic word that
means castle, loaned from Latin castrum and from Spanish
Alc
azar.4,5 The Ksour are composed of attached built-up
houses, forming a compact housing environment, surrounded
with an outer wall and marked out by watchtowers, they
depend on two important criteria that are; the availability of
water resources along with the defensive sites. The latter
form the reason for Ksour’s foundation; generally erected on
rocky lands for self-defense purposes as well as for the pres-
ervation of the already existent scarce water resources and
fertile lands, which are situated in both of the inside and out-
side of the urban zone.6,7 The Ksour form a group which
constitutes a heritage asset for the Sub Saharan region and
are considered as a symbol of the whole region’s identity.8
The Ksour are perceived as a “vernacular urban configu-
ration” which, by its architectural typology, creates an origi-
nal vernacular landscape. This concept is invented by the
cultural geographer J.B. Jackson as a means to distinguish it
from the predominant landscape that is preconceived, F I G U R E 1 The country of Algeria is divided into forty-eight (48)
provinces called Wilayas. The M’zab is situated in the 47th province
planned, built, and codified. A vernacular landscape is
named Ghardaia. (Do not confuse the Wilaya of Ghardaia which repre-
shaped, constructed, and identified in congruency with local
sents the whole city of 86 105 km2 with the Ksar of Ghardaia, the capital
custom, pragmatic adaptions to circumstances, and unpre-
of the Mozabite Ksour which covers an area of 590 km2)
dictable mobilities of the inhabitants of the region.9,10 Con-
sidering the Ksour as an original model of vernacular
landscape in the world, we have created in this study a spe- or districts, which by their geographical location situated
cific concept related to their landscape called “Ksourian along the valley form a coherent site13 (Figure 1).
Landscape.” It concerns visible features and traits of urban In 1982, the M’zab Valley was listed in UNESCO World
and natural components specific to these historical villages. Heritage list as an intact example of traditional human habi-
In the natural and the man-made landscape, we find a tat, the structure along with the construction of which clearly
very wide variety of colors.11 However, in the case of a reflects the inhabitants’ adaptation to the environmental natu-
Ksourian landscape, there is a special chromatic character ral circumstances. To provide a succinct history of the land-
that could be linked to both landscapes; creating therefore scape of M’zab; it was formed in the 11th century, between
considerable regional chromatic particularities due to the 1012 and 1350 by the Ibadites around their five Ksour.14
combinations of rock type, soil, and local building materials. The valley (ravine) of M’zab was created by violent floods.
In the North African continent, we find several Ksourian It is one of the greatest valleys in this net and is located in
landscapes sites such as; Ancient Ksour of Ouadane, Chin- the middle. It is about 20 km long, 0.4 and 2 km wide, with
guetti, Tichitt, and Oualata in Mauritania; Ksar of Ait-Ben- a depth varying between 100 and 150 m and is dry in
Haddou and the 7 Ksour of Figuig in Morocco; the Ksour of summer.15,16 The Ksour of M’zab are hierarchically organ-
Douiret Ouled Soltane, Hadada, and Chenini in Tunisia; in ized, starting from the dwellings, as private spaces to that of
addition to the Ksour of Gourara, Tiout, Boussemghoun, the gate as public ones.15 They are located on a rocky out-
M’zab in Algeria. Among the most interesting of these crop along the valley. These are Beni Isguen, Melika, Bou-
Ksourian landscapes, we have selected the M’zab Valley; a noura, El Atteuf, Berriane, El Guerrara, and Ghardaia is
significant historic region situated in the North of Africa, its decidedly the capital of these five villages.
accurate geographical position is in the province of Ghardaia The originality of the M’zab Valley demonstrates the
which is situated in the Algerian Sahara. It is 600 km south original implementation of Ksour in the natural Saharan
of Algiers; the capital of Algeria, at an altitude of 450 m landscape. This habitat type has exerted considerable influ-
above sea level.12 Its surface area is 4000 hectares and is ence on many famous architects and structural urban simula-
home to 420 000 inhabitants. The M’zab is a famous histori- tors/planners of the twentieth century.17 The French architect
cal site of Algeria, divided into several administrative units Fernand Pouillon, was inspired by the M’zab for spatial
GOUAICH ET AL.
| 3

