UNIT - 3

MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY
 Phase-angle Error: Lag Adjustment: Copper Shading Bands

• As the bands are moved downwards, mmf produced by the bands is reduced. This changes
the phase angle difference between φp and φpt , as can be observed from the phasor
diagram of Figure 8.9. Thus, careful adjustments of the copper shading bands position can
make the phase difference between the supply voltage V and resultant shunt magnet flux φp
to be exactly 90°
 Error due to Friction at Light Loads
• Friction in bearings can pose serious errors in measurement of energy in the form of
that it will impede proper movement of the rotating disc. This problem is particularly
objectionable at low loads, when the driving torque itself is very low; therefore,
unwanted friction torque can even stop the disc from rotating. To avoid this, it is
necessary to provide an additional torque that is essentially independent of the load,
to be applied in the direction of the driving torque, i.e., opposite to the frictional torque
to compensate for the frictional retarding torque. This is achieved by means of a
small vane or shading loop placed in the air gap between the central limb of the shunt
magnet and the aluminum disc, and slightly off-centre from the central limb,
• Interactions between fluxes which are linked and not linked by the shading or
compensating vane and the currents they induce in the disc result in a small driving
torque that can compensate for the frictional retarding torque. The value of this small
additional torque can be adjusted by lateral movement of the vane in and out of its
position in the air gap
Creeping Error
Error due to Change in Temperature
Error due to Overload
Error due to Voltage Variations
Polyphase Energy Meters
Three phase energy meters
TESTING OF ENERGY METERS
Phantom Loading
Electrodynamometer Power factor meter
Moving Iron Power factor meters