9.

1 Electromechanical relays
9.1.1 Operating principle of Electromechanical Relays
Electromechanical relays work on the priniciple of mechanical force generated due
to the current flow in a coil wound on a magnetic core. This force results in the
operation of a contac arrange-ment which is used for relays the operated condition
to the desired circuit in order to achieve the requied funcion, Since the mechanical
force in generated due to an electric current flow, the term ‘electromechanical
relay’ is used.
As mentioned above, the mechanical movement of the operation mechanism is
imparted to a contact assembly to open or to close the contacts. When we say that
the relay operates, we mean that it change the state of its contacts, i.e.from Open to
Close to Open. A majority of the relays are provied with a ‘control spring’ or are
re-strained by gravity, so that they assume a given position when in a de-energised
state. The contactwhich are cloded in this condition are termed as ‘normally close’
and the ones which are open are termed as ‘normally open’.
Electromechanical relays operate bassically on any one of the two fundamentally
different operating principles, viz. electromagnetic attraction, and electromagnetic
induction.
The first variety of relays, i.e electromagnetic attraction type relays operate as a
result of a plunger being drawn into an electromagnet (solenoid), or an armature
being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet. The electromagnetic induction
relays operate in the induction in a rotor. This operating principle, however, applies
only to relays actuated by alternating current.
Following are the different type of electromechanical relays:
1. Attracted armature relays
2. Moving coil relays
3. Induction relays
4. Thermal relays
5. Motor operated relays
6. Mechanical relays
The above relays are discussed in detail below
9.1.2 Attracted Armature Relays
These relays comprise an iron-cored electromagnet which attracts a movable
armature that is hinged, pivoted or otherwise supported so as to achieve motion in
the magnetic field. The motion is controlled by an opposing force generally due to
gravity or a spring.
As the armature movement starts, the air gap reduces and the flux density rises.
This is inevitable since it is only by moving into the strongest field that the
armature is enabled to do any work. As the flux density increases. the magnetic
pull increases rapidly, so that in order to re-set the relay after an operation, the
current must be reduced by an appreciable amount. The ratio of re-setting to
operating current level is known as the ’returning ratio’ or ’drop-off to pick-up
ratio’.
The effect of a ratio below unity is to give the device a snap action which is, in
general, beneficial as it facilitates positive action arid good contact operation.
However, a low re-setting value may riot always be acceptable. By preventing the
armature from closing the magnetic circuit completely, the effect can be reduced. It
can be further offset by spring control. This is illustrated in Fig. 9.1. The variation
of magnetic pull on the armature with armature position is shown by curve A. As
the armature operates, the restraining spring is compressed and the restor- ing foroe
increases, as shown by the straight line B. The unbalance operating foroe in the
closed position is therefore AB; if a constant restraining force had been applied,
corresponding to the horizontal line, the unbalanced quantity would have been AC.
In order to permit the relay to re-set. the current must be reduoed below I2
equivalent to point B in the case of the spring-controlled relay in I3 in the case of
gravity control. The latter has a lower re-setting value, other conditions being
equal. It is clear that in case the slope of curve B is increased, i.e. if the spring rate
is increased, the re-setting value of the relay will be raised. This will mean a
reduction of the output force AB and reduced contact pressure. In fact. by using a
sufficiently strong spring. the relay can be given a proportional movement instead
of a snap action, but will then have a correspondingly low contact making capacity.
Typical relays may have a drop-out value of 25 per cent of the pick-up value or
alternatively 90 per cent or even higher for special designs. in the former case, the
relay will have high speed snap action and will be capable of doing a considerable
amount of work in closing contacts, whereas the later relay with a high drop-off
value will tend to be relatively slow at current values marginally above setting and
may have a reduced contact rating.
9.1.2.1 AC relays
Owing to the inherent characteristics of ac quantities of passing through zero at
every half cycle, the relays energised by ac flux tend to vibrate, as at zero points
the armature gets released slightly from the magnetic pole. Certain design
modifications have been worked out to overcome this effect. The provision of
shaded loop is one solution. For this, the magnet is split into two sections and one
section is surrounded by a low resistance copper band. The eddy currents induced
in this loop cause a phase delay in the flux passing through the loop as compared
with that in the other half of the pole. With this arrangement, the flux does not
come to zero on the entire face of the magnet pole at any instant and a hold on
force is always available.
Another method of arresting the vibrations is to use a rectified ac. This method is
adopted where a shaded pole has not been provided. In this case. the coil
inductance maintains the current during the zero points of the ac cycle.