organization of traditional architectural house design; which

is repeatedly conceived with a maximum reliance on a fanta-
sized visualization, regardless of monotony.18 Ricardo Bofill;
another prominent architect of the twentieth century, was fas-
cinated by the surprising; yet pleasant geometry of the white
and blue blocks of the Mozabite cities, and by their human
scale. Bofill helped design, later, the “village of Houari Bou-
medien” in Bechar, which could assumedly be interpreted by
the extent of the influence and impact of the ingeniousness
of the M’zab structural building that inspired Bofill.19
Another French architect; Andr
e Ravereau; considered it as
the most successful example of environmental adaptation by
its harmonious architecture,17 sketching that: “like everyone
else, I was seduced by Ghardaia before analyzing it. We have
the intuition that things have a balance that we call aesthetic
and that before knowing how it is, a balance [. . .]. [That is] the F I G U R E 2 The five Mozabite Ksour listed in UNESCO world herit-
analysis that taught me later, I saw in the M’zab both the rigor age list: Ghardaia, El Atteuf, Bounoura, Beni Isguen, and Melika. The
that I loved in Perret - whom I was the student of - and the zone outlined in red represents the official protected region by the Algerian
exhilarating forms that we find in Le Corbusier [. . .]”.17 authorities
As for, the famous architect; Le Corbusier, who visited
the M’zab valley twice, in 1931 and 1933, and throughout
The urban structure of the Ksourian landscape of M’zab
his second visit whereby he flew over the region using a tri-
valley has caught the attention, even fascination and appeal
plane; directed by his friend Louis Durafour,20,21 to explore
of many European and non-European scholars, architects,
the originality of the spatial organization of the Ksour, he
and researchers who made of this fascination a serious scope
was fascinated with the rugged and textured North African
of architectural study, to state some major names of the field.
vernacular landscape; he, thereafter, captured essential ele-
Manuelle Roche analyzed the Islamic art of the Ibadite archi-
ments of Mozabite architecture, and made many sketches
tecture of the five listed Mozabite Ksour in the
about the spatial organization of the Ksour. Moreover, he
UNESCO.23,24 Andr
e Ravereau has studied the originality of
was inspired by the rigor of the vernacular Mozabite details,
the Mozabite architecture as well as its adaptation to the
as the case of the mosque of Sidi Brahim in the Ksar of El
environment.17,25 The French scholars Didillon and Donna-
Atteuf, that has been correlated later in the project of the
dieu studied the traditional Mozabite architecture and its
chapel Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France.22 typology.26 Brahim Benyoucef; a contemporary Algerian
The area enclosed in Figure 2, represents the official por- scholar, studied the urban development of Mozabite agglom-
tion of the protected sector by the Algerian authorities. In eration.14,27,28 And Amar Bouchair; another contemporary
this study, the intervention area comprises only the five Algerian researcher, treated the qualities and advantages of
Ksour listed by UNESCO as a world heritage, represented in the traditional design of Mozabite settlements in accordance
the same figure: Ghardaia, El Atteuf, Bounoura, Beni Isguen, with their traditional accommodating/adaptation practices to
and Melika. the environment of the region.13,15 And yet, the matter of
The M’zab Valley has been listed in UNESCO world color has not been given enough attention in their studies as
heritage for its outstanding universal value, based on many an important element of the Mozabite landscape. This
criteria such as: the organization of the anthropic ensembles research is, therefore, raising the issue of the chromatic char-
in the central Sahara, the original trans-relations between the acter of the Ksourian landscape in M’zab Valley, a study
three elements (Ksar, cemetery, and palm grove) in the that we, as architectural researchers, are going to tackle.
Mozabite society, as well as the ingenuity of conceiving a To start with some major information, In M’zab, there
system for the capture and distribution of water along with are several varieties of local building materials namely: the
the conception of palm groves. Hence, the peculiarity and stone, the lime, the Timchemt (the Timchemt is a local plaster
originality of M’zab is in the perfect integration of human extracted from a surface layer or fields with a maximum
settlements in the Saharan environment, the architectural ele- depth of one meter. It has a yellowish or reddish color in its
ments of Islamic vernacular architecture representing the Iba- nature quarry, and it becomes white after burning it in the
dite culture, thanks to the latter that has managed to achieve oven), and the adobe. They are used in the Mozabite building
a highly efficient and congruent interaction of Man with the for their properties of insulation and adaptation to the local
semi-desert environment for practicality. warm climate of the Sahara. The Mozabite houses are
4 |
F I G U R E 3 Overview of Ksar El Atteuf showing the Mozabite architectural details. The large building which contains the minaret is the mosque; it is
positioned in the highest point of Ksar. Photo Courtesy Yann Arthus Bertrand
characterized by the existence of patios or terraces. The typi-
cal house in M’zab is organized around a patio where the
various rooms have opened windows. Only one family lives
in each house and the size of the house is strictly adapted to
the size of the family. These houses constitute a very dense
urban fabric, radial, always surmounted by the minaret of the
mosque.17 It is difficult for a pedestrian too see large archi-
tectural ambiances while walking through the street as it is
difficult to take photos plainly in view of the fact that the
Mozabite streets are very narrow. Even so, Figure 3 presents
a general overview of the Mozabite houses’ architecture
(Figure 3).
In the Mozabite façades, the windows are rare and small;
they are designed accordingly to keep the freshness of the
interior during the long and sultry summer period. The exte-
rior façades have a homogeneous chromatic aspect, charac-
terized by the use of sandy/earthy colors. Whereas, the
interior colors of the houses depend on subjective choices of
inhabitants and can have a large variety of colors. Nonethe-
less, there is wide usage of white and blue in the houses’
interior, which are generally made with the lime material and
Indigo dye. As for the type of painting, we noticed a lack of
use for natural pigments in coloration. Generally, most peo-
ple use synthetic pigments with industrial plasters in painting
to obtain sandy colors. Regarding the local market, the
GOUAICH ET AL.
majority of painting types are available with a special focus
on earthy pigments. Apart from that, no special color prod-
ucts are adopted for the chromatic character of the Ksour.
The Algerian authorities forbid any intervention in the
urban fabric of the Mozabite Ksour, since it is a world herit-
age region. As for the external color of the façades, the office
of protection and promotion of the M’zab valley (OPVM)
has established technical recommendations for the chromatic
identity of M’zab. It recommends painting all new and/or old
constructions with a sandy color, or colors within a spectrum
that approximately embraces the colors of the surrounding
natural landscape.29 So, the Mozabite inhabitants are author-
ized to paint their settlements themselves, provided they use
earthy colors. Nevertheless, there is no imposed chromatic
charter or palette which can standardize the choice of colors.
Such a mild discovery/position which has engendered
another aim for this study, which is that of establishing repre-
sentative palettes of chromatic character in M’zab, which can
be used in future urban planning and heritage restoration.
2 | METHOD
This research is part of an interdisciplinary project of devel-
opment for the cultural and architectural heritage in the
GOUAICH ET AL.
| 5

Saharan Ksour of Algeria. It is developed by our research

team in a series of works which are being prepared. The case
of M’zab has been studied through and by an international
collaboration involving; Mostaganem University, the Univer-
sity of Sciences and Technology of Oran, the Polytechnic
University of Valencia, and Istanbul Ayvansaray University.
Our method aims at evaluating the chromatic integration
of the architectural landscape of Ksour with the surrounding
natural landscape. Hence, we have pursued the approach of
Jean-Philippe Lenclos; the core of which is based on the con-
cept of the geography of color that serves as a witness ele-
ment to a region’s habitat landscape, lifestyle, and traditional
customs.2 This approach encapsulate these steps: taking pho-
tographic views, drawings and hand sketches, materials sam-
ples, color analysis in relatedness to some color attributes, to F I G U R E 4 The chromatic characterization of the natural and urban
establish a specific geography of color for the analyzed loca- landscapes of M’zab valley
tion.2 Lenclos presented in his book; Couleurs du monde
(1982); a chromatic study about the chromatic character of a synthesis of the different chromatic findings (in the
M’zab Valley,2 a work that constitutes the core basis and ref- texts, the color notations are presented by each color’s
erence to the rationale of our research. identifier preceded by the symbol of the hash (#). All col-
According to Juan Serra’s theories, color interferes with ors identifiers are available in Figure 4).
the perception of the visual properties in many factors just as
5. Colors analysis of each palette in the Natural Color Sys-
geometry, dimensions, visual weight, and texture. In an
tem (NCS) through its different attributes, then the study
attempt to draw a relation between the parts and the whole,
of color relations between both palettes to identify exist-
different elementary components of the form could be per-
ing similarities amongst them.
ceived as a unit by color (integration) or conversely; they
express and/or reinforce their autonomy (disintegration).30 According to Professor Caivano, the NCS is perhaps the
Otherwise explained, in this study, we use the concept of most used color order system in architecture and design,31
chromatic integration by means of a reference to the degree and it has been used by specialists in a lot of studies in the
of chromatic resemblance and adaptation of the existing world because of its properties and qualities. In this study,
buildings—as a mirroring reflection - with their surrounding We have used the NCS,which is the perceptual color model
environment. This visual analysis is conducted as a hypothe- established by the Scandinavian Color Institute (Skandina-
sis to the case study of M’zab, and then our experimental viska Färg Institutet AB) of Stockholm, Sweden. It is based
method presented below is, thereafter, performed, for the on the six elementary color percepts of human vision as
assessment of this chromatic integration between the archi- described by Ewald Hering’s (1834–1918) opponent color
tectural settlements, and the natural landscape in M’zab. theory of 1878.32 In 1972, Hård, Sivik, and Tonnquist devel-
Our methodic approach entails these fundamental phases: oped the NCS, which they decided to adopt in 1979 as the
Swedish standard33; noting and assessing that: “with the final
1. Constructing and commanding, after study, a multidisci-
form of the NCS system, we have the ability to identify char-
plinary approach of the history of the region of M’zab
acteristic similarities and relations between colors.”34
with its various aspects; historical, geographical, and
To investigate the urban polychromy in the historical
architectural.
center of the M’zab Valley, we have studied the interdiscipli-
2. Sampling the dominant/representative colors in the natu- nary project of “The Study for the Recovery of Urban Spaces
ral landscape of the region by creating a denoted natural
in Valencia Historical Center” concerning the intervention in
palette (NP).
patrimonial architecture. It has been realized between the
3. Sampling the dominant/representative colors in the years of 1995–2013, by the color research team, headed by
human settlements of the selected zone in the five Ksour.

