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Journal of Jewish Education

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Education in Rashi's Time

a
David Jacobson
a
Rabbi, Temple Beth‐El , San Antonio, Texas
Published online: 11 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: David Jacobson (1940) Education in Rashi's Time, Journal of Jewish Education,
12:2, 79-87, DOI: 10.1080/0021642400120203

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 Education in Rashi's Time
BY DAVID JACOBSON
Rabbi, Temple Beth-El, San Antonio, Texas

The age in which Rashi lived was specially instructed.1 Although it is true
checkered with lights and shadows. , An that there were schools opened in France
era of freedom was coming to an end, in the twelfth century, the Church itself
and the thunder clouds swirled fitfully suppressed education among the general
across the blue skies of France and Ger- population. The Council of Toulouse,
many. The Crusades were a manifesta- in 1229, prohibited the perusal of the
tion of a whole new epoch, and the Jews books of the Bible with exception of the
soon came to identify the shape of the Psalms. The Jews, on the other hand,
cross with that of the sword. The whole were so busily engaged in the study of
European World was stirred by the rest- the Bible that, as an example, one exe-
less currents of religious, economic and getical compendium (da'at zekenim) has
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political change; yet, somehow, even more than 100 authorities mentioned,
while the foundations of Jewish life were mostly French.
tottering, the patterns of communal and Until hatreds were aroused, however,,
religious organizations still kept their there were very close and free relation-
shape and the study of the holy writ was ships between Jews and Christians.
intensified. Priests and monks studied Hebrew from
German Jewry already experienced its Jews, while Jews and Christians sang
first taste of persecution early in the Synagogue and Church melodies together
eleventh century. In France, the Jewish so that2 they could each learn the other's
-position was still favorable in the first tunes.
half of the twelfth century, despite some The French Rabbis and scholars of
scattered incidents. For example, an this period were not strangers in the
anonymous author, writing in 1166 wider world, or unacquainted with the va-
against the Jews, says, "We are writing, rieties and needs of everyday living as
not for the purpose of advancing the their successors were, but they were
teachings of our faith, but in order to practical observers of the general scene
give the- Jews no occasion to mock our and took part therein themselves.
ignorance. The Jew's often challenge us One of the reasons that Rashi's com-
and as it were, speak to Goliath saying, mentaries have always been so beloved,
'Choose you a man for yourselves who lies in the fact that his knowledge of the
will enter the tournament with us.' By Bible was simplified by his general
statements such as these, one can dis- knowledge of the world in which he lived.
cern the greatest amount of freedom of This general knowledge applied, not only
speech on the part of the Jews. Jewish to Rashi as an exception, but to both the
sources indicate not only that Jews often scholars and the general Jewish public at
conversed with Christian ministers, but this time. For example, when Rashi
that they also discussed with them, quite wishes to explain the meaning of the
objectively, such matters as the Christian phrase, " T vbob" (Literally,—"To fill
religion, the doctrine of the Trinity and the hand,") in Ex. 28:41, he says,
confession. "When anyone was appointed to an
The Jews were much better educated office, the ruler would put a glove made
than their non-Jewish neighbors of whom of skin in his hand which was called
very few were literate; since only those fE33NTi:i (gant), and thereby, he was
who were destined for the clergy were established in the office; and this pres-
79
 80 JEWISH
entation in French is called "revestir,"
and that is the meaning of "filling the
hand." Not only Rashi, but practically
all of his contemporaries in France
and Germany made use of their gen-
eral knowledge. Guedemann, in his
Geschichte, lists pages of instances where
Rashi, Joseph Bechor Shor, Samuel Ben
Meir, Samson Ben Abraham, Jacob Tam,
and others indicated in their commen-
taries, their cultural assimilation.3
The interests of the French and Ger-
man Jews were, at the same time,
bounded by the general knowledge of the
people with whom they lived. Thus, for
example, whereas in Spain the most ab-
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struse learning was cultivated, like as-
' tronomy, medicine, philosophy, gram-
mar, etc.—in France and Germany, the
people's interests were much more
simple; therefore, their Jewish scholar-
ship was limited to Bible and Talmud
studies. This very limitation proved to
be their strength, for they had no models
to follow and could be original. As
Guedemann remarks, "Rashi remained
throughout the entire Middle Ages, the
interpreter of the law—the Parshan-
datha. He brought children to the Bible
and at the same time served as the object
of reflection and research for the mature
man and even for the scholar. You can
compare him with Terence, who also
served as the school book of the Middle
Ages.4
Another factor which formed the
character of the French and German
Jews of this period lay in the circum-
stance that Jewry was not divided into
sects. Among the Spanish-Arabic speak-
ing Jews, the presence of the Karaites
impelled a greater or lesser tendency
toward controversy. The Jews of Cen-
tral Europe, on the other hand, could
speak their minds much more freely, be-
cause they had no inner cleavage. There
were also very few apostates, and Jewish
life flourished uninhibited. The attach-
ment of the Jews to their faith was at-
tested even by the Christians themselves.
