Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127 – 150

www.elsevier.com/locate/jpetscieng

Analytical, numerical and experimental investigations of transverse

fracture propagation from horizontal wells
M.M. Rahman, M.M. Hossain, D.G. Crosby, M.K. Rahman *, S.S. Rahman
School of Petroleum Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
Received 16 July 2001; accepted 14 March 2002

Abstract

This paper presents results of a comprehensive study involving analytical, numerical and experimental investigations into
transverse fracture propagation from horizontal wells. The propagation of transverse hydraulic fractures from horizontal wells is
simulated and investigated in the laboratory using carefully designed experimental setups. Closed-form analytical theories for
Mode I (opening) stress intensity factors for idealized fracture geometries are reviewed, and a boundary element-based model is
used herein to investigate non-planar propagation of fractures. Using the mixed mode fracture propagation criterion of the
model, a reasonable agreement is found with respect to fracture geometry, net fracture pressures and fracture propagation paths
between the modeled fractures and the laboratory tested fractures. These results suggest that the propagation of multiple
fractures requires higher net pressures than a single fracture, the underlying reason of which is theoretically justified on the basis
of local stress distribution. D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Reservoir stimulation; Hydraulic fracturing; Transverse fracture; Enhanced recovery

1. Introduction treatments. A number of studies carried out recently

The productivity of vertical wells in low-perme-
ability tight-gas formations is commonly enhanced
through the application of hydraulic fracturing. While
the productive benefit from hydraulically fractured
horizontal wells is potentially large, it has not been
pursued widely because of difficulties associated with
complex fracture evolution, particularly multiple frac-
turing. Transversely fractured wells have the ability to
greatly increase production rates by virtue of the fact
that any number of fractures may be widely distributed
along the length of horizontal wells through separate
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +61-2-9385-5182.
E-mail address: mk.rahman@unsw.edu.au (M.K. Rahman).
compare the production characteristics between frac-
tured horizontal wells and fractured/unfractured verti-
cal wells (Economides et al., 1989; Mukherjee and
Economides, 1991). Deimbacher et al. (1993) reported
that a horizontal well intersected by four evenly
spaced transverse hydraulic fractures over a drainage
area of 260 ha possessed a production index of 75%
greater than that of an unfractured horizontal well, and
200% greater than that of a fractured vertical well and
a longitudinally fractured horizontal well. The reduced
contact areas between horizontal wellbores and trans-
verse fractures, however, introduce additional ‘choke
skin effects’ (McLennon et al., 1989) that hinder
productivity and increase injection pressures. The
effect is fortunately negligible in low-permeability
formations.

