Journal ofSemitic Studies XLP//1 Spring 1999

OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC*

SADOK MASLIYAH

DEFENSE LANGUAGE INSTITUTE, MONTEREY

This study attempts to explore the current oath forumulae used by

Iraqis in their daily interactions.1 It also attempts to trace back these

* I would like to thank my informants Drs Mohammed Jamil and Abdullatif

El-Nakishbendy from the Defense Language Institute, School of the Middle East I,
and my son Ranon for proofreading the final draft.
1
The transcription scheme in this article reflects the prestigious Muslim dialect
of Baghdad unless otherwise indicated. The sound /c/, voiceless palatal affricative
is similar to the first sound of the English church. Pausal td' marbutah, /h/, is used
when reference is made to Classical Arabic (CA), but omitted in Iraqi Arabic (IA)
unless it is changed to Id due to suffixing {qubbah-qubbattj. Ill stands for voiced
alveo-dental lateral, velarized, similar to the English / in mill, /g/ is the transcrip-
tion of the voiced velar spirant, similar to the French r. Idl is voiced interdental
spirant; similar to the English th as in than. The voiceless glottal spirant similar to
the English h in home is transcribed as /h/ and the voiceless interdental spirant
similar to the English th as in thank is Id. Idl is the voiceless interdental, spirant,
velarized (no equivalent in English). Other Arabic sounds that have no equivalents
in English are transcribed as follows: /'/ is voiced pharyngeal spirant; /q/ is a voice-
less uvular stop, III stands for dental stop, velarized, and Isl stands for the voiceless
dental spirant, velarized. The voiceless pharyngeal spirant and the voiceless velar
spirant (similar to the German ch in Bach) are transcribed as /h/ and /h/ respec-
tively. In Iraqi Arabic the sound /z/ merges with Id/. The definite article is tran-
scribed as al regardless of whether it is attached to a word beginning with a sun or
moon letter. Final /a/, III, lul in Al are transcribed as /a/, I'll and /u/ respectively
since they are pronounced as short vowels in a final pause. Short and long vowels
are transcribed /a/a/, /i/l/, lu/ul, lolol, and lelel. The long vowel lei sounds as
though it were between the vowel of the English y£z and phase. No attempt is made
to mark stress since in the majority of cases it falls on the first vowel of words
having two syllables; otherwise it is placed on the vowel which precedes the last V
or CC.
It should be mentioned that there are dialectal differences among the socio-reli-
gious communities of Iraq. The Jews and the Christians of Baghdad speak dialects
different from that of the Muslims, and the rural sedentary dialect differs from the
urban Muslim dialect of Baghdad and some other cities. There also exist dialectal
differences within Baghdad due to dassicization and a continuous flow of a greater
number of non-Baghdadi speakers into the city of Baghdad (Blanc, Communal Dia-
lects, 182, n. 2 and Altoma, Problem, 6).
The oath formulae in this study are collected from published materials and con-
firmed by myself (a native of Baghdad) and two native informants. The informants
also validated some of the formulae that are adopted from other Arabic dialects.

83
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

formulae to the Qur'an and Hadlth (Muslim tradition) and show the
situations in which they are used. Although these oath formulae are
largely inspired by religion, they are part and parcel of the everyday
Arabic spoken in Iraq.
The oath plays a great part in the social life of the Muslim. The
Muslim taking the oath puts all that he values on his words. The
oath is a pledge to God, 'ahdu-lldhi, mitdqu-lldhi, dimmatu-lldhi. If
a Muslim does not keep his promise, or if he takes a false oath, he
imperils his own soul and all that is precious to it, and thereby of-
fends the divine being. In taking an oath, one must endeavour to
remember its character as a serious, sacred expression. The person
taking the oath must be mukallaf, i.e. he must act deliberately as a
free agent and intend the oath. It is insisted in the Qur'an and the
Hadlth that one should keep one's oath, but an oath must always
give way to a higher consideration. It is therefore recommended
not to take an oath without adding the istitnd' (the formula 'if
God so will'). The breaking of an oath is considered a duty in Is-
lam when one has sworn to commit a sin.2 The views of the Mus-
lim scholars are, however, divided on the question whether such an
oath is valid at all. The Muslim can swear by God's Essence, or by
one of His beautiful names, or attributes. According to a hadlth,
one should add Id ildha illd-lldh, 'there is no deity except God' in
case one swears by the deities al-Ldt and 'Uzzd? The oath by the
Prophet is recognized by some Hanbalis, but in general is not con-
sidered binding.
The oath formulae give the substance of the oath. The usual for-
mula is introduced by a particle for that by which one swears. The
most common particles used in oaths in CA are bi, ta and wa which
are used in solemn Iraqi oaths: wa-lldhi, bi-lldhi, ta-lldhi 'by God'.
The particle bi is the common preposition in combination with wa
as in wa-bi-lldhi; wa is an intensive particle like la, which is used in
CA particularly in the formula la-'amrl, la-'amruka, 'by my, (thy)
life', or 'by the One Who lengthens my/thy life'. It should be men-
tioned that wa is employed only when a substantive follows and the
verb of swearing is omitted. Before a pronominal suffix, as well as
when the verb is expressed, the preposition bi must be used: aqsamtu
bi-lldhi or uqsimu bi-lldhi, 'I swear by God'. Sometimes the particle
fa is prefixed to wa, as in fa-wa-lldhi, 'by God then!' The particle ta
is construed like wa, but is seldom used: ta-lldhi!, 'by God!', ta-

2
El, 226.
3
Ibid.
84
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

rabbi!, 'by my Lord!'; ta-l-rahmdni, 'by the Compassionate!', and ta-

haydtikal, 'by thy life!'4
The ancient Arabs swore especially by their gods and fathers: bi-
abi, 'by my father'; bi-jaddi, 'by my grandfather'. The holy stone or
idol was a particular favourite for taking an oath in pre-Islamic days;
and later, the Kaeba. Although in keeping with the character of the
oath in Islam swearing by Allah is alone permitted, swearing by fa-
thers, saints, and especially by the Prophet and holy places occur in
everyday interaction in Iraq. Swearing by one's father was particularly
forbidden by the Prophet, but was sometimes used by the caliphs
e
Umar and Abu Bakr and even by the Prophet himself.5
There is no essential difference between the popular use of the
oath among the ancient Arabs and in Islam, but there are special
rules regarding the oath in Islam. In the Qur'an, especially in the
older surahs, oaths by natural phenomena, known from the kdhins,
are usual {Surahs 56:5; 81:15-8; 86:1; 89:1-3; 91:1-7). We also
have instances of swearing by the Qur'an (36:1; 38:11; 44:1; 50:1)
and by the angels (37:1; 77:1). Two passages in the Qur'an are of
special importance for the use of the oath. In Surah 5:89 and 2:224—
5, it is said that ill-considered expressions (lagiu) in oaths can be bro-
ken and expiated. The context in both passages makes it probable
that the reference is to vows of absention, sometimes from food,
sometimes from women. In Surah 66:2 we read: 'God hath pre-
scribed for you the dissolution of your oaths.' This prescription is
applied to a case in which the Prophet had sworn to his wife Hafsah
not to touch the girl-slave Mariyah, which he later regretted.6
For the Iraqi Muslim, the most binding guarantee for a promise is
to swear by the name of Allah: wa-llah, wa-lldh, wa-lldhi, 'by God';
w-hydt allah, 'by die life of God'; w-rabbind, 'by our Lord' and w-
ddti-llah, 'by the Essence of God'. A bilingual oath is allah bir? 'Al-
lah [Arabic] is One [Turkish] as in allah bir Idzim aruh il-yom, 'by
God, the One, [be what may] I must go today'. Note the play on
words in the following oath taken in Samarra: w-rabbak il-rabbdk,s
'by your Lord who reared you!' Swearing by Allah as a binding oath
is attested in the Qur'an (16:38): wa-aqsamu bi-lldhi jahda
aymdnihim, 'and they swore by Allah their most binding oaths'. The