A contemporary of Rabbenu Gershom,
EDUCATION
Remi d'Auxerre, expressed his convic-
tion that a Jew would only leave his
faith at the end of the world.
The Jewish community was so com-
pletely at peace, that one is not surprised
to see many evidences of a flourishing
cultural life. Jewish knowledge, both
of the Bible and the Talmud, was wide-
spread. Judah Hasid apologizes5 that
there are some who are not able to study
the Talmud, but he assumes that every-
one is well acquainted with the Bible,
even the 'Am-Ha'arez. Talmud study,
however, was the chief intellectual pur-
suit. The Jews of Germany and France
were able to produce their own Talmudic
authority and there is no doubt that the
Gaonate came to an end about this time,
because Rabbenu Gershom was recog-
nized as a prime authority by the Jews
of his own land. The fact that France
could produce Rabbenu Gershom, who
was the first commentator of the Talmud
and whose edicts had even more author-
ity than those of Hal, shows the cultural
interests of the German and French
Jews, despite the prejudice of many his-
torians like Graetz, who recognize and
commend only the Spanish scholarship
of this time. It was fateful, moreover,
that the last of the gaonim, Hiskiya, went
down in sorrow to his grave, the very
same year that Rashi was born. -
The study of the Talmud was not only
encouraged during the pleasant years, but
when unhappiness befell the unfortunate
communities, scholarship served as a
counterpoise to their grief.
In Germany, the Crusades inclined the
Jews toward extravagant asceticism but,
as Graetz points out, "The study of the
Talmud, as pursued by Rashi, was a
protection against unthinking, brooding
monasticism. The study of the Talmud
became balm for the wounds inflicted by
the crusading mob on the communities
of the Rhine district. The pleasure re-
sulting from creative thought ruled in
the schools, and subdued sorrow and
despair; and the House of Learning
became the refuge of the . . . oppressed."
 EDUCATION IN RASHI S TIME
At the same time, the ideal of scholar-
ship was pursued for its own sake. There
was not greater disgrace than to be called
an 'am-ha'arez.
Despite our certainty that both young
and old devoted themselves to Jewish
studies, there are very few sources of
information about this period. Since
there is no separate and independent ma-
terial on the education and the culture of
the Jews of this time, much of the infor-
mation must be gleaned indirectly from
chance remarks of the commentaries,
ethical wills, halachic works and such
invaluable sources as the Sefer Hasidim.
One never knows, however, to what ex-
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tent a work such as the Sefer Hasidim
is a reflection of conditions as they are,
or what Judah Ben Samuel believed they
should be. Thus, for example, does the
following statement reflect a pious wish
or a historical fact? "When a man dis-
covers that he has sufficient income and
also more time than his business requires,
he should not say that he will make his
study the lesser, and his work the more
important of his occupations, but he
should make his study the primary thing,
and his work secondary. If the man
finds that he has a faithful servant whom
he trusts, then he should not work at all.
Even if he does not have sufficient funds
amply to provide for his family he should
not make his work his major interest.
Only during the time that he is providing
for orphans or widows, for paupers or
old people, who themselves are not able
to work, should he devote himself inten-
sively to business."6 Sefer Hasidim also
indicates the curriculum of study de-
signed for the adult. The man is advised
to divide the week into three parts:—two
days for Scriptures, two days for Mish-
nah, two days for Talmud, and the Sab-
bath Day for the study of all three. He
may, however, divide his day into three
parts, four hours to each subject. There
is also the opinion that he may do it by
years, devoting one year to each subject,
but this last suggestion is not to be con-
strued as authoritative.7 Interesting evi-
81
dence of the wide reading habits that
must have obtained at this time, is a bit
of psychology, suggested by Judah Hasid.
