2.

Participating‌  ‌in‌  ‌teacher‌  ‌research‌  ‌also‌  ‌helps‌  ‌teachers‌  ‌become‌  ‌more‌  ‌deliberate‌  ‌in‌  ‌their‌‌ 
decision-making‌‌and‌‌actions‌‌in‌‌the‌‌classroom.‌  ‌
3. Teacher‌  ‌research‌  ‌develops‌  ‌professional‌  ‌disposition‌  ‌of‌  ‌lifelong‌  ‌learning,‌  ‌reflective‌  ‌and‌  ‌mindful‌‌ 
teaching,‌‌and‌‌self-transformation‌‌(Mills‌‌2000;‌‌Stringer‌‌2007)‌  ‌
4. Engaging‌  ‌in‌  ‌teacher‌  ‌research‌  ‌at‌  ‌any‌  ‌level‌  ‌may‌  ‌lead‌  ‌to‌  ‌rethinking‌  ‌and‌  ‌reconstructing‌  ‌what‌  ‌it‌‌ 
means‌  ‌to‌  ‌be‌  ‌a ‌ ‌teacher‌  ‌or‌  ‌teacher‌  ‌educator‌  ‌and,‌  ‌consequently,‌  ‌the‌  ‌way‌  ‌teachers‌  ‌relate‌  ‌to‌‌ 
children‌‌and‌‌students.‌  ‌
5. Teacher‌  ‌research‌  ‌has‌  ‌the‌  ‌potential‌  ‌to‌  ‌demonstrate‌  ‌to‌  ‌teachers‌  ‌and‌  ‌prospective‌  ‌teachers‌  ‌that‌‌ 
learning‌  ‌to‌  ‌teach‌  ‌is‌  ‌inherently‌  ‌connected‌  ‌to‌  ‌learning‌  ‌to‌  ‌inquire‌  ‌(Borko,‌  ‌Liston,‌  ‌& ‌ ‌Whitcomb‌‌ 
2007).‌  ‌
 ‌
Teachers‌‌  involvement‌‌   in‌‌  the‌‌ conduct‌‌ of‌‌ teacher‌‌ research‌‌ shows‌‌ a ‌‌shift‌‌ from‌‌ thinking‌‌ about‌‌ teacher’s‌‌ 
research‌  ‌as‌  ‌something‌  ‌done‌  ‌to‌  ‌teachers‌  ‌to‌  ‌something‌  ‌done‌  ‌by‌  ‌teachers‌  ‌(Zeichner‌  ‌1999;‌‌   Lampert‌‌ 
2000)‌  ‌
 ‌
BIG‌‌IDEAS‌  ‌
1. Quality‌‌research‌‌adheres‌‌to‌‌the‌‌scientific‌‌method.‌  ‌
2. For‌  ‌research‌  ‌on‌  ‌child‌  ‌and‌  ‌adolescent‌  ‌development‌  ‌to‌  ‌serve‌  ‌its‌  ‌ultimate‌  ‌purpose,‌  ‌researchers‌‌ 
must‌‌be‌‌governed‌‌by‌‌ethical‌‌principles.‌  ‌
3. There‌  ‌are‌  ‌various‌  ‌research‌  ‌design‌  ‌and‌  ‌data-gathering‌  ‌techniques.‌  ‌Which‌  ‌research‌  ‌design‌  ‌and‌‌ 
data-gathering‌  ‌technique‌  ‌to‌  ‌use‌  ‌depends‌  ‌on‌  ‌the‌  ‌nature‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌research‌  ‌problem‌  ‌and‌  ‌the‌‌ 
objective/s‌‌of‌‌the‌‌research.‌  ‌
4. Teachers‌  ‌are‌  ‌both‌  ‌producers‌  ‌of‌  ‌knowledge‌‌   when‌‌  they‌‌
  conduct‌‌
  research‌‌   and‌‌
  are‌‌
  consumers‌‌  or‌‌ 
end‌‌users‌‌of‌‌knowledge‌‌when‌‌they‌‌utilized‌‌research‌‌findings‌‌to‌‌improve‌‌instruction.‌  ‌
5. Research‌  ‌has‌  ‌a ‌ ‌transformative‌  ‌effect‌  ‌on‌  ‌teachers’‌  ‌self-understanding‌  ‌and‌  ‌on‌  ‌their‌  ‌classroom‌‌ 
practice.‌‌   It‌‌
  enables‌‌   teachers‌‌   to‌‌
  develop‌‌   a ‌‌batter‌‌
  understanding‌‌ of‌‌ themselves,‌‌ their‌‌ classrooms,‌‌ 
and‌‌their‌‌practice‌‌through‌‌the‌‌act‌‌of‌‌reflective‌‌inquiry.‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
REFLECTION‌  ‌
It‌‌
  is‌‌
  said‌‌
  that‌‌  because‌‌   teachers‌‌
  are‌‌  overloaded‌‌   with‌‌
  work‌‌
  they‌‌  usually‌‌
  frown‌‌
  on‌‌  the‌‌
  conduct‌‌ of‌‌ 
research.‌  ‌Reflect‌  ‌on‌  ‌the‌  ‌consequences‌  ‌of‌  ‌this‌  ‌attitude.‌  ‌What‌‌
  can‌‌
  be‌‌
  done‌‌
  to‌‌
  prevent‌‌
  this?‌‌
  Write‌‌
  your‌‌ 
reflection‌‌here.‌  ‌
 
