Annales d'Ethiopie

The choice of Aksum as a metropolis

Tekle Hagos

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Hagos Tekle. The choice of Aksum as a metropolis. In: Annales d'Ethiopie. Volume 25, année 2010. pp. 139-156;

doi : 10.3406/ethio.2010.1411

http://www.persee.fr/doc/ethio_0066-2127_2010_num_25_1_1411

Document généré le 08/03/2018

Abstract
The Aksumite state flourished at Aksum in the early 1st century AD. Its strategic location, far from
the Red Sea in the hinterlands of the Tigray plateau and at the margin of the western escarpment,
allowed it to exploit the rich agricultural, geological, floral and faunal resources of the western and
eastern lowlands and of the northern and central highlands. Indigenous factors are offered as the
main explanatory variables of why Aksum was chosen as the metropolis of the Aksumites in the
1st century AD. It appears that competition among chiefs for control of fertile lands at Aksum and
its vicinities resulted in the formation of the polity that we now know as the Aksumite state.

Résumé
Le choix d’Aksum comme métropole

L’État aksumite s’est développé à Aksum au début du Ier siècle de notre ère. Sa position
stratégique, loin de la mer Rouge dans l’arrière-pays du plateau tigréen et aux marges de
l’escarpement occidental, lui a permis d’exploiter les riches ressources agricoles, géologiques,
florales et fauniques des basses terres occidentales et orientales et des hautes terres centrales et
septentrionales. Des explications locales sont données comme les facteurs principaux pour
expliquer le choix d’Aksum comme métropole des Aksumites au Ier siècle de notre ère. La
compétition entre les chefs pour contrôler les terres fertiles d’Aksum et de ses environs a conduit à
la formation d’une administration que nous connaissons maintenant comme l’État aksumite.
 The choice of Aksum as a metropolis

Tekle Hagos∗

Introduction
The term metropolis was used for the first time in the middle of the 1st century AD
to refer to ancient Aksum by the author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (Casson,
1989). In 77 AD, the Roman writer Pliny the Younger also mentioned Aksum,
confirming its early antiquity. Archaeological evidence also seems to secure that the
foundation of Aksum took place in the early 1st century AD (Phillipson, 1998: 50;
2000: 475). In the middle of the 2nd century AD, the Greek astronomer and
geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus of Alexandria described Aksum as the seat of a
king’s palace. The Persian religious leader Mani referred to Aksum as the court of
one of the world’s largest centralized states in the 3rd century AD (Munro-Hay,
1991). Ancient Aksum spread over some seventy-five hectares and at its peak
between the fourth and early 6th centuries AD included industrial centers, elite and
royal palaces with at least two-story buildings and residences for ordinary people
(Butzer, 1981).
The term metropolis is therefore used in this article to refer to Aksum, a center
of administration, religion and commerce, and the residence of kings, elites and
commoners in the first millennium AD Phillipson (2000: 476) also agrees that such
a term is appropriate for ancient Aksum as it had no defensive wall for its
protection.
In this article, environmental, geographical and historical contexts are discussed
together with material culture, economy, population and territory to prepare the
agenda for a presentation of multiple hypotheses as to why Aksum was selected as a
metropolis of the Aksumites in the first millennium AD. Environmental,
geographical, geological, floral and faunal factors are discussed as the prime
determining factors for the choice of Aksum as a metropolis.

∗
Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Annales d’Éthiopie, 2010, 25, 139-156 139

Tekle Hagos

Environmental and geographical contexts

Aksum is situated in central administrative zone of Tigray, in the highlands of the
Tigray Regional National state in the northern tip of the Ethiopian plateau, at 14°40’
North, 38°45’ East and at an altitude of 2,100 meters.

The location of Aksum (white dot) in its neighboring context.

Very few scholars have studied the environmental history of Aksum. The
available evidence suggests that present-day’s climatic and rainfall conditions of the
highlands of Tigray, including Aksum and its vicinity, were established in the
second millennium BC (Fattovich et al., 2000). Sedimentary evidence from the areas
of Mekele and Adigrat suggests that an open vegetation pattern was prevalent in
Aksum and its surroundings at approximately the same time (Phillipson, 1998). This
pattern is also confirmed by four pollen samples taken from Ona Enda Aboy
Zewge at Betegiorgis (Aksum) from the middle of the first millennium BC. All
samples show the dominance of arboreal taxa: shrubs, herbs and grasses comprising
at least seventy-five to eighty-six percent of the total identifiable pollens from each
sample (Fattovich et al., 2000). This climatic pattern is favorable to human
settlement, cereal agriculture and to cattle, goat and sheep herding.

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In the 1930’s, archaeologist Monneret de Villard identified two periods of heavy

rainfall episodes from the sediment accumulation around the river Mai Mehija on
the foothill of Mai Koho in Aksum (Monneret de Villard quoted by Fattovich et al.,
2000). The first phase of heavy rainfall predates the erection of stelae in the Main
Stelae Field prior to the 4th century AD, whereas the second episode of heavy
rainfall occurred at Aksum in the middle of the first millennium AD (Fattovich et
al., 2000).
Butzer, an American researcher who conducted environmental fieldwork in
Aksum in the 1970’s identified four different periods of heavy rainfall in Aksum
during the first millennium AD (Butzer, 1981). The earliest episode of heavy rainfall
that was recorded in the early Aksumite times (100-350 AD) coincides with
Monneret de Villard’s findings. The second phase of heavy rainfall, from 650-
800 AD also confirms the postulates of Monneret de Villard.
Recent research carried out at Mai Melahso in Aksum by Helmut Ziegert, from
the University of Hamburg, shows the presence of heavily eroded surfaces up to
the 3rd century AD caused by higher amounts of rainfall (Ziegert, 2000), reinforcing
the argument put forward by Butzer and Monneret de Villard.
Such environmental evidence indicates that Aksum and its vicinity received
sufficient rainfall, which provided the basis for human settlement, crop agriculture
and cattle, sheep and goats herding.