Professor Angela García Codo~ner in the Instituto de Restau-
Our sampling concerns only the external chromatic raci
on del Patrimonio (IRP) of the Polytechnic University of
appearance of the building. The created palette is named: Valencia. This project emphasizes the adaptability of histori-
denoted human settlements palette (HSP). cal cities to their respected environment; a solution which:
4. A laboratory registration and categorization of the differ- “is usual in the material traditions of all cultures of the Medi-
ent colors of each palette; (NP and HSP), by establishing terranean arc, characterized by a high adaptability to the
6 |
environment, and what interests us most here, by the close
connection with the territory proposing a color treatment
technology based on the use of oxides as natural inking
mechanism for mortars. The colored lime mortar used natural
pigments, soil, and oxides, which were extracted from the
hinterland close to the city and thus created a link between
the images of the city and the territory.”35 The resulting
deductions of this position have, therefore, created the moti-
vation for our collaboration for an academic research study
of the chromatic character of M’zab Valley.
The study of the local chromatic character of an envi-
ronment has appealed to many specialists such as; the land-
scape architect, Dr. Simon Bell whose position is that: “in
some places, the rock type and soils derived from it, are
particularly important contributors to the overall color pal-
ette for an area. [. . .] Harmonizing buildings in the land-
scape, especially larger ones, can be tackled in a number of
ways. For those whose size is more in keeping with local
buildings, careful choice of materials, or applied colors can
be effected by sampling local materials and preparing a pal-
ette of colors so that the new palette will fit in with the
old.”11
On similar grounds, a study on the chromatic character in
the Ksourian architectural heritage has been established in
the Tunisian Sahara, 700 km east of M’zab Valley. Karima
Azzouz; a Tunisian scholar of architecture, presented in her
thesis entitled; Aesthetics and Poetics of Coloring in Tradi-
tional and Contemporary Architecture in the South of Tuni-
sian Cities (2013), a scientific investigation about the
congruence/incongruence of color with nature, i.e., the role
of the existent color choice in the architectural structures in
correlation with the natural landscape. She clarifies, in her
research, that:
“The color of the architecture of Berber villages
of Matmata, Toujane, and Chenini Tataouin
demonstrates an adaptation to the natural envi-
ronment by its homogeneity and uniformity
with the natural relief.[. . .] Polychromatic palette
of the vernacular architecture of Berber villages
perched in the mountains El Dhaher is similar to
the palette of the natural environment. The stone
color is assimilated and accepted. The color
belongs to the environment and participates in
this environment. Color manifests itself and
arises in and from the material. These natural
and discrete shades allow to the framework to fit
within the landscape without creating disso-
nance by contrasts between the natural environ-
ment and architectural constructions.”36
These examples are relevant vernacular models for the
study of color in heritage sites. They have served as pertinent
GOUAICH ET AL.
references for the approach and methodology of this research
study.
3 | CHROMATIC SURVEY
The suggested approach, to examine the chromatic integra-
tion in the vernacular heritage of M’Zab, serves to extract in
situ all the essential colors that characterize the Ksour in
question using; NCS tools (NCS colorimeter, NCS Album,
and NCS Glossy Index [Generally, the matte index is used in
measuring outdoor environments and exterior façades. In this
study, and due to practical constraints related to the unavail-
ability of NCS products, we have used a Glossy Index for
the chromatic survey of the Mozabite façades rather than
matte one. Despite the fact that the NCS Glossy Index is not
perfectly suitable for our sampling, the characterization was
done with high accuracy nevertheless.]), also to excavate
samples from earth along with from architectural façades
before sending them to the laboratory for analysis and com-
prehension of their composition and characteristics. In our
survey, we insisted on sampling standardized colors from the
NCS 1950 standard to work efficiently and thoroughly, also
to facilitate their future uses and reproductions (Figure 4).
Our approach of the perception of color in this study is
initiated with the reliance on the research of the Swedish
architectural researchers/scholars, namely; Karin Fridell
Anter, Monica Billger, and Maud Hårleman, the works of
whom is within the scope of color choice involvement and
evolvement in an architectural context.37–39 In the color sam-
pling of our case study, we aim to determine the inherent
color in both of the Mozabite landscapes’ survey. It is called
also nominal color, and refers to the color that the surface
would have if viewed in the standardized situation used in
the definition of NCS samples. This means that our sampled
color code printed on an NCS sample denotes their nominal
colors, which have to be the most similar to the Mozabite
façades in direct comparison.40–42
The practical field of our research is divided into two
major analytical sections/sub-studies: “the natural landscape
survey” and “the human settlements’ survey”. The natural
landscape survey of the region serves to extract the natural
colors of the earth, i.e., colors that constitute the main color-
ing element of the architectural heritage along with the chro-
matic source of the present and ancestral local materials.
These colors somehow form the cultural identity of the
region’s aborigines, form the essence of the region’s cultural
and architectural landmark heritage.43 The natural landscape
survey also requires a color localization specifying the geo-
graphical position in which some other specific construction
techniques are deployed. Natural and environmental factors
such as, to mention some; geology, light, vegetation, and
hydrology, all of which influence building materials that
GOUAICH ET AL.
inevitably create contrasts, and yet harmonious block colors
called local color.44
The survey met another research divergence; that of “the
human settlements’ survey” of the region to investigate the
external chromatic character of the urban zones in the five
Mozabite Ksour. In our analysis, we sampled several mate-
rial components that constitute the composition of exterior
façades. All these samples were analyzed in our laboratory
and categorized using NCS to create a representative palette
of the region’s human settlements (The sampled materials
are being used in another study about local building materials
within a research project headed by Professor Abdelkader
Mebrouki in LCTPE Research Laboratory. This project will
provide new data on building materials’ properties in M’zab
Valley). Since our research area is broad, we refined our
selection to the conduction of representative samples of
Mozabite settlements by choosing samples that are in accord-
ance with their historical and chromatic characteristics, build-
ing materials as well as their functions (habitat, mosque,
mausoleum . . .etc.).
Lenclos gave special importance to the photography,
which plays an important role as a complement tool of the
chromatic characterization.2 In all over the Mozabite region,
exterior façades were photographed to provide an important
support for the characterization. Otherwise explained, in
some façades where the characterization was challenging
because of difficult access, we have used digital camera—
under standard shooting conditions—on the basis of some
recommendations of a protocol developed by Nguyen and
Teller as a user-oriented protocol, which provides a synthetic
visualization of the color distribution in an urban area.45,46
We have never used Nguyen and Teller’s protocol to sample
colors neither in NCS nor in any other system. It was used
just to provide a “general characterization for the façades.
Only one digital camera has been used with the standardiza-
tion of shooting conditions that has made relevant synthetic
visualization of the chromatic sceneries, thus allowing there-
after, the comparison between the five Ksour colors on the
basis on the sampled colors in situ. The picture files taken
out from this general characterization were very useful later
in the laboratory to select the dominant colors amongst our
sampling.
In our sampled colors of both urban and natural land-
scape, we have noticed that there are no differences between
the uses of colors in the five Ksour. All sampled colors are
homogeneous and seem to be extracted from the same unit.
Since the number of the sampled Mozabite colors is very
important, we need to choose among them the most domi-
nant and representative colors. The procedure used in the lab-
oratory to select a representative palette of the dominant
colors in the five Mozabite Ksour is based on four criteria:
(1) the uppermost number of colors belonging to the same
NCS hue; (2) the uppermost number of colors belonging to
| 7
the same NCS sub-hue (We use the term “sub-hues” to refer
to the ten (10) triangular areas resulting from the reparation
of the NCS color triangle of each hue. (See Appendix A, Fig-
ure A1) This repartition has been established by Hård and
Sivik according to the attributes characteristics of the NCS
triangle. In the text, each sub-hue is denoted with its hue fol-
lowed by a numbered subscript in accordance with its area,
e.g. Y10R6, B3, B40G7. . .etc.); (3) the repetition/duplication
of colors in each of the previous elements (hue and sub-hue);
(4) the subjective estimation of the researchers.
Starting by choosing the dominant NCS hues according
to the number of colors that they contain, we have found that
our sampled colors are mainly in all the hues ranging
between Y and R compound from yellow and/or red. In addi-
tion to two other hues: B, and B40G. The dominant hues of
the natural palette (NP) are: Y10R, Y20R, Y30R, Y40R,
Y50R, Y60R, Y70R, Y80R, and Y90R, whereas the domi-
nant hues of the HSP are: Y, Y10R, Y20R, Y30R, Y40R,
Y50R, Y70R, Y80R, Y90R, R, B, and B40G. By passing to
the selection of the dominant sub-hues from the previous
selected hues, we have found 12 sub-hues resulting from the
natural landscape sampling: Y10R3, Y20R3, Y30R4, Y30R6,
Y30R8, Y40R8, Y50R8, Y60R1, Y70R2, Y70R1, Y80R0, and
Y90R5. Conversely, we have found the following 16 domi-
nant sub-hues from the human settlements sampling: Y8,
Y10R6, Y20R3, Y20R4, Y30R5, Y40R1, Y50R9, Y50R5,
Y70R5, Y70R6, Y80R4, Y80R8, Y90R1, R1, B3, and B40G7.
According to our personal estimation, one color has to be
selected from each sub-hue of both palettes, and chosen
according to its number of repetition/duplication and to its
representativeness. This, thereupon, determines the total
found number of twelve (12) colors in the NP, and sixteen
(16) colors in the HSP that are presented in Figure 4. Hence,
these 28 colors represent the most frequent, representative,
and dominant colors of the Ksourian landscape of M’zab
Valley (Figure 5).
We have designed a virtual three-dimensional (3D) NCS
color space; we have also represented there the 28 colors
of the two palettes as well. This model, recently used in
Serra et al.’s study,47 allows us to understand the different
attributes of the NCS color space which also provides a
means to distinguish/discern them from any spatial perspec-
tive (Figure 6).
If we look at the NCS color circle (which is the NCS
space, seen from above), we see the 26 colors of NP and
HSP subsisting in the hues between Y and R, composed of
yellow and/or red attributes. The high number of four colors
is found in each of Y30 and Y70, then 3 colors in Y20, Y50,
Y80, 2 other ones in each of Y10, Y40, Y90, and only one
color in the remaining hues (Y, Y60, and R). We notice that
these 26 colors are mainly earthy colors. Le Corbusier gave
major importance to the colors category of ‘earthy colors’,
which accompanied architecture right from its birth. He put
8 | GOUAICH ET AL.