Module‌5
‌ :‌F‌ reud’s‌P
‌ sychoanalytic‌T‌ heory‌‌   ‌
● Maria‌‌Rita‌‌D.‌‌Lucas,‌‌Ph.D.‌  ‌
 ‌
LEARNING‌‌OUTCOMES‌‌   ‌
At‌‌the‌‌end‌‌of‌‌this‌‌module,‌‌you‌‌should‌‌be‌‌able‌‌to:‌  ‌
● Explain‌‌Freud’s‌‌views‌‌about‌‌child‌‌and‌‌adolescent‌‌development.‌  ‌
● Draw‌‌implications‌‌of‌‌Freud’s‌‌theory‌‌to‌‌education.‌  ‌
 ‌
INTRODUCTION‌  ‌
Freud’s‌‌   views‌‌   about‌‌   human‌‌ development‌‌ are‌‌ more‌‌ than‌‌ a ‌‌century‌‌ old.‌‌ He‌‌ can‌‌ be‌‌ considered‌‌ the‌‌ 
most‌  ‌well-known‌  ‌psychologist‌  ‌because‌  ‌of‌  ‌his‌  ‌very‌  ‌interesting‌  ‌theory‌  ‌about‌  ‌the‌  ‌unconscious‌  ‌and‌  ‌also‌‌ 
about‌  ‌sexual‌  ‌development.‌  ‌Although‌  ‌a ‌ ‌lot‌  ‌of‌  ‌his‌  ‌views‌  ‌were‌  ‌criticized‌  ‌and‌  ‌some‌  ‌considered‌  ‌them‌‌ 
debunked,‌‌   (he‌‌   himself‌‌   recanted‌‌   some‌‌ of‌‌ his‌‌ earlier‌‌ views).‌‌ Freud’s‌‌ theory‌‌ remains‌‌ to‌‌ be‌‌ one‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ most‌‌ 
influential‌  ‌in‌  ‌psychology.‌  ‌His‌  ‌theory‌  ‌sparked‌  ‌the‌‌   ideas‌‌   in‌‌  the‌‌   brilliant‌‌   minds‌‌   of‌‌   other‌‌   theorist‌‌   and‌‌   thus‌‌ 
became‌‌the‌‌starting‌‌point‌‌of‌‌many‌‌other‌‌theories,‌‌notable‌‌of‌‌which‌‌Erickson’s‌‌Psychosocial‌‌theory.‌  ‌
 ‌
ACTIVITY‌  ‌
 ‌
1. Recall‌  ‌a ‌ ‌recent‌  ‌incident‌  ‌in‌  ‌your‌  ‌life‌  ‌when‌  ‌you‌  ‌had‌  ‌to‌  ‌make‌  ‌a ‌ ‌decision.‌  ‌Narrate‌  ‌the‌  ‌situation‌‌ 
below.‌‌   Indicate‌‌ what‌‌ the‌‌ decision‌‌ was‌‌ about,‌‌ the‌‌ factors‌‌ that‌‌ were‌‌ involved‌‌ and‌‌ how‌‌ you‌‌ arrived‌‌ 
at‌‌your‌‌decision.‌  ‌
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 ‌
Freud’s‌‌Stage‌‌of‌‌Psychosexual‌‌Development‌  ‌
Freud‌  ‌is‌  ‌the‌  ‌most‌  ‌popular‌  ‌psychologist‌  ‌that‌  ‌studied‌  ‌the‌  ‌development‌  ‌of‌  ‌personality,‌  ‌also‌‌ 
probably‌  ‌the‌  ‌most‌  ‌controversial.‌  ‌His‌  ‌theory‌  ‌of‌  ‌psychosocial‌  ‌development‌  ‌includes‌  ‌five‌‌   distinct‌‌   stages.‌‌ 
According‌‌ to‌‌ Freud,‌‌ a ‌‌person‌‌ goes‌‌ through‌‌ the‌‌ sequence‌‌ of‌‌ these‌‌ five‌‌ stages‌‌ and‌‌ along‌‌ the‌‌ way‌‌ there‌‌ are‌‌ 
needs‌  ‌to‌  ‌be‌  ‌met.‌  ‌Whether‌  ‌these‌  ‌needs‌  ‌are‌‌   met‌‌   or‌‌  not‌‌   determines‌‌   whether‌‌   the‌‌   person‌‌   will‌‌
  develop‌‌   a ‌‌
healthy‌  ‌personality‌  ‌or‌  ‌not.‌  ‌The‌  ‌theory‌  ‌is‌  ‌quite‌  ‌interesting‌  ‌for‌  ‌many‌  ‌because‌  ‌Freud‌  ‌identified‌  ‌specific‌‌ 
erogenous‌‌   zones‌‌   ‌for‌‌   each‌‌   stage‌‌   of‌‌   development‌. ‌‌‌These‌‌   are‌‌   specific‌‌   “pleasure‌‌   areas”‌‌   that‌‌ become‌‌ focal‌‌ 
point‌‌   for‌‌ a ‌‌particular‌‌ stage.‌‌ If‌‌ needs‌‌ are‌‌ not‌‌ met‌‌ along‌‌ the‌‌ area,‌‌ a ‌‌fixation‌‌ occurs.‌‌ As‌‌ an‌‌ adult,‌‌ the‌‌ person‌‌ 
will‌‌not‌‌manifest‌‌behaviors‌‌related‌‌to‌‌this‌‌erogenous‌‌zone.‌  ‌
 ‌
Oral‌‌ Stage‌‌ (birth‌‌ to‌‌ 18‌‌ months)‌‌ the‌‌ erogenous‌‌ zone‌‌ is‌‌ the‌‌ mouth.‌‌ During‌‌ the‌‌ oral‌‌ stage,‌‌ the‌‌ child‌‌ 
is‌‌
  focused‌‌   on‌‌   oral‌‌   pleasures‌‌   (sucking).‌‌   Too‌‌   much‌‌   or‌‌  too‌‌   little‌‌   satisfaction‌‌   can‌‌   lead‌‌   to‌‌
  an‌‌   Oral‌‌ Fixation‌‌ or‌‌ 
Oral‌‌  Personality‌‌   which‌‌   is‌‌
  shown‌‌   in‌‌   an‌‌   increased‌‌   focus‌‌   on‌‌   oral‌‌   activities.‌‌   This‌‌   type‌‌   of‌‌ personality‌‌ may‌‌ be‌‌ 
oral‌‌  receptive‌, ‌‌that‌‌   is,‌‌  have‌  ‌stronger‌‌   tendency‌‌ to‌‌ smoke,‌‌ drink‌‌ alcohol,‌‌ overeat,‌‌ or‌‌ ‌oral‌‌ aggressive‌, ‌‌that‌‌ 
is‌‌
  with‌‌   a ‌‌tendency‌‌   to‌‌  bite‌‌   his‌‌   or‌‌   her‌‌   nails,‌‌   or‌‌   use‌‌   curse‌‌   words‌‌   or‌‌  even‌‌   gossip.‌‌   As‌‌ a ‌‌result,‌‌ these‌‌ persons‌‌ 
may‌‌   become‌‌   too‌‌   dependent‌‌   on‌‌   others,‌‌   easily‌‌   fooled,‌‌ and‌‌ lack‌‌ leadership‌‌ traits.‌‌ On‌‌ the‌‌ other‌‌ hand,‌‌ they‌‌ 
may‌‌also‌‌fight‌‌these‌‌tendencies‌‌and‌‌become‌‌pessimistic‌‌and‌‌aggressive‌‌in‌‌relating‌‌with‌‌people.‌  ‌
 ‌
Anal‌  ‌Stage‌  ‌(18‌  ‌months‌  ‌to‌  ‌3 ‌ ‌years).‌  ‌The‌  ‌child’s‌  ‌focus‌  ‌of‌  ‌pleasure‌  ‌in‌‌   this‌‌   stage‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌
  anus.‌‌   The‌‌ 
child‌‌   find‌‌   satisfaction‌‌   in‌‌  eliminating‌‌   and‌‌   retaining‌‌   feces.‌‌   Through‌‌   society’s‌‌   expectations,‌‌ particularly‌‌ the‌‌ 
parents,‌‌   the‌‌   child‌‌   needs‌‌   to‌‌ work‌‌ on‌‌ toilet‌‌ training.‌‌ Let‌‌ us‌‌ remember‌‌ that‌‌ between‌‌ one‌‌ year‌‌ and‌‌ a ‌‌half‌‌ to‌‌ 
three‌‌   years‌‌ the‌‌ child’s‌‌ favorite‌‌ word‌‌ might‌‌ be‌‌ “No!”.‌‌ Therefore‌‌ a ‌‌struggle‌‌ might‌‌ exist‌‌ in‌‌ the‌‌ toilet‌‌ training‌‌ 
process‌‌   when‌‌   the‌‌   child’s‌‌   retains‌‌   feces‌‌   when‌‌   asked‌‌   to‌‌  eliminate,‌‌   or‌‌
  may‌‌   choose‌‌   to‌‌ defecate‌‌ when‌‌ asked‌‌ 
to‌‌
  hold‌‌   feces‌‌   for‌‌   some‌‌   reason.‌‌   In‌‌   terms‌‌   of‌‌
  personality,‌‌   Fixation‌‌ during‌‌ this‌‌ stage‌‌ can‌‌ result‌‌ in‌‌ being‌‌ ‌anal‌‌ 
retentive‌, ‌ ‌an‌  ‌obsession‌  ‌with‌  ‌cleanliness,‌  ‌perfection,‌  ‌and‌  ‌control;‌  ‌or‌  ‌anal‌  ‌expulsive‌  ‌where‌  ‌the‌‌   person‌‌ 
may‌‌become‌‌messy‌‌and‌‌disorganized.‌  ‌
 ‌
Phallic‌  ‌Stage‌  ‌(ages‌  ‌3 ‌ ‌to‌  ‌6).‌  ‌The‌  ‌pleasure‌  ‌or‌  ‌erogenous‌  ‌zone‌  ‌is‌‌   the‌‌   genitals.‌‌   During‌‌   the‌‌   preschool‌‌   age,‌‌ 
children‌‌   become‌‌   interested‌‌   in‌‌   what‌‌   makes‌‌   boys‌‌   and‌‌   girls‌‌   different.‌‌   Preschooler‌‌   will‌‌  sometimes‌‌ be‌‌ seen‌‌ 
fondling‌‌   their‌‌ genitals.‌‌ Freud’s‌‌ studies‌‌ led‌‌ him‌‌ to‌‌ believe‌‌ that‌‌ during‌‌ this‌‌ stage‌‌ boys‌‌ develop‌‌ unconscious‌‌ 
sexual‌  ‌desire‌  ‌for‌  ‌their‌‌   mother.‌‌   Boys‌‌   then‌‌   see‌‌   their‌‌   father‌‌   will‌‌  punish‌‌   them‌‌   for‌‌   these‌‌   feelings,‌‌   thus,‌‌   the‌‌ 
castration‌  ‌anxiety.‌  ‌These‌  ‌feelings‌  ‌comprise‌  ‌what‌  ‌Freud‌  ‌called‌  ‌Oedipus‌  ‌Complex.‌  ‌In‌  ‌Greek‌  ‌mythology,‌‌ 
Oedipus‌‌unintentionally‌‌killed‌‌his‌‌father‌‌and‌‌married‌‌his‌‌mother‌‌Jocasta.‌  ‌
 ‌
Psychoanalysts,‌  ‌also‌  ‌believed‌  ‌that‌  ‌girls‌  ‌may‌  ‌also‌  ‌have‌  ‌a ‌ ‌similar‌  ‌experience,‌  ‌developing‌‌ 
unconscious‌‌sexual‌‌attraction‌‌towards‌‌their‌‌father.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌what‌‌I‌‌referred‌‌to‌‌as‌‌the‌E‌ lectra‌‌Complex.‌  ‌
According‌  ‌to‌  ‌Freud,‌  ‌out‌  ‌of‌  ‌fear‌  ‌of‌  ‌castration‌  ‌and‌  ‌due‌  ‌to‌  ‌the‌  ‌strong‌  ‌competition‌  ‌of‌  ‌their‌  ‌father,‌  ‌boys‌‌ 
eventually‌‌   decide‌‌   to‌‌   identify‌‌   with‌‌   them‌‌   rather‌‌   than‌‌   fight‌‌ them.‌‌ By‌‌ identifying‌‌ with‌‌ their‌‌ father,‌‌ the‌‌ boys‌‌ 
develop‌  ‌masculine‌  ‌characteristics‌  ‌and‌  ‌identify‌  ‌themselves‌  ‌as‌  ‌males‌  ‌and‌  ‌repress‌  ‌their‌  ‌sexual‌  ‌feelings‌‌ 
toward‌  ‌their‌  ‌mother.‌  ‌A ‌ ‌fixation‌  ‌at‌  ‌this‌  ‌stage‌  ‌could‌  ‌result‌  ‌in‌‌   sexual‌‌   deviancies‌‌   (both‌‌   overindulging‌‌   and‌‌ 
avoidance)‌‌and‌‌weak‌‌or‌‌confused‌‌sexual‌‌identity‌‌according‌‌to‌‌psychoanalysts.‌  ‌
 ‌
Latency‌  ‌Stage‌‌   ‌(age‌‌   6 ‌‌to‌‌   puberty),‌‌   it’s‌‌   during‌‌   this‌‌   stage‌‌   that‌‌   sexual‌‌   urges‌‌   remain‌‌   repressed.‌‌   The‌‌ 
children’s‌‌   focus‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌   acquisition‌‌   of‌‌   physical‌‌ and‌‌ academic‌‌ skills.‌‌ Boys‌‌ usually‌‌ relate‌‌ more‌‌ with‌‌ boys‌‌ and‌‌ 
girls‌‌during‌‌this‌‌stage.‌  ‌
 ‌
Genital‌‌   Stage‌‌   ‌(puberty‌‌   onwards)‌‌   the‌‌   fifth‌‌ stage‌‌ of‌‌ psychosexual‌‌ development‌‌ begins‌‌ at‌‌ the‌‌ start‌‌ 
of‌  ‌puberty‌  ‌when‌  ‌sexual‌  ‌urges‌  ‌are‌  ‌once‌  ‌again‌  ‌awakened.‌  ‌In‌  ‌the‌  ‌earlier‌‌   stages,‌‌   adolescents‌‌   focus‌‌   their‌‌ 
sexual‌‌urges‌‌towards‌‌the‌‌opposite‌‌sex‌‌peers,‌‌with‌‌the‌‌pleasure‌‌centered‌‌on‌‌the‌‌genitals.‌  ‌
 ‌
Freud’s‌‌Personality‌‌Components‌  ‌
Freud‌‌   described‌‌   the‌‌   personality‌‌   structures‌‌   as‌‌   having‌‌   three‌‌   components,‌‌   the‌‌ ‌id‌, ‌‌the‌‌ ‌ego‌‌ ‌and‌‌ the‌‌ 