Historical context
Archaeological evidence and oral traditions trace back the origins of the Aksumite
state and its metropolis to the polity located at the top the Betegiorgis hill in Ona
Nagast and Ona Enda Aboy Zewge, two kilometers northwest of Aksum, at
approximately 450-150 BC (Fattovich et al., 2000). Fattovich and Bard excavated
remains of elite residential and burial structures in Ona Nagast and in Ona Enda
Aboy Zewge respectively in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s (Bard et al, 2000).
These examinations indicate that the Aksumite state evolved at Betegiorgis hill long
before the birth of Christ. A survey conducted in 1974 in the area located between
Yeha, Aksum and its vicinity (Michels, 1994; 2005) found evidence of the existence
of several petty kingdoms around Aksum prior to the emergence of an Aksumite
state and its metropolis. It seems that one of these petty kingdoms was located at
Betegiorgis, about two kilometers northwest of Aksum’s town. Oral tradition also
confirms that Betegiorgis was the capital of king Namurd before the foundation of
Aksum in its present location. It appears that from there, the town seems to have
shifted from there to Aksum at sometime between the end of the first
millennium BC and the beginning of the first millennium AD (Fattovich et al.,
2000).
During the 1st century AD, both the Aksumite civilization and the Aksumite
state became firmly established in Aksum. From the 1st to the 6th centuries AD,
Axum traded with Egypt, Eastern Roman Empire, Syria, Palestine, South Arabia,
India, Ceylon, China and the Nile Valley. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD,

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Aksum expanded its territorial hegemony over Yemen and parts of the Sudan
(Tekle Hagos, 1997; Munro-Hay, 1989, 1991; Phillipson, 1998).

Aksumite economy and material culture

Agriculture and cattle herding constituted the main economic foundation of
Aksumite economy. Recent excavations carried out in Betegiorgis hill by Fattovich
and Bard and in Aksum by Phillipson confirm that the Aksumite economy was
agrarian-based (Phillipson, 1998, 2000; Tekle Hagos, 1997). The fact that the
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea did not mention grains and cereals among the lists of
Aksumite imports in the 1st century AD shows that Aksumites were agriculturally
self-sufficient (Tekle Hagos, 1997; Munro-Hay, 1989, 1991).
The material culture of the Aksumite civilization is characterized by red, brown,
black and orange pottery with vertical and horizontal decorations (Munro-Hay,
1989), as well as coins, bricks and worked metals (Phillipson, 1998: 74-78; Munro-
Hay, 1989). Aksumite architecture exhibits unique features, such as recessed
facades, rebated walls, dressed stone corner blocks, monumental staircases, wooden
tie beams, brick arches, rock-cut shaft tombs, stone monoliths and stone-built
platforms (podia) (Littmann, 1913; Chittick, 1978; Munro-Hay, 1989; Phillipson,
1998, 2000).

Aksumite population and territory

The female statuettes of Adi Gelamo and Hawelti show that pre-Aksumite
populations were similar to those currently inhabiting the Tigray region. It appears
that Aksumite peoples were in many ways similar to the pre-Aksumites. Moreover,
Aksumite coins, the inscription of Ezana and the etymological root of the word
“Aksum” suggest that most Aksumite peoples may have been Cushitic and Semitic
speaking (Tekle Hagos, 1997; Sergew, 1972; Munro-Hay, 1991).
However, it must be noted that the etymological root of the word “Aksum” has
not been widely accepted. Recent evidence collected by the author from Kunama
informants in northwestern Tigray sheds a new light to our understanding of the
etymology of the word “Aksum.”
One of the Cushite may have been the Kunama who lived in present-day
western and northwestern Tigray and southwestern Eritrea. According to oral
tradition collected by the author from the Ethiopian and Eritrean Kunama in 2003,
the Kunama seem to have inhabited Aksum, Shire and Adi Yabo in Antiquity
(Tekle Hagos, 1993 EC). According to their legend, the Kunama appear to have
been the indigenous inhabitants of Aksum. The Kunama claim that their remotest
ancestors lived with the “Semites” in Aksum for some time and were later expelled
to the West. However, further research is needed in order to assess the validity of
this oral tradition.
The words “Aksum,” “Shire” and “Adi Yabo” appear to be from Kunama
origin. The term “Aksum” probably derives from two Kunama words “aya” and
“gusma” which likely mean “hill” and “climb,” in reference to the hilly nature of