FIGURE 5 The Mozabite palettes of the natural and the urban landscapes. The NP’s colors are identified from 1 to 12 and the HSP’s colors are identi-
fied from 13 to 28

them in the so-called “large gamma”, composed also from
yellow, red, ochres, white, black, ultramarine, and a few
mixed colors derived from these. He considered these cate-
gories as “eternal colors,” and could refer to them as the
“architectonic colors.” Since they have preceded every
notion of chemistry, they are very popular in the painting of
the second half of the nineteenth century, which was origi-
nally linked to architecture. This was the reason why they
could be elevated to the status of ‘architectonic colors’.48
Furthermore, he extensively used them in his palette of the

FIGURE 6 NP and HSP’s colors represented by their identifiers in the NCS circle and the NCS 3D color space
GOUAICH ET AL.
| 9

Salubra 1931,47 for the reason that: “why are there so many
earthy colors in Le Corbusier’s palette? [. . .] It is because
earthy colors emanate from the primary material found
every-where and always, because they originate from earth,
fire and mortar, which precede every concept of
chemistry.”48
Another observation is made in the NCS color circle, in
that the two colors #27 and #28 appear as cold colors creat-
ing a heterogeneous aspect with all the rest of warm HSP
colors. The nature and origins of these colors in the Mozabite
settlements will be clarified later (The blue/green colors are
found in courtyards and terraces of the Mozabite settlements,
which are considered as private spaces. Since all the five
Ksour have morphology in gradation [similar to a small
mountain], these terraces are clearly visible in the Mozabite
landscape and can be perceived when walking through the
streets. Hence, we have considered these colors as part of the
external façades that are included in the HSP palette.).
Although the two Mozabite palettes are characterized by FIGURE 7 Dimensions of the color combinatoric model of Hård
their versatility, we can perceive a lot of visual similarities and Sivik
with the NP. Hence, a scientific approach will be held to
understand the physical and physiological peculiarities of similarities”, by defining the possibility of NCS to identify
these similarities in the NCS. Our objective, now, is to ana- different kinds of color resemblances (In this article, we use
lyze and to investigate all attributes with their details in both the term relation to refer to an equal value [similarity] of one
chromatic palettes, in order to detect and identify the similar- NCS attribute present in a pair of color compound from both
ities and relations amongst them. This process requires the palettes [NP-HSP]).49
use of advanced methods and theories in the Swedish system This case study aims at analyzing and deciphering the
NCS (In the following schemes, we have identified NP’s col- similarities in the two palettes of M’zab, to evaluate the chro-
ors with blue color and HSP’s colors with the red one, to dis- matic integration of the Ksourian settlements in their natural
tinguish themes easily, especially in the NCS color triangle landscape. A thorough research, accordingly, of colors rela-
and the NCS color space). tions as a factor that can refer to the perceptual similarities or
dissimilarities in a Color Gestalt, which is considered as a
4 | COLOR RELATIONS constructed figuration of color combinations.50
The theory of color relation is conceived for the compar-
Hård and Sivik defined their color combinatoric model, of ison of colors. We use it to compare between the two
the three subfactors within the dimension of Tuning, namely extracted palettes (NP-HSP), relying on Lenclos’ geography
Area Relations, Color Relations, and Order Rhythm (More of color; the latter helps analyze the chromatic peculiarities
information to understand the combinatoric model of Hård that are found in architectural environments as well as in
and Sivik are available in: https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6378 urban landscapes in the world’s sites.51
(200102)26:1%3c4::aid-col3%3e3.0.co;2-t). They described According to the NCS descriptions, a color (F) is defined
the differences in these Tuning factors and how they can as the sum of whiteness (w), blackness (s), and chromatic-
influence the characteristic appearance of a Color Gestalt34 ness (c): F 5 s 1 w 1 c 5 100.52 NCS developers have added
(Figure 7). a color identification methodology and the claim that any
Hård and Sivik accurately describe the percept of the observer with normal color vision can assess the chromatic,
color relations factor: “again, it should be stressed that we black and white contents of any object color with a decent
refer to such similarities or dissimilarities that can be per- accuracy.
ceived solely by the human color sense and that do not
require any knowledge about physical or physiological
4.1 | Blackness and whiteness
causes of the percepts. All possible similarities and dissimi-
larities can be identified and illustrated by symbols in the The black color, an important design element in contempo-
geometric NCS models of the Color Space, the Color Circle, rary architectural agenda,53 is defined as a hueless, an achro-
and the Color Triangle.”34 They have also named it “color matic color with “minimum lightness,” that is “maximum
10 | GOUAICH
FIGURE 8 Blackness and Whiteness percentages of NP and HSP
palettes
darkness.54 Whereas the NCS blackness is described as the
resemblance of the color to the absolute black and the NCS
whiteness as the resemblance to the absolute white.55 The
percept of whiteness is produced by a combination of high
lightness and lack of yellowness.56 It is an important attribute
of a visual sensation according to which a given stimulus
appears to be void of any hue and grayness.57
Theoretically speaking; colors of both palettes NP and
HSP have low blackness and whiteness percentage, i.e., the
average percentage is 34% in NP and 37% in HSP for black-
ness; and 30% in both NP and HSP for whiteness. In the NP,
the three-quarters of it (75%) are less than or equal to 40% of
blackness and of whiteness. The blackness percentage is
between 5% and 70%, whereas the whiteness percentage is
placed between 5% and 75%. Typically, the interval involv-
ing the larger number of color is from 20 to 40% (7 colors in
blackness and 6 colors in whiteness). For the HSP, we have
69% of colors with S  40% (11 colors); and 81% with
w  40% (13 colors). Blackness values are ranging between
5% and 80%; when the whiteness values are ranging between
5% and 75% (Figure 8).
Concerning the relation between blackness and white-
ness, Hård and Sivik have set up constant ratio named; NCS
Beta (b) defined by the following formula [b 5 s/(s 1 w)].
We mention in Figure 8 the b ratio for both palettes’ colors.
There are 15 dark colors having (b > 0,5), involving 6 colors
from NP and 9 from HSP, in addition to 12 light colors of
(b < 0,5) taking 6 colors from each palette. The color #19 is
the only gray color equally blackish and whitish (s 5 w),
having (b 5 0,5). Many colors from NP and HSP have con-
stant (b) values creating beta relations that will be clarified
later.
ET AL.
We have represented in Figure 9 blackness relations of
NP and HSP in the NCS color triangle (A:a), and in the
NCS color space (A:a-e). We have found 20 relations in 5
classes of similarities: 5%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%; all of
which are represented by a virtual line parallel to the C-W
axis. The large number of relations is found in 30% and 40%
with 6 relations in each one, followed by 5 relations in 20%.