4
Wright, A Grammar of the Arabic Language I, 279 and II, 175-6, al-NajIraml,
Aymdn al-'arab, 24; El, 225.
5
Nawawl, Kitdb al-Adkdr, All.
6
El, 226.
7
Hanafl, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 31.
8
Ibid., 140.

85
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

Muslim does not consider it a lack of respect to swear by Allah pro-

vided he does not perjure himself. The phrase wa-lldh(i), '[I swear]
by God' is commonly mixed with statements. The oath may also be
associated with prophets, holy places, saints and important items, or
with the name of a close and dear person, or with the life by whom
one swears (e.g. one's child, father, mother, husband, wife, or
brother, or by one's own eyes or head). Such oaths used by Iraqis in
their everyday interactions are: w-hydtabuy\, 'by my father's life!'; w-
rich umml\; 'by my mother's soul!'; w-dd'ti, 'by my life'; w-dd'tak,
'by thy life'; bi-sarafior b-ndmusl, 'by my honour!'; wlb-rdsl, 'by my
head'; b-damlrl, 'by my conscience'; b-wijddni, 'by my honesty'.9
It is common in Iraq and the Middle East to swear by amdnat
alldh, 'the Faithfulness, or Protection of God', as well by the Prophet
Muhammad, the Qur'an, the Ka'ba, the angels, and one's own or the
interlocutor's life.
According to one hadith, it is forbidden, (some say, however, 'most
detested') to swear by the amdnah, because it is not one of the names
of God. Despite this hadith, it is common in Baghdad to swear by
amdnta-lldh, 'God's Protection'; alia u-(a)mdn alia, '[I swear by] God
and God's Protection'; and amdnta-lla w-rasuluh, '[I swear] by God's
Protection and His Messenger'.10
Abu Dawud, a reliable transmitter of Hadith, says about abstain-
ing from swearing by the amdnah: man halafa bi-l-amdnati fa-laysa
minnd, 'whoever swears by [God's] amdnah is not one of us [Mus-
lims]'. Another Hadith transmitter, al-Nawawi, says: yukrahu-l-halfu
bi-gayri asmd'i-lldhi wa-sifdtihi sawd'un fi ddlika-l-nabiyyu wa-l
Ka'batu wa-l-mald'ikatu wa-l-amdnatu wa-l-haydtu wa-l-ruhu ... wa-
min asaddihd kardhatan al-halfu bi-l-amdnati,n 'it is detested to
swear by other than the Exalted God's names and attributes, whether
by the Prophet, the Ka'ba, the angels, the Protection [of God], one's
life, or soul, etc. ... the most detested of all is swearing by the
amdnah [of God'].
Among hadiths first place must be given to a saying by the
Prophet: 'I never take a vow without being prepared to expiate it, if I
see that another is better, I adopt the better.'12 In this and similar
sayings, which are collected by al-Buharl and other traditionalists,
the expiation of vows is recommended in cases other than vows of

9
Ibid., 48, 87.
10
Ibid., 31, 70; Piamenta, Islam in Everyday Arabic Speech, 126.
11
Wensinck, Concordance, 120b; Nawawl, Kitdb al-Adkdr, 455-6.
12
El, 226.
86
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

abstention. The Prophet has been quoted as saying: Id tahlif bi-lldhi

la sddiqan wa-ld kadiban13 'do not swear by God when truthful or
otherwise'. According to another hadith, the Prophet also warned the
Muslims not to swear excessively in business transactions. If taken,
oaths should be taken with the following reservations: 'And make
not Allah, by your oaths, a hindrance to your being righteous and
observing your duty unto Him and making peace among mankind.
Allah is Hearer, Knower. Allah will not take you to task for that
which is unintentional in your oaths. But He will take you to task
for that which your hearts have garnered. Allah is forgiving, clement'
(Q. 2:224-5).
Pre-Islamic Arabs would swear by Allah. The following are ancient
Arab oaths and their variant formulae: 14
(a) Swearing upon one's soul, bi-nafil, or upon one's life: bi-haydti, la-
'amri or simply 'amn, upon one's honour, upon the god who sup-
ports the life of the oath-taker, especially by Mandt, al-'Uzzd, and
al-Ldt, and upon particular things or dear persons with whom
honour is associated;
(b) swearing by yaminu-lldh(i), lit. 'swearing by Allah', e.g. yamlnu-
lldhi la-qad kdna kadd, 'I swear by God that such-and-such hap-
pened'; aymunu-lldhi (aymun is the plural of yamin 'oath'); var.
(ay)manu/ (ay)minu/ (ay)munu ..., or the shortened forms: a(y)mul
a(y)mi/a(y)ma ...; or the shortest forms mulmalmi...;
(c) haramu-lldhi, 'by the sacredness of God' is like saying yamlnu-
lldhi: e.g. haramu-lldhi Id afalu kadd, 'by the sacredness of God, I
shall not do so and so');
(d) 'amra-lldhi, or 'amaraka-lldha, or la-'amru-lldhi, 'in the name of
God';
(e) wa-hajjat i-lldhi (Id afalu), 'by the pilgrimage to Allah (I shall not
do so and so)'.
Increasing the gravity of the oath by various procedures is ac-
knowledged in official Islam and called tagliz al-yamin or ta'zlm al-
yamin by, for example, placing the Qur'an, or al-Buharl's Sahlh in
the bosom while taking the oath. The oath is also intensified by re-
peating the swearing formula three or more times. To affect elo-
quence and to strengthen their oaths, Iraqi Muslims use the follow-
ing forms for swearing by Allah. In Baghdad: wa-lldhi bi-kasri-l-hd',^
13
Hanafi, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 23; Nawawl, Kitdb al-Adkdr, 456.
14
El, 224; Ma'luf, al-Munjid ft al-Lugah wa-l-'ulum, s.v., yamin; Hava, Arabic-
English Dictionary, 499; Najlraml, Aymdn al-'arab, 24-6; Ibn Manzur, Lisdn al-
'arab, s.v., 'llh; Piamenta, Islam, 39, 40.
15
Hanafi, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 28, 30—31, 69. See more examples,
pp. 30-31, 69, 111-12, 131, 139, 153; Piamenta, Islam, 80.
87
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