superego.‌‌   ‌For‌‌   each‌‌   person,‌‌   the‌‌   first‌‌   to‌‌  emerge‌‌   is‌‌  the‌‌   id,‌‌  followed‌‌   by‌‌   the‌‌   ego,‌‌   and‌‌   last‌‌   to‌‌ develop‌‌ is‌‌ the‌‌ 
superego.‌  ‌
 ‌
The‌  ‌id.‌  ‌Freud‌  ‌says‌‌   that,‌‌   a ‌‌child‌‌   is‌‌
  born‌‌   with‌‌   the‌‌   id.‌‌   The‌‌   id‌‌  plays‌‌   a ‌‌vital‌‌   role‌‌   in‌‌   one’s‌‌   personality‌‌ 
because‌‌   as‌‌   a ‌‌baby,‌‌   it‌‌
  works‌‌   so‌‌   that‌‌   the‌‌   baby’s‌‌   essential‌‌   needs‌‌   are‌‌   met.‌‌ The‌‌ id‌‌ operates‌‌ on‌‌ the‌‌ ‌pleasure‌‌ 
principle.‌‌   ‌It‌‌  focuses‌‌   on‌‌   immediate‌‌   gratification‌‌   or‌‌   satisfaction‌‌   of‌‌   its‌‌ needs.‌‌ So,‌‌ whatever‌‌ feels‌‌ good‌‌ now‌‌ 
is‌  ‌what‌  ‌it‌  ‌will‌‌   pursue‌‌   with‌‌   no‌‌   consideration‌‌   for‌‌   the‌‌   reality,‌‌   logicality‌‌   or‌‌   practicality‌‌   of‌‌   the‌‌   situation.‌‌   For‌‌ 
example,‌  ‌a ‌ ‌baby‌  ‌is‌  ‌hungry.‌  ‌It’s‌  ‌id‌  ‌wants‌  ‌food‌  ‌or‌  ‌milk…‌  ‌so,‌  ‌the‌  ‌baby‌  ‌will‌  ‌cry.‌  ‌When‌  ‌the‌  ‌child‌  ‌is‌‌ 
uncomfortable,‌‌   in‌‌
  pain,‌‌   too‌‌   hot,‌‌   too‌‌   cold,‌‌   or‌‌   just‌‌ wants‌‌ attention,‌‌ the‌‌ ‌id‌‌ ‌speaks‌‌ up‌‌ until‌‌ his‌‌ or‌‌ her‌‌ needs‌‌ 
met.‌  ‌
Nothing‌  ‌else‌  ‌matters‌  ‌to‌  ‌the‌  ‌id‌  ‌is‌  ‌except‌  ‌the‌  ‌satisfaction‌  ‌of‌  ‌its‌  ‌own‌  ‌needs.‌  ‌It‌  ‌is‌  ‌not‌  ‌oriented‌‌ 
towards‌‌   considering‌‌   reality‌‌   nor‌‌   the‌‌   needs‌‌   of‌‌  others.‌‌   Just‌‌   see‌‌   how‌‌   babies‌‌   cry‌‌  any‌‌   time‌‌ of‌‌ day‌‌ and‌‌ night!‌‌ 
Absolutely‌‌   no‌‌   regards‌‌   of‌‌   whether‌‌   mommy‌‌   is‌‌ tired‌‌ or‌‌ daddy‌‌ is‌‌ sleeping.‌‌ When‌‌ the‌‌ id‌‌ wants‌‌ something,‌‌ it‌‌ 
wants‌‌it‌‌now‌‌and‌‌it‌‌wants‌‌it‌‌fast.‌  ‌
 ‌
The‌  ‌Ego.‌  ‌As‌  ‌the‌‌   baby‌‌   turns‌‌   into‌‌   toddler‌‌   and‌‌   then‌‌   into‌‌   a ‌‌preschooler,‌‌   he/she‌‌   relates‌‌   more‌‌   with‌‌ 
the‌  ‌environment,‌  ‌the‌  ‌ego‌  ‌slowly‌  ‌begins‌  ‌to‌  ‌emerge.‌  ‌The‌  ‌ego‌  ‌operates‌  ‌using‌  ‌the‌  ‌reality‌  ‌principle.‌  ‌It‌‌   is‌‌ 
aware‌  ‌that‌  ‌others‌  ‌also‌  ‌have‌  ‌needs‌  ‌to‌  ‌be‌  ‌met.‌  ‌it‌  ‌is‌  ‌practical‌  ‌because‌  ‌it‌  ‌knows‌‌   that‌‌   being‌‌   impulsive‌‌   or‌‌ 
selfish‌  ‌can‌  ‌result‌  ‌to‌  ‌negative‌  ‌consequences‌  ‌later,‌  ‌so‌  ‌its‌  ‌reasons‌  ‌and‌  ‌considers‌  ‌the‌  ‌best‌  ‌response‌  ‌to‌‌ 
situations.‌‌   As‌‌   such,‌‌   it‌‌
  is‌‌   the‌‌ deciding‌‌ agent‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ personality.‌‌ Although‌‌ it‌‌ functions‌‌ to‌‌ help‌‌ the‌‌ id‌‌ met‌‌ its‌‌ 
needs,‌‌it‌‌always‌‌takes‌‌into‌‌account‌‌the‌‌reality‌‌of‌‌the‌‌situation.‌  ‌
 ‌
The‌‌   Superego.‌‌ ‌Near‌‌ the‌‌ end‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ preschool‌‌ years,‌‌ or‌‌ the‌‌ end‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ phallic‌‌ stage,‌‌ the‌‌ ‌superego‌‌ 
develops.‌  ‌The‌  ‌superego‌  ‌embodies‌  ‌a ‌ ‌person’s‌  ‌moral‌  ‌aspect.‌  ‌This‌  ‌develops‌  ‌from‌  ‌what‌  ‌the‌  ‌parents,‌‌ 
teachers‌‌   and‌‌   other‌‌   persons‌‌   who‌‌   exert‌‌   influence‌‌   impart‌‌   to‌‌   be‌‌   good‌‌   or‌‌   moral.‌‌ The‌‌ ‌superego‌‌ ‌is‌‌ likened‌‌ to‌‌ 
conscious‌‌because‌‌it‌‌exerts‌‌influence‌‌on‌‌what‌‌one‌‌considers‌‌right‌‌or‌‌wrong.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
The‌‌Three‌‌Components‌‌and‌‌Personality‌‌Adjustment‌  ‌
Freud‌‌   said‌‌ that‌‌ a ‌‌well-adjusted‌‌ person‌‌ is‌‌ one‌‌ who‌‌ has‌‌ strong‌‌ ego,‌‌ who‌‌ can‌‌ help‌‌ satisfy‌‌ the‌‌ needs‌‌ 
of‌  ‌the‌  ‌id‌  ‌without‌  ‌going‌  ‌against‌  ‌the‌  ‌superego‌  ‌while‌  ‌maintaining‌  ‌the‌  ‌person’s‌  ‌sense‌  ‌of‌  ‌what‌‌   is‌‌
  logical,‌‌ 
practical,‌‌   and‌‌   real.‌‌   Of‌‌   course,‌‌   it‌‌  is‌‌  not‌‌   easy‌‌   for‌‌   the‌‌   ego‌‌ to‌‌ do‌‌ all‌‌ that‌‌ and‌‌ strike‌‌ a ‌‌balance.‌‌ If‌‌ the‌‌ id‌‌ exerts‌‌ 
too‌  ‌much‌  ‌power‌‌   over‌‌   the‌‌   ego,‌‌   the‌‌   person‌‌   becomes‌‌   too‌‌   impulsive‌‌   and‌‌   pleasure-seeking‌‌   behavior‌‌   takes‌‌ 
over‌  ‌one’s‌  ‌life.‌  ‌On‌  ‌the‌  ‌opposite‌  ‌direction,‌  ‌one‌  ‌may‌  ‌find‌  ‌the‌  ‌superego‌  ‌so‌  ‌strong‌  ‌that‌  ‌the‌  ‌ego‌  ‌is‌‌ 
overpowered.‌‌   The‌‌   persons‌‌   become‌‌   so‌‌   harsh‌‌   and‌‌   judgmental‌‌   to‌‌ himself‌‌ and‌‌ other’s‌‌ action.‌‌ The‌‌ person’s‌‌ 
best‌‌effort‌‌to‌‌be‌‌good‌‌may‌‌still‌‌fall‌‌short‌‌of‌‌the‌‌superego’s‌‌expectations.‌  ‌
The‌‌   ability‌‌   of‌‌   a ‌‌learner‌‌   to‌‌   be‌‌   well-adjusted‌‌   is‌‌  largely‌‌ influenced‌‌ by‌‌ how‌‌ the‌‌ learner‌‌ was‌‌ brought‌‌ 
up.‌  ‌His‌  ‌experiences‌  ‌about‌  ‌how‌  ‌his‌  ‌parents‌  ‌met‌  ‌his‌  ‌needs‌  ‌, ‌ ‌the‌‌   extent‌‌   to‌‌  which‌‌   he‌‌   was‌‌   allowed‌‌   to‌‌   do‌‌ 
things‌  ‌he‌  ‌wanted‌  ‌to‌  ‌do,‌‌   and‌‌   also‌‌   how‌‌   he‌‌   was‌‌   taught‌‌   about‌‌   right‌‌   and‌‌   wrong‌‌   , ‌‌all‌‌
  figures‌‌   to‌‌  the‌‌   type‌‌   of‌‌ 
personality‌‌   and‌‌   consequent‌‌   adjustment‌‌   that‌‌   a ‌‌person‌‌   will‌‌  make.‌‌   Freud‌‌   believed‌‌   that‌‌   the‌‌   personality‌‌   of‌‌ 
an‌‌individual‌‌is‌‌formed‌‌early‌‌during‌‌the‌‌childhood‌‌years.‌  ‌
 ‌
Topographical‌‌Model‌  ‌
The‌‌   unconscious.‌‌ ‌Freud‌‌ said‌‌ that‌‌ most‌‌ what‌‌ we‌‌ go‌‌ through‌‌ in‌‌ our‌‌ lives,‌‌ emotion,‌‌ belief,‌‌ feelings,‌‌ 
and‌  ‌impulses‌  ‌deep‌  ‌within‌  ‌are‌  ‌not‌  ‌available‌  ‌to‌  ‌us‌  ‌at‌  ‌a ‌ ‌conscious‌  ‌level.‌  ‌He‌  ‌believed‌‌   that‌‌   most‌‌   of‌‌  what‌‌ 
influence‌  ‌us‌‌   is‌‌  our‌‌
  unconscious.‌‌   The‌‌   Oedipus‌‌   and‌‌   Electra‌‌   Complex‌‌   mentioned‌‌   earlier‌‌   were‌‌   both‌‌   buried‌‌ 
down‌‌   into‌‌  the‌‌   unconscious,‌‌   out‌‌   of‌‌  our‌‌   awareness‌‌   due‌‌   to‌‌
  the‌‌   extreme‌‌   anxiety‌‌   they‌‌ caused.‌‌ While‌‌ these‌‌ 
complexes‌  ‌are‌  ‌in‌  ‌our‌  ‌unconscious,‌  ‌they‌  ‌still‌  ‌influence‌  ‌our‌  ‌thinking,‌  ‌feelings‌  ‌and‌  ‌doing‌  ‌in‌  ‌perhaps‌‌ 
dramatic‌‌ways.‌  ‌
The‌‌   Conscious.‌‌   ‌Freud‌‌   also‌‌   said‌‌   that‌‌ all‌‌ that‌‌ we‌‌ are‌‌ aware‌‌ of‌‌ is‌‌ stored‌‌ in‌‌ our‌‌ conscious‌‌ mind.‌‌ Our‌‌ 
conscious‌‌   mind‌‌   only‌‌
  compromises‌‌   a ‌‌very‌‌   small‌‌   part‌‌  of‌‌  who‌‌   we‌‌   are‌‌   so‌‌   that,‌‌   in‌‌ our‌‌ every‌‌ day‌‌ life,‌‌ we‌‌ are‌‌ 
only‌‌   aware‌‌   of‌‌   a ‌‌very‌‌
  small‌‌   part‌‌   of‌‌  what‌‌   makes‌‌   up‌‌  our‌‌   personality;‌‌   most‌‌   of‌‌
  what‌‌ we‌‌ are‌‌ hidden‌‌ and‌‌ out‌‌ 
of‌‌reach.‌  ‌
The‌‌   Subconscious.‌‌   ‌The‌‌   last‌‌   part‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌   preconscious‌‌   or‌‌  subconscious.‌‌   This‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌   part‌‌   of‌‌
  us‌‌  that‌‌ 
we‌‌  can‌‌   reach‌‌   if‌‌ prompted‌‌ but‌‌ is‌‌ not‌‌ in‌‌ our‌‌ active‌‌ conscious.‌‌ Its‌‌ right‌‌ below‌‌ the‌‌ surface,‌‌ but‌‌ still‌‌ “hidden”‌‌ 
somewhat‌  ‌unless‌  ‌we‌  ‌search‌  ‌for‌  ‌it.‌  ‌Information‌  ‌such‌  ‌as‌  ‌our‌  ‌telephone‌  ‌number,‌  ‌some‌  ‌childhood‌‌ 
memories,‌  ‌or‌  ‌the‌  ‌name‌  ‌of‌  ‌your‌  ‌best‌  ‌childhood‌  ‌friend‌  ‌is‌  ‌stored‌  ‌in‌  ‌the‌  ‌preconscious.‌  ‌Because‌  ‌the‌‌ 
unconscious‌  ‌is‌  ‌so‌  ‌huge,‌  ‌and‌‌   because‌‌   we‌‌   are‌‌  only‌‌   aware‌‌   of‌‌
  the‌‌   very‌‌   small‌‌   conscious‌‌   at‌‌  any‌‌   given‌‌   time,‌‌ 
Freud‌  ‌used‌  ‌the‌  ‌analogy‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌iceberg‌  ‌to‌  ‌illustrate‌  ‌it.‌  ‌A ‌ ‌big‌  ‌part‌  ‌of‌‌   the‌‌   iceberg‌‌   is‌‌  hidden‌‌   beneath‌‌   the‌‌ 
water’s‌‌surface.‌  ‌
The‌‌   water,‌‌   may‌‌  represent‌‌   all‌‌  that‌‌   we‌‌   are‌‌   not‌‌  aware‌‌   of,‌‌
  have‌‌   not‌‌   experienced,‌‌   and‌‌   that‌‌   has‌‌   not‌‌ 
been‌‌made‌‌part‌‌of‌‌our‌‌personalities,‌‌refereed‌‌to‌‌as‌‌the‌n ‌ onconscious.‌  ‌