As for the remaining relations; 2 relations in 5% and one in
50% have been noted.
On another angle, we have found 23 relations in white-
ness identity, divided into 7 categories: 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%,
40%, 60%, and 75%, all of which are represented in the NCS
color triangle (B:a) as well as in the NCS 3D color space (B:
a-g) by a virtual line parallel to the C-S axis. 9 relations are
found in 20% and 6 ones in 10%, the remaining relations are
distributed between 5%, 30%, 40% (2 relations), and 60%,
75% (1 relation).
It is interesting to observe in the NCS color triangle two
groups of super-imposed colors (same s-w values), they are
called: similarities in nuance, referring to colors of different
hues but with a similar percentage of whiteness, blackness,
and chromaticness, a combination that Hård and Sivik named
them corresponding colors,34 they are represented in our
NCS 3D color space with a virtual circle, regrouping the col-
ors in question paralleled to the NCS circle. We have found
3 groups of similarities in nuance: [#4, #6, and #13] resulting
from s 5 40% and w 5 20%; [#2, #27] resulting from
s 5 20% and w 5 30%, and [#12, #20] emanating from
s 5 50% and w 5 10% (Figure 9).
In general, the NP and HSP palettes are similar in several
aspects, namely; the number of relations, the percentage
average/degree, attributes values, s-w ratio, and the classes of
similarities. Other attributes analyzes are still needed for the
investigation of other similarities between the two palettes.
4.2 | Chromaticness
The NCS chromaticness (c) is defined in terms of the two (or
only one) chromatic elementary attributes that could possibly
exist in one color perception.52 Chromaticness in the NCS
color triangle is “the resemblance (in percent) to the maximal
color, by which is meant the color with the given hue which
is devoid of whiteness and devoid of blackness. It corre-
sponds to the dimensional direction of Munsell’s Chroma.58
In the NCS color triangle this maximal color is represented
by the corner point C.”58 Chromaticness, accordingly, is (a)
the general compound expression for the sum of the chro-
matic elementary attributes59: [c 5 (y or b) 1 (r or g)].
According to this analysis, the two Mozabite palettes are,
more often than not, characterized by low chromaticness,
i.e., there are no notable differences in the degree of chroma-
ticness between the two palettes with an average of 36% for
the NP, and 33% for the HSP. We observe that The NCS
GOUAICH ET AL.
FIGURE 9 Blackness and Whiteness identities in the NCS triangle and the NCS color space
chromaticness does range from 10% up to 70% in the NP,
and from 5% to 65% in the HSP, part of the 67% from the
NP along with the 69% from HSP colors are less than, or
equal to 40% (Figure 10).
In Figure 11, a totality of 28 relations of chromaticness
identity is identified in 5 classes of similarities in the NCS
Triangle (a) as well as in the NCS color space (a-f). The
highest number of relations found in the 10% and 40% is 9
for each class; four relations are in the 50%, three in the
20%, two in the 60%, and one in the 30%. In the virtual
three-dimensional color space NCS and in the NCS color trian-
gle, we represent colors with the same percentage of chroma-
ticness (c-constant) in the five classes by a line parallel to the
S-W axis, crossing the virtual circles of each color (Figure 11).
Since the two palettes belong to the hues; between the Y
and R, their chromaticness attributes are composed of yellow
| 11
and red, except for the #27 and #28 that are only made of
blue and/or green. Hence, we have represented, in Figure 12,
both percentages of redness (r) and yellowness (y) to analyze
and compare their quantities. It has been noticed that the
NCS redness ranges from 3% to 36% in the NP, and from
2% to 48% in the HSP. We observe the existence of one red
color #26, one yellow color #13, 10 reddish yellow colors
(y > r), 11 yellowish red colors (y < r), in addition to 3 other
colors equal in yellowness and redness (y 5 r): [#7, #19, and
#20]. The yellowness percentage average is of 21% in the
NP and 17.39% in the HSP, as for redness, one is with
14.83% in the NP and 14% in the HSP.
Using a preciseness of 63%, 20 relations have been
taken in the NCS yellowness and 38 in the NCS redness.
The latter is estimated as the highest amount of similarities
in this study. Basically, there are no significant differences of
12 | GOUAICH
FIGURE 10 NCS Chromaticness’ percentages of NP and HSP
palettes
redness and yellowness percentage between the NP and the
HSP palettes. Concerning the NP, the NCS yellowness per-
centages does extend from 3% to 63% with an average of
21%; in addition to the NCS redness that ranges from 3% to
36% with an average of 14.83%. While in the HSP, the val-
ues of NCS redness and yellowness vary from 0.5% to 48%
with an average of 17.39% for yellowness, and from 2% to
48% with an average of 14% for redness. In Table B1
(Appendix B), we mention all NCS yellowness and redness
percentages as well as their color descriptions.
As it was mentioned above, the colors #27 and #28 are
heterogeneous/in synergy with the other Mozabite colors;
acknowledging that they do not exist in any sample of the
natural landscape survey. We found that the Mozabite inhab-
itants use these colors generally in their terraces, patios, and
FIGURE 11 Chromaticness identity in the NCS triangle and the NCS color space
ET AL.
roofs. Furthermore, the green outlines are used in several
entrances of mosques and mausoleums as well (Figure 13).
These blue and green tones create a cold/warm contrast in
the Mozabite landscape, due to the warmth of the earthy
color façades, and to the relative coolness of the blue/green
colors of the terraces. Itten60 discussed this type of contrast
using other contrary terms as “airy/earthy”, which produce in
landscape more distant objects always seem colder in color
because of the intervening depth of air; as it can produce also
spatial perspective effects as nearness and distance in the
phenomenon known as “aerial perspective”, because of dust
and moisture in the atmosphere, distant parts of the landscape
appear progressively bluer in color until they merge into the
sky.11
Regarding the nature and origin of these blue/green color
in the Mozabite landscape, Lenclos has interpreted the pres-
ence of green colors in the Mozabite settlements as a reli-
gious symbol that represents peace and tolerance; “in many
religions, green symbolizes the first stage of spiritual regen-
eration and the color of the resurrection. In Islam, the green
induces the garden of delights, which Eden promised to
believers, the color of the Prophet. In Ghardaia, as elsewhere
in the M’zab, houses painted with green or turquoise tones
indicate that people have made the pilgrimage to Mecca.”2
The American colorist; Leatrice Eiseman, corroborates Len-
clos’s interpretation of the use of green in Islamic civiliza-
tions; “for the Muslims, green is associated with World
Mother; and only the holiest - those who are descendants of
the Prophet Mohammed and have made a pilgrimage to
Mecca - are allowed to wear a green turban. This relates to
the dark green gardens of the eternal abode filial with fruit
trees and fountains that the Koran promises the devout. Life
eternal is predicted as harmonious, and everywhere is the
color green.”61 In addition to these notes, Eiseman adds that:
“in the desert, green clearly marks the space between life and
death. For that reason, it became Mohammed’s special hue.
It is one of the sacred colors of Islam, present in the flags of
GOUAICH ET AL.
| 13