'[I swear with emphasis] wa-lldhi [in the full classical form:] with h
followed by the vowel / [ending the word]'; in Hit: w-kasri-l-hd', '[I
swear] by the [ending vowel] i following the h [i.e. by the full form]';
in Baghdad and Hillah: wa-lla tumma wa-lla, 'by God and again by
God'); in Hillah: wa-lla w-ta-lla, 'by God by God' or wa-lla w-ba-lld
wi-l-taldta sma-lla, 'by God' wherein the name of Allah has been
mentioned three times jointly. The Jews of Baghdad (BJ) also swear
triple oaths as in wa-lla wa-ti-lla wa-bi-lla. Pious Iraqis often abstain
from swearing by God for fear of Him and say for example: min ger
yamln, as in min geryamin il-'isnn dinar ma-tkaffi, 'no swearing! (lit.
'without swearing') the twenty dinars are not enough'; bald nidiggdh
astgilak badla jdldi, 'without [taking] a vow, I will buy you a new
suit' (BJ). Some Iraqis believe that a false oath 'breaks the back'
(tiksir il-dahar) of the person who breaks the oath and it 'destroys his
home'. 16 '
If the person taking the oath is believed to have not taken the oath
with good intentions, he is told indirectly that his oath has no value
or merit: halll yamlnak ilak, 'leave your oath to yourself or enta wi-
l-yamin sunu, 'you are far from being truthful' (lit. 'what is there be-
tween you and your oath?'). Other answers include Id tihlif bi-j-jir
lamdyibyadd md asaddig blk}1 'if you swear by the asphalt that it will
not become white, I will not believe you', and qdbil rdsi rds salgam?
'Am I [as worthless as] a piece of turnip?' 18 (lit. 'it is possible that my
head is [worthless like] a turnip?'). If a person takes an oath and
changes his mind later, the custom is to break a loaf of bread on the
head of a boy as ransom for the unfulfilled oath. Few Iraqis insist
that the person who takes the oath should do so in the mosque by
putting his right hand on the Qur'an and saying w-haqq hdda kaldm
allah, 'by the truth of this Word of God'. Others require that the
oath be taken at holy tombs like at the tomb of al-'Abbas in Karbala.
Those who are afraid to take an oath refrain to do so and say md
ahlif 'aid mulk il-dinyd, 'I will not swear even if I am given all the
treasures of the world' (lit. 'I will not swear if they allow me to own
the whole world'); md ahlif Id yintum Ikilk, 'I will not take an oath
even if I am given bundles of money'.19
In order to be trusted, the oath taker may say to his interlocuter,
saddiq,20 'believe [me]' or ammin, 'believe [me]'. Assuming he is un-
16
Ibid., 25.
17
Ibid., 13, 23, 60.
18
Ibid., 13.
19
Ibid., 23.
20
Ibid., 56.
88
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

derstood, the person who takes the oath omits the conditional clause
'if I lie' from his oath and says, for example: 'asd Id 'esal betnd
(Mosul) 'may I not get home', or atliggdhd bi darbl [idd da agdib\
(Karh district of Baghdad) 'I will get my come-uppance in my way';
hastmi mhammad21 'Muhammad will be my opponent [on the Day
of Resurrection]; atyabbas b-gd'i, 'I will be inflicted with paralysis'
(lit. 'I will be dry [like a piece of wood] on my ground'; atbarra min
din mhammad, 'I will quit Muhammad's religion'; in sa-lla md
asabbuh, 'may I not wake up in the morning'; in sa-lla md titla'
'layya-l-samis, 'may the sun not rise on me'; agma' nadar 'em, 'I will
lose (lit. 'cut') my eyesight'; in sa-lla yigasslunl wigafhuni, 'may I be
dead' (lit. 'may I be washed and shrouded'); alia ydebnl bi-l-ndr,
'God will cast me into the fire'; in sa-lla amut/a'md', 'may I be dead/
blind'; tinkisir rijli, 'may my leg be broken'; atkal wlddi, 'I will be
bereaved of my children'; amut 'aid din il-yahudJ il-majus, 'I will die
as a Jew/ as a Magian'; bi-l-taldg22 I swear I divorce my wife/wives',
etc.

Oaths Containing God's Beautiful Names and Attributes,

Quranic Expressions, and Reference to God23

Iraqi oaths contain Quranic expressions, God's beautiful names, at-

tributes or references to His omnipotence. Examples:
w-haqq asma'i-lldhi-l-husnd, 'by God's most beautiful names';
w-haqq il-haqq, 'by the truth of truth';
w-haqq alia, 'by the truth of God';
w-haqq man qdl and-alla, 'by the truth of the One who said I am
God';
qasaman bi-ddti-lldh, 'I swear by the Essence of God!'
As attested in the Qur'an (Q. 2:80), God will not break His cov-
enant, but one has to fulfil the Covenant of God when one has
covenanted. A few Iraqis swear bi-'ahd alldh, 'by the Covenant of
God!' The most dreadful fear of Iraqi Muslims on earth is death,
their own annihilation. Life and death depend on the will of God,
the Everlasting (Q: 3:2).
The following are relevant oaths. In the Karh district of Baghdad,

21
Ibid., 38, 100, 112.
22
Ibid., 103, 148.
23
Ibid., 27, 28-31, 69, 70-72, 92-3, 111, 139, 140, 153, 160; Wensinck, Con-
cordance I, 392b, 395a; Piamenta, The Muslim Conception of God, 29, 31, 32, 37.