"To discover a man's primary interest,"
he advises, "place many different kinds
of books before him. The one that he
picks up and reads carefully is his real
interest.8 Another indirect proof of the
general scholarship of the time is the
suggestion Judah Hasid makes, to study
those parts of the Talmud which Jiave to
do with the laws of burial, which people
do not usually enjoy reading. "For ex-
ample," says Judah, "if you see that
citizens of your1 city are studying Seder
Mo'ed or Seder Nashim, or Seder Neze-
kin, you study Seder Kadashim, and if
you see that nobody troubles to study
Mo'ed Katan, especially the section be-
ginning with iriDB> 'O, you study them
and you will receive a reward equal to
that of all the other people." 9
The ideal of study also applied to the i
woman, although circumstances usually
prevented her from learning much. As
a rule, she did not know Hebrew, though
she might read her prayers in that lan-
guage, even though she did not under-
stand them.10 Often, however, she re-
cited her prayers in the vernacular.11
Nor did she know how to write. A
remark by Eleazer of Worms (quoted
by Guedemann, p. 230) indicates that
writing was a rarity among women when
he notes that, "A certain Hasid used to
teach his daughters to write, for, he said,
'If they did not know how to write they
would have to resort to outsiders to help
them in preparing their records when
they lent money, and they might thus be
tempted to become intimate with the
scribes. Furthermore, in order that they
should not acquire a bad name, he taught
them to write business notes.' " We also
see from this and similar sources, that
women took part in business. Very often
the women assumed the responsibility of
earning the livelihood while their hus-
bands devoted themselves to study, and
even wandered about from school to
school. Incidentally, the absence of the
 82 JEWISH EDUCATION

husband from home was restricted by Hannah, sister of Rabbenu Tam and
law to a limited period. Of course, in Bellet, sister of Rabbi Isaac Ben Mena-
this way, the woman certainly indirectly hem, taught the women of their com-
furthered education, for she not only munity regulations concerning religious
recognized the importance of learning, customs. Rashi's daughter was entrusted
but even exceeded her husband in self- with her father's .scholarly correspon-
sacrifice to permit him to carry on his dence when he himself was ill. One of
studies. A story is told of a woman the most famous teachers of this period,
whose husband was quite miserly, and Rabbi Eliezer Ben Joel Halevi, refers to
who did not wish to spend any money the religious practices of his aunt, the
for books. The wife, however, bought wife of Rabbi Samuel Ben Natronai.
some books, and when her husband com- Rabbi Samuel Falaise, the teacher of
plained to the Rabbi, he was told, "Re- Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg refers to the
joice greatly that your wife in this way authority of his motherrin-law, and Hay-
has compelled you to do a good deed." 12 yim, son of Rabbi Isaac of Vienna, quotes
Another story tells about the wife whose the authority of his own wife. Rabbenu
husband presented her with some money Tam often refers to the practices of the
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to buy a robe, but she insisted that he women of the time to validate his teach-
permit her to use the money to buy a ings. However, all these examples cited
book or to have one copied, so that they by Guedemann,17 are exceptional. The
might lend it for the purpose of study.13 father was required to teach his daugh-
Incidentally, the lending of books was ters the misvot.ls However, as Judah
considered so significant an act of piety, Hasid observes, the women are not ex-
that poor Hasidim would beg for money pected to know anything about the more
so that they might have commentaries, abstruse points of the law, and 'which
Tossafot and novellae written, and then were not incumbent upon them. They
lend them out.14 In the practice of this were, however, required to learn the
labor of love, and similar activities, such mizvot which applied to them and their
as the support of poor students, even the daily lives. They studied them not
most aristocratic of the women partici- necessarily in Hebrew, but in the ver-
pated fully. They would often provide nacular, in contradistinction to the men
room and board to the students; and who had to study ritual ordinances 'in
Jewish scholarship is greatly indebted to Hebrew. Fathers were cautioned not to
them.15. As Guedemann puts it, "During engage youths to teach their mature
the same period of history, women usu- daughters,18 but to hire married in-
ally devoted themselves to spur on the structors.
knights to brave deeds, while the Jewish If instruction of girls and women was
women spurred on their husbands, sons perforce limited, all the more' attention
and the poor students to the work of was given to the education of the boy.