0920-4105/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 0 - 4 1 0 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 3 6 - X
128 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
The geometry of fractures initiating from the hor-
izontal well is dependent on the in situ stress which is
the most important reservoir parameter that affects
hydraulic-fracture design and treatment. Hydraulic
fractures from a wellbore, regardless of their origin,
always attempt to propagate in planes orthogonal to
the minimum in situ stress, what is called the ‘pre-
ferred fracture plane’. Thus, while hydraulic-fracture
propagation planes are fixed, the horizontal wellbores
may be drilled in any direction depending on other
considerations. The location of fracture initiation from
the wellbores depends on many factors such as the
presence of natural fractures, perforation orientation
and near-wellbore stress concentration. When the
location of fracture initiation does not coincide with
the preferred direction of fracture propagation, various
propagation complexities such as fracture turning and
twisting occur (Weng, 1993).
Turning hydraulic fractures (sometimes referred to
as ‘S’-shaped or reoriented fractures) propagate some
distance from the wellbore before reorienting towards
another plane, as illustrated in Fig. 1. There are many
causes of fracture turning, most of which relate to the
distribution of near-wellbore stresses at fracture ini-
tiation (Akgun et al., 1997). The near-wellbore seg-
ments of turning fractures are often subjected to greater
stresses than those acting on the main fractures leading
to near-wellbore width restriction which eventually
results in a mechanical flow restriction. This fracture
pinching often leads to excessively high treating pres-
sures and may, in extreme cases, lead to proppant
bridging and premature, near-wellbore screen-outs.
Fig. 1. Fracture turning.
Fig. 2. Fracture twisting.
Twisting fractures are similar to turning fractures
with the exception that reorientation occurs in two
planes, as shown in Fig. 2. Due to the nature of near-
wellbore stress concentrations, fractures are more likely
to initiate longitudinally regardless of wellbore orien-
tations or the nature of in situ stress regimes. However,
where horizontal wellbores are oriented perpendicular
to preferred fracture planes, initial longitudinal frac-
tures reorient as they propagate from the wellbores in
response to the far-field stresses such that they even-
tually assume transverse configurations. Just as with
fracture turning, fracture twisting produces severe
pinching in near-wellbore regions. The degree of
restriction in the case of twisting is, however, far more
acute and its effect on fracture treatments and produc-
tions are more severe. For example, a parametric study
by Deimbacher et al. (1993) of the influence of a
fracture, which initiates longitudinally and then reor-
ients transversely by twisting on the productivity dem-
onstrated that fracture widths at the point of twisting
were up to 83% smaller than those initiating trans-
versely from the horizontal wellbore. Twisted fractures
are thought to commonly afflict field-scale fractured
horizontal wells (Weng, 1993) and are frequently ob-
served in laboratory experiments (Weijers et al., 1992).
Turning and twisting of fractures may also occur
during the propagation of multiple fractures, where the
process itself changes the local stress distribution and
influences the fractures to change their propagation
direction. Evidence supporting the ubiquity of multiple
fractures is largely circumstantial, usually inferred
through the application of treatment pressure theory.
Medlin and Fitch (1983) first promoted the concept of
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
multiple fracturing as a means of explaining the exces-
sive treatment pressures during massive hydraulic-
fracture treatments in low permeability sands of the
Mesa Verde Formation. Numerous studies (Davidson
et al., 1993; Stadulis, 1995; Hainey et al., 1995) have
documented examples where hydraulic-fracture treat-
ments displayed injection pressures which were sig-
nificantly higher than those predicted by conventional
fracture models. These studies concluded that the
presence of severe multiple fracturing was the primary
cause of these treatment pressure anomalies.
While hydraulic-fracture complexity is an acknowl-
edged impediment to the widespread application of
hydraulically fractured horizontal wells, there exists a
lack of practical design tools and guidelines with
which the engineers could predict the severity of
complex fracturing. To minimize the shortcoming, a
unique combination of experimental, analytical and
numerical investigations was performed (Crosby,
1999). A companion paper has reported the findings
associated with transverse hydraulic-fracture initiation
from horizontal wells (Crosby et al., 2002). This paper
presents the major findings associated with propaga-
tion of hydraulic fractures from horizontal wells.
Numerical studies were carried out for this purpose
using sophisticated numerical software, FRANC-3D
and HYFRANC-3D. Results show that two or more
multiple transverse fractures may propagate but they
involve different treatment pressure behaviours com-
pared to a single fracture.
2. Fracture propagation theories
Theories for mixed mode fracture propagation are
well documented in the literature of linear-elastic frac-
ture mechanics (Erdogan and Sih, 1963; Sih, 1974;
Hussain et al., 1974). These theories are implemented
in terms of ‘stress intensity factors’ or ‘strain energy
release rate’. Three basic modes of crack extension are
distinguished in the literature of linear-elastic fracture
mechanics—opening mode, shearing mode and tearing
mode—and three different stress intensity factors KI,
KII and KIII are defined, respectively.
The major theoretical methods for evaluating stress
intensity factors in a triaxial loading system include
boundary collocation, conformal mapping, analytical
and numerical techniques, the use of Green function,
129
etc. Analytical methods are mostly based on the stress
function suggested by Westergaard (1939) and the
complex stress function suggested by Mushkelishvili
(1977). The application of these methods is limited to
a few simple loading situations. Finite element and
boundary element methods are the widely used
numerical techniques for computing stress intensity
factors for problems with very complex geometry, as
well as loading. For the problem considered herein,
analytical formulas for calculating the stress intensity
factor for opening mode are available. These formulas
are essentially based on idealized shapes of fractures
and load distribution.
2.1. Stress intensity factors for single fractures
A single, two-dimensional line fracture subjected
to uniform internal fracture pressure ( Pf) penetrating a
plate of infinite width acted upon by confining stress
(r3) is a commonly employed limiting fracture geom-
etry. Irwin (1957) derived an analytical solution for
the Mode I stress intensity factor at the tip of such a
fracture as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
KIs ¼ ðPf  r3 Þ pLf ð1Þ
where Lf is the fracture half-length.
A three-dimensional radial fracture in an infinite
medium, also subjected to uniform internal fracture
pressure and confining stress, is another limiting
fracture geometry. Sneddon (1946) proposed that the
stress intensity factor for such three-dimensional frac-
tures differed from those of two-dimensional cases
only by a factor of 2/p. That is, the Mode I stress
intensity factor for a radial fracture is provided by the
following expression
2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
KIs ¼ ðPf  r3 Þ pRf ð2Þ
p
where Rf is the fracture radius.
Tada (1985) found the following analytical solu-
tion for the opening mode stress intensity factor at the
tip of a radial fracture intersected at its center by a
wellbore
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ðPf  r3 Þ
KIs ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi R2f  rw2 ð3Þ
Rf p
where rw is the wellbore radius.
130 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
2.2. Stress intensity factors for multiple fractures
Similar to single fractures, analytical solutions for the
stress intensity factors for multiple fractures can be
derived where fracture geometries are relatively simple.
For example, for two-dimensional line fractures, Isida
(1973) developed the following solution for stress inten-
sity factor at the tips of multiple fractures as a function of
spacing
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
KIm ¼ ðPf  r3 Þ pLf *FIðSÞ ð4Þ
where KIm is the stress intensity factor at the tips of
multiple fractures; FI(S) = 1  0.293S(1  (1  S)4);
S = Lf/(Lf + s) and s is the orthogonal half-spacing
between two multiple fractures. Eq. (4) is based on series
expansion of complex potentials. Using the ‘body force
method’, Isida et al. (1985) derived a lengthy cumber-
some analytical equation for stress intensity factors at the
tips of elliptical multiple fractures.
It is noted that as the spacing between multiple
fractures approaches zero, the stress intensity
pffiffiffi factors
at their individual tips are reduced by 1= 2 (0.707)
compared with that of equivalent single fractures. This
gives the following relationship
KIs
KIm ¼ pffiffiffi : ð5Þ
2 applied stresses. Nodal displacements in the discretized
As the spacing between multiple fractures
pffiffiffi increases,
KIm normalized by KIs varies from 1= 2 to 1. This
relationship is for uniformly pressurized parallel and
symmetric fractures. For closely spaced N number of
multiple fractures, the opening mode stress intensity
factor is suggested by Crosby (1999) to be
KIs
KIm ¼ pffiffiffiffi : ð6Þ
N
This
pffiffiffiffi is equivalent to increasing fracture toughness
by N which qualitatively justifies the approach
adopted by the petroleum industry in modeling N
multiple fractures using conventional commercial hy-
draulic-fracture models such as FRACPRO (Resource
Engineering Systems) and FRACANAL (SIMTECH
Consulting Services) by adjusting the elastic modulus.
Nolte (1987) first suggested these adjustments in
single fracture models to use for analysis of multiple
fractures.
2.3. Boundary element model for fracture propagation
Obviously, equations presented in the foregoing
section are valid only for idealized fracture geometries
and loadings. For general three-dimensional problems
subjected to arbitrary loads, the displacement correla-
tion technique is found to be an efficient yet accurate
method of calculating stress intensity factors for all the
three modes (Ingraffea and Saouma, 1985). In this
technique, displacements computed at nodes near the
crack tip are correlated with the theoretical values
derived based on assumed displacement functions.
Based on this principle, functions of stress intensity
factors in terms of nodal displacements are derived by
Ingraffea and Manu (1980) for isotropic materials using
quarter-point elements and by Saouma and Sikiotis
(1986) for anisotropic materials using singular isopara-
metric elements. Nodal displacements are usually esti-
mated either by finite element or boundary element
analysis.
The numerical fracture propagation tool used in
this study was developed by the Cornell University
Fracture Group. The non-coupled version is called
FRANC-3D (Fracture Analysis Code) which is a
UNIX-based modeling system that analyses the
response of linear-elastic materials, containing three-
dimensional fractures of arbitrary geometries, to
rock model are computed by a Boundary Element
System (BES) which is an efficient method for analyz-
ing crack/boundary problems, as only the cracks them-
selves (as opposed to the surrounding media in the case
of a finite element method) are discretized (Crouch and
Starfield, 1983). Stress intensity factors are estimated
using the ‘displacement correlation technique’ (Ingraf-
fea and Manu, 1980; Saouma and Sikiotis, 1986; Boon
et al., 1987), which is capable of correctly reflecting the
effect of any number of fractures. Thus, there is no need
for explicit formulations for multiple fractures like
analytical solutions represented by Eqs. (4) – (6).
The modified version of FRANC-3D is called
HYFRANC-3D, which allows true, coupled simula-
tion of fluid-driven fractures. Such simulation requires
the highly nonlinear coupling between internal pres-
sure distribution arising from fluid flow and deforma-
tion of the fracture. Such coupling is a particular
problem at the fracture tip, which is subject to large
fluid pressure gradients. HYFRANC-3D makes use of
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150 131