89
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

one takes the following oath: wi-l-muhlik H-mudrik, '[I swear] by the
Destroyer, the Annihilator', or wa-lla-l-muhlik il-mudrik, '[I swear]
by God, the Destroyer, the Annihilator'; wa-l-muhyi-l-mumit, '[I
swear] by the One who revives the dead and causes death'; wa-lladl
yubyi-l-'izdm, '[I swear] by the Reviver of Bones'; wa-l-hayyi-l-
qayyum, '[I swear] by the Alive One, the Eternal'. The latter phrase
referring to God is attested in the Qur'an (2:255; 3:2; 20:111):
alldhu Id ildha ilia huwa-l-hayyu-l-qayyum, 'Allah! there is no God
save Him, the Alive, the Eternal!' In an oath taken in Mosul, one
swears by God the Omnipotent: wi-lladi qddir 'aid kull si... '[I
swear] by the One who is able to do all things...'. Baghdadis swear
'by the Hearer, the Omniscient', wi-l-sdmi il-'dlim, which is attested
in the Qur'an: innahu huwa-l-sdmi'u-l-'allm, 'Lo! He is the Hearer,
the Knower' (Q. 41:36); wa-qdla rabbukumu-d'uni astajib lakum,
'And your Lord has said: "pray unto me, and I will hear your
prayer"' (Q. 40:60).
Swearing by alldhi-l-'aziz, 'by God, the Almighty, the Majestic,
the Precious' (i.e. difficult to obtain) is attested in the Qur'an: wa-
lldhu 'azlzun hakim, (Q. 2:228) 'God is Mighty'; wa-lldh alii 'azizen
sdneh (Mosul), 'by God whose power is preminent!'; w-rabb il-'izza,
'by the Lord of power'.
When addressing a person named Jalal, Iraqis may swear an oath
w-jaldl allah, 'by the Might of God'. Al-Jalll, 'the Majestic' is one of
God's beautiful names paraphrastically adduced in the Qur'an
(55:78).
The Quranic phrase rabbu-l-samdwdti wa-l-ardi, 'the Lord of the
heavens and the earth' is employed in the oath w-rabb il-samdwdt
wi-l-ard, 'by the Lord of heavens and earth!' It is attested in the
Qur'an: qul man rabbu-l-samdwdti wa-l-ardi qul alldh (13:16), 'Say
[O Muhammad]! Who is the Lord of the heavens and the earth?
Say: "Allah!"' The divine sustenance of beasts is reflected in the
Baghdadi oath wi-l-mirzig il-dud b-hajar il-jalmud, 'by the Sustainer
of worms in rocks' and is attested in the Qur'an (5:114), and
(51:58).
After wa-lla and wa-lldhi the most common beautiful name of
God is al-'azim. It is used in everyday interaction in Iraq: wa-lla, or
wa-lldhi-l-'adim. When an Iraqi Muslim makes a solemn declaration,
he says: qasaman bi-lldhi-l-'ddim... 'I swear by God the Incompara-
bly Great' and uqsim bi-lldhi-l-'aliyyi-l-'adim, 'I swear by the High
and Incomparably Great God'. Al-'Azim is attested in the Qur'an
(2:255 and 42:4): wa-huwa-l-'aliyyu-l-'azim, 'He is the Sublime, the
Incomparably Great'. Hanafi, however, states that the oath wi-l-ism-
90
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

al-a'zam, 'by the most incomparably great name!' is considered

above all oaths {fawqa kulli yamin), and that it is more eloquent than
by God (ablag min wa-lldht).24
The following are variant oaths quoted from Hanafl. In Baghdad:
wa-lldhi-l-'adim w-bdlig il-karim, 'by the Incomparably Great and
Extremely Generous!'; wa-lldhi-l-hayyi-l-'adim, 'by God the Sub-
lime, the Incomparably Great!'; wi-l-'adim, 'by the Incomparably
Great!' Hanafl adds that an atonement does not obligate the oath-
taker unless he vows the following: bi-l-'adim, wi-l-'adim 'alayya
kaffdra, 'by the Incomparably Great! I am obligated by an atone-
ment'. In Mosul: wi-l-'adim bi-l-haqq, 'by the Incomparably Great
in truth!' Hill! Iraqis swear wa-lla-l-'adim wa-lla-l-karim, 'by God
Almighty! By God the Bountiful!'
When calming a worried person, Iraqis refer to the Creator in
their oaths: wi-l-halaqak u-sawwdk, 'by the One who created and
shaped you!'; w-illadi halaq il-sama b-ger 'amad, 'by the One who
hath created the heavens without support!'; w-illadi sawwarni w-
sawwarak, 'by your Fashioner and mine!'
There are a number of Iraqi oaths that are constructed as relative
clauses whose subject is God.25 In Baghdad: w-illi rufa' il-sama b-ger
'amad, 'by the One who raised the heavens without supports!' is at-
tested in the Qur'an: alldhu-lladi rafa'a-l-samdwdti bi-gayri 'amadin
Id tarawnahd (13:2), 'Allah it is who raised up the heavens without
visible supports'; w-haqq illi rufa' il-sama u-busat il-ard, 'by the truth
of the One who hath raised the heavens and made the earth a wide
expanse!' is attested in the Qur'an: wa-lldhu ja'ala lakumu-l-arda
bisdtan, (71:19), 'and Allah hath made the earth a wide expanse for
you'; w-alladi 'ald-l-'ars istawd, 'by the One who established Himself
upon the Throne!' is attested in the Qur'an (10:3): inna rabbakum
... stawd 'ald-l-'arsi, 'Lo! your Lord is Allah ... established Himself
upon the Throne'.
Oaths including tawhid26 (Unity of God) and worshipping of
God ('ibddah) follow: wi-l-wdhid il-ahad, 'by the One and the only
One'; w-haqq il-tijjald bi-l-wahddniyyah, 'by the truth of the One re-
vealed through Oneness'; b-rabbi w-ma'bildi, 'by the Lord and my
Worshipped'; wi-lli tfarrad bi-l-wahddniyyah, 'by the One singled
out in Oneness'; uqsim bi-lli ti'ibdah or wi-l ti'ibdah, 'I swear by the
One you worship'; wi-l-ildh il-ma'bud, 'by the Worshipped Deity';
24
Hanafl, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 28.
25
Hanafl, Mu'jam al-lugah, II, 49; Hanafl, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 29-31,
38,92,93, 105, 106, 111, 112, 131, 153.
26
Hanafi, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 2 8 , 29, 3 0 .

91
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

wi-l-rabb il-ma'bud, 'by the Worshipped Lord'; tu-'izzat il-mabud,

'by the might of the Worshipped'; w-illadi Id mabuda siwdh, 'by the
One who alone is worshipped'; w-illadi-n 'ibad w-md n-nadar, 'by
the One who is worshipped and never seen'; w-illadi Idyu bad siwdh,
'by the One who alone is worshipped'; w-haqq man ygayyimhd
wi-ysahhihd wuhmum il-glub yijlihd, 'by the truth of the One who
makes [the weather] cloudy and clears it, and cleanses the hearts
from troubles'.27

Oaths Involving the Prophet, Imams, Saints, and

Other Venerated Personalities28

Examples:
wi-l ba'at mhammad nabi, 'by the One who sent Muhammad as a
Prophet!';
w-illadi ba'at mhammad bi-l-risdlah, 'by the One who sent
Muhammad with the message [of Islam]';
w-illadl arsal mhammad bi-l-haqq, 'by the One who sent Muhammad
with truth';
wi-lli nabba-l-nabi, 'by the One who sent the Prophet!';
w-saldt mhammad, 'by the prayer of Muhammad!';
w-haqq mhammad illi-htilqat il-dinyd lajlah, 'by the truth of
Muhammad that the world was created for his sake';
wi-l-nabi, 'by the Prophet';
wi-hydt il-nabi, ' [I swear] by the life of the Prophet';
wi-hydt il-rasul, 'by the life of the Messenger';
w-tmdn il-rasul, 'by the faith, (rather 'by the security') rendered by the
Messenger of God';
uqsimu bi-lldhi wa-rasulih, 'I swear by God and His Messenger';
wi-l-nabi ayyilb, 'by the prophet Job';
w-haqq ibrdhim al-halil, 'by the truth of Abraham the Hebronian'.
If a Muslim swears an oath to a Christian or a Christian swears an
oath, he says, w-'isd-l-hayy, 'by Jesus the alive'; wi-l-'adra, 'by the
Virgin'; w-haqq hddd ibn mattd, (or Mattl) 'by Matthew's son' (hddd
has no meaning here); wi-l-nabiyiinus, 'by die prophet Jonah'; wi-l-
nabi jirjis, 'by the [tomb of the Prophet] Jirjis' near Mosul. If a Mus-
lim swears an oatJi to a Jew he says: wi-l-nabi musd, 'by the prophet
Moses'; w-haqq musd l-nabi, 'by the truth of Moses the prophet'; w-