APPLICATION‌  ‌
 ‌
1. Freud‌‌   used‌‌  the‌‌
  case‌‌
  study‌‌   method‌‌   to‌‌
  gather‌‌  the‌‌ data‌‌ he‌‌ used‌‌ to‌‌ formulate‌‌ his‌‌ theories.‌‌ 
Among‌  ‌the‌  ‌many‌  ‌case‌‌   studies,‌‌
  five‌‌  really‌‌
  stood‌‌  out‌‌
  as‌‌
  bases‌‌
  of‌‌
  his‌‌
  concepts‌‌
  and‌‌   ideas.‌‌ 
Do‌  ‌further‌  ‌reading‌  ‌of‌  ‌these‌  ‌case‌  ‌studies‌  ‌and‌  ‌write‌  ‌a ‌ ‌reflection‌  ‌paper‌  ‌on‌‌
  one‌‌   of‌‌
  these‌‌ 
case‌  ‌studies‌  ‌focusing‌  ‌on‌  ‌how‌  ‌he‌  ‌explained‌  ‌the‌  ‌personality‌  ‌development‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌‌ 
individuals‌i‌n‌t‌ he‌c‌ ase‌s‌ tudies.‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
From‌‌   your‌‌
  internet‌‌ search‌‌ engine,‌‌ just‌‌ type‌‌ Freud’s‌‌ case‌‌ studies‌‌ will‌‌ be‌‌ easy‌‌ to‌‌ fine‌‌ a ‌‌pdf‌‌ 
file‌w
‌ hich‌y‌ ou‌c‌ an‌r‌ eadily‌d ‌ ownload.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
 ‌
2. Note‌  ‌Freud’s‌  ‌ideas‌  ‌about‌  ‌hypnosis,‌  ‌free‌  ‌association‌  ‌and‌  ‌interpretation‌  ‌of‌  ‌dreams.‌  ‌Do‌‌ 
you‌t‌ hink‌h ‌ is‌i‌deas‌a‌ re‌s‌ till‌u
‌ seful‌t‌ oday?‌E‌ xplain‌y‌ our‌v‌ iews‌  ‌
MODULE‌6
‌ ‌:‌ ‌P
‌ IAGET’S‌S‌ TAGES‌O
‌ F‌C
‌ OGNITIVE‌D
‌ EVELOPMENT‌  ‌
-Maria‌‌Rita‌‌D.‌‌Lucas,‌‌Ph.D.‌  ‌
 ‌
LEARNING‌‌OUTCOMES‌  ‌
at‌‌the‌‌end‌‌of‌‌this‌‌Module,‌‌you‌‌should‌‌be‌‌able‌‌to:‌  ‌
● Describe‌‌Piaget’s‌‌stages‌‌in‌‌your‌‌own‌‌words.‌  ‌
● Conduct‌‌a‌‌simple‌‌Piagetian‌‌Task‌‌interview‌‌with‌‌children.‌  ‌
● Match‌‌learning‌‌activities‌‌to‌‌the‌‌learner’s‌‌cognitive‌‌stage.‌  ‌
 ‌
INTRODUCTION‌  ‌
Jean‌‌Piaget’s‌‌Cognitive‌‌Theory‌‌of‌‌Development‌‌is‌‌truly‌‌a‌‌classic‌‌in‌‌the‌‌field‌‌of‌‌educational‌‌ 
psychology.‌‌This‌‌theory‌‌fueled‌‌other‌‌researchers‌‌and‌‌theories‌‌of‌‌development‌‌and‌‌learning.‌‌Its‌‌focus‌‌is‌‌ 
on‌‌how‌‌individuals‌‌construct‌‌knowledge.‌  ‌
 ‌
ACTIVITY‌  ‌
Read‌‌the‌‌situation‌‌below.‌‌The‌‌class‌‌may‌‌choose‌‌to‌‌dramatize‌‌each‌‌of‌‌the‌‌situation‌‌before‌‌ 
analysis‌‌is‌‌done.‌  ‌
1. It’s‌‌Christmas‌‌and‌‌Uncle‌‌Bob‌‌is‌‌giving‌‌“Aguinaldo”‌‌to‌‌the‌‌children.‌‌Three‌‌year-old‌‌Karen‌‌did‌‌not‌‌ 
want‌‌to‌‌receive‌‌the‌‌one‌‌hundred‌‌peso‌‌bill‌‌and‌‌instead‌‌preferred‌‌to‌‌receive‌‌four‌‌20‌‌peso‌‌bills.‌‌Her‌‌ 
ten‌‌year-old‌‌cousins‌‌were‌‌telling‌‌her‌‌it’s‌‌better‌‌to‌‌get‌‌the‌‌one‌‌hundred‌‌bill,‌‌but‌‌they‌‌failed‌‌to‌‌ 
convince‌‌her.‌  ‌
2. Siblings,‌‌Tria,‌‌10;‌‌Enzo,‌‌8;‌‌and‌‌Riel,‌‌4‌‌were‌‌sorting‌‌out‌‌their‌‌stuffed‌‌animals.‌‌They‌‌had‌‌7‌‌bears,‌‌3 ‌‌
dogs,‌‌2‌‌cows‌‌and‌‌1‌‌dolphin.‌‌Mommy,‌‌a‌‌psychology‌‌teacher,‌‌enters‌‌and‌‌says,‌‌“good‌‌thing‌‌you’re‌‌ 
sorting‌‌those.‌‌Do‌‌you‌‌have‌‌more‌‌stuffed‌‌animals‌‌or‌‌more‌‌bears?”‌‌Tria‌‌and‌‌Enzo‌‌says,‌‌“stuffed‌‌ 
animals.”‌‌Riel‌‌says,‌‌“Bears”‌  ‌
3. While‌‌eating‌‌on‌‌her‌‌high‌‌chair,‌‌seven‌‌month-old‌‌Liza‌‌accidentally‌‌dropped‌‌her‌‌spoon‌‌on‌‌the‌‌ 
floor.‌‌She‌‌saw‌‌mommy‌‌pick‌‌it‌‌up.‌‌Liza‌‌again‌‌drops‌‌her‌‌new‌‌spoon,‌‌and‌‌she‌‌does‌‌this‌‌several‌‌ 
times‌‌more‌‌on‌‌purpose.‌‌Mommy‌‌didn’t‌‌like‌‌it‌‌at‌‌all,‌‌but‌‌Liza‌‌appeared‌‌to‌‌enjoy‌‌dropping‌‌the‌‌ 
spoons‌‌the‌‌whole‌‌time.‌  ‌
 ‌
ANALYSIS‌  ‌
1. On‌‌situation‌‌1:‌‌why‌‌do‌‌you‌‌think‌‌did‌‌Karen‌‌prefer‌‌the‌‌20-peso‌‌bills?‌‌ 
______________________________________________________________________________‌
______________________________________________________________________________‌
______________________________________________________________________________‌  ‌
2. On‌‌situation‌‌2:‌‌why‌‌do‌‌you‌‌think‌‌Riel‌‌answered‌‌“Bears?”‌‌what‌‌does‌‌this‌‌say‌‌about‌‌how‌‌she‌‌ 
thought‌‌to‌‌answer‌‌the‌‌question?‌‌ 
______________________________________________________________________________‌
______________________________________________________________________________‌
______________________________________________________________________________‌  ‌
3. On‌‌situation‌‌3:‌‌why‌‌do‌‌you‌‌think‌‌Baby‌‌Liza‌‌appeared‌‌to‌‌enjoy‌‌dropping‌‌the‌‌spoons?‌‌ 
______________________________________________________________________________‌
______________________________________________________________________________‌
______________________________________________________________________________‌  ‌
 ‌
ABSTRACTION‌  ‌
The‌‌children‌‌in‌‌the‌‌situations‌‌presented‌‌above‌‌were‌‌of‌‌different‌‌ages‌‌and‌‌so‌‌also‌‌should‌‌ 
apparent‌‌differences‌‌in‌‌the‌‌way‌‌they‌‌thought.‌‌They‌‌were‌‌in‌‌different‌‌stages‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌development.‌‌ 
Perhaps‌‌no‌‌one‌‌has‌‌influenced‌‌the‌‌field‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌development‌‌more‌‌than‌‌Jean‌‌Piaget.‌‌As‌‌you‌‌read‌‌ 
through‌‌this‌‌Module‌‌you‌‌will‌‌come‌‌to‌‌understand‌‌cognitive‌‌development‌‌of‌‌children‌‌and‌‌adolescents‌‌ 
and‌‌also‌‌identify‌‌ways‌‌of‌‌applying‌‌this‌‌understanding‌‌in‌‌the‌‌teaching‌‌learners.‌  ‌
For‌‌sixty‌‌years,‌‌Jean‌‌Piaget‌‌conducted‌‌research‌‌on‌‌cognitive‌‌development.‌‌His‌‌research‌‌method‌‌ 
involved‌‌observing‌‌a‌‌small‌‌number‌‌of‌‌individuals‌‌as‌‌they‌‌responded‌‌to‌‌cognitive‌‌tasks‌‌that‌‌he‌‌designed.‌‌ 
These‌‌tasks‌‌were‌‌later‌‌known‌‌as‌P ‌ iagetian‌‌task.‌  ‌
Piaget‌‌called‌‌his‌‌general‌‌theoretical‌‌framework‌‌“genetic‌‌epistemology”‌‌because‌‌he‌‌was‌‌ 
interested‌‌in‌‌hoe‌‌knowledge‌‌developed‌‌in‌‌human‌‌organisms.‌‌Piaget‌‌was‌‌initially‌‌into‌‌biology‌‌and‌‌he‌‌also‌‌ 
had‌‌a‌‌background‌‌in‌‌philosophy.‌‌Knowledge‌‌from‌‌both‌‌these‌‌disciplines‌‌influenced‌‌his‌‌theories‌‌and‌‌ 
research‌‌of‌‌child‌‌development.‌‌out‌‌of‌‌his‌‌researches,‌‌Piaget‌‌came‌‌up‌‌with‌‌the‌‌stages‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌ 
development.‌  ‌
Piaget‌‌examined‌‌the‌‌implications‌‌of‌‌hos‌‌theory‌‌not‌‌only‌‌to‌‌aspects‌‌of‌‌cognition‌‌but‌‌also‌‌to‌‌ 
intelligence‌‌and‌‌moral‌‌development.‌‌His‌‌theory‌‌has‌‌been‌‌applied‌‌widely‌‌to‌‌teaching‌‌and‌‌curriculum‌‌ 
design‌‌especially‌‌in‌‌the‌‌preschool‌‌and‌‌elementary‌‌curricula.‌‌   ‌
 ‌
 ‌
Basic‌‌Cognitive‌‌Concepts‌  ‌
Schema.‌P ‌ iaget‌‌used‌‌the‌‌term‌‌“schema”‌‌to‌‌refer‌‌to‌‌the‌‌cognitive‌‌structures‌‌by‌‌which‌‌individuals‌‌ 
intellectually‌‌adapt‌‌to‌‌and‌‌organize‌‌their‌‌environment.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌an‌‌individual’s‌‌way‌‌to‌‌understand‌‌or‌‌create‌‌ 
meaning‌‌about‌‌a‌‌thing‌‌or‌‌experience.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌like‌‌the‌‌mind‌‌has‌‌a‌‌filling‌‌cabinet‌‌and‌‌each‌‌drawer‌‌has‌‌folders‌‌ 
that‌‌contain‌‌files‌‌of‌‌things‌‌he‌‌has‌‌had‌‌an‌‌experience‌‌with.‌‌For‌‌instance,‌‌if‌‌a‌‌child‌‌sees‌‌a‌‌dog‌‌for‌‌the‌‌first‌‌ 
time,‌‌he‌‌creates‌‌his‌‌own‌‌schema‌‌of‌‌what‌‌a‌‌dog‌‌is.‌‌It‌‌has‌‌four‌‌legs‌‌and‌‌a‌‌tail.‌‌It‌‌barks.‌‌It’s‌‌furry.‌‌The‌‌child‌‌ 