scholarship.16 Since Torah was the center of Jewish
In yet another way the women en- Jife, the child was introduced to study at
couraged Jewish scholarship. They a very early age. There were schools in
helped pass on the tradition, and their every community, supported by the
homes were precepts and examples of community as a whole or by special com-
the Jewish ideal. As Isaac Ben Samuel, mittees. In Perpignan, for example,
the nephew of Rabbenu Tam, said, "If there were five Havurot, of which one
our wives are not prophetesses, they are had to do with Talmud Torah. Besides,
the daughters of prophetesses, and they there were also private schools and pri-
are really the great ones of the genera- vate teachers.
tion, and one can rely upon the authority
of the customs which they practice." The child's introduction to the Torah
 EDUCATION IN RASHl's TIME
was accompanied by considerable cere-
mony in order to impress upon him the
importance of Jewish knowledge. Usu-
ally the young boy was introduced to the
Torah on Shavuot, although sometimes
the First of Nisan was the date selected.
At day-break the child was brought
into the Synagogue where the apposite
Torah section (Ex. 19:16 ff) was read.
Then, covered with a robe or a' cloth, he
was brought to the teacher. The teacher
began his instruction, from Lev. 11:12.
Then he took a slate, upon which were
written the first four, and the last four,
letters of the alphabet; and the verse of
Deuteronomy 33:4, "The law which
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Moses commanded unto us, is the heri-
tage of the Congregation of Jacob, as
well as the words, 'May study be my
calling/ and the first verse of Leviticus.
The new student was first introduced to
Leviticus, because Leviticus deals with
the laws of purity, and it was therefore
deemed fitting that those who are pure,
namely the children, occupy themselves
with these laws. The teacher pronounced
each letter and the child repeated it after
him. The last four letters were usually
pronounced together as one word
( n$"lp ) and then repeated backwards
( pittfn ) for the reason that these four
letters have the numerical value of 1000;
repeated, they add to 2000, and this is to
indicate that the Torah is 2000 years
older than Creation. The tablet was
smeared with honey which the child was
given to lick in order to impress on him
the sweetness of study. Also honey
cakes, baked by a young maiden, were
prepared for the ceremony. These cakes
had written on them a numberNof Bibli-
cal verses related to the ceremony,
namely: Ezekiel 3 : 3 ; Is. SO: 4, S; Psalm
119: 9,11,12,18, 34,97,130,140; Num-
bers 21: 16; Ex. 16: 13; Deuteronomy
32: 13; S. of S. 4: 11. Eggs were also
a part of the ceremony and this seems to
have been modeled after the German
custom. The following verses were writ-
ten upon the eggs: Psalm 119: 99, 100,
103, 105. The teacher read everything
83
written upon the tablet, the cakes and the
eggs, and the child repeated the verses
after him; then the child was given the
cakes and the eggs to eat, as well as
apples and other fruit. There was a
number of superstitious formulas that
were also employed. Finally, the child
was taken past a river, because the Torah
has been compared to mighty waters in
accordance with Proverbs 5: 16.20 This
ceremony took place when the child was
five or six years old, and from that time
on the boy's work commenced in earnest.
To begin with, the child learned to
read Hebrew. Then began the instruc-
tion in Bible and worship. As we have
mentioned, the child began with Leviti-
cus. When he reached the end of the
third chapter, he was taught to chant it as
in the Synagogue service; and at this
point, as an encouragement, he was ten-
dered a collation. Generally, the Bible
was read with its distinctive cantillation.
The Hebrew text of the Bible and of the
prayers was translated into the vernacu-
lar. Certainly the prayers* were often
recited in the vernacular, and the first
sections of the Passover Hagaddah were
usually repeated in French after their
rendering in Hebrew. Undoubtedly, the
French Jews knew their native language
well as can be seen by the grammatically
correct phrases cited in the commen-
taries. They also wrote French. He-
brew grammar, if not especially studied,
was nonetheless understood.
During instruction, the child was
taught to sway in the traditional manner.
As the child grew older, he was intro-
duced to Rabbinical literature, to the
Mishnah and the Talmud. Since study
was carried on only from manuscripts,
which were often of varying texts and
occasionally corrupt, the ability to de-
termine the correct reading was an im-
portant part of the teacher's equipment.