27
Ibid., 15; Piamenta, The Muslim Conception of God, 19.
28
HanafI, al-Aymdn al-bagdadiyyah, 37, 39, 43, 72, 73-4, 92, 94, 121, 131,
132, 144, 163—4; Piamenta, Islam, 64 and The Muslim Conception of God, 24.
92
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

nabi musd il-ndjdh il-alla, 'by the prophet Moses who called God';
w-sefferj il-tdrdt {sefer, Hebrew: 'book') and bi-l-zabbur, 'by the
Bible'.29
The Iraqi Shl'ls swear by the Imams 'All, al-Husayn, al-Kazim,
and other Shfl personalities, like al-'Abbas; known as al-'Abbas abu
rds il-hdr, and Abu Fadil; by Zahrah (a nickname name for Fatimah,
the Prophet's daughter); by Hamzah Abu Hzamen (a nickname of
the Prophet's uncle); by al-Sddah, and ahl al-bayt (the Prophet's fam-
ily). Examples:
b-'alial-karrdr, 'by 'All, the indomitable';
w-li-hsen il-madlum, 'by Husayn the deprived';
w-li-hsen is-sahld, 'by Husayn the martyr';
w-li-hsen il-mdt 'atsdn, 'by Husayn who died thirsty' (Nasiriyyah);
w-qamar il-'aslrah, 'by al-'Abbas' (lit. 'the moon of the tribe');
wa-bu tilba, 'by Abu Tilba' (i.e. Kazim the Imam).
Other Shl'l oaths are: wi-l-li-tna'as imam, 'by die twelve Imams'; w-
'esah umm il-mu' minin, 'by 'A'ishah, the Mother of Believers' (Hit);
w-bndt il-hasan, 'by Hasan's daughters'; w-dil'-l-zahra, 'by the rib of
al-Zahra'. The Sabians swear by Yihya (Johahan) and il-'zer (Ezra the
Scribe); the Christians swear by Christ, bi-l-masih\; the Jews, b-mose
rabbenu, 'by Moses, our master' and b-'ezra ha-sofer or bi-l-'zer, by
'Ezra the Scribe'.30

Oaths and Invocations Involving the Qur'an31

Examples:
bi-l-qur'dn, wi-l-qur'dn, 'by the Qur'an';
w-illi anzal il-qur'dn, 'by the One who revealed the Qur'an!';
w-haqq man anzal il-qur'dn 'aid qalb mhammad, 'by the One who
revealed the Qur'an to the heart (or mind) of Muhammad';
w-haqq kull harf bi-l-qur'dn, 'by the truth of every letter in the
Qur 3 _an;)
bi-hydt hal-mushaf (Hit), 'by the life of this Book';
b-kaldm allah, 'by the words of God' [i.e. the Qur'an].

29
Hanafl, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 3 9 , 42, 7 1 .
30
Piamenta, Islam, 210, n. 17 and The Muslim Conception of God, 2 6 ; Hanafl,
al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 5 5 . l-'zer is the dialectal form for al-'uzayr, the Quranic
form of Ezra (Qur'an 9:30). Ezra the Scribe was a priest and a scribe who reformed
Judaism towards the end of the 5th century. H e is buried in Iraq and is much re-
vered by Iraqi Jews.
31
Hanafl, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 3 3 - 4 , 55, 7 6 , 97, 132, 140.

93
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

Other oaths include: wi-l-qur'dn il-tiqra bl, 'by the Qur'an that you
read'; wi-l-qur'dn il-yihlifblgidibyi'md, 'by the Qur'an, the one who
swears on it falsely becomes blind'. Increasing the seriousness of the
oath, one swears: wi-l-qur'dn wi-l-injll wi-l-tordt, 'by the Qur'an, the
New Testament, and the Old Testament'; wi-l-qur'dn wi-l-furqdn,
'by the Qur'an and the Evidence'. Christians swear bi-l-injll, wi-l-
injll, 'by the New Testament'; bi-l-sallb, wi-l-sallb; 'by the Cross'; bi-
sm il-sallb, 'by the name of the Cross', and for emphasis: bi-l-sallb
wi-l-sallb; and 'by the communion': bi-l-qurbdn and b-sir-ritnd. Jews
swear bi-l-toga, 'by the Bible' or 'by the Torah'.
Oaths and expressions relating to the hajj, to Mecca and the Ka'ba
include:
wi-l-Ka'ba or bi-l-Ka'ba, 'by the Ka'ba';
w-rabb il-Ka'ba or b-rabb il-Ka'ba?2 'by the Lord of the Ka'ba!';
w-hydt mbb il-Ka'ba, 'by the life of the Lord of the Ka'ba ;
wi-l-ka'ba-l-sanfah, 'by the holy Ka'ba';
tv-bet il-hajjetah, 'by the House I made a pilgrimage';
w-haqq bet alia, 'by the truth of God's House';
w-bet ilzurtiinu, 'by the House I visited' (Mosul);
w-makka-l-mukarramah, 'by the holy Mecca;
w-haqq makkah, 'by the truth of Mecca'.

Non-Scriptural Oaths Expressing Veneration of God33

When taking oaths, Iraqis often refer to God by some descriptive

phrases. For example, in Nasiriyyah, southern Iraq: w-illl farrag
asdb'ak, 'by the One who differentiated between (or separated) your
fingers!'; w-il-halldk timsi 'ald-l-gd', 'by the One who made you
walk on the ground!'. In Samarra: wa-lldhi-l-yilwi-l-lahd, 'by the
God who twists the uvula!'; in Mosul, when standing by running
water: w-illadl jarrd hddd-l-md, 'by the One who made this water
flow!'; in Hillah: w-rabb il-kd'indt, 'by the Lord of the creatures!';
and in Baghdad: w-il-kd'indt mdl alia, 'by the creatures of God!'; w-
haqq hddd-l-fog rdsi, 'by the truth of this One who is above my head'
(i.e. in heaven); w-illlgdl and allah, '[I swear] by Him who says "I
am Allah."'
God is never seen: w-hagg Hit mdyinsdf bi-l-'en, 'by the truth of
the One who is never seen!', van ba-lla-l-md sdfatah 'ennd, 'by God
32
Ibid., 35, 70, 75, 96, 115, 140.
33
Hanafi, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 15, 27, 29-31, 92, 111-12, 121, 139,
153; Wensinck, Concordance I, 365.
94
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