then‌‌“puts‌‌this‌‌description‌‌of‌‌a‌‌dog‌‌“on‌‌file”‌‌in‌‌his‌‌mind.‌‌When‌‌he‌‌sees‌‌another‌‌similar‌‌dog,‌‌he‌‌“pulls”‌‌ 
out‌‌the‌‌file‌‌(his‌‌schema‌‌of‌‌a‌‌dog)‌‌in‌‌his‌‌mind,‌‌looks‌‌at‌‌the‌‌animals,‌‌and‌‌says,‌‌“four‌‌legs,‌‌tail,‌‌barks,‌‌ 
furry….‌‌That’s‌‌a‌‌dog!”‌  ‌
Assimilation‌.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌process‌‌of‌‌fitting‌‌a‌‌new‌‌experience‌‌into‌‌an‌‌existing‌‌or‌‌previously‌‌created‌‌ 
cognitive‌‌structure‌‌or‌‌schema.‌‌If‌‌the‌‌child‌‌sees‌‌another‌‌dog,‌‌this‌‌time‌‌a‌‌little‌‌smaller‌‌one,‌‌he‌‌would‌‌make‌‌ 
sense‌‌of‌‌what‌‌he‌‌is‌‌seeing‌‌by‌‌adding‌‌this‌‌new‌‌information‌‌(a‌‌different‌‌looking‌‌dog)‌‌into‌‌his‌‌schema‌‌of‌‌a ‌‌
dog.‌  ‌
Accommodation‌.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌process‌‌of‌‌creating‌‌new‌‌schema.‌‌If‌‌the‌‌same‌‌child‌‌now‌‌sees‌‌another‌‌ 
that‌‌looks‌‌a‌‌little‌‌bit‌‌like‌‌a‌‌dog,‌‌but‌‌somehow‌‌different.‌‌He‌‌might‌‌try‌‌to‌‌fit‌‌it‌‌into‌‌his‌‌schema‌‌of‌‌a‌‌dog,‌‌and‌‌ 
say,‌‌“Look‌‌mommy,‌‌what‌‌a‌‌funny‌‌looking‌‌dog.‌‌Its‌‌bark‌‌is‌‌funny‌‌too!”‌‌then‌‌the‌‌mommy‌‌explains,‌‌“that’s‌‌ 
not‌‌a‌‌funny‌‌looking‌‌dog.‌‌That’s‌‌a‌‌goat!”‌‌with‌‌mommy’s‌‌further‌‌descriptions,‌‌the‌‌child‌‌will‌‌now‌‌create‌‌ 
schema,‌‌that‌‌of‌‌a‌‌goat.‌‌He‌‌now‌‌adds‌‌a‌‌new‌‌file‌‌in‌‌his‌‌filling‌‌cabinet.‌  ‌
Equilibration.‌‌Piaget‌‌believed‌‌that‌‌people‌‌have‌‌the‌‌natural‌‌need‌‌to‌‌understand‌‌how‌‌the‌‌world‌‌ 
works‌‌and‌‌to‌‌find‌‌order,‌‌structure,‌‌and‌‌predictability‌‌in‌‌their‌‌life.‌‌Equilibration‌‌is‌‌achieving‌‌proper‌‌ 
balance‌‌between‌‌assimilation‌‌and‌‌accommodation.‌‌When‌‌our‌‌experiences‌‌do‌‌not‌‌match‌‌our‌‌schemata‌‌ 
(plural‌‌of‌‌schema)‌‌or‌‌cognitive‌‌structures,‌‌we‌‌experience‌c‌ ognitive‌‌disequilibrium‌.‌‌This‌‌means‌‌there‌‌is‌‌a ‌‌
discrepancy‌‌between‌‌what‌‌is‌‌perceived‌‌and‌‌what‌‌is‌‌understood.‌‌We‌‌then‌‌exert‌‌effort‌‌through‌‌ 
assimilation‌‌and‌‌accommodation‌‌to‌‌established‌‌equilibrium‌‌once‌‌more.‌ 
Cognitive‌‌development‌‌involves‌‌a‌‌continuous‌‌effort‌‌to‌‌adapt‌‌to‌‌the‌‌environment‌‌in‌‌terms‌‌of‌‌ 
assimilation‌‌and‌‌accommodation.‌‌In‌‌this‌‌sense,‌‌Piaget’s‌‌theory‌‌is‌‌similar‌‌in‌‌nature‌‌to‌‌other‌‌constructivist‌‌ 
perspectives‌‌of‌‌learning‌‌like‌‌Bruner‌‌and‌‌Vygotsky.‌  ‌
 ‌
Piaget’s‌‌Stages‌‌of‌‌Cognitive‌‌Development‌  ‌
Stage‌‌1.‌‌Sensory-motor‌‌Stage.‌T‌ he‌‌first‌‌stage‌‌corresponds‌‌from‌‌birth‌‌to‌‌infancy.‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌  ‌
stage‌‌when‌‌a‌‌child‌‌who‌‌is‌‌initially‌‌reflexive‌‌in‌‌grasping‌‌sucking‌‌and‌‌reaching‌‌becomes‌‌more‌‌ 
organized‌‌in‌‌his‌‌movement‌‌and‌‌activity.‌‌The‌‌term‌‌sensori-motor‌‌focuses‌‌on‌‌the‌‌prominence‌‌of‌‌ 
the‌‌senses‌‌and‌‌muscle‌‌movement‌‌through‌‌which‌‌the‌‌infant‌‌comes‌‌to‌‌learn‌‌about‌‌himself‌‌and‌‌ 
the‌‌world.‌‌In‌‌working‌‌with‌‌children‌‌in‌‌the‌‌sensori-motor‌‌stage,‌‌teachers‌‌should‌‌aim‌‌to‌‌provide‌‌a ‌‌
rich‌‌and‌‌stimulating‌‌environment‌‌with‌‌appropriate‌‌objects‌‌to‌‌play‌‌with.‌  ‌
Object‌‌permanence.‌‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌of‌‌the‌‌child‌‌to‌‌know‌‌that‌‌an‌‌object‌‌still‌‌exists‌‌even‌‌when‌‌ 
out‌‌of‌‌sight.‌‌This‌‌ability‌‌Is‌‌attained‌‌in‌‌the‌‌sensory‌‌motor‌‌stage.‌‌(please‌‌refer‌‌to‌‌Unit‌‌2,‌‌Module‌‌13‌‌ 
for‌‌more‌‌notes.)‌  ‌
Stage‌‌2.‌‌Pre-Operational‌‌Stage.‌T‌ he‌‌preoperational‌‌stage‌‌covers‌‌from‌‌about‌‌two‌‌to‌‌seven‌‌years‌‌ 
old,‌‌roughly‌‌corresponding‌‌to‌‌the‌‌preschool‌‌years.‌‌Intelligence‌‌at‌‌this‌‌stage,‌‌the‌‌child‌‌can‌‌make‌‌ 
now‌‌make‌‌mental‌‌representations‌‌and‌‌is‌‌able‌‌to‌‌pretend,‌‌the‌‌child‌‌is‌‌now‌‌ever‌‌closer‌‌to‌‌the‌‌use‌‌ 
of‌‌symbols.‌‌This‌‌stage‌‌is‌‌highlighted‌‌by‌‌the‌‌following:‌  ‌
Symbolic‌‌Function.‌‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌to‌‌represent‌‌objects‌‌and‌‌events.‌‌A‌‌symbol‌‌is‌‌a‌‌thing‌‌that‌‌ 
represents‌‌something‌‌else.‌‌A‌‌drawing,‌‌a‌‌written‌‌word‌‌or‌‌a‌‌spoken‌‌word‌‌comes‌‌to‌‌be‌‌understood‌‌ 
as‌‌representing‌‌a‌‌real‌‌object‌‌like‌‌a‌‌real‌‌MRT‌‌train.‌‌Symbolic‌‌function‌‌gradually‌‌develops‌‌in‌‌the‌‌ 
period‌‌between‌‌2‌‌to‌‌7‌‌years.‌‌Riel,‌‌a‌‌two-year‌‌old‌‌may‌‌pretend‌‌that‌‌she‌‌is‌‌drinking‌‌from‌‌a‌‌glass‌‌ 
which‌‌is‌‌really‌‌empty.‌‌Though‌‌she‌‌already‌‌pretends‌‌the‌‌presence‌‌of‌‌water,‌‌the‌‌glass‌‌remains‌‌to‌‌ 
be‌‌a‌‌glass.‌‌At‌‌around‌‌four‌‌years‌‌of‌‌age,‌‌Nico,‌‌may,‌‌after‌‌pretending‌‌to‌‌drink‌‌from‌‌an‌‌empty‌‌glass,‌‌ 
turns‌‌the‌‌glass‌‌into‌‌a‌‌rocket‌‌ship‌‌or‌‌a‌‌telephone.‌‌By‌‌the‌‌age‌‌of‌‌6‌‌or‌‌7‌‌the‌‌child‌‌can‌‌pretend‌‌play‌‌ 
with‌‌objects‌‌that‌‌exist‌‌only‌‌in‌‌his‌‌mind.‌‌Enzo,‌‌who‌‌is‌‌six,‌‌can‌‌do‌‌a‌‌whole‌‌ninja‌‌turtle‌‌routine‌‌ 
 without‌‌any‌‌costume‌‌nor‌‌“props”.‌‌Tria,‌‌who‌‌is‌‌7‌‌can‌‌pretend‌‌to‌‌host‌‌an‌‌elaborate‌‌princess‌‌ball‌‌ 
only‌‌in‌‌her‌‌mind.‌  ‌
Egocentrism.‌‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌tendency‌‌of‌‌the‌‌child‌‌to‌‌only‌‌see‌‌his‌‌point‌‌of‌‌view‌‌and‌‌to‌‌assume‌‌that‌‌ 
everyone‌‌also‌‌has‌‌his‌‌same‌‌point‌‌of‌‌view.‌‌The‌‌child‌‌cannot‌‌take‌‌the‌‌perspective‌‌of‌‌others.‌‌You‌‌ 
see‌‌this‌‌in‌‌five‌‌year-old‌‌boy‌‌who‌‌buys‌‌a‌‌toy‌‌truck‌‌for‌‌his‌‌mother’s‌‌birthday.‌‌Or‌‌a‌‌three‌‌year-old‌‌ 
girl‌‌who‌‌cannot‌‌understand‌‌why‌‌her‌‌cousins‌‌call‌‌her‌‌daddy‌‌“uncle”‌‌and‌‌not‌‌daddy.‌  ‌
Centration.‌‌‌This‌‌refers‌‌to‌‌the‌‌tendency‌‌of‌‌the‌‌child‌‌to‌‌only‌‌focus‌‌on‌‌one‌‌aspect‌‌of‌‌a‌‌thing‌‌or‌‌ 
event‌‌and‌‌exclude‌‌other‌‌aspects.‌‌For‌‌example,‌‌when‌‌a‌‌girl‌‌is‌‌presented‌‌with‌‌two‌‌identical‌‌glasses‌‌ 
with‌‌the‌‌same‌‌amount‌‌of‌‌water,‌‌the‌‌child‌‌will‌‌say‌‌they‌‌have‌‌the‌‌same‌‌amount‌‌of‌‌water.‌‌However,‌‌ 
once‌‌water‌‌from‌‌one‌‌of‌‌the‌‌glasses‌‌is‌‌transferred‌‌to‌‌an‌‌obliviously‌‌taller‌‌but‌‌narrower‌‌glass,‌‌the‌‌ 
child‌‌might‌‌say‌‌that‌‌there‌‌is‌‌more‌‌water‌‌in‌‌the‌‌taller‌‌glass.‌‌The‌‌child‌‌only‌‌focused‌‌or‌‌“centered”‌‌ 
only‌‌one‌‌aspect‌‌of‌‌the‌‌new‌‌glass,‌‌that‌‌is‌‌a‌‌taller‌‌glass.‌‌The‌‌child‌‌was‌‌not‌‌able‌‌to‌‌perceive‌‌that‌‌the‌‌ 
new‌‌glass‌‌is‌‌also‌‌narrower.‌‌The‌‌child‌‌only‌‌centered‌‌on‌‌the‌‌height‌‌of‌‌the‌‌glass‌‌and‌‌excluded‌‌the‌‌ 
width‌‌in‌‌determining‌‌the‌‌amount‌‌of‌‌water‌‌in‌‌the‌‌glass.‌ 
Irreversibility.‌‌‌Pre-operational‌‌children‌‌still‌‌have‌‌the‌‌inability‌‌to‌‌reverse‌‌their‌‌thinking.‌‌They‌‌can‌‌ 
understand‌‌that‌‌2‌‌+‌‌3‌‌is‌‌5,‌‌but‌‌cannot‌‌understand‌‌that‌‌5-3‌‌is‌‌2.‌  ‌
Animism.‌‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌tendency‌‌of‌‌children‌‌to‌‌attribute‌‌human‌‌like‌‌traits‌‌or‌‌characteristics‌‌to‌‌ 
inanimate‌‌objects.‌‌When‌‌at‌‌night.‌‌The‌‌child‌‌is‌‌asked,‌‌where‌‌the‌‌sun‌‌is,‌‌she‌‌will‌‌reply,‌‌“Mr.‌‌Sun‌‌is‌‌ 
asleep.”‌‌   ‌
Transductive‌‌reasoning‌.‌‌This‌‌refers‌‌to‌‌the‌‌pre-operational‌‌c‌ hild’s‌‌type‌‌of‌‌reasoning‌‌that‌‌is‌‌ 