Fast relay operations are achieved by reducing the armature weight and the total
contact travel. For example, reed relays. described in Section 9.1.2-3, can operate
in one milli-second.
9.1.2.2 Solenoid Relays
The operating principle in these relays is similar to the attracted armature relays
except that the coil in which the plunger is attracted. is longer. Steel plates are
provided outside the coil for completing the magnetic circuit. A longer stroke is
achieved in this design. This design is adopted where a large amount of work has
to be done.
9. 1.2.3 Reed Relays
These are low inertia attracted armature relays designed to achieve low operating
times. gener- ally of the order of one milli-second. The design uses stiff steel
fingers which are mounted such that their tips overlap and are normally separated
by a small gap. When a magnetic field is applied, the two fingers are attracted to
each other. The fingers are fitted with suitable contact making materials so as to be
capable of closing a circuit.
9.1.3 Moving Coil Relays
The main types of relays in this category are discussed below.
9.1.3.1. Moving Coil Permanent Magnet Relays (Rotary Type)
In this design, a permanent magnet is used to achieve a radial field in which a light
weight pivoted coil is suspended. The coil is free to rotate at an angle (known as
operating angle) which can vary depending upon the requirement. The restoring
force is achieved through a restoring spring.
The magnetic field is usually arranged to be uniform over the operating arc, so
with a given current the operating torque will be constant and independent of the
coil position. It is therefore possible in a long travel relay to provide a calibrated
scale by giving a range of setting adjust- ment. Alternatively, the movement of the
relay coil may be limited to a small arc. but adjustment may be provided for the
initial wind-up of the spring so that a similar range of setting values is possible.
The coil can be wound without former or on an insulating former. Usually,
however the coil is wound on an aluminium or copper former which acts as a
short-circuited winding and thus provides a dynamic drag in opposition to the
motion of the coil, because of the induced currents which are produoed by such a
motion. This provides an efficient damping system which can effectively prevent
over-swinging and, if made sufficiently strong, can provide a useful time delay.
As an alternative or supplement to the above action further damping can be
obtained by providing a low resistance shunt path to the moving coil, whereby the
back E.M.F. in the later can cause a circulation of current in the local circuit of coil
and shunt. thereby producing a damping force.
9.1.3.2 Dynamometer Type Relays
This type of relay is generally similar to the rotary type moving coil relay but has
an energised field which may be either iron-cored to provide a radial field as with
the permanent magnet types, or may be entirely air-cored. While the permanent
magnet type designs are essentially dc energised relays, which can only be applied
to ac schemes by the use of rectifiers, the dynamo- meter pattern is a universal dc
or ac relay. It is, however, much less sensitive, owing to the need to provide the
field system flux electrically, and is therefore used only in special applications.
9.1.4 Induction Relays
The basic principle of induction motors is applied to relays designed to operate or
the induction principle. The moving conductor is placed in the two magnetic fields.
displaced both in fime and phase, and produces the required torque. The two fields
are derived from a single quantity by energising two electromagnets with the
required phase shift. Another arrangement can be that of energising two magnets
by separate sources. In both the cases. the torque generated is given by:
T=K*phi1*phi2*sin(anpha)
Where T=torque
Phi1,phi2= flux produced in the two electromagnets
And anpha= angle between phi1 and phi2
9.1.4.1 Single Quantity Relays
In this arrangement, a C-shaped electromagnet is used. This design is generally
applied to over- current and over-voltage relays. The current generates a flux
across the air gap which passes through an aluminium disc placed in the air gap.
The pole faces of the electromagnet are not solid but are divided into auxiliary
poles. One of these poles is surroimded by a solid copper loop. The induced
current circulating in this loop causes a phase displacement between the flux
emerging from the shaded pole and that in an adjacent pole. The effect is to
produce a laterally moving field which, while cutting across the relay disc,
produces a dragging force on the latter because of the currents induced in the disc.
The driving torque is theoretically proportional to the square of the current value
over the linear range of the electromagnet, but becomes modified from this simple
relation at high current values owing to saturation of the magnetic circuit.
The restraining force is achieved by a spiral spring. the force of which must be
overcome by the driving torque before any operation can begin; this determines the
setting or minimum operating current of the relay. The disc is further controlled by
a permanent magnet which produces an eddy current braking torque, this torque
being proportional to the speed at which the disc rotates.
The following equation represents the relay response: (considering disc inertia to
be negligible)
2 K2 d
K 1 I =S+
t
Where S= spring torque
d = distance moved
t = time
K1, K2 = constants
Also:
K1I02 = S
Where I0 = setting current. Hence:
2 2 K2 d
K 1 ( I −I 0 ) =
t