whom our eye[s] have never seen!'; w-alladl Id tardhu-l-'uyun, 'by

God whom eyes can never see'. The Bedouin of Samarra swear by
wa-lldhi-l-yi'lami-s-sirr wi-l-gayb, 'by God who knows the secrets and
the Unseen'. God is also a witness to a secret binding two parties, e.g.
alia sdhid, md qibal ydhud fliis, 'God is [my] witness, he didn't want
to take money'. The Jews in Baghdad swear by hddd sirr bent w-benu-
llah, and bem ma ben alia, 'by God' [this is a secret and God is our
witness] (lit. 'between me and God').
Man's soul is in God's hand as adduced in the following Iraqi
oaths: w-illl rohnd b-yaddu, 'by the Holder of our soul[s] in His
hand' is sworn in Hillah; w-hagg il-rdhi bldah, 'by the truth of the
Holder of my soul in His hand!' is sworn in 'Imarah.
God brings men together. Accordingly, Baghdadis swear w-illi
jima'nd b-ger middl 'aidger mi'dd, 'by the One who brought us to-
gether without an appointment!'
Some Iraqis may refer to the love and glory of God when swearing
an oath: b-hubb allah, 'by the love of God'; b-jdh allah, 'by the dig-
nity of God'. When entreating: w-haqq till Id ma'bud siwdh, 'by the
One who alone is worshipped'. When promising someone some-
thing, one says: 'ahd allah, 'by the Covenant of God'. God as Inter-
cessor occurs in an oath: alia ld-yisfa' li b-yom il-qiydmah, 'verily,
God will intercede for me on the Day of Resurrection'. An oath
taken in Baghdad on seeing a rainbow shows fear of God: w-haqq
hddd alia al-sdmut sefah 'al-'ibdd,34 'I swear by God, who displays
His rainbow to the worshippers', (lit. 'I swear by God who un-
sheathes His sword over His worshippers') (hddd has no meaning
here).
When threatening someone, one may swear by God, as in: wa-llah
il-'aliyyi-l 'Adlm, 'by the Tremendous Sublime God'; wa-lla, Id Id hofi
min alia ... 'by God, were it not for my fear of God, [I would]...'
When exposed to shame and dishonour, Iraqi Muslim women are
in great need of human, rather than divine protection and safeguard
(satr, 'cover' and 'shield'), from a bad reputation. On various occa-
sions an unmarried girl is wished satr, divine 'cover'. Men who are
strangers and not of close kinship are not allowed in homes when
mature male residents are absent. In Baghdad a married woman in-
vokes an oath saying b-setri, '[I swear] by my shield' [i.e. God]; b-
setgi (BJ). When talking to a woman, one may swear the following
oath: w-strif 'idd (<'ind) alia, '[I swear] by your protection by God'.35

34
Hanafi, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 2 2 , 2 9 .
35
Ibid., 127; Piamenta, Islam, 1 1 0 .

95
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

Uses of wa-lla, wa-llah, ba-lla and wa-lldhi

Other Than as Oaths36

The formulae wa-lla, wa-llah, wa-lldhi, and ba-lla have also secular-
ized uses. The following are various uses of these words in everyday
speech in Iraq.

1 As dummy words expressing hesitation when one has no clear an-

swer. Wa-lla is used as a preliminary to further speech when organiz-
ing one's thoughts. Examples:

(a) Finding one's friend perplexed, one asks:

A sbik? asu sdfin? 'What's the matter with you? What are you think-
ing about?'
B wa-lla mithayyir b-amri w-dd afakkir b-ha-l-dinyd, 'I am confused
and thinking about this world.'
(b) A walak, wen rdyih, 'Hey you, where are you going to?'
B wa-lla, 'Um...um...'
(c) Feeling ashamed and hesitating to ask a favour, one says to one's in-
terlocutor:
A wa-lla Mustafa, jitak b-fad sagla, 'Mustafa, I came to ask you a fa-
vour.'
B amir! hidma? ihna hddrin, 'Say it! [Any] service? [We] (i.e.) I am
ready.'
(d) On the phone:
A halul... na'am.. .Mahmud? slon il-sihha?
'Hello! ...yes...Mahmud? How is [your] health?'
B wa-lla ma datla' ha-l-iyydm, miltihi bi-l-bet, 'I do not go out these
days, I pass the time at home.'
(e) Seeing a friend unexpectedly, one asks:
A Abii 'Abbas, wen rdyih? 'Abu 'Abbas, where are you going to?'
B wa-lla li-l-mustasfd, 'To the hospital.'
A IB, ba'ad md tab il-mahrus min marada? 'Why, hasn't your son
(lit. 'the protected one') recovered from his illness?'
B la wa-lla, 'No.'

2 As entreating and conjuring words. Examples of allah, ba-llah and

ba-lldhi (<CA bi-lldht), and alia 'alek, or conversely 'alek alia, 'by

36
On the various secular usages of wa-lla, wa-lldhi, and ba-llah in spoken Iraqi
Arabic, see McCarthy and Raffouli, Spoken Iraqi Arabic of Baghdad II, especially the
section al-Tamtlliyydt, 481-6, 489-96, 499-505, 507, 509-11; Hanafl, Aymdn, 32,
66, and Woodhead-Beene, A Dictionary of Iraqi Arabic, Arabic—English, 13;
Piamenta, Islam, 8.

96
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

God, God (on you), please, for God's sake!' (do or don't do) [such-
and-such]!' as in:
(a) alia 'alek la tgulla, 'Please, don't tell him';
(b) A mother whose child is still awake yells at him and says:
ba-lla ndm 'dd, 'For God's sake! Sleep!';
(c) Not finding someone at home, one asks the household: wen rdh ba-
lla? 'Where has he gone, please?'
(d) Asking someone who is circumventing the point, his interlocutor
may say: ba-lla ihtasir swayya, 'Please come to the point!';
(e) When entreating someone, one says: bi-lldh 'alek, 'I adjure (i.e. I en-
treat) you; ba-lla yd Hasan solifilnd fad sdlufa, 'Please, Hasan, do tell
us a story!'
(f) On the phone:
Sami: Id, ba-lla Hikmat! jdwubni: tiqbal tbfa, 'No, come on
Hikmat! Do you agree [or 'don't you agree'] to sell it?'
Hikmat: Id ba-lla Sdmll la titsdqa!, 'No, please Sami, don't joke!'
(g) ba-lla ma-j-juz minnl, dni ta'bdn, 'Please leave me alone! I am tired!'
(h) ba-lla ma-tndwisni l-milih! 'Would you please pass me the salt!'

3 Initial wa-lldhi may mean 'well...'. It is used as a preliminary to

further speech, especially when organizing one's thoughts, not having
a prompt answer:
(a) Asked how enjoyable one's trip was, one may answer: wa-lldhi-l-rihla
qdnat zena, 'Well, the trip was good.'
(b) Asked why one is upset, one answers: wa-lla... trid il-sudug. dm
za'ldn 'alek, 'Well... [if[ you want the truth, I am angry with you.'
(c) Inquiring about the reason for the unusual crowd around one's
home, someone is asked:
A ba-lla saku, 'What's the matter?'
B wa-lla hddd-lli sdr..., 'Well, this is what happened...'
(d) Inquiring about seeing one's friend, one asks:
A swagit rdh timurr yamnd, 'When will you stop by our place?
B wa-lla...rdh asuf, balkatyom il-hamis, 'Well...I'll see, maybe on
Thursday.'