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Aksum and its vicinity. The regions Shire and Adi Yabo, where the author
documented several organized Aksumite settlement and burial sites in 2002, seem
to have been named after two Kunama chiefs known as “Shrien” and “Yabo”
respectively. The names of these places seem to indicate that the Kunama inhabited
Aksum, Shire and Adi Yabo in Antiquity, possibly at pre-Aksumite and early
Aksumite times. Archaeological excavations are still needed in these areas in order
to confirm this hypothesis and, if so, to determine when Kunama settlement
occurred in western and central Tigray.
In 2003, the author documented several tumuli ascribable to the Kunama in the
Tahtay Adi Yabo district in northwestern Tigray. The Kunama are known for their
communal burials, interring the deceased in a large circular stone structure known
as Nabulanda (tumulus). The practice of burying the deceased in tumuli ceased in
western Tigray after the Kunama embraced Christianity in the late 1970’s, according
to oral tradition gathered by the author in the 1990’s in the same place (Tekle
Hagos, 1993 EC). However, similar practices still continue among the non-
Christian Kunama in Eritrea. Tumuli are difficult to preserve because they appear as
simple piles of stones with no specific purpose to those unfamiliar with their
significance. This is arguably the reason why only two tumuli have been documented
in Gumala and Sheteto Emni near Aksum, probably the site of the cemetery of the
Kunama (Tekle Hagos, 2001).
Archaeological literature shows that the Aksumite territory seems to extend
from to Keren (Eritrea) in the North to Amba Alage in the South and from Adulis
in the East to Adi Hano in the West. Recent fieldwork carried out by the author in
northwestern and southern Tigray shows that Aksumite organized settlements
reached further to the Northwest, to the Southwest and to the South than
previously documented. To the Southwest, settlements reached up to Adi Saelu,
about ten kilometers southeast of the town of Enda Selassie, which is located in the
Tahtay Koraro district in the Adi Gidad peasant association (Tabia) at the foothill
of Hirmi cliff at 14°18’10’’ North, 38°19’6’’ East and 1,920 meters above sea level
(Tekle Hagos, 1993 EC). South of Adi Saelu, the climate is extremely hot and
difficult for human settlement. No organized Aksumite settlement sites were
documented South of the Hirmi Valley across the Tekkeze River in a survey
conducted by the author in 2003.
In Adi Saelu, several Aksumite stelae were documented in 2002, some in situ
and others in disturbed contexts. The largest stela, which fell in a South-North
direction, seems to depict a disc and a crescent on its underside. This seems to
indicate that Aksumite organized settlements reached to the Southwest up to Adi
Saelu before the introduction of Christianity to the Aksumite court during the
middle of the 4th century AD. or later.
The archaeological survey conducted in 2002 in northwestern Tigray also
established the northwestern limit of organized Aksumite settlements, which reach
up to Giorgis Mai Shrum in the Hadegti peasant association in the La’elay AdiYabo
district located some twenty kilometers to the East of the town of Adi Da’ero, at
14°17’ North, 38°13’ East and at an altitude of 1,830 meters (Tekle Hagos,

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1993 EC). No organized Aksumite settlement sites were documented west of this
site up to the Tekkeze River in a survey conducted by the author in 2003.
Name of sites Monuments/Artifacts Chronology
Wushate Golo stelae, stelae quarry, remains of an ca. 4th to 7th c. AD
Aksumite church
Mariam Nazreth church ruins and pillars ca. 7th c. AD
Cherqos Agulae Aksumite church ca. 7th c. AD
Semema Aksumite waterspouts, pillars, stelae, ca. between 4th to 7th c. AD
coins, pottery, etc.
Hiritay Aksumite red pottery ca. 4th c. AD
Mikael Eyerawi stelae, pottery, waterspouts, ca. between 4th to 6th c. AD
etc.
Mezabir Adi Menabir stelae, amphorae, etc, ca. between 4th to 7th c. AD
Mentserebo stelae ca. 4th c. AD
Adi Saelu stelae ca. 4th c. AD
Mifsas Bahri Building, pottery, coins and bricks ca. between 4th to 6th c. AD
Giorgis Mai Shrum stelae, ruins ca.. 4th c. AD
Mai Adrasha pottery, town, coins, etc ca. between 1st-3rd c. AD
Adi Gidad pottery ca. between 1st-3rd c. AD
Hinzat pottery, stelae, bracelets, inscription, ca. 3rd c. AD
coins, etc
Selekleka pottery, bracelets, cemetery etc. ca. 4th c.
Adi Gelamo pottery, ruins ca. 4th c. BC
Endaba Gerima Adi kewih Sabean inscription, the disc and crescent ca. 4th c. BC
depicted on a statue
Betegiorgis stelae, underground tombs, pottery, ca. 450 BC- 7th c. AD
coins, etc.
Waqarida town, pottery, grinding stones, etc. Pre-Aksumite to post
Aksumite times
Table – The most important sites mentioned in the text and their approximate chronology.

In Giorgis Mai Shum, several Aksumite stelae are found inside and outside the
church compound. Some are fallen and broken; others have been re-erected while
the remaining have been included into the modern church building.
Archaeological test excavations conducted in Southern Tigray in 2002 by the
author have also determined the southern limit of organized settlement sites of the
Aksumite civilization. Aksumite pottery, bricks and buildings were unearthed at the
western side of Lake Ashenge in a place called Mifsas Bahri (“sea outlet”) (Tekle
Hagos, 1994 EC). The fact that a member of the British expeditionary force to
Mekdela allegedly found Aksumite coins near the same lake in the 19th century
confirms this evidence. Remains of Aksumite settlements west of Lake Ashenge
have also been reported (Tewelde Tiku’e, 1990 EC).
Furthermore, an inventory of archaeological sites carried out in 2007 by the
Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in collaboration with
the Tigray Tourism and Culture Agency in eastern Tigray shows that the eastern
limit of pre-Aksumite and Akumite organized settlements reached up to Sewine.
Around Sewine in a place called Waqarida located at 05°78’246’’ (E),
15°79’043’’ (N) and at an elevation of 2,334 meters at the western foothill of the
eastern escarpment in the Afar territory, the same team recorded evidence of an

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organized settlement. The site of Waqarida designated as Sew-wkr-09 preserves

what appears to be an early Aksumite town characterized by a ruined town, pottery,
grinding stones and walls. From available surface evidence, this site seems to have
been inhabited from pre-Aksumite to post Aksumite times (Tekle Hagos et.al.,
2007).