‘Linear Elastic Hydraulic Fracturing’ (LEHF) rock/
fluid coupled solutions in near-tip regions (Desroches
and Carter, 1996). The capability of a dual-porosity
poroelastic model to analyze such coupled fluid flow
and deformation problems is also recently investi-
gated by simulating laboratory experiments with frac-
tured rock specimens (Bai et al., 1999).
Both FRANC-3D and HYFRANC-3D have the
capacity to propagate hydraulic fractures of complex
shape. They have options to simulate fracture prop-
agation using any of the criteria: (1) maximum tan-
gential stress (Erdogan and Sih, 1963), (2) maximum
energy release rate (Hussain et al., 1974), (3) mini-
mum strain energy density (Sih, 1974) and (4) planar
propagation (fracture extension coplanar with initial
fracture). In the numerical examples presented herein,
the maximum tangential stress criterion was employed
for mixed-mode propagation of fractures.
with a negligible permeability (8e  5 mD). In order to
provide sufficient contrast between the induced
hydraulic fracture and the fracture test material, finely
ground (less than 45 Am) iron oxide was added to the
fracture fluid at a concentration of 10% by weight of
fracture fluid. The red colour of the iron oxide com-
bined with the existing pink colour of Mobilgear SHC
6800 to produce a bright red fracture fluid that con-
trasted well with the white fracture test material. Table 1
summarizes the laboratory test material properties and
other test parameters compared to a set of their field-
scale values. Injection rates and fluid viscosity were,
however, varied for different configurations.
The synthetic fracture test material was cast into
blocks measuring 400  400  400 mm. Thin circu-
Table 1
A set of field-scale fracturing parameters and their laboratory scaled
dimensions

3. Hydraulic-fracture experiments at laboratory Parameter Field-scale Laboratory

dimension scale dimension

A series of laboratory scale hydraulic-fracture ex- Wellbore dimensions

Wellbore radius, 0.091 0.006
periments was carried out in an attempt to investigate rw (m)
the initiation and propagation of, and interaction Reservoir properties
between multiple transverse fractures (Crosby, 1999). Permeability, 0.1 8e  5
In order to produce field-representative results, dimen- K (mD)
sional analysis was used to derive the appropriate scale Geomechanical properties
Elastic modulus, 50 000 7000
factors (de Pater et al., 1992). The laboratory test E (MPa)
dimensions were scaled upon those typically encoun- Poisson’s ratio, v 0.25 0.2
tered during the exploitation of low permeability gas Fracture toughness,
pffiffiffiffi
3 0.27
resources in Central Australia. Length dimensions were KIc (MPa m)
scaled according to wellbore radius (rw). Extremely low In situ stresses
Vertical in situ stress, 64 7
injection rates were employed in order to achieve stable rv (MPa)
fracture initiation and growth. This necessitated the use Minimum in situ 47 5
of an extremely high viscosity fracture fluid and a low horizontal stress,
leak-off fracture medium. Correct scaling is also rh (MPa)
required so that the fracture medium possesses a low Maximum in situ 57 6
horizontal stress,
modulus (E) and toughness (KIc). A high viscosity rH (MPa)
industrial lubricant, Mobilgear SHC 6800 was Hydraulic-fracture
employed as a fracture fluid. This fluid is Newtonian treatment data
in nature. The fracture test material was a portland Leak-off, 4.8e  5 3.8e  8
pffiffi
cement-based material composed of 70% silica flour, kl (m= s)
Injection rate, 0.072 3e  7  1e  6
30% portland cement. The low cement content ensured Q (m3/s)
that the fracture test material possessed a low elastic Injection period, 27 1
modulus
pffiffiffiffi (7000 MPa) and low toughness (0.27 MPa t (min)
m). In addition, the high proportion of silica flour and Fracture fluid 0.5 30 (at 23 jC)
inclusion of acrylic emulsion provided the test material viscosity, l (Pa s)
132 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150