4 Reacting to unbelievable, exciting or astonishing news, one ex-

claims either wa-lla, or, wa-lldhi, or ba-lla, or ha-lldhi and may mean
either 'by golly!', 'my gosh!', or 'indeed!', 'really!'
(a) When Baghdadi women treat what they hear with scorn, they say
sarcastically, wa-lla hos, 'by golly! nice [of him!].'
(b) In Baghdad, whenever using a proverb to scorn someone's behavior,
one says; Id wa-lla galbiya-'yunl, 'by golly!' (lit. 'No by God, my
heart, O mine eyes!').

97
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

(c) Receiving no response to one's question, one says to one's interlocu-

tor, oy! wa-lla into, rah tuktunnl b-hal duhurlogiyya mdltak, 'O by
golly! you will kill me with this indifference of yours.'
(d) Commenting on the phone ringing at dinner time, the enraged hus-
band says, ba-lla hddd waguthum? 'By golly! Is this a good time to
call?' (lit. 'is this their time [to call]'?
(e) Enraged by her request, the husband says the following to his wife:
Husband: ba-llah mu 'eb dnl aruh asih mara min beta, 'By golly! Isn't
it a shame that I have to call a woman from her home?'
Wife: wa-lla sunu, 'So what?'
(f) Hearing that his cousin has become engaged to someone outside the
immediate family, the youth says to his mother:
A wa-lla dni frahit hwdya, hassa rdh aruh il-bet 'ammi ahannlhum,
'Indeed I was very happy. I'll now go to my uncle's home and con-
gratulate them.'
Thinking that her son should be the one engaged to his cousin, the
mother says:
B wa-llah hos haqll, 'By golly! What kind of talk is this?' (lit. by
God, good talk!')
(g) Complaining about someone, one says:
A ba-lla 'alekl? sifta-l-sawwa biyya ba'ad ta'abi wiyydh? 'My gosh!
Did you see what he did to me after all I did for him?'
Surprised at what he heard, his interlocutor asks:
B gul It! l-sawwa blk? 'Tell me! What did he do to you?'

5 In the following situations the swearing word wa-lla(h), as an ex-

pression of surprise, may mean 'indeed!, really!':
(a) Someone who is surprised about his friend calling him on the tel-
ephone: wa-lla zena min Sa'id hdbarnl hassa, 'Indeed it's nice of
Sa'id that he called me now.'
(b) Responding to an unrealistic undertaking:
A rah atzawwaj bdgir, 'I will marry tomorrow.'
B wa-lla?, 'Really!'
(c) Astonished by what one has heard, one says to one's friend:
A sudug tihfl? 'Indeed?' (lit."Are you telling the truth?').
B wa-lla, 'Yes, indeed!'
(d) A Hasan sdfsugul bil-madrasa, 'Hasan found a job at school.'
B ba-lla? w-islon la'ad ma-gal-li? 'Really? Then why didn't he tell me?'
An emphasized affirmative answer in CA is t wa-lldhi, or ty wa-llahi,
'Yes indeed!' (lit. 'Yes, by God!').37
Consider the following conversations between two Iraqis:
A asit wa-ld tbayyin!yibayyin za'ldn 'alena! 'Why don't you come!'
(lit. 'appear') [at our home]? It seems you are angry with us.'

37
Piamenta, Islam, 42.
98
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

B i wa-lla za'ldn, 'Yes indeed, [I am] angry.'

A tila' ibin haldl, 'He has grown up to be a decent fellow.'
B /" wa-lla, 'Yes, indeed.'
A Idzim finit da-thdbur ahuk, il-talafon gdn masgul 'You must have
been calling your brother, the telephone was busy.'
B I wa-lla, aridahyiji hndya, 'Yes, indeed. I want him to come here.'

Miscellaneous Oaths

Oaths by Time of Day and Feasts38

Often Iraqi take oaths by holy days, months, feasts, etc. Examples:

w-haqq haddsahr il-fadll, 'by this favourable month [Ramadan]1;

w-haqq hay lelt il-jum'ah, (Baghdad and Hit) 'by this Friday night';
note the play on words in this oath, w-haqq yom il-arba'a till trabba'
biha-l-nabl, 'by Wednesday when the Prophet sat down cross-leg-
ged';
w-haqq ha-l-gamriyya, 'by the truth of this moonlight'; w-haqq ha-l-
gumar w-min jdbah (Hit), 'by the truth of this moonlight and He
who brought it', taken when there is moonlight (Hit);
w-haqq lelt il-tnen illl-htilaq blha al-hasan wil-lihsen, 'by the truth of
Monday night on which Hasan and Husayn were created' (Hit);
w-hagg ha-l-sabdh, (Hillah, Mosul) 'by this morning';
w-haqq ha-l-sams il-hdrra, 'by this hot sun', when the oath is taken un-
der the sun;
w-haqq il-grub w-sahwdt il-glub (Samarra), 'by the truth of the sunset
and the distractions of the hearts';
w-sd'at il-jim'atnd b-ger mVdd, (Hillah) 'by the hour that got us to-
gether without an appointment';
w-hagg sahr il-biga wi-l-masdyib (Karbala), 'by the truth of the month
of crying and mishaps';
Among the oaths taken by feasts are w-hdt hddd 'id alldh il-fibir, 'by
the truth of this Feast of the Sacrifice'; and w-hdt hddd 'id il-isldm,
'by this holiday of the Muslims', [i.e. the Feast of Breaking the
Ramadan Fast] ('Imarah);
Iraqi Jews take oaths by the Sabbath, 'bi-l-subbdi; by the Day of
Atonement', bi-l-kuppur; 'by Hanukkah', bi-l-hnekka.

38
Hanafi, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah, 14, 46-7, 81, 123, 145.
99
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

Oaths by Foods''3

Usually these oaths are taken when food is present. Examples:

w-haqq hddd qurbdn ismd'H, 'by the truth of Isma'il's sacrifice' [i.e.
meat];
pointing to the bread, the person taking the oath says: wa-haqq man
ahlaqah (>halaqati), 'by the truth of the One who created it'; w-
haqq ha-l-tmdn, 'by this bread (lit. faith') (Samarra); w-haqq ha-l-
zdd or w-haqq hdy-il-ni'ma, 'by the truth of this food'. Iraqi Jews
use the Hebrew word mazon for food and say w-hddd-l-mdzon, 'by
this food';
w-haqq 'arag il-nabt (Samarra), 'by the rice' (lit. 'by the sweat') of the
Prophet';
w-dd'at il-zdd wi-l-milih (Karbala), 'by the honour of the food and the
salt'.

Oaths by Body Parts40

The body parts most used in Iraqi oaths are the eyes and head of the
person who takes the oath or those of the interlocuter. Examples:
w-nadar 'em, 'by the sight of my eye(s)';
w-ha-l-sardra, 'by this spark [of my eyes]', said when the sight of the
person who takes the oath is weak;
w-da'at hay zoj 'yuni, 'by these two eyes of mine';
while twisting one end of his moustache one says w-ha-l-sdrib, 'by this
moustache';
b-rdsT w-rdsak; 'by my head and yours'; w-rdsak w-sdrbak, 'by your
head and moustache'; w-da'at ha-l-lihya-l-tdhirah, 'by this pure
beard'.