neither‌‌inductive‌‌nor‌‌deductive.‌‌Reasoning‌‌appears‌‌to‌‌be‌‌from‌‌particular‌‌to‌‌particular‌‌i.e.,‌‌if‌‌A ‌‌
causes,‌‌the‌‌B‌‌causes‌‌A.‌‌For‌‌example,‌‌since‌‌her‌‌mommy‌‌comes‌‌home‌‌everyday‌‌around‌‌six‌‌o’‌‌clock‌‌ 
in‌‌the‌‌evening,‌‌when‌‌asked‌‌why‌‌it‌‌is‌‌already‌‌night,‌‌the‌‌child‌‌will‌‌say,‌‌“because‌‌my‌‌mommy‌‌is‌‌ 
already‌‌home.”‌‌(for‌‌more‌‌notes‌‌on‌‌the‌‌cognitive‌‌development‌‌of‌‌the‌‌toddler,‌‌refer‌‌to‌‌Unit‌‌2.)‌  ‌
 ‌
Stage‌‌3.‌‌Concrete-Operational‌‌Stage.‌T‌ his‌‌stage‌‌is‌‌characterized‌‌by‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌of‌‌the‌‌child‌‌to‌‌ 
think‌‌logically‌‌but‌‌only‌‌in‌‌terms‌‌of‌‌concrete‌‌objects.‌‌This‌‌covers‌‌approximately‌‌the‌‌ages‌‌between‌‌ 
8-11‌‌years‌‌or‌‌the‌‌elementary‌‌school‌‌years.‌‌The‌‌concrete‌‌operational‌‌stage‌‌is‌‌marked‌‌by‌‌the‌‌ 
following:‌  ‌
Decentering.‌‌‌This‌‌refers‌‌to‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌of‌‌the‌‌child‌‌to‌‌perceive‌‌the‌‌different‌‌features‌‌of‌‌objects‌‌ 
and‌‌situations.‌‌No‌‌longer‌‌is‌‌the‌‌child‌‌focused‌‌or‌‌limited‌‌to‌‌one‌‌aspect‌‌or‌‌dimension.‌‌This‌‌allows‌‌ 
the‌‌child‌‌to‌‌be‌‌more‌‌logical‌‌when‌‌dealing‌‌with‌‌concrete‌‌objects‌‌and‌‌situations.‌  ‌
Reversibility.‌‌‌During‌‌the‌‌stage‌‌of‌‌concrete‌‌operations,‌‌the‌‌child‌‌can‌‌now‌‌follow‌‌that‌‌certain‌‌ 
operations‌‌can‌‌be‌‌done‌‌in‌‌reverse.‌‌For‌‌example,‌‌they‌‌can‌‌already‌‌comprehend‌‌the‌‌commutative‌‌ 
property‌‌of‌‌addition,‌‌and‌‌that‌‌subtraction‌‌is‌‌the‌‌reverse‌‌of‌‌addition.‌‌They‌‌can‌‌also‌‌understand‌‌ 
that‌‌a‌‌ball‌‌of‌‌clay‌‌shaped‌‌into‌‌a‌‌dinosaur‌‌can‌‌again‌‌be‌‌rolled‌‌back‌‌into‌‌a‌‌ball‌‌of‌‌clay.‌  ‌
Conservation.‌‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌to‌‌know‌‌that‌‌certain‌‌properties‌‌of‌‌objects‌‌like‌‌numbers,‌‌mass,‌‌ 
volume,‌‌or‌‌area‌‌do‌‌not‌‌change‌‌even‌‌if‌‌there‌‌is‌‌a‌‌change‌‌in‌‌appearance.‌‌Because‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ 
development‌‌of‌‌the‌‌child’s‌‌ability‌‌of‌‌decentering‌‌and‌‌also‌‌reversibility,‌‌the‌‌concrete‌‌operational‌‌ 
child‌‌can‌‌now‌‌judge‌‌rightly‌‌that‌‌the‌‌amount‌‌of‌‌water‌‌in‌‌taller‌‌but‌‌narrower‌‌container‌‌is‌‌still‌‌the‌‌ 
same‌‌as‌‌when‌‌the‌‌water‌‌was‌‌in‌‌the‌‌shorter‌‌but‌‌wider‌‌glass.‌‌The‌‌children‌‌progress‌‌to‌‌attain‌‌ 
conservation‌‌abilities‌‌gradually‌‌being‌‌a‌‌pre-conserver,‌‌a‌‌transitional‌‌thinker‌‌and‌‌then‌‌a ‌‌
conserver.‌  ‌
Seriation.‌‌‌This‌‌refers‌‌to‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌to‌‌order‌‌or‌‌arrange‌‌things‌‌in‌‌a‌‌series‌‌based‌‌on‌‌one‌‌dimension‌‌ 
such‌‌as‌‌weight,‌‌volume‌‌or‌‌size.‌  ‌
 ‌
Stage‌‌4.‌‌Formal‌‌Operational‌‌Stage.‌I‌n‌‌this‌‌final‌‌stage‌‌of‌‌formal‌‌operations‌‌covering‌‌ages‌‌ 
between‌‌12‌‌and‌‌15‌‌years,‌‌thinking‌‌become‌‌more‌‌logical.‌‌They‌‌can‌‌now‌‌solve‌‌abstract‌‌problems‌‌ 
and‌‌now‌‌hypothesize.‌‌This‌‌stage‌‌is‌‌characterized‌‌by‌‌the‌‌following:‌  ‌
Hypothetical‌‌Reasoning.‌‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌to‌‌come‌‌up‌‌with‌‌different‌‌hypothesis‌‌about‌‌a‌‌problem‌‌ 
and‌‌to‌‌gather‌‌and‌‌weigh‌‌data‌‌in‌‌order‌‌to‌‌make‌‌a‌‌final‌‌decision‌‌or‌‌judgement.‌‌This‌‌can‌‌be‌‌done‌‌in‌‌ 
the‌‌absence‌‌of‌‌concrete‌‌objects.‌‌The‌‌individuals‌‌can‌‌now‌‌deal‌‌with‌‌“What‌‌if”‌‌questions.‌  ‌
Analogical‌‌Reasoning.‌‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌to‌‌perceive‌‌the‌‌relationship‌‌in‌‌one‌‌instance‌‌and‌‌then‌‌ 
use‌‌that‌‌relationship‌‌to‌‌narrow‌‌down‌‌possible‌‌answers‌‌in‌‌another‌‌similar‌‌situation‌‌or‌‌problem.‌‌ 
The‌‌individual‌‌in‌‌the‌‌formal‌‌operations‌‌stage‌‌can‌‌make‌‌an‌‌analogy.‌‌If‌‌United‌‌Kingdom‌‌is‌‌to‌‌ 
Europe,‌‌the‌‌Philippines‌‌is‌‌to‌‌_____.‌‌The‌‌individual‌‌will‌‌reason‌‌that‌‌sine‌‌the‌‌UK‌‌is‌‌found‌‌in‌‌the‌‌ 
continent‌‌of‌‌Europe‌‌then‌‌the‌‌Philippines‌‌is‌‌found‌‌I‌‌what‌‌continent?‌‌Then‌‌Asia‌‌is‌‌his‌‌answer.‌‌ 
 Through‌‌reflective‌‌thought‌‌and‌‌even‌‌in‌‌the‌‌absence‌‌of‌‌concrete‌‌objects,‌‌the‌‌individual‌‌can‌‌now‌‌ 
understand‌‌relationship‌‌and‌‌do‌‌analogical‌‌reasoning.‌  ‌
Deductive‌‌Reasoning.‌‌‌This‌‌is‌‌the‌‌ability‌‌to‌‌think‌‌logically‌‌by‌‌applying‌‌a‌‌general‌‌rule‌‌to‌‌a ‌‌
particular‌‌instance‌‌or‌‌situation.‌‌For‌‌example,‌‌all‌‌countries‌‌near‌‌the‌‌north‌‌pole‌‌have‌‌cold‌‌ 
temperatures.‌‌Greenland‌‌is‌‌near‌‌the‌‌north‌‌pole.‌‌Therefore,‌‌Greenland‌‌has‌‌cold‌‌temperature.‌  ‌
 ‌
From‌‌Piaget’s‌‌findings‌‌and‌‌comprehensive‌‌theory,‌‌we‌‌can‌‌derive‌‌the‌‌following‌‌principles:‌  ‌
1. Children‌‌will‌‌provide‌‌different‌‌explanations‌‌of‌‌reality‌‌at‌‌different‌‌stages‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌ 
development.‌  ‌
2. Cognitive‌‌development‌‌is‌‌facilitated‌‌by‌‌providing‌‌activities‌‌or‌‌situations‌‌that‌‌engage‌‌learners‌‌and‌‌ 
require‌‌adaptation‌‌(i.e.,‌‌assimilation‌‌and‌‌accommodation).‌  ‌
3. Learning‌‌materials‌‌and‌‌activities‌‌should‌‌involve‌‌the‌‌appropriate‌‌level‌‌of‌‌motor‌‌or‌‌mental‌‌ 
operations‌‌for‌‌a‌‌child‌‌of‌‌given‌‌age;‌‌avoid‌‌asking‌‌students‌‌to‌‌perform‌‌tasks‌‌that‌‌are‌‌beyond‌‌their‌‌ 
current‌‌cognitive‌‌capabilities.‌‌   ‌
4. Use‌‌teaching‌‌methods‌‌that‌‌actively‌‌involve‌‌students‌‌and‌‌present‌‌challenges.‌  ‌
 ‌
APPLICATION‌  ‌
This‌‌activity‌‌focuses‌‌on‌‌a‌‌story‌‌involving‌‌the‌‌interaction‌‌of‌‌family‌‌members.‌‌Choose‌‌a‌‌story‌‌you‌‌ 
want‌‌to‌‌use‌‌for‌‌this‌‌activity.‌‌It‌‌can‌‌be‌‌from‌‌a‌‌story‌‌you‌‌have‌‌read‌‌or‌‌a‌‌movie‌‌or‌‌“telenovela”‌‌that‌‌you‌‌ 
watched‌‌or‌‌plan‌‌to‌‌watch.‌‌Use‌‌the‌‌matrix‌‌below‌‌to‌‌relate‌‌the‌‌characters‌‌to‌‌Piaget’s‌‌stages‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌ 
development.‌  ‌
 ‌
Title‌‌of‌‌Story/Movie:‌‌_______________________________‌  ‌
 ‌
Write‌‌a‌‌brief‌‌summary‌‌of‌‌the‌‌story:‌  ‌
_____________________________________________________________________________________‌
_____________________________________________________________________________________‌
_____________________________________________________________________________________‌
_____________________________________________________________________________________‌
_____________________________________________________________________________________‌
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_____________________________________________________________________________________‌  ‌
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 Character‌  ‌ Piagetian‌‌Connection‌  ‌
Description‌  ‌
Father‌‌   ‌ ‌ hat‌‌is‌‌his‌‌stage‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌development?‌  ‌
W
Examples:‌  ‌cite‌  ‌instances‌  ‌why‌  ‌you‌‌
  say‌‌
  he‌‌
  is‌‌
  in‌‌
  this‌‌
  stage.‌‌
  (what‌‌
  he‌‌
  thought‌‌ 
of,‌‌how‌‌he‌‌thought,‌‌his‌‌reactions‌‌and‌‌attitudes.)‌  ‌