mosquitoes and insects. They use the indigo dye (known as

Nila) to obtain these tones of both blues and greens. It is one
of the oldest organic compound with a distinctive blue color,
its chemical formula is [C16H10N2O2]; extracted from the plant
Indigofera Tinctoria.62 In Algeria, we find Isatis Tinctoria;
commonly known as “Woad”, it contains as little as 1/30 the
amount of indigo in its coloring matter.62,63 We consider this
use of this material in the Mozabite coloration as an adaptation
to the environment, such a convenience-accommodating prac-
tice exists since centuries ago to fight against the hot Saharan
climate of the region. This adaptation to the environment is
represented in the fact that the choice of blue/green color care
believed to repel insects resulting from the environmental con-
ditions of the region, without using any chemical products.

4.3 | Recapitulation of relations

FIGURE 12 NCS yellowness and NCS redness’ percentages of NP
and HSP palettes
nearly every Muslim country, including Iran, Iraq, Pakistan,
the Sudan, and Jordan.”61
Some of the Mozabite citizens have confirmed to us the
existence of this tradition of pilgrimage in their culture. They
justified the use of the blue in the dwellings’ terraces to repel
In Figure 14, the 28 colors of both palettes are represented per-
pendicularly to demonstrate all possible relations in each com-
bination (pair of colors). We have represented five NCS
attributes of equal resemblance to one elementary color called;
the nominal identities that go for blackness (s), whiteness (w),
chromaticness (c), yellowness (y), and redness (r). On the
same ground, we have studied another type of color relations
named; relation identities through the following attributes: hue

FIGURE 13 The use of blue and green in the Mozabite terraces, Ksar of Beni Isguen. Photo Courtesy George Steinmetz/ASA
14 | GOUAICH ET AL.