Reasons for choosing Aksum as a Metropolis

Aksum is located over three hundred kilometers away from the Red Sea in the
hinterland of the Tigray plateau, at the western margin of the western escarpment.
From its main port of Adulis in the Red Sea, it can be reached with great difficulty
after climbing the rugged valley of Hadas in the Eastern Escarpment in
3,000 meters, then crossing the Eritrean plateau and the Adigrat Ridge, over 3,000
meters high. It is therefore imperative to understand the reasons for choosing this
inaccessible location for the construction of the metropolis of Aksum.
Local resources were arguably the main determining factor of the location of
Aksum as a metropolis of the Aksumites. Tekle Hagos (1997) explored the local
and regional resources that seem to have been the basic motivations for Aksumites
to construct their metropolis in that specific location. This leads us towards an
indigenous explanation for the rise of an Aksumite civilization in Aksum between
the end of the first millennium BC and the beginning of the first millennium AD, in
which the indigenous (internal) factors such as geographical, environmental,
geological, floral and faunal factors seem to have been determinant factors for
Aksum to be chosen as a metropolis of the Aksumite.

Geographical and environmental factors

The location of Aksum at an altitude of 2,100 meters, half way between the Marab
and Tekkeze rugged valley systems and over five hundred meters higher than their
hostile climate, makes it healthier for settlement because it is free of mosquitoes.
Such geographical and altitudinal location affects the amount of seasonal rainfall
distribution and the temperature in Aksum. Aksum’s average annual rainfall of six
hundred millimeters and its average temperature of twenty degrees Celsius are both
propitious to crop agriculture and cattle herding and well suited to human life
(National Meteorology Service Agency, 1995).
Several hill chains known as Melata, Betegiorgis, Aba Likanos, Aba Pentelion,
Morie, Adi Kerni, Adi Hankera, Adi Tsehafi, Gobo Dura and Kube surround
Aksum. These hills are auspicious to cattle, goat and sheep grazing, as they contain
adequate drinking water as the sources of several springs are located in these hill
chains. It makes Aksum and its vicinity conducive for cattle herding. For instance,
the sources of Mai Abeket, West of Aksum, are in the Gobo Dura and Betegiorgis
hills. The availability of water in Aksum and its surroundings is reflected in the use
of the word “Mai” for the names of several places, such as Mai Melahso, Mai
Mehija and Mai Koho. A historical document, probably dating back to the
14th century AD, mentions the presence of seventy-two springs around Aksum
(Tekle Hagos, 1992, 1997 EC).

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Aksum’s altitude is also conducive to growing different varieties of crops. Teff,

barley, sunflower linseed, legumes and sorghum can all grow in this high altitude
(Tekle Hagos, 1997). Recent archaeological excavations carried out in Aksum and in
Betegiorgis show that these crops were cultivated in Aksum and its surrounding
areas (Phillipson, 1998; 2000).
Betegiorgis – Aksum’s predecessor – is located in a militarily strategic position, a
plateau surrounded by inaccessible cliffs with only three entrances, one to the
South, one to the East and one to the Northeast. The predecessors of the
Aksumites might have chosen this specific spot when they were military weak. The
Aksumites arguably moved later on from the plateau to Aksum’s present location in
the foothills of Betegiorgis and Mai Koho when they were in a stronger military
position.
Aksum lies at the crossroads of several local, regional and international trade
routes, benefitting from the rich natural resources in the lowlands to its West and
East and in the central and northern highlands. It seems that several local and
regional trade routes reached Aksum and its surroundings before joining the
international trade route network. As the Cambridge archaeologist Professor
Phillipson argues, “the location of Aksum may be best understood as facilitating
exploitation of African resources. These developments began on the Ethiopian
plateau at a time when links between that area and the outside word beyond South
Arabia were far less developed than was subsequently the case” (Phillipson, 2000:
486). It appears that there was a local trade route extending from Aksum to the salt
mining area in the Afar lowlands in the East. The inhabitants of these lowlands
traded salt for crops with people from the highlands, including the Aksum area. For
instance, the pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites of Kulu Natsia, Hinzat, Housien,
Endaba Gerima Adi Kewih, Cherqos Agula’e and Adi Gelamo were possibly
located on the salt trade route. Another probable local trade route went from
Aksum to the West, dating back to early Aksumite or proto-Aksumite, or perhaps
even to prehistoric times. The sites of Mikael Eyerawi, Selekleka, Mai Adrasha and
Semema in northwestern Tigray (Shire) were probably along this trade route as well.
There were also several routes that linked Aksum to the Nile Valley, the land of
Sasu, the port of Adulis, Shewa and the Afar lowlands (Tekle Hagos, 1997;
1993 EC; 1994 EC). An Aksumite king, possibly Ezana, built at around 340 AD a
route that stretched West of Aksum through the Shire region and towards Egypt to
maintain access and control of trade and trade routes West and North of Aksum
(Phillipson, 2002). This trading network may have been taken as an additional factor
for choosing Aksum as a metropolis.