At the same time, the critical judgment '
of the students was sharpened, and they
themselves learned to make textual cor-
rections so that. Rabbenu Tam says,
"There are no children studying the Tal-
 84 JEWISH EDUCATION

mud who do not make corrections." The beginning—that it was time to kindle the
children were advised to enter into dis- lights. The children of course took full
cussions with one another, so that their part in the Passover and Purim Services,
wits might be sharpened.21 as well as in the other festivals. Every
There were frequent reviews of the effort was made to enlist the child as an
material, and every Friday was devoted active participant of the Synagogue and
to the recapitulation of the work of the home services.
week. On the first of the month, the The children's education was limited
work of the previous two months was to religion, and religious writings. They
gone over. In the month of Tishri there knew very little else, and as a result, their
was a general review of all that was knowledge of geography and other gen-
studied in the summer, and in Nisan, of eral subjects was woefully inadequate.
the winter's work.22 During the winter Even many of the German scholars like
months the children would study late into Rabbi Eleazer Ben Nathan or Meir of
the night by candle-light. Rothenburg, made ludicrous mistakes
As soon as the student was able to when they spoke of scientific matters. It
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follow the Talmudic discussions by him- must be borne in mind, however, that the
self he would prepare an abstract of the greatest Christian scholars of that time
particular theme in which he was inter- were also deficient in learning.
ested, as a guide for his further studies. Religious education took all the child's
The advanced students would travel from time. The boys were taught either by
academy to academy of which a large private teachers (who earned altogether
number nourished in northern France. between forty and fifty gulden a year),
Inasmuch as a new tractate of the Tal- or else in public schools which were
mud was begun on the new moon, the maintained throughout the land, for it
students were able to time their arrival was considered as pious a deed to sup-
at their new school. In every instance, port education as to build synagogues.
the students would study' at least one The child's initiation into his schooling
whole tractate from beginning to end. was carried on with the same formalities
These traveling students lived either in which were customary in France. First,
the home of the teachers or with a mem- the child learned the Hebrew Letters;
ber of the community; some relied upon then, the combination of letters into
the charity of the community while words; after that, whole verses of the
others were able to pay for their instruc- Bible, and, finally, the complete parashah
tion.23 of the week. Following the study of the
This educational pattern which ob- 'Bible, came the Mishnah and then the
tained in France was followed generally Talmud. The dry study of the letters
in Germany during this same period with was made more interesting by indicating
only minor differences. Just as in their numerical value, or by explaining
France, the education of the young boys the meaning of the name of the letter or
was begun very early, and was particu- by using the letters as the beginning of
larly intended to awaken within them words and thus giving the alphabet con-
religious sensitivity. Lads were given tinuity, as follows N (as the imperative
their parents' prayer books to carry to of the verb *]b\*) learn; 3 (2) the two
the Synagogue, and in the Synagogues kinds of study, namely, the written and
there were small benches upon which the the oral; 3 (="11D3) you will complete
boys sat and participated in the service. your lessons, so that "T (JH) you will know
Friday evening, immediately after the it. Occupy yourself with (3), the
Minha service, the fathers would send three parts of the Bible, and then go to
the children from the Synagogue to in- ^ (4), the four orders of the Mishnah
form their mothers that the Sabbath was and the Talmud, (»'. e. Zera'im, Mo'ed,
 EDUCATION IN RASHl's TIME
Nashim, Nezikin) and remember that
H (5), the Five Books of Moses and
1 (6), the Six orders of the Mishnah,
are the foundations of religion. Then
you will become 1 that is (]"N weapon)
well-armed, etc.24
The children were admonished to be
punctilious in reading the Torah, not be-
cause of grammatical exactitude, but in
order to prevent misunderstanding and
blasphemy. Thus, for example, children
were told to be sure that the word '3 Pi,
(with a dagesh) in the sentence
"13*T 'H 'S '3 was correctly sounded and
not to pronounce it ' 3 Fi, because of the
latter's similarity to the German expres-
sion of disgust. Of grammatical studies
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and rational exegesis, there is hardly a
trace in Germany, although the testimony
of Christian clergymen would indicate
that earlier, there was some attention paid
to such studies by Jews. However, no
records of them have remained, due espe-
cially to. the First Crusade, as a result of
which the spirit of the German Jews was
directed completely away from rational
Bible studies.
When the boy was able to study by
himself he began his academic wander-
ings. The school house had rooms pre-
pared for the poor students, and besides,
the teacher himself and philanthropic
members of the community assisted the
indigent scholars with room and board.
The beginning of a Talmudic tract as
well as its completion were occasions for
a ceremonial meal; otherwise there was
nothing to brighten the monotonous lives
of the students who devoted day and
night to their studies. Only during the
middle of the summer, from the fifteenth
of Iyyar (the middle of May), to the
fifteenth of Ab (the middle of July)
were evening studies suspended.