That is
Kd
t=
I −I 20
2

The spring torque S makes the characteristics asymptotic to the setting value in
place of zero. For current eening adjustment, the taps provided on the operating
coil are used.
The relay is normally provided with various setting ranges for adjustment and the
setting is done by inserting a single pin plug in the appropriate position on a ‘plug
selection board’ pro- vided on the relay. It is possible to achieve much wider
setting ranges but that is not recom- mended due to the fact that it results in poor
coil utilisation corresponding to the higher current taps. For example, for a 10 to 1
range, only one-tenth of the coil turns would be in circuit for the highest setting
and the coil rating as a multiple of the setting would be low for this tap. This is
significant in case of earth fault relays for which high multiples of the setting
current may be relevant for all settings.
Tapping the coil adversely affects its accuracy. Although the relay operates with a
given value of coil ampere-turns, in practice all turns are not equally elective. In
addition to the useful flux, leakage flux is produced in the electromagnet which
alters the flux density and hence the satura- tion level in part of the magnet iron
circuit. This effect varies with the position of the active winding with the result that
the curve shape is also affected.
Characteristic time/Current Curues
The majority of over-current relays follow standard characteristic as per in BS 142
(shown in Fig. 9.2 curve A). Other characteristics are also passible and have
certain advantages in application. In particular, steeper curves which have been
designated as ’very inverse’ and ’extremely inverse’

9.1.4.2 Double euantity Relays

In this type of induction relays, two separate input quantities are utilised to produce
interacting fluxes.The electromagnet system may be disc type or cup type.
The upper portion of the electromagnet of the disc type element is of a low power
factor. When these circuits are energised by a voltage, the resulting flux lags the
applied voltage by a large angle. This angle can be effectively made 90° by
compensation arrangements and in this condi- tion, the torque developed is
proportional to the power.

9.1.5 Thermal Relays

The design of these relays is based on thermal effects. One of the most commonly
used properties is the expanding property of metals when these are heated. The
sensing arrangement consists of two layers of different metals (known as bi-metal)
welded together. The bi-metal strip bends when heated as the expansion of the two
metals is different. These bi-metal relays are mainly used for thermal overload
protection. The operating time depends upon the type of thermo- sensitive element
used.

9.1.6 Motor Operated Relays

A fractional horse power electric motor is employed in this design which drives a
contact making arrangement through suitable gearing arrangement. These relays
may be used to provide time delays and for performing an operational sequence.
9.1.7 Mechanical Relays
Relays which are designed to respond to gas pressure, liquid flow, liquid level, etc.
are classified as mechanical relays. The most popular and widely used relay in this
category is the Buchholz relay, which is used to protect oil-immersed transformers
when the pressure exceeds a permis- sible limit. This relay consists of either one or
two floats contained in a closed housing, which is located in the pipe running from
the transformer tank to the conservator. Any fault in the trans- former results in
decomposition of oil which, in turn, results in gas generation. This gas passes up
the pipe towards the conservator and is trapped in the relay. In case of a heavy
fault, a bulk decomposition of the oil takes place. In a two-float relay, one float is
meant for sensing the slow accumulation of gas due to mild or incipient faults
while the other float gets deflected by the oil surge caused by a major fault. The
floats control the contacts to raise an alarm in the first case, and in the second case,
isolate the transformer by tripping the associated circuit breaking device.