Some oaths using body parts are taken particularly by women. These
include: w-des il-radda'ak, 'by the breast that nursed you'; w-haqq il-
ded, (Hit), 'by the truth of my breast'; w-halib ummak il-tdhir, 'by
the pure milk of your mother'.
Courting a young girl, a young man takes an oath by her cheeks: w-
da'at halli-hdud il-mitaffha, 'by these cheeks which resemble an ap-
pie.

39
Ibid., 50, 124, 147.
40
Ibid., 42, 51,99, 108, 118, 148.
100
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

Oaths by Important and Holy Items41

Examples:
w-haqq halif-grdg, 'by the truth of this light' (lit. 'this lamp'), taken
when a place is lit by a lamp;
w-haq ha-l-tannur il-hdr, 'by the truth of this hot oven';
w-hddd-l-tdj il 'ala rdsak, 'by this crown on your head' [i.e. turban];
w-haqq ha-l-may w-min jarrdh, 'by the truth of this, water and the One
who made it flow';
w-haqq ha-l-'ud w-min haddarah, 'by the truth of this [tree] branch
and the One who made it green';
w-haqq ha-l-sajjdda Hit tsalli 'aleha (Samarra), 'by the carpet on which
you pray';
w-hdt tdj rasiil illdh, 'by the life of the Prophet's [black] turban (lit.
'crown'); w-hdt tdj amir al-mu'minln, 'by the [white] turban of the
Commander of the Faithful ('Imarah)';
w-hdt hddd il-iblls, 'by this tobacco' (lit. 'by the life of the Devil)
CImarah).

Iraqi Jews take oaths by the following holy items:

bi-l- mzuza., 'by the mezuza';
bi-l-litfelllm, 'by the phylacteries';
bi-l-toga 'by the To rah';
bi-l-kalimdt il-'asga 'by the Ten Commandments';

Make-Believe and Joking Oaths42

The following are oaths used for joking and having fun:
w-da'at mart ahuy, 'by the life of my brother's wife'; the brother is in
fact unmarried;
wi-l-sleh abu darta, 'by the Sleh (the outskirts of A'zamiyyah district in
Baghdad) who farts';
w-rdsnd bind, 'by our head which is on us' [i.e. on our body]; wi-l-
zihlif and wu-l-latt, nonsense words said by children to pretend they
are taking an oath. The 'oath' wi-l-zhilif \s also said to avoid taking
an oath when asked to do so;
w-salmdn pdk illadi qdl and alldh, 'by Salman Pak (name of a ruler)
who said I am God';
w-hagg hddd wddi-l-meh (Samarra), 'by the Meh Valley' where garbage
is dumped;

41
Ibid., 22, 38, 52-3, 122, 126, 147.
42
Ibid., 17, 50, 125, 149.

101
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

w-ruh abuk il-mdt 'ala riga, 'by the soul of your father who died with-
out eating a thing all day';
w-haqq hddd-l-fog rdsi, 'by the ceiling above my head', (lit. 'by the
thing above my head');
w-sdrib kull-i-mdarrit (Samarra), 'by the moustache of everyone who
farts';
wil-ka'ba hassa asaqqit sabi' duwal, 'by the Ka'bah, now I will make
seven countries fall' (said by drunkards);
w-meha, 'by Meha' (a well-known, rich prostitute in Nasiriyyah, who
became destitute in old age);

Misleading the listener, one takes an oath which has one word simi-
lar in sound or meaning to the word sworn by. Examples:

w-hsenci, 'by Husayn'; wi-l-gir'dn, 'by the Qur'an' (lit. 'by the bold
men') (cImarah);
w-nab'i, (Samarra) 'by the Prophet' (nabt) is said in a fast speech, (lit.
'by my spring');
w-da'at il-hagi w-ruh il-marhum, 'by the hajji (a person who has been
to Mecca on the pilgrimage) and by the soul of the deceased' (lit.
'by the talk [haci] and the soul of the deceased').

Sarcastic Oaths43

Examples:

w-hagg hisqel, 'by Ezekiel' (Jewish name) when said to a Jew (Baghdad
and Hillah);
w-hagg imam il-mahdcim, 'by the Imam of the courts' (fictitious per-
sonality) (Hillah);
w-hydt abuk Mi mdyistdhil il-haydt (Hillah), 'by the life of your father
who does not deserve to live';
w-hydt abuk il-md yinhilif bi sudug (Hillah), 'by the life of your father
by whom a true oath is not to be taken';
w-da't Zannilbah, 'by the life of Zannubah' (fictitious woman).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Altoma, Salih, The Problem ofDiglossia in Arabic (Cambridge 1969)

Blanc, Haim, Communal Dialects in Baghdad^ (Cambridge 1964)
Buharl, Sahib, based on a copy of Qastallani's Commentary, 4 vols, Bulaq, al-
Matba'ah al-Misriyyah (AH 1286)
Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edn (Leiden 1974), v. kasam, 224—7.
Hanafi, Jalal, al-Aymdn al-bagdddiyyah (Baghdad 1962)

43
Ibid., 82.
102
 OATHS IN SPOKEN IRAQI ARABIC

Mu'jam al-lugah al-'dmmiyyah al-bagdddiyyah I (Baghdad 1978); II (Baghdad

1982)
Hava, J. G., Arabic-English Dictionary (Beirut 1964)
Ibn Manzur, Jamal al-Dln Ibn Mukarram, Lisdn al-'arab (Beirut 1955)
McCarthy, R. J., and F. Raffouli, Spoken Iraqi Arabic of Baghdad, II (Baghdad
1964)
Ma'luf, Louis, al-Munjidft al-lugah wa-l-'uliim, new edn (Beirut 1960)
Nawawl, Ibn Saraf Muhyl al-Dln, Kitdb al-Adkdr (compiled in AH 667), ed. Baslr
'Uyiin (Beirut 1988)
Najlraml, Abu Ishaq Ibn 'Abd Allah, Aymdn al-'arab fi al-jdhiliyyah..., 2nd edn
(Cairo AH 1382)
Piamenta, Moshe, Islam in Everyday Arabic Speech (Leiden 1979)
The Muslim Conception of God and Human Welfare (Leiden 1983)
Pickthall, M. M., The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (New York and Toronto 1953)
Wehr, Hans, A Dictionary of Modern Arabic, ed. J. Milton Cowan (Wiesbaden
1961)
Wensinck, A. J., Concordance et indices de la tradition musulmane, I-VIII (Leiden
1936-9)
A Handbook of Early Muhammadan Tradition (Leiden 1927)
Woodhead, D. R., and Wayne Beene, A Dictionary of Iraqi Arabic, Arabic-English
(Washington 1967)
Wright, W , A Grammar of the Arabic Language (Cambridge 1983)

103