Fig. 3. Rock block configuration for laboratory tests.

lar plastic disks were positioned inside the blocks hydraulic fractures initiated. Two separate block tests
during casting (Fig. 3). When intersected by a well- were performed. The first contained a single wellbore
bore, these disks constrained the location at which of 12 mm in diameter drilled through a single plastic

Fig. 4. ‘Single completion’ fracture test configuration.

 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150 133

Fig. 5. ‘Dual completion’ fracture test configuration.

disk, as shown in Fig. 4. The surfaces of the plastic In another test configuration described in Fig. 5,
disc were roughened in order to enhance cohesion two plastic discs separated by a distance of 30– 50 mm
with the cement. were intersected by two hydraulically isolated well-

Fig. 6. Polyaxial cell configuration for fracture tests.

134 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
bores, each possessing a radius of 6 mm. Stainless steel
injection tubes of 3-mm internal radius were grouted
into the wellbores, leaving a small ‘open hole’ section
immediately adjacent to the plastic disks. The absence
of a sand fraction left the synthetic fracture medium
susceptible to shrinkage cracking. However, this was
minimized by storing the blocks under conditions of
100% humidity during curing and until immediately
prior to testing. In this block, grease was applied to the
surfaces of the plastic disks in order to decrease
cohesion, simulating the presence of uncemented nat-
ural fractures or pre-broken-down perforations.
The blocks were placed in a polyaxial cell, as
illustrated in Fig. 6. Through the use of water-filled
flat-jacks, the polyaxial cell exerted stresses on all
faces of each block. The magnitudes of the applied
stresses (Table 1) were such that the wellbores were
oriented in the direction of the minor principal stress,
rz. This orientation between wellbore and stresses
induced the formation of transverse hydraulic frac-
tures. The single fracture test employed only one
Fig. 7. Schematic of the injection and data recording system for laboratory fracture tests.
computer-controlled linear displacement pump, while
the dual completion tests used two (one for each
wellbore), shown in schematic form in Fig. 7. In
addition, transducers independently measured the ini-
tiation and propagation pressures of each multiple
fracture. During injection testing, both wellbores were
pressurized at similar rates. A primary fracture even-
tually initiated from one of the two wellbores. Imme-
diately after the primary fracture initiated, the
wellbore from which it emanated was shut-in. Injec-
tion into the primary fracture recommenced only after
the secondary fracture (from the opposing wellbore)
was initiated. Injection into both fractures was
allowed to proceed at a constant rate for a period of
approximately 2 min, whereupon they were both shut-
in. Thus, the experiments allowed an approximate
injection time of 120 s for fracture propagation.
Although the injection rate plays a significant role in
fracture initiation and early growth, the injection rate
was not varied in any of the test configurations to
study this effect.
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150 135

Fig. 8. Injection pressure record during multiple fracturing test, DC-2.

Based on measured low permeabilities, the leak-off
during fracture propagation was assumed to be negli-
gible. Injection period vs. pressure curves for all the
test configurations broadly supported this assumption
with very slow pressure decline after shut-in (e.g. Fig.
8 for test DC-2), except test configuration DC-3. The
injection pressure recording for primary and multiple
fractures for test configuration DC-3 is illustrated in
Fig. 9 with corrections for compressibility of the
injection system and fracture fluid. The figure shows
a strong decline in the measured pressure after shut-in.
The laboratory configuration was such that upon
completion of injection, valves were shut in the injec-
tion line close to the top of the test block (although not

Fig. 9. Injection pressure record during multiple fracturing test, DC-3.

136 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
shown in Fig. 7) to prevent fluid passing back to the
sump. Therefore, the post-shut-in pressure decline
must be due to either fracture extension or leak-off,
or both. The authors believe that it was due to the
combined effect of both and the leak-off rate was
significantly high due to some cavity or lack of
material compaction in this test block.
4. Fracture propagation analysis
4.1. Single fracture analysis
A comparison between the analytical and numer-
ical (FRANC-3D) estimates of stress intensity factors
for a single, uniformly pressured fracture was carried
out in order to confirm the validity of the numerical
model. The fracture geometry, block dimensions and
material properties were defined based on those of the
laboratory hydraulic-fracture tests.
Radial fractures of varying diameters were mod-
eled. These fractures intersected a wellbore (0.01 m in
diameter) in a transverse fashion. Using the benefit of
symmetry, only a quarter of the block and fracture was
Fig. 10. Discretized block and single, radial fracture intersecting the wellbore transversely.
modeled for efficient computation. By this way, it was
possible to restrain the lateral movements on both x –z
and y –z planes. Movements along z-direction on the
top and bottom faces of the model were restrained to
impose plane strain condition. The block, in which the
fracture was modeled, was subjected to stresses: rz = 5
MPa; rx = 6 MPa; ry = 7 MPa. The wellbore was
oriented in the direction of rz. The fracture possessed
a uniform internal pressure of 20 MPa. Fig. 10
illustrates the configuration of the entire model for
numerical analysis.
Fig. 11 illustrates the Mode I stress intensity factors
estimated by FRANC-3D as functions of fracture radii
and compares them with the analytical solution of
Tada (1985) (Eq. (3)). The figure shows a reasonable
agreement between the analytical and numerical sol-
utions, and thus provides confidence in the validity of
the numerical model results. Accuracy of the numeri-
cally derived stress intensity factors was found to
improve with an increasing number of fracture tip
boundary elements. This, however, severely increased
run-times. In addition, the adoption of square-shaped
(as opposed to triangular or rectangular) fracture tip
boundary elements also increased accuracy.
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150 137