The higher studies involved consider-
able note taking in order to recall the
lectures, but in addition various devices
were employed to improve their memory,
often coupled with strange superstitions.
Thus, students refrained from eating the
hearts of birds, because it was believed
85
that this organ was injurious to the
memory.
Even though great stress was laid
on knowledge, equal emphasis was placed
upon deeds, and the ethical wills of the
period, such as that of Eleazer Ben Isaac
of Worms (1050), show a highly devel-
oped ethical sense which is characterized
by direct and practical precepts.25
We now turn to the schools and the
teachers. Taxes supporting the schools
were collected from every Jew monthly;
and in addition, free will gifts were ex-
pected. The tax and the voluntary offer-
ings were considered as corresponding to
the contributions which the ancients
made in support of the Temple, and the
purpose was deemed as equally holy.26
The schools were mainly in the more im-
portant communities, and the outlying
districts joined in their support,27 though
the desideratum was to have schools even
in the smaller towns.
The schools were usually built near
the Synagogue, and it may be that the
German designation of Synagogue as
Schule, originated in this practice.28 The
school building, if it could not be bought
was rented. The, schools were never to
be housed in private homes because the
teachers must have their own private
life.29 Each class was limited, to ten
children as a maximum, for it was felt
that competent instruction could not be
given in any one subject to a greater
number, even though there was Talmudic
precedent for larger classes.30
Whenever an outstanding pedagogue
was available, the community would en-
rol about 100 pupils each of whom paid
one liter (a monetary unit). It would
then proceed to hire ten teachers at 8
liters'apiece, and use the 20 remaining
liters to engage the exceptional teacher
to serve as the supervisor of the other
teachers.
The schools had a seven-year course of
study, as follows: the first two years for
the study of the Pentateuch; the next
two years for the Prophets, and the last
three years for the smaller tractates of
 86 JEWISH EDUCATION

the Mishnah and Talmud. The elemen- undertake any other occupation for com-
tary school was known as the Bet-Ha- pensation, such as that of the scribe.34
midrash Ha-katan. Upon completing The teachers were hired at a definite
their studies the students were graduated salary, and at times they were obliged to
to the Bet-Ha-midrash Ha-gadol, where sue the parent for failure to compensate
the usual course of study was also seven them according to the contract.35 Teach-
years. ers in schools were to be paid from the
Before the expulsion from France in community monies if the educational
1306, education there was very well con- fund was exhausted.83
ducted throughout the country. In the Teaching was considered so sacred a
larger communities, in Narbonne, Or- task that in the Yeshibot the instructors
leans, etc., there were substantial Yeshi- wore special garments when they taught,
bot. The elementary , schools and the and removed them to don their ordinary
Yeshibot were large and well appointed. clothes before they left the building.87
Many of them were surrounded by beau- Any number of pedagogical rules were
tiful gardens. After the expulsion, they given to the teachers, for example, the
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were sold and the funds were confiscated teacher was counseled to adjust his in-
by the Royal Treasury.31 struction to the comprehension of the
All parents were advised to send their child. If the child was slow, the teacher
children to schools, and wealthy parents was to expand his explanations. On the
particularly were cautioned not to in- other hand, those who grasped readily
struct their own children, lest it prove were to be given the material as tersely
a bad example.32 as possible.88 Sefer Hasidim tells of an
Where the parent engaged a private older scholar who used to encourage the
tutor, he was careful to see that the children to attend school by distributing
teacher was competent, and well versed fruit or nuts to them as an inducement
in the particular subject that he was to for study, both before and after they went
teach; thus, an expert in Talmud would to their school, and it is recorded that the
not be engaged to teach the Bible and children became interested in their studies
vice versa. The teacher also had to be because of this technique.39 The teacher
intelligent—intelligence was more es- was advised to stress the subjects in
teemed, than knowledge—but the most which the pupil was most apt, whether it
sought after qualification was piety. The be the Bible or the Talmud. If he were
teacher had to be exemplary. He was incompetent in one or the other, he was
called upon to instruct the child in such not to be pushed ahead too rapidly.40
matters of belief and conduct, as honor- The class sessions were not to be inter-
ing the Torah, and understanding that rupted by any outsider seeking to discuss
the Creator is in the heavens, and it is matters with the teacher.41 Thus if an
He who provides and who sustains life. individual felt that he was too popular,
As soon as the child was old enough to he was not to engage himself as a teacher
comprehend it, the teacher instructed him lest he be interrupted by his friends.