Geological factors
The soils
Aksum is situated in the fertile part of the Ethiopian highlands, closer to the
western lowlands than to the Red Sea escarpment. It is strategically located near the
rich fertile soils of northwestern and central Tigray, especially those of the La’elay
Maichew and Tahtay Koraro districts. Its geographical location is favorable to

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human settlement and cattle herding and its soils are excellent for the cultivation of
several crops.
The plain of Hatsebo, Southeast and East and east of Aksum, has excellent
fertile soils. From Axum, it extends South for nearly ten kilometers to the Ayihida
River and from its western limit in Adi Hankera for some twenty kilometers East to
Enda Eyesus. Its soils have been classified as zone A with low gradient fertile soils
for optimal cultivation (Michels, 1994, 2005). Such soils are vertisols traditionally
known as walka, dark in color, deep and heavy with clay minerals that allow the
soils to expand and to absorb water (Bard, 1994). These types of soils, which are
derived from tertiary volcanic rocks, cover 40.8% of the land in Aksum and its
vicinity (La’elay Maichew district). The second most important fertile soil in Aksum
and its surrounding is brown soil from basalt rock origin. This soil covers 24.1% of
the land in Aksum and its vicinity (Tekle Hagos, 1992 E.C). For this reason, Aksum
and its surroundings are one of the most agriculturally productive areas in Tigray,
similar to Tahtay Koraro in northwestern Tigray.

The places mentioned in the text

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An archaeological survey carried out in 2000 at the La’elay Maichew district by

the author as well the archaeological literature show the existence of a large number
of site distributions in Aksum and its surroundings, where the fertile soils indicate
that the Aksumite population densely inhabited these places. Archaeological
excavations carried out by Phillipson at the domestic site in the northern outskirt of
Aksum explored a large number of grind stones, legumes, barley, wheat, cotton…
between the 5th and 6th centuries AD, which indicates that Aksum and its vicinity
provided rich agricultural products to the Aksumite population at the metropolis.
Furthermore, the same excavations that yielded cattle, sheep and goat bones from
the same context indicate that these animals constituted an important part of the
diet of the Aksumite urban population. Cattle were also used for traction of land.
Moreover, Fattovich and Bard found barley, wheat and teff in deposits at
Betegiorgis dating between 100 BC and 350 AD. The presence of these rich natural
resources seems to have been one of the reasons for the choice of Aksum as a
metropolis (Phillipson, 1998, 2000; Boardman, 1999).
The Tahtay Koraro district (Shire), West of Aksum, is also very rich in fertile
soils favorable to crop agriculture and attractive for human settlement. In a survey
conducted in the district in 2002, the author documented three different types of
soils: black, brown and sandy. The black soils, traditionally known as walka, are
found in the highland plains and are conducive to the cultivation of teff, maize and
millet. These soils, which yield 1,600 kilograms of teff per hectare without fertilizer,
over 11,785 hectares or 11 % of the total surface of the Tahtay Koraro district. The
second most fertile soil is the brown type, found on the foothills surrounding the
plain of Tahtay Koraro. This soil yields 5,000 kilograms of maize per hectare
without fertilizer and covers 11,805 hectares or 31 % of the surface of the Tahtay
Koraro district. The hills surrounding the plain of Tahtay Koraro are also good for
grazing and cattle, sheep and goat herding (Tekle Hagos, 1993 EC).
An archaeological survey carried out by the author in 2002 in the district of
Tahtay Koraro shows many Aksumite sites located in plains and foothills with
permanent water, fertile soils and grazing lands. The same author documented
nineteen Aksumite organized settlement and burial sites in the same district. Some
of the most important sites are found in Adi Saelu, Semema, Hiritay, Adi Hano,
Mariam Meskelu, Adi Kokeb, Mikael Godfey, Mentserebo (Abune Senbelti),
Mezabir Adi Menaber, Midra’e, Mai Hine and Adi Gidad. These sites contain stelae
with pointed tops and in some cases grooves on their sides, imported and local
pottery, coins, walls and Aksumite waterspouts (Tekle Hagos, 1993 EC).
The most significant site in terms of chronology and size in the Tahtay Koraro
district is Mai Adrasha, located five kilometers East of Endaselassie. This site
contains proto-Aksumite, Aksumite and post-Aksumite burial and settlement
remains. The burial places, located on the foothill of Ar’ada, preserve stelae and
grave goods such as pottery and bracelets. The banks of the Terekroka River, South
of the cemetery, exhibit the remains of the earliest town in northwestern Tigray.
This site is about a kilometer in length. It yielded Aksumite walls, pottery, coins and
bracelets. Some artifacts collected from this area by local people are housed in the

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public library of Endaslassie. Unfortunately, erosion and illicit gold excavations