Mother‌‌   ‌ ‌What‌‌is‌‌her‌‌stage‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌development?‌  ‌
Examples:‌‌   Cites‌‌
  instances‌‌
  why‌‌
  you‌‌ say‌‌ she‌‌ is‌‌ in‌‌ this‌‌ stage.‌‌ (what‌‌ he‌‌ thought‌‌ 
of,‌‌how‌‌he‌‌thought,‌‌his‌‌reactions‌‌and‌‌attitudes)‌  ‌

 ‌
Children‌‌   ‌ ‌ hat‌‌is‌‌his/her‌‌stage‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌development?‌  ‌
W
 ‌ Examples:‌‌   Cite‌‌
  instances‌‌ why‌‌ you‌‌ say‌‌ he‌‌ is‌‌ in‌‌ this‌‌ stage.‌‌ (what‌‌ he‌‌ thought‌‌ of,‌‌ 
 ‌ how‌‌he‌‌thought,‌‌his‌‌reactions‌‌and‌‌attitudes)‌  ‌
 ‌
1.‌  ‌

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3.‌  ‌   ‌
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 ‌

Other‌‌Characters‌  ‌ ‌What‌‌is‌‌his/her‌‌stage‌‌of‌‌cognitive‌‌development?‌  ‌
Examples:‌  ‌Cite‌  ‌instances‌  ‌why‌  ‌you‌  ‌say‌  ‌he/she‌  ‌is‌  ‌in‌  ‌this‌  ‌stage.‌  ‌(what‌  ‌he‌‌ 
thought‌‌of,‌‌how‌‌he‌‌thought,‌‌his‌‌reactions‌‌and‌‌attitudes)‌  ‌