that there is a Gehinnom for sinners and Likewise one who is too much of a
a Gan-Eden for the righteous. ' The scholar should not teach, because he will
father was cautioned not to place his spend his nights in study and will not
child in charge of an ill-tempered teacher. get sufficient sleep to be alert for his day-
Corporal punishment, however, was not time classes.42 The teacher is very sternly
always completely frowned upon, but the admonished never to gossip about his
child was never to be punished so severely pupils "for throughout their lives, the
as to leave marks or injury.33 The pupils will never find rest because of his
Melamdim had to devote their full time gossip.43 The teacher's first interest is
to their work and were not permitted to the welfare of his students. Even more,
 EDUCATION IN RASHl's TIME
if there is another teacher in the com-
munity, he should help his colleague's
pupils as well as his own. The teachers
should never be self-seeking, and if, for
example, he possesses manuscripts which
his colleague does not have, he should
not say to himself, 'I will not lend him
the manuscript, that his pupils might
come to me to study,' but he should re-
member the rabbinical maxim, 'The
honor of Thy comrade should be as dear
to you as your own.'*4 Should a teacher
discover that he has an exceptional pupil,
who would benefit by attending another
more advanced school, the teacher must
not remain quiet but must suggest to the
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87
the ultimate goal of all teaching and one
must be careful to work only for the best
interests of the child. Therefore, parents
and teachers were advised to discriminate
carefully in all matters that affected their
children. An example is given by Judah
Hasid, "Suppose Reuben and Simeon
each have children and Simeon says to
Reuben 'You are wealthy and I am poor.
I cannot afford to hire a teacher. Favor
me by having your teacher also instruct
my children.' Simeon's children may not
avail themselves of Reuben's teacher if
Reuben's children are lazy, or are men-
tally behind Simeon's children.
The Jews who lived in Germany and

father that he transfer the child to the France at the time of Rashi were con-
other school, even though it entails a vinced that Talmud Torah is equal to
monetary loss to himself.*5 The child is all the other mizvot.

\A very good survey of the life and times of in the Middle Ages, P. 372; Schechter Studies,
this period is found in The Social Life of the first series P. 368; Orhot Hayyim, No. 3 ;
Jews of Northern France in the XII-XIV Cen- Assaf, Toldot P. 2, etc.
turies, by L. Rabinowitz, London, 1938; other 21
Hukke-Ha-torah 9.
sources for the period are M. Guedemann, "Ibid. P. 10.
/ Geschichte Des Erziehungswesens Und Der 23
Guedemann, Geschichte, P. 57.
Cultur Der Juden, Vienna, 1880, and S. Assaf, "Or Zarua I, P. 8; Nr. 24.
Mekorot letoldot hahinnuch beyisrael, Vol. I, "Guedemann, Geschichte, 116, ff.
Tel Aviv, 1925. "Hukke Ha-torah No. 4.
"Sefer Hasidim, 428-429. "Assaf, Mekorot P. 13.
8
P. 27 following. !8
'Geschichte, P. 15 Cf. however, Abrahams Jewish Life, P. 48,
'Sefer Hasidim, 26. for other derivations.
!9
"No. 774. Assaf, Mekorot, P. 13.
!
'No. 796. °Cf. Baba Batra 21a; Hukke Ha-torah 6.
s
No. 795. "Assaf. 16.
32
"No. 588-766. Sef. Has. 751.
K
Or Zarua I, P. 58, Nr. 186. "Sef. Has. 764,811, 821, 306.
a
Sef. Has. 588. "Hitkke Ha-torah 12.
S3
a
Sef. Has. 872. Cf. the case cited by Rabbenu Gershom, As-
"Ibid. 878. saf, Mekorot P. 1.
"Ibid. 879. "Assaf, 7.
"Or Zarua II, P. 91, Nr. 173. "Assaf P. 13.
S8
"Geschichte P. 232. Sef. Has. 801, 796.
"Geschichte P. 232. "764.
<0
"Sef. Has. 835,1502. 824.
"Sef. Has. 435,1501. "828.
M
The entire initiation ceremony to study, which "820,1496.
43
is described by Guedemann, Geschichte, P. 50 802.
ff, has a number of variants which are indi- "1478.
4
cated by Israel Abrahams, in his Jewish Life "823.