have damaged about 40 % of this site. The administrative council of Tahtay Koraro
hired guards to protect the settlement localities at the banks of the Terekroka River.
The Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the former
Tigray Information and Cultural Bureau decided to enclose the locality with a fence
to avoid further destruction until archaeological excavations are carried out in the
site. However, bulldozer construction works disturbed the cemetery area in 1994
and the investor is reported to have taken bracelets found in the site. A house was
recently constructed where there were at least five stelae uncovered by a bulldozer
in 1994. All of the stelae except one were either broken into pieces or integrated
into the house (Finneran, 2002, 2007; Tekle Hagos, 1993 EC). The large number of
sites in the Tahtay Koraro district suggests that the area was densely populated by
the Aksumites and that Aksum was chosen as a metropolis by the Aksumites to
exploit these fertile agricultural resources.
Moreover, land may have been one of the prime sources of wealth at Aksumite
times (Connah, 1986). When Aksumite population increased, competition for fertile
lands arguably intensified. Powerful individuals likely used coercion to control more
land, leading to the formation of a centralized state. The distribution of a large
number of Aksumite sites and churches in rural Aksumite territories between the
5th and 6th centuries AD and the movement of people from the highlands to the
lowlands in the first millennium AD. indicate a population increase at Aksumite
times (Connah, 1986; Tekle Hagos, 1997).
Ethno-archaeological studies conducted by the author in 2000 in the vicinity of
Aksum show the existence of many pottery production centers in Gendefta (Adwa),
Filfil (Dura), Eyerawi Mikael (Dura), Ma’ekenu (Adi Tsehafi), Mishilam (Hatsebo),
Hatsina (Wuhidet), Diditi (Dura), Tselim Bet Enda Yesus (Hatsebo), Mihe
(Wuhidet) and Bure (Wuhidet). Special clays suitable for making pottery can be
found in these places. There are several localities in Adi Gatiya and Adi Ma’ekenu
where women dig to collect black, brown and white clay to make pottery
(Tekle Hagos, 1992 EC). Archaeological evidence shows large quantities of pottery
were used by Aksumite in the metropolis. The Aksumites or their predecessors
likely took into account this potential when choosing Aksum for permanent
settlement.
The rocks
Aksum is located in a geographical setting that contains rich geological resources,
which were useful for the construction of megalithic structures and monuments.
Archaeological, historical and geological studies carried out in Aksum and its
vicinity show the presence of sandstone, limestone, marble, granite and basalt rocks
in the same locations used by the Aksumites for construction and other purposes.
The Saba Share Company defined the most important rocks found in Aksum and
its surroundings as dimensional and ornamental stones. Such definition includes
granite, limestone and marble. These resources are still used for local construction
purposes and for export trade (Mulugeta Tesfay, pers. comm., 2000).

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Limestone is found in Aksum, Adigrat, Mesobo, Mai Mekden, Harena and

Hagere Selam in different parts of Tigray (Beyth, 1972). The Aksumites and their
predecessors used limestone for various construction purposes. The seated female
figures (statuettes) of Adi Gelamo (Atsibidera) and of Hawelti were carved from
limestone. Limestone was fashioned into seals, lumps and other small objects
(L. Phillipson, 2001a).
Sandstone was also used for making stelae and other megalithic monuments
such as Mistah Werki at Daero Maichew near Ba’ati Hatsin, on the southwestern
part of Betegiorgis hill and at Geza Merechen closer to the foothill of Kube. The
hill of Kube also preserves evidence of Aksumite use of sandstone for several
purposes, including the making of stelae (Tekle Hagos, 2001). According to
evidence from the domestic site in Aksum excavated by Phillipson, sandstone was
predominantly used by the Aksumites between the 5th and 6th centuries AD for
grinding stone (L Phillipson, 2001a).
Marble is also found near Aksum in Na’edier, Adi Golagul, Zahay, Mai Da’ero
and Adwa. In Adwa, black marble is found in the Felafil and Mai Kinetal areas.
Purple marble is found in great quantities in northwestern Tigray in the Tahtay Adi
Yabo district in Dichinama. This type of marble is only found in Ethiopia (Beyth,
1972). It is certain that Aksumites used marble for various construction purposes.
Marble was carved and used for throne and inscriptions like on the Monumentum
Adulitanum of King Atsbeha, identical to the Aksumite King called DHBH in
Sabean inscription JA 576, dating back to the first half of the 3rd century AD (Yuzo,
1997). Marble columns of Aksumite buildings have been also found in the
Aksumite port of Adulis (Kirwan, 1992).
Aksum is located where there are granite rocks suitable for the construction of
megalithic structures like palaces, tombs, elite residential structures, stone thrones
and stelae. Archaeological evidence shows the existence of many Aksumite granite
quarry sites in the hills surrounding Aksum. Phillipson (2000) documented several
stelae quarry sites in Gobo Dura and Adi Teshafi and an Aksumite stelae slipway in
Gual Gobo Dura about four kilometers West of Aksum. Unfinished remains of
stelae characterize such a slipway and by boulder terracing consolidated the route
where the Aksumites transported stelae to the town of Aksum. Tekle Hagos (2001)
also documented Aksumite granite quarry sites in Kube, Adi Tsehafi, Aba Likanos,
Aba Pentellion, Adi Gatiya, Da’ero Gumare and Da’ero Maichew in the chains of
hills that surround Aksum (Tekle Hagos, 1992 EC).
Granite rocks are also found in most parts of the Tigray region. Particularly,
pink and gray granites are found in Emba Madre and in Semema in northwestern
Tigray (Shire), respectively.
Gemstones used for ornament are also found in Gobo Dura near Aksum. Slate,
which is commonly used for inscription, is also found in Na’edier, Adiet, Zana and
Chila in the vicinities of Aksum. An ethno-archaeological study carried out by the
author in the La’elay Maichew district in 2000 shows that this stone is currently
used to make icons (Beyth, 1972; Tekle Hagos, 1992 EC).

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Moreover, basalt, which was used by the Aksumites for the construction of
megalithic structures such as the tombs of Kaleb and Gebre Meskel dating back to
the 6th century AD, is also found around Aksum.
Furthermore, it appears that Aksum’s proximity to gold sources of Adi Hageray,
Adi Nebried, River Tekkeze in northwestern Tigray, Weri’e, Chila, Rama in central
Tigray and Housien in eastern Tigray, to copper and zinc sources in Tembien and
to silver sources in Tselemit were arguably another reason for the choice of Aksum
as a metropolis of the Aksumites (Ethiopian Mapping Authority, 1988; Beyth, 1972;
Tekle Hagos, 1992 EC, 1997).