FIGURE 14 Recapitulation of relations for each NP-HSP combination. The number inside the circle is the total of relations of the pair in question,
and the symbols which surround it are the attributes of the relations

(u), saturation (m), delta identity (d), and beta identity (b) (We Hård and Sivik have conceived the NCS-saturation as the
have assumed a preciseness of 63 in the identification of rela- ratio that exists between chromaticness (c) and whiteness
tions in saturation identity, delta identity and beta identity). (w), as described in the following formulas: [m 5 c/(c 1 w)]
GOUAICH ET AL.
or [m 5 c/(100 – s)].34,59 Many scientists have proven the
importance of saturation in a way that clearly differs from
chromaticness; Kuehni considers chromaticness as an abso-
lute value of the chromatic content of a color regardless of
its brightness, while saturation is a measure of the chromatic
content of colors with the same brightness.54 Nevertheless,
Fridell Anter et al.64 consider this relation as being ambigu-
ous, suggesting its reconsideration and elimination from the
NCS’s set of parameters.
The Saturation’s relations are classified into 6 classes:
0.15, 0.23, 0.33, 0.65, 0.74, and 0.90. A sum of 18 rela-
tions is identified in the NCS color triangle and the NCS
color space by a virtual line, starting from the corner
point; S connected to W-C axis. Hård and Sivik have also
developed the “NCS Delta” and “NCS Beta” as important
constant relationships in the NCS, though they have not
been studied or even named in any color theory.34 Delta
identity (d) goes for the constant relation between chroma-
ticness and blackness [d 5 c/(c 1 s)], while Beta identity
(b) is ascribed to the constant relation between blackness
and whiteness [b 5 s/(s 1 w)]. 22 relations are found
trough 6 classes of similarities in the NCS delta, whereas
16 ones are found in the NCS beta through 6 classes of
similarities. Similarities in the NCS delta are represented
by a virtual line starting from the corner point W connected
to the S-C axis, while in the NCS beta, the virtual line
starts from the corner C joined with the S-W axis (Graphi-
cal representations of relations identities’ similarities in the
NCS triangle and the NCS 3D color space are available
within the supporting information in the online version of
this article).
As a recapitulation of the NP-HSP color comparison, we
have found 201 relations identified through 9 NCS attrib-
utes. We have also noticed the existence of 4 categories of
relations as clarified below per their numbers: (1) 4 Hexadic
relations; comprising 6 relations per combination (s, w, c, m,
d, b); all of which result from similarities in nuance found
in: [#4, #13], [#6, #13], [#12, #20], and [#2, #27], (2) 4
Tetradic relations; comprising 4 relations of two types: (c,
m,r,y) and (u,c,r,y) located in: [#8, #18], [#10, #18], [#10,
#21], and [#10, #22], (3) A totality of 9 Triadic relations;
comprising 3 relations that are found in: [#5, #14], [#1, #2,
#15], [#2, #16], [#5, #18], [#8, #9, #21], [#8, #22], and [#12,
#22], the latter being classified into 7 categories: (c, r, y), (w,
b, y), (w, b, r), (u, m, y), (u, m, r), (u, d, r), and (s, d, b),
(4) 24 Dyadic relations; comprising 2 relations, and 86
Monadic relations encompassing one relation.
5 | CONCLUSION
As a concluding phase to this newly researched study which
addresses the chromatic character of the Ksourian landscape
| 15
of M’zab Valley in Algeria, relying on a novelistic method
in the commandment of the development and evaluation of
the chromatic integration of the architectural settlements in
the vernacular landscape of M’zab. Using the NCS combina-
toric model developed by Anders Hård and Lars Sivik, the
theory of color relations has been applied to compare
between the natural palette (NP) and the HSP to detect the
possible similarities and relations between the natural and
the urban landscape.
Two hundred and one relations have been taken out
from 28 colors of 192 NP-HSP combinations, starting from
the nominal identities with 20 relations in blackness, 23 in
whiteness, 28 in chromaticness, 20 in yellowness, and 38 in
redness. On another spectrum, there have been other findings
from the same relation identities; 16 ones in hue, 18 in satu-
ration, 22 in delta identity, and 16 in beta identity. We could,
therefore, deduce that the chromatic character of the urban
and the natural landscape of M’zab are very similar; asserting
the strong adaptability of the vernacular settlements to the
natural environment. This adaptation is due to the use of
local materials available in the regions, the reflection of local
traditions, as well as the protection of the architectural iden-
tity of M’zab by the Algerian authorities.
These results emphasize the important factors of color
and polychromy as being a constituent of the heritage values
of the Mozabite Ksourian landscape, such a synthesis which
led us to develop a new research concept, for the first time in
the field of color, entitled: Ksourian polychromy. The
research’s aim was to study both of the architectural and
urban polychromy in the Landscape of the North African
Ksour, involving a multidisciplinary research that includes
the environmental, cultural, architectural, urban, and histori-
cal contexts that revolves around the existence of the Ksour.
The Ksourian landscape of M’zab comes with a whole
cultural, historical and architectural heritage with its own
uniqueness. Its selection as a case study for our research has
opened many rich and original perspectives since the chro-
matic peculiarities of the M’zab are very distinctive/appeal-
ing. They constitute a historical and sociological interest that
is inseparable from the architectural and cultural heritage.
The vernacular Mozabite architecture is characterized by its
original chromatic identity that is adapted to the natural envi-
ronment due to the chromatic properties of ancestral building
materials as well as to the Mozabite culture and traditions.
The concept of the chromatic integration is an essential
factor in the visible features of the Mozabite landscape. It
can be used in future research studies involved with the
preservation of the chromatic character of M’zab or other
heritage sites. This preservation requires a permanent man-
agement of the buildings and a strategy of conversations well
adapted to the chromatic character of the Mozabite architec-
tural heritage. This chromatic character is a heritage value
that has to be applied to urban restoration processes.65
16 | GOUAICH
The Mozabite palettes NP and HSP help provide a great
possibility of combinations that can be used for the design of
a charter, the implementation of coloring projects, the crea-
tion and production of decorative materials, and the renova-
tion as well as the restoration of heritage in M’zab. Thus,
analyzes and results presented in this article are objective
observations of the real chromatic states of the Ksourian
landscape that could be used in future academic and profes-
sional works for the restoration of the M’zab heritage. This
restoration has to be done by both of the Mozabite inhabi-
tants and the public administrations, by the realization of the
chromatic map of the Ksour, the creation of special industrial
color charts for the region, and the planning of restoration
program special for the Mozabite façades. The local author-
ities can also commercialize industrial products that have to
be based on local Mozabite colors, and can initiate awareness
programs for the protection of local color, which is part of
the cultural heritage of M’zab.
In M’zab Valley, the pure white color is an important
component in some neighborhoods, a color that comes from
the use of Lime material (calcium oxide, CaO) or (calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), which helps reflect the warmth of the
sun. It has also a social and spiritual symbolism for the
Mozabite dwellers. It is mainly used in the interior of mos-
ques and houses and yet, we can find it in some exterior
façades. Due to practical constraints, it is beyond the scope
of this article to analyze the white color in M’zab. Another
study is being established within our research group to inves-
tigate the context of the white color.
In several fields of color, NCS is fast becoming a rele-
vant key instrument in academic and professional studies
owing to its largest dataset available for its three attributes:
whiteness, blackness, and chromaticness.66 Moreover, this
research has shed light on other new NCS attributes; NCS
saturation, NCS delta, and NCS beta. It provides an impor-
tant opportunity to do more research on the use of these char-
acteristics through the NCS color triangle and the NCS color
space.
The next stage of our research is focused on the explora-
tion of the characteristics of building materials in M’zab,
along with the physical/chemical analyzes and the determina-
tion of their components using the dispersive energy X-ray
analysis (EDXA). This phase will help understand the char-
acterization of the different pictorial layers of building mate-
rials and mortars in the Mozabite Ksour.
A CK N OW LED G M EN TS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous financial
support received from the University of Mostaganem that
provided internships in Istanbul and Valencia. Similar grat-
itude goes to the assistance of LCTPE Research
ET AL.
Laboratory, the Office of Protection and Promotion of the
M’zab Valley, and the Instituto de Restauraci
on del
Patrimonio.
O RC ID
Yacine Gouaich http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7214-1257
Banu Manav http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0709-5570
Juan Serra http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6171-1285
RE FER EN CE S
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A UT HO R B IO G RA PH I ES
YACINE GOUAICH is a state architect and a lecturer in the
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University
of Mostaganem (UMAB), Algeria. His Ph.D. thesis was dedi-
cated to the investigation of the urban polychromy in historic
centers in Algeria. Currently, he is the head of the academic
program “Architecture and Heritage” in UMAB, and a mem-
ber of the color research group in LCTPE laboratory.
ABDELKADER MEBROUKI has been teaching at the University
of Mostaganem (UMAB) since 1994. He has obtained the
rank of “Full Professor” in the 37th session of the National
University Commission of the Ministry of Higher Education
and Scientific Research and has held several senior positions.
His research interests focus on the local building materials,
and he is being the head of color research group in LCTPE
laboratory (UMAB).
RACHA GHARIRI was educated as a colorist architect at the
University of Bechar, Algeria. She has been teaching as an
assistant professor in the Department of Civil Engineering
and Architecture at the University of Mostaganem (UMAB)
since 2010. Now, she is developing many academic studies
on the chromatic identity of the Algeria Saharan Ksour within
the color research group of LCTPE laboratory.
ABDELKHALIQ MEBARKI graduated as an architect in 2005
from the University of Sciences and Technology of Oran
(USTOMB). He occupies the position of a qualified architect
of monuments and historic sites at the Algerian Ministry of
Culture since 2012. He is an assistant professor at the Univer-
sity of Sciences and Technology of Oran and a member of its
Scientific Council.
ET AL.
AKILA BELABBAS is a specialized architect in the restoration of
heritage and historical monuments. She graduated from the
University of Sciences and Technology of Oran (USTOMB)
before working there as an assistant professor. Her current
research interests focus on the architectural and the Islamic
heritage in Algeria.
BANU MANAV was educated as an Interior Architect, with an
MFA degree in interior design, and a Ph.D. degree in archi-
tecture/building science. Her research areas include artificial
lighting system design, space perception, light and color,
light-health, lighting quality, and user comfort –design param-
eters. Now she is the Dean of Faculty of Art, Design, and
Architecture in Istanbul Ayvansaray University, Turkey.
JUAN SERRA received a Ph.D. in architecture with European
mention (2010) and special award (2012) from the Polytech-
nic University of Valencia (UPV). He has been teaching in
the Department of Architectural Graphic Expression in the
UPV since 2006. His research interests include color in the
composition of modern and contemporary architecture.
Nowadays, he is head of a research project to reach the visual
integration of architectures with visual impact on the
landscape.
JORGE LLOPIS, Doctor architect (UPV, 1997), has been a Uni-
versity Professor in the Upper Technical School of Architec-
ture of Valencia since 1990. He has been Head of
Department of Architectural Graphic Expression since 2003.
He is also the head of a national research project to recover
the cultural values linked to leprosy assistance architectures.
ANA TORRES received a Doctor in Fine Art from UPV in
2002 and has been a University Professor in the Upper Tech-
nical School of Architecture of Valencia since 1990 and the
Upper Technical School of Industrial Design since 1997. Her
current research interests are “the analysis of physical,
mechanical, and chromatic aspect s of the continuous archi-
tectural coatings”, as well as the study of “color for interior
architecture”.
SUP PO RT IN G I N FO RM A TI O N
Additional Supporting Information may be found online in
the supporting information tab for this article.
How to cite this article: Gouaich Y, Mebrouki A,
Ghariri R, et al. A novel method for assessing the chro-
matic integration of architecture in the Ksourian land-
scape of M’zab Valley, Algeria. Color Res Appl.
2018;00:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/col.22225
GOUAICH ET AL.
| 19