Fig. 11. Comparison between numerical (FRANC-3D) and analytical estimates of Mode I stress intensity factors for a single fracture described
in Fig. 10.

4.2. Parallel multiple fractures analysis
Numerical analyses using FRANC-3D were per-
formed on a pair of closely spaced radial multiple
fractures. The multiple fractures were of equal size
and were parallel. Fig. 12 shows the typical multiple
parallel fracture mesh scheme. Loading conditions
were similar to those applied in the single fracture
case and each multiple fracture was equally pressur-
ized. Only a quarter of the block was modeled based

Fig. 12. FRANC-3D multiple parallel fracture mesh scheme.

138 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
on the same arguments presented in the previous
section. It was not possible to model a half-space of
the two fractures for computational efficiency because
the effect of one fracture on the other could not be
represented by a suitable boundary condition.
Fig. 13 illustrates normalized multiple fracture
stress intensity factors for radial fractures of varying
separations, as derived from the FRANC-3D model.
Plotted on the same figure are the Isida (1973)
analytical solution for line fractures (Eq. (4)) and
the Isida et al. (1985) numerical solution for radial
fractures. Note that as for the line fracture analytical
solution, the normalized stress intensity factors
derived
pffiffiffi from the FRANC-3D model approach 1=
2 (0.707) as the space between two fractures
decreases. This definitely supports the relationship
defined by Eq. (5) for two parallel fractures. The
numerical results of this study support the work by
Isida et al. (1985) to the close-spaced asymptote and
confirm that the degree of decrease in the stress
intensity factors at the tips of multiple fractures at
close-spaced asymptotes is independent of fracture
geometry.
Fig. 13. Normalized stress intensity factors for multiple parallel fractures as estimated by FRANC-3D and solutions for line fractures (Eq. (4))
and radial fractures (Eq. (5)).
4.3. Deviating multiple fracture analysis
The two closely spaced radial multiple fractures
modeled in Fig. 12 were allowed to propagate in
increments not greater than 0.005 m to investigate
their propagation behavior and its effects on the stress
intensity factors. The block and fractures were
stressed in a similar manner to the parallel fracture
case described earlier. The fractures were initially
separated by 0.01 m and had equal radii of 0.02 m.
Fig. 14 illustrates the three-dimensional geometry of
the propagated fractures, as determined by FRANC-
3D. Fig. 15 describes the path of fracture propagation
projected onto the z – x plane of symmetry. Despite an
initial irregularity, which resulted from problems
associated with numerical convergence, the multiple
fractures linearly deviated away from one another.
Fig. 16 displays the normalized stress intensity
factor at the tip of each diverging multiple fractures,
as determined by FRANC-3D. Plotted on the same
figure are the results from solutions for line fractures
(Eq. (4); Isida, 1972) and for radial fractures (Isida et
al., 1985). The FRANC-3D solution indicates that as
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150 139

Fig. 14. Diverging multiple radial fractures, as simulated by FRANC-3D.

the fractures diverge (decreasing s/Rf), the normalized al. (1985) trend lines. As the multiple fractures diverge,
stress intensity factors at their tips approach 1.0. This the stress intensity factors at their tips approach that
differs significantly from the Isida (1973) and Isida et of a single fracture. Note that one FRANC-3D data

Fig. 15. Propagation paths of multiple radial fractures obtained from FRANC-3D analysis.
140 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
Fig. 16. Normalized stress intensity factors for deviating multiple fractures as functions of radii.
point in the figure does not appear to follow the trend
set by the other points. This anomaly is associated with
the same numerical convergence problem that resulted
in the nonuniform initial fracture propagation path.
4.4. Asymmetric multiple fractures analysis
Propagation of multiple fractures with equal radii
is very rare in practice. Usually, single, primary
fractures dominate propagation at the expense of
much smaller secondary fractures. To study this
fracture configuration, a FRANC-3D numerical anal-
ysis similar to that described above for multiple
parallel fractures was conducted. Only the primary
fracture was permitted to propagate in the presence
of a static smaller secondary fracture. The secondary
fracture radius was fixed at 0.02 m, while the
primary fracture was propagated from an initial
radius of 0.02 – 0.1 m. Separation between the pri-
mary and secondary fracture planes was thus main-
tained at 0.01 m by planar propagation of both
fractures.
The stress intensity factor of the primary fracture
normalized by that of a single fracture is plotted in
Fig. 17. This figure shows the influence of a secon-
dary fracture of fixed radii (Rfm) upon the stress
intensity factor of a primary fracture of increasing
radius (Rfs). The results demonstrate that the close
proximity of secondary fractures has a negligible
impact upon the stress intensity factors of primary
fractures, unless both fractures are of similar length.
For example, with reference to Fig. 17, if the radius of
the primary fracture is 1.2 times the secondary frac-
ture (Rfs/Rfm = 1.2), the stress intensity factor of the
primary fracture differs from that of a single fracture
by only about 14%. As expected, at large multiple
fracture spacings (greater than 1.0 m), the presence of
multiple fractures has a negligible impact upon the
stress intensity factors.
5. Comparison of laboratory results and numerical
results
While the technique for modeling the propagation
of multiple fractures has been incorporated into a
number of commercial models, no laboratory study
has yet been carried out to test its validity. As such,
one of the key aims of the experimental programme
undertaken in this study was to propagate a pair of
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150 141