Floral and faunal factors

Archaeological, historical and analogical evidence shows that Aksum and its vicinity
were rich in vegetation and domestic and wild animals that were used by the
Aksumites.
The chains of hills surrounding Aksum were probably wooded (Bard, 1994).
Several large trees seem to have existed around streams and springs in Aksum and
its vicinity. Archaeological and architectural evidence show that wood was used in
Aksumite buildings. Aksumite buildings as we can infer from the largest Aksumite
decorated stelae, the trace of wood found in the building of Mariam Nazreth
located in the foothills of Amba Alage and wooden beams integrated to the
Aksumite churches of Abune Aftse in Yeha and of Debre Damo (Tekle Hagos,
1994 EC). Archaeological excavations carried out at the tomb of the Brick Arches
revealed woodworking by the Aksumites dating to the 4th century AD. (Phillipson,
2000). Charcoal analysis from the 6th and 7th centuries AD excavated from the
domestic site at Aksum shows the presence of large number of trees in the same
site (Boardman, 1999). Aksum and its vicinity preserve ancient trees such as cordia
africana, juniperus procira, olea africana, ficus sur, ficus sycomorus, phytolacca abyssinica and
acacia abyssinica. Some of them are found in riverbanks and hills, while others are
preserved in ancient monasteries (Tekle Hagos, 1992 EC). It seems that these trees
were used by the Aksumites for metal industry, for firewood and for construction.
These rich resources may have been one of the reasons for determining Aksum as a
metropolis.
The vicinities of Aksum are also rich in incense trees that produce gum
olibanum. Gum olibanum is only found in Tigray. Incense trees cover 997 hectares
in Tanqua Abergele, 772 hectares in Degua Tembien, 368 hectares in Qolla
Tembien, 2,070 hectares in Merebe Leke and 990 hectares in Weri’e in Central
Tigray. For instance, 3,475 quintals of gum olibanum are collected every year in the
Weri’e Leke district. This gum is used for export and domestic consumption
(Tekle Hagos, 1992 EC). Furthermore, the same trees are found in Dedebit, Debre
Abay, Hintsats, Mai Hanse, Benaqo and Dugagadugni in the Asgede Tsimbla
district in northwestern Tigray (Shire). They cover about 10,000 hectares of land.
4,439 quintals of white gum and 350 quintals of black gum olibanum were collected
in 2002. Gum Arabic is also found in Humera in western Tigray (Tekle Hagos,
1993 EC).

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According to the author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Aksumites used to
export the product of incense trees that they collected from the Berbera area in
present-day Somalia (Casson, 1989). However, investigations carried out in central
and northwestern Tigray by the author in 2000, 2002 and 2003 show the presence
of incense trees in the vicinities of Aksum.
Rich animal resources which existed around Aksum might also be another
reason to choose Aksum as a metropolis. Archaeological, historical and actual
studies show that cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys (mules), elephants and other animals
were used by the Aksumites. The Tomb of the Brick Arches, which dates back to
Archaeological evidence from the 4th century AD from the Tomb of the Brick
Arches indicates that the Aksumites used ivory for domestic artisanship (Phillipson,
2000). Several objects were excavated from this tomb, such as finely carved ivory in
the form of boxes, decorative panels and furniture components that may have been
part of an elaborate chair or throne. Recent investigations of lithic artifacts dating
back to pre-Aksumite times and to the 5th and 6th centuries AD found in domestic
sites at Aksum and its vicinity suggest that the same tools were used for ivory
carving (Phillipson, 2001b). The 6th century Byzantine traveler Nonnosus reported
large numbers of royal domestic elephants grazing around Adwa. Church paintings
also depict elephants transporting the largest Aksumite stelae. The rock painting in
Ba’ati Gaewa in northwestern Tigray exhibits figures that appear to be elephants
(Tekle Hagos, 1993 EC). Today, these animals are found around the Tekkeze River,
Northwest of Aksum.
The Aksum area is known for its abundant domestic cattle, sheep and goats.
Domestic cattles are mentioned in Aksumite inscriptions. Cattle, sheep and goats of
pre-Aksumite times have been discovered by Phillipson in a domestic site in
Aksum. Fattovich and Bard have also uncovered the same animals dating to the
early Aksumite times in Betegiorgis. Humped cattle carrying yolk are represented in
4th century AD Aksumite pottery (Phillipson, 2000). The granite boulders at the
river Mai Goda’e in Adi Tsehafi, about four kilometers Northwest of Aksum, which
depict long humpless engraved cattle belonging to the first phase of the Ethiopian
Arabian style and dating back to, at least, the last four millenniums, suggests the
presence of such animals in the Aksum area in Antiquity (Tekle Hagos, 2001).
Religious considerations seem to have been one of the prime reasons for the
choice of Aksum as a metropolis. From Aksumite inscriptions, monuments,
religious centers and architecture, it appears that religion played a very important
role in pre-Aksumite and Aksumite times. Almost all of the pre-Christian and
Christian shrines of the Aksumites were built on hilltops. Aksum and its
surroundings are encircled by chains of hills whose tops are suited for the
construction of temples and churches. Aksumite church ruins have been found in
Wushate Golo (northern side of Gobo Dura), Aba Likanos, Aba Pentellion, Ketet
Ekili and Betegiorgis. In a survey conducted by the author in the La’elay Maichew
district in 2000, remains of an Aksumite church were found at the cattle horn
shaped hill called Adi Kerni, about five kilometers South of Aksum (Tekle Hagos,
1992 EC). There are several hypotheses accounting for why most churches were

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built on hilltops. Hilltops may have been chosen because they are safe places where
to seek protection. They are also silent places suitable for praying. Also, since
hilltops are closer to the sky and thus closer to God, hilltops could have been the
most sensible place for constructing religious centers. Aksumites might have had
this religious aspect in mind when they chose Aksum as their metropolis.