A PPE ND I X A TA B L E B1 (Continued)

Color
Id. NCS Notation Attribute values Description

06 S 4040-Y40R y 5 24% r 5 16%

14 S 6020-Y10R y 5 18% r 5 02%

15 S 0560-Y20R y 5 48% r 5 12%

16 S 3065-Y20R y 5 52% r 5 13%

17 S 6030-Y30R y 5 21% r 5 09%

18 S 2010-Y40R y 5 06% r 5 04%

08 S 3010-Y60R y 5 04% r 5 06% Yellowish red

y<r

09 S 0520-Y70R y 5 06% r 5 14%

10 S 4010-Y70R y 5 03% r 5 07%

11 S 3030-Y80R y 5 06% r 5 24%

12 S 5040-Y90R y 5 04% r 5 36%

F I G U R E A 1 The division of the NCS triangle into 10 areas that we 21 S 6010-Y70R y 5 03% r 5 07%
have named “sub-hues”
22 S 8010-Y70R y 5 03% r 5 07%
A PPE ND I X B 23 S 3050-Y80R y 5 10% r 5 40%

24 S 3560-Y80R y 5 12% r 5 48%

T A BL E B 1 NCS Yellowness and NCS redness percentages of NP
25 S 2005-Y90R y 5 0,5% r 5 4,5%
and HSP colors
07 S 4550-Y50R y 5 25% r 5 25% Yellow/Red
Color y5r
Id. NCS Notation Attribute values Description
19 S 4020-Y50R y 5 10% r 5 10%
01 S 0570-Y10R y 5 63% r 5 07% Reddish Yellow
20 S 5040-Y50R y 5 20% r 5 20%
y>r
26 S 2020-R r 5 20% - Red
02 S 2050-Y20R y 5 40% r 5 10%
27 S 2050-B b 5 50% - Blue
03 S 3060-Y30R y 5 42% r 5 18%
13 S 4040-Y y 5 40% - Yellow
04 S 4040-Y30R y 5 28% r 5 12%
28 S 2040-B40G b 5 24% g 5 16% Greenish blue
05 S 7010-Y30R y 5 07% r 5 03%
(Continues)