Fig. 17. Influence of secondary fractures upon the stress intensity factors of primary fractures with varying radius.

closely spaced multiple fractures, and compare the 5.1. Plotting of laboratory propagation pressures
propagation pressures of each individual fracture
branch with those predicted by the dynamic fracture Results of hydraulic-fracture propagation tests in
model. the laboratory are plotted in Fig. 18. For this plotting,

Fig. 18. Dimensionless net fracture pressures as functions of propagation period for all the laboratory hydraulic fractures.
142 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150

the net fracture pressures and the injection periods are
normalized as Pn/P* and t/s*, similar to that adopted
by de Pater et al. (1993), where
  1=4
E (Appendix A) for fracture radius, width and net
P* ¼ lQ ð7Þ
rw
 3=4  1=4
rw3 l
s* ¼
Q E
where P* is the characteristic net fracture pressure; s*
is the characteristic injection time; Q is the fracture
fluid injection rate per fracture wing (as measured at
pumps); l is the effective channel flow fluid viscosity
variations in wellbore fluid pressure
(equivalent to 12 times Newtonian fluid l);
 viscosity,

E between the various experimental results, the mean
and E is the crack opening modulus 4ð12 Þ .
It was apparent that compliance of the laboratory
injection systems played a significant role during
fracture propagation. A significant proportion of this
compliance was expected to be due to fluid compres-
sibility. Using estimates of injection system compli-
ance, the laboratory injection rates were modified
through the use of the following expression
Vsys DPw
Q* ¼ Q þ
Csys Dt
showing that the final measured fracture radii closely
match with fracture radii estimated from theoretical
time – radius relationship. For two-dimensional radial
fractures, Crockett et al. (1986) proposed relationships
pressure as functions of injection rate, time and fluid
parameters. As mentioned earlier, all the fractures
were allowed to propagate for 120 s after their
ð8Þ initiation. Measured fracture radii are compared with
that estimated by Eq. (A1) for this propagation time in
Table 2 which shows acceptably close match for all
the configurations.
The plotting of raw data created relatively scattered
curves due to
with time DP Dt . In order to provide better contrast
w
laboratory fracture propagation pressure trends for
different test configurations are plotted in Fig. 18.
Propagation of the laboratory hydraulic fractures was
taken to commence when the injection pressure deriv-
atives with respect to time deviated from their initially
constant values. Thus, Fig. 18 in fact shows fracture
propagation time.
5.2. Single fracture propagation pressures from tests
ð9Þ
and radial model

where Q* is the net fracture fluid injection rate, per The fracture propagation pressures of the single
fracture wing, adjusted for fluid decompression; Vsys fracture laboratory experiments (DC-4 and -6), shown
is the total volume of fluids within the injection in Fig. 19, compare closely with those estimated by the
system; Csys is the average compliance of the entire single fracture radial model (Eq. (A1)). This provides
injection system and DPw/Dt is the rate of fluid confidence in the experimental procedure. It appears
pressure variation with respect to time. that material toughness and artificial toughness (due to
The comparison of normalized measured pressures the action of the confining stress on the large fluid lag
for different fracture configurations may lead to erro- zone) had a negligible effect on propagation pressures.
neous conclusions about the relative value of the net This is expected, considering the low ratio of confining
pressure if the high pressure at an early time happens
to be compared with a low pressure at a later time for
another configuration. The best way to avoid such an
Table 2
erroneous pressure comparison was to compare pres- Comparison of laboratory created and estimated fracture radii
sures with respect to fracture radius. The experimental
Test Injection Fluid Measured Estimated
procedure followed in this work, however, precluded rate (cm3/s) viscosity radius (mm) radius (mm)
measurement of fracture radius as function of injec- (Pa s)
tion time. Only the final fracture radii were measured DC-2 0.012 33 99 87
through dissection of the block. Therefore, it was not DC-3 0.011 81 93 78
possible to plot pressure as a function of the growth of DC-4 0.024 53 99 105
fracture radius. An indirect way is to show the DC-6 0.005 31 83 67
pressure behavior as a function of injection time by DC-8 0.005 33 64 65
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
Fig. 19. Comparison between the dimensionless net fracture pressures of the single laboratory hydraulic fractures, DC-4 and DC-6, and single-
fracture radial model.
stress to net fracture pressure (approximately 0.5).
These results also seem to agree with Gardner’s
(1992) observations regarding the insensitivity of
fracture widths and pressures to fluid lag.
5.3. Multiple fracture propagation pressures from
tests and radial model
The fracture propagation pressures of the multiple
fracture laboratory experiments (DC-3 and -8) were
slightly higher than those of the single fractures. The
multiple fractures in laboratory test DC-3 grew in
opposite directions with respect to the wellbore axis.
The multiple fractures also deviated from the oppos-
ing fracture planes. In addition, the lower (secondary)
fracture displayed a slightly greater net pressure than
the upper (primary) fracture, as demonstrated in Fig.
20. This slight difference in pressure is reasonable
considering that the lower fracture initiated in the
presence of the (already initiated) primary fracture.
The initiation sequence probably contributed to the
greater deviation from the plane of preferred prop-
agation experienced by the lower fracture, as illus-
trated in Fig. 21.
143
Significant discrepancies consistently exist be-
tween the early time net fracture pressures measured
in the laboratory and those predicted by Eq. (A3) with
coefficients for two fractures, i.e. N = 2. This is prob-
ably because the radial model assumes that the frac-
tures possessed consistently symmetrical, radial and
planar geometry from a very early time. In the labo-
ratory, however, it was quite likely that very early
fracture growth was characterized by highly asymmet-
ric propagation, particularly during inflation of the
region surrounding the plastic disks. These early time
pressure discrepancies are a common feature of labo-
ratory scale hydraulic fractures (de Pater et al., 1992,
1993). It was also unfortunate that the laboratory
fractures could not be propagated for longer time
periods in order to prevent propagation to the edges
of the blocks. The fracture propagation trends, how-
ever, are reasonably clear.
In the multiple fracture experiment DC-8, the upper
(secondary) fracture was forced to propagate for its
entirety in relatively close proximity to an adjacent,
lower (primary) fracture (Fig. 20). The primary frac-
ture was initially propagated a short distance before
propagation of the secondary fracture was com-
144 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150