Conclusions
Researches conducted so far in Aksum and its surroundings show that these places
are potentially rich in agricultural and mineral resources. The altitude and
environment of Aksum and its vicinity are good for settlement and advantageous to
cereal and grain agriculture and cattle, sheep and goat herding. Furthermore, its
location at the center of several trade routes and its proximity to the abundant
resources of the eastern and western lowlands and of the central and southern
highlands makes Aksum an ideal setting for a metropolis.
Recent investigations carried out by the author in the La’elay Maichew and
Tahtay Koraro districts show that the landscapes of these places preserve a large
number of archaeological evidence, which needs attention of local authorities and
public in general. Due to a lack of awareness and of interest from local people and
authorities alike, the landscapes that preserve Ethiopia’s cultural and historical
heritage are facing a real threat of being destroyed at an alarming rate. The chains of
hills around Aksum, which contain the remains of the largest stelae quarry sites on
earth, have been quarried for construction and other purposes. Irresponsible
individuals have been quarrying the phenolite rocks of the Gobo Dura hill since the
1960’s. In a survey undertaken in 2000, the author saw several granite localities that
have been quarried by modern machinery. Local informants affirmed that Ras
Mengesha Seyoum conducted these activities with the help of machinery in the
1960’s. In protest, the machines were broken and set on fire by students, putting an
end to the works. Yet quarrying activities continue. Some of the granite boulders,
which exhibit unfinished stelae, have been broken into pieces and transported by
truck and by donkey to Aksum for construction purposes. An attempt to quarry the
boulder that exhibits an engraved lioness and a cross has been even made. Such
ongoing activities must be terminated immediately before further destruction
ensues. Furthermore, the stelae quarry sites in Aba Likanos, Adi Gatiya, Adi
Tsehafi, Kube, Da’ero Maichew and Aba Pentellion are also facing similar threats.
Concerned authorities should therefore take immediate action to stop these illegal
activities.
Erected stelae have been moved from their original locations and re-erected in
church compounds in many sites in northwestern Tigray, such as Abune Senbelti
and Mariam Tikakigni. It construes future archaeological research. Leaders of the
local peasant association and public in general should be informed about the
importance of preserving stelae in their primary context.
Illicit excavations for gold extracting are another threat to the preservation of
the cultural heritage of Aksum and its surrounding area. Mai Adrasha, one of the
oldest sites in northwestern Ethiopia, has become the target of such illegal activities.

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Many Aksumite and pre-Aksumite sites, such as the cemetery area of Mai
Adrasha in the Tahtay Koraro disctrict and Adi Nagul in the Medebay Zana district,
have been disturbed by urbanization and road construction in Aksum and its
vicinities.
The 1974-1991 civil war and the Ethio-Eritrean war damaged several tumuli
sites from the Tselemit and Tahtay Adi Yabo districts in northwestern Tigray.
Tumuli were used as fortresses and their underneath were opened in order to build
trenches, disturbing the archaeological evidence and heritage. Local authorities and
people in general should become aware of the importance of ending these cultural
interventions before further destruction ensues.
Last but not least, as a preliminary synthesis of a new approach to Aksumite
archaeology, this article intends to stimulate further research.

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Abstract / Résumé
Tekle Hagos, 2010, The Choice of Aksum as a Metropolis, Annales d’Éthiopie, 25,
139-156.

The Aksumite state flourished at Aksum in the early 1st century AD. Its strategic
location, far from the Red Sea in the hinterlands of the Tigray plateau and at the
margin of the western escarpment, allowed it to exploit the rich agricultural, geological,
floral and faunal resources of the western and eastern lowlands and of the northern
and central highlands. Indigenous factors are offered as the main explanatory
variables of why Aksum was chosen as the metropolis of the Aksumites in the
1st century AD. It appears that competition among chiefs for control of fertile lands at
Aksum and its vicinities resulted in the formation of the polity that we now know as the
Aksumite state.
Keywords: Aksum, Ethiopia, tumulus, stelae, metropolis.

Le choix d’Aksum comme métropole – L’État aksumite s’est développé à

Aksum au début du Ier siècle de notre ère. Sa position stratégique, loin de la mer
Rouge dans l’arrière-pays du plateau tigréen et aux marges de l’escarpement
occidental, lui a permis d’exploiter les riches ressources agricoles, géologiques,
florales et fauniques des basses terres occidentales et orientales et des hautes
terres centrales et septentrionales. Des explications locales sont données comme
les facteurs principaux pour expliquer le choix d’Aksum comme métropole des
Aksumites au Ier siècle de notre ère. La compétition entre les chefs pour contrôler
les terres fertiles d’Aksum et de ses environs a conduit à la formation d’une
administration que nous connaissons maintenant comme l’État aksumite.
Mots-clefs : Aksum, Éthiopie, tumulus, stèles, métropole.

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