Fig. 20. Comparison between the dimensionless net fracture pressures of the multiple laboratory hydraulic fractures, DC-3 and DC-8, and radial
fracture model.

menced. The primary fracture displayed, as expected,
the net pressure characteristics more of a single frac-
ture. The secondary fracture displayed a much greater
net propagation pressure, and while certainly larger
than that predicted by the single fracture radial model,
was smaller than that predicted by the multiple fracture
model. In addition, the secondary fracture pressure of
DC-8 declined rapidly with propagation, displaying a
pressure decline trend approaching that of the DC-3
primary fracture.
Fig. 22 illustrates that the secondary DC-8 fracture
deviated significantly from the preferred fracture

Fig. 21. Multiple fractures created during the dual completion test, DC-3.
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
Fig. 22. Multiple fractures created during the dual completion test, DC-8.
plane. This natural tendency to achieve a lower energy
state prevents the dual-fracture configuration adopted
in experiment DC-8 from adhering to the idealized
multiple fracture radial model pressures. Such fracture
deviation would be expected in most multiple fracture
environments. However, it would be expected that as
the number of multiple fractures increases, their
ability to deviate from each other becomes limited.
Thus, it is likely that the greater the number of
multiple fracture strands, the more close their prop-
agation pressures are to those estimated by idealized
multiple fracture models.
From this comparative study of fracture propagation
pressures, a significant observation is that the net
pressures in multiple fractures are consistently greater
than that expected of a single-radial fracture, despite
the fact that the multiple fractures essentially develop
as single fractures. This suggests that small, inflated
secondary multiple fractures may increase the propa-
gation pressures of the primary fracture, though not to
the same degree as closely spaced, symmetrical multi-
ple fractures. This may be most relevant where secon-
dary fractures are propped, pos-sibly as a result of the
use of proppant slugs, early in treatments.
145
Experimental multiple fractures presented in this
paper can be considered as the representative of the
near-wellbore condition because they were not propa-
gated far in the block. Other published laboratory
results consistently show that secondary multiple frac-
tures rarely extend beyond the near-wellbore region, as
they are squeezed shut by primary fractures that invar-
iably develop (Narendran and Cleary, 1983; Behrmann
and Elbel, 1991; Weijers et al., 1992). This is in contrast
to the widespread anecdotal conclusion that multiple
fractures of roughly equal length do penetrate far into
formations in absence of dominating primary fractures.
This conclusion is basically derived from bottom-hole
treating pressure records. The results of the multiple
fracture experiments of this and above mentioned
studies suggest that the primary fractures dominate
and thus the conclusion of deeply penetrating multiple
fractures of equal length far into the formation may be
incorrect. Similar to the experimental findings in this
study, Germanovich et al. (1997) also suggested that
from analytical fracture modeling, the close proximity
of but partially opened multiple fractures, even at the
near-wellbore region, can increase the propagation
pressures of ‘primary fractures’, though not to the same
146 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
extent as for equally proportioned ‘far-field’ multiple
fractures.
5.4. Laboratory and numerical model propagation
pressures and fracture geometries
In the previous section, non-planar propagation of
fractures was pointed to explain the discrepancy
between the net fracture pressures measured in the
laboratory and estimated by the radial model. To
investigate this further, the multiple fracture labora-
tory test DC-8 was modeled using HYFRANC-3D,
which has the capability to simulate non-planar frac-
ture propagation. Fig. 23 illustrates the applied boun-
dary conditions and fracture mesh. Modeling was
performed using material properties and injection
parameters similar to those employed during the
laboratory test DC-8. Fracture propagation was per-
formed with discrete fracture increments. The max-
imum tangential stress criterion was employed to
propagate the fracture at each step. Fluid leak-off in
the model was set to zero.
Despite only a half of the block was discretized,
each propagation step was extremely time consuming,
even while running on a 500-MHz Dec Alpha. Due to
the high mesh density required to maintain stability
Fig. 23. Divergent multiple hydraulic fracture propagation by HYFRANC-3D.
and the highly complex nature of multiple fracture
iteration, each propagation step required between 2
days and 1 week. The entire propagated fracture set
illustrated in Fig. 23 required over 1 month to run.
The authors, however, acknowledge that alternative
physical models might be developed which could be
computationally more efficient.
Fig. 24 compares the laboratory measured and
numerically derived paths of the propagated multiple
fractures. The most salient feature of this analysis is
the marked mutual deviation of the multiple fractures
consistent with the work of Jeffrey et al. (1987) and
Cleary et al. (1993). In addition, the numerically
derived fracture paths display a slightly greater devia-
tion, due likely to its rigid linear-elastic assumptions.
In contrast, the laboratory fractures deviated to a
lesser extent and to a declining degree with propaga-
tion, such that they approach a parallel relationship.
Fig. 25 compares the normalized net fracture
propagation pressures for the laboratory fracture, the
analytical fracture model with two fractures and the
numerical model. Due to the characteristic divergence
of the multiple fractures, the analytical solution over-
estimates the net propagation pressures. In contrast,
the numerical and laboratory pressures display a
greater correlation although the discrepancy between
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150 147

Fig. 24. Comparison of multiple fracture propagation at the laboratory and that simulated by HYFRANC-3D.

Fig. 25. Comparison of dimensionless net fracture pressures of the laboratory multiple fracture propagation (DC-8) and HYFRANC-3D
simulation.
148 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150
them is also considerable. Of particular note is the
late-time ‘flattening’ trend in numerically estimated
pressure. It is uncertain whether this is a real feature or
an artifact of the coarse resolution of the numerical
pressure measurements.
6. Conclusions
Major findings of this study can be concluded as
follows.
(1) Reasonably good agreement is found between
the analytically and numerically estimated Mode I
stress intensity factors for the single fracture sce-
nario.
(2) For two elliptical parallel fractures, the Mode I
stress intensity factors estimated using the numerical
model and analytical methods are found to be in
good agreement. It is also found that the degree to
which the stress intensity factor at the tip of multiple
fractures at a close-spaced asymptote reduces is
independent of fracture geometry. The stress inten-
sity factor for two fractures reduces by a factor of
1/M2 compared to a single fracture in all the three
cases when the fracture space approaches a very
small value.
(3) With increased divergence between two adja-
cent fractures, the stress intensity factor at each frac-
ture tip approaches a value of that for a single fracture:
a fact that can also be supported intuitively. This effect
has been successfully modeled numerically, which has
not been possible by using the ana-lytical formulas for
planar radial fractures. Consequently, the results for
deviating multiple fractures obtained by using the
numerical model and the analytical formulas differ
significantly. Similarly, only the numerical model has
successfully demonstrated that the close proximity of
secondary fractures has a negligible impact upon the
stress intensity factors of primary fractures unless both
fractures are of approximately equal length.
(4) Experimentally obtained fracture propagation
pressures are compared with that estimated by the
numerical model and analytical formulas. It is found
that the analytical formulas overestimate the net prop-
agation pressures significantly. In contrast, the numer-
ical and laboratory pressures display a greater cor-
relation although the discrepancy between them is still
considerable. Experimental, analytical and numerical
results, however, confirm that small, inflated secon-
dary multiple fractures increase the propagation pres-
sure of the primary fracture. It is evident from literature
survey and experimental results presented in this paper
that secondary multiple fractures rarely extend beyond
the near-wellbore region because they are squeezed
shut by the primary fractures. These near-wellbore
multiple fractures, however, significantly increase the
fracture propagation pressure. This effect becomes
severe when closely spaced, symmetrical multiple
fractures initiate and propagate even at the near-well-
bore region.
(5) The numerical model has simulated the exper-
imentally obtained diverging fracture propagation
paths, which also deviated from the preferred fracture
propagation direction. The numerically derived frac-
ture paths display a slightly greater deviation, which
can be explained by the underlying assumption of
rigid, linear elasticity of materials.
(6) Based on the comparison of net fracture pres-
sures and propagation paths, it is plausible to indicate
the existing weakness of the boundary element method
in modeling highly nonlinear multiple fracture prob-
lems such as the ones addressed in this paper. This
study has, however, provided a high confidence in the
great potential of such a numerical model, probably
with enhanced capability for the investigation of more
complex hydraulic-fracturing problems.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the Australian
Petroleum Cooperative Research Centre (APCRC) for
supporting this work and CSIRO Petroleum for use of
their laboratory facilities in Melbourne. The authors
also express their sincere appreciation to C.J. de Pater
and the other anonymous reviewer for their con-
structive comments, which have improved the stand-
ard of this paper.
Appendix A
For a generalized two-dimensional radial fracture
usually used in conventional, commercial hydraulic-
fracture models, the fracture parameters can be de-
 M.M. Rahman et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 35 (2002) 127–150 149

fined through use of simple differential equations Vsys total volume of fluid injected in the system
derived by Crockett et al. (1986) as ww fracture width at the wellbore
r3 confining stress that tends to close the
"  3 # 19 fracture (closure stress)
3 c2 c4 E Q 4
rx stress applied on a face of the rock block
Rf ¼ t9 ðA1Þ
64 c1 c3 ð1  r2 Þl 2cr perpendicularly to the wellbore axis
ry stress applied on the orthogonal face of the
rock block perpendicularly to the wellbore
" 2  3 # 19 axis
64 c1 c3 ð1  r2 Þl Q 1 rz stress applied to the rock block parallel to the
ww ¼ t9 ðA2Þ
3 c2 c4 E 2cr wellbore axis
l fracturing fluid viscosity
l effective channel flow viscosity (12l)
  13 s* characteristic injection time
E 64 c1 c3 l 1
Pn ¼ t3 ðA3Þ
c1 4ð1  r2 Þ 3 c2 c4 E

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