 ‌
 
MODULE‌‌7:‌‌ERIKSON’S‌‌PSYCHO-SOCIAL‌‌THEORY‌‌OF‌‌DEVELOPMENT‌  ‌
-Maria‌‌Rita‌‌D.‌‌Lucas,‌‌Ph.D.‌  ‌
 ‌
LEARNING‌‌OUTCOMES‌  ‌
At‌‌the‌‌end‌‌of‌‌this‌‌Module,‌‌you‌‌should‌‌be‌‌able‌‌to:‌  ‌
● Explains‌‌the‌‌8‌‌stages‌‌of‌‌life‌‌to‌‌someone‌‌you‌‌care‌‌about.‌  ‌
● Write‌‌a‌‌short‌‌story‌‌of‌‌your‌‌life‌‌using‌‌Erickson’s‌‌stages‌‌as‌‌framework.‌  ‌
● Suggest‌‌at‌‌least‌‌6‌‌ways‌‌on‌‌how‌‌Erickson’s‌‌theory‌‌can‌‌be‌‌useful‌‌for‌‌you‌‌as‌‌a‌‌future‌‌teacher.‌  ‌
 ‌
INTRODUCTION‌  ‌
Erikson’s‌‌   stages‌‌  of‌‌
  psychosocial‌‌
  development‌‌   is‌‌
  a ‌‌very‌‌
  relevant,‌‌ highly‌‌ regarded‌‌ and‌‌ meaningful‌‌ 
theory.‌  ‌Life‌  ‌is‌  ‌a ‌ ‌continuous‌  ‌process‌  ‌involving‌  ‌learning‌  ‌and‌  ‌trials‌  ‌which‌  ‌help‌  ‌us‌  ‌grow.‌  ‌Erickson’s‌‌ 
enlightening‌‌theory‌‌guides‌‌us‌‌and‌‌helps‌‌to‌‌tell‌‌us‌‌why.‌  ‌
ACTIVITY‌  ‌
Erik‌‌Erikson’s‌‌Stages‌‌Theory‌‌of‌‌Development‌‌Questionnaire‌‌   ‌
This‌  ‌contains‌  ‌selected‌  ‌items‌  ‌from‌  ‌Rhona‌  ‌Ochse‌  ‌and‌  ‌Cornelis‌  ‌Plug’s‌  ‌self-report‌  ‌questionnaire‌‌ 
assessing‌  ‌the‌  ‌personality‌  ‌dimensions‌  ‌associated‌  ‌with‌  ‌Erickson’s‌  ‌first‌  ‌5 ‌ ‌stages‌  ‌of‌  ‌Psychosexual‌‌ 
development.‌‌It‌‌can‌‌serve‌‌to‌‌make‌‌the‌‌stages‌‌personally‌‌relevant‌‌to‌‌you.‌  ‌
Indicate‌‌how‌‌often‌‌each‌‌of‌‌these‌‌statements‌‌applies‌‌to‌‌you‌‌by‌‌using‌‌the‌‌following‌‌scale:‌  ‌
0=‌‌never‌‌applies‌‌to‌‌you‌  ‌
1=‌‌occasionally‌‌or‌‌seldom‌‌applies‌‌to‌‌you‌  ‌
2=‌‌fairly‌‌often‌‌applies‌‌to‌‌you‌  ‌
3=‌‌very‌‌often‌‌applies‌‌to‌‌you‌  ‌
 ‌

Stage‌‌1.‌‌Trust‌‌versus‌‌Mistrust‌  ‌ Score‌  ‌
‌(Infancy‌‌and‌‌Early‌‌Childhood)‌  ‌
_____1.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌pessimistic‌‌about‌‌the‌‌future‌‌of‌‌humankind.‌‌   ‌  ‌

_____2.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌the‌‌world’s‌‌major‌‌problems‌‌can‌‌be‌‌solve.‌  ‌  ‌

_____3.‌‌I‌‌am‌‌filled‌‌with‌‌admiration‌‌for‌‌humankind.‌  ‌  ‌
_____4.‌‌People‌‌can‌‌be‌‌trusted.‌  ‌  ‌
_____5.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌optimistic‌‌about‌‌my‌‌future.‌  ‌  ‌

Total‌‌Score‌‌Stage‌‌1 ‌ ‌  ‌
 ‌
Stage‌‌2:‌‌Autonomy‌‌Versus‌‌Shame‌‌and‌‌Doubt‌‌   ‌ Score‌  ‌
‌(Infancy‌‌and‌‌Childhood)‌  ‌
_____6.‌‌When‌‌people‌‌try‌‌to‌‌persuade‌‌me‌‌to‌‌do‌‌something‌‌I‌‌don’t‌‌want‌‌to,‌‌I‌‌refuse.‌   ‌

_____7.‌‌After‌‌I‌‌have‌‌made‌‌a‌‌decision,‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌I‌‌have‌‌made‌‌a‌‌mistake.‌  ‌  ‌

_____8.‌‌I‌‌am‌‌unnecessarily‌‌apologetic.‌  ‌  ‌

_____9.‌‌I‌‌worry‌‌that‌‌my‌‌friends‌‌will‌‌find‌‌fault‌‌with‌‌me.‌  ‌  ‌

_____10.‌‌When‌‌I‌‌disagree‌‌with‌‌someone,‌‌I‌‌tell‌‌them.‌  ‌  ‌
Total‌‌Score‌‌in‌‌Stage‌‌2 ‌ ‌  ‌
 ‌
Stage‌‌3:‌‌initiative‌‌Versus‌‌Guilt‌‌   Score‌  ‌
‌(Infancy‌‌and‌‌Childhood)‌  ‌
_____‌11‌.‌I‌‌‌am‌‌prepared‌‌to‌‌take‌‌a‌‌risk‌‌to‌‌get‌‌what‌‌I‌‌want.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌12.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌hesitant‌‌to‌‌try‌‌out‌‌a‌‌new‌‌way‌‌of‌‌doing‌‌something.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌13.‌‌I‌‌am‌‌confident‌‌in‌‌carrying‌‌out‌‌my‌‌plans‌‌to‌‌a‌‌successful‌‌conclusion‌‌   ‌  ‌
_____‌14.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌what‌‌happens‌‌to‌‌me‌‌i‌s‌‌the‌‌result‌‌o
‌ f‌‌what‌‌I‌‌have‌‌done.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌15‌.‌W
‌ hen‌‌I‌‌have‌‌difficulty‌‌in‌‌getting‌‌something‌‌right,‌‌I‌‌give‌‌up.‌  ‌  ‌
Total‌‌Score‌‌in‌‌Stage‌‌3 ‌ ‌  ‌

 ‌
Stage‌‌4:‌‌Industry‌‌Versus‌‌Inferiority‌  ‌ score‌  ‌
‌(Infancy‌‌and‌‌childhood)‌  ‌
_____‌16‌.‌W
‌ hen‌‌people‌‌look‌‌at‌‌something‌‌I‌‌have‌‌done,‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌embarrassed.‌  ‌  ‌

_____‌17.‌‌I‌‌get‌‌a‌‌great‌‌deal‌‌of‌‌pleasure‌‌from‌‌working.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌18‌.‌‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌too‌‌incompetent‌‌to‌‌do‌‌what‌‌I‌‌would‌‌really‌‌like‌‌to‌‌do‌‌in‌‌life.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌19‌.‌I‌‌‌avoid‌‌doing‌‌something‌‌difficult‌‌because‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌I‌‌would‌‌fail.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌20.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌competent.‌  ‌  ‌
Total‌‌Score‌‌in‌‌Stage‌‌4 ‌ ‌  ‌

 ‌
Stage‌‌5:‌‌Identity‌‌Versus‌‌Identity‌‌Diffusion‌  ‌ Score‌  ‌
‌(Adolescence)‌  ‌
_____‌21.‌‌I‌‌wonder‌‌what‌‌sort‌‌of‌‌person‌‌I‌‌really‌‌am.‌  ‌  ‌

_____‌22.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌certain‌‌about‌‌what‌‌I‌‌should‌‌do‌‌with‌‌my‌‌life.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌23.‌‌My‌‌worth‌‌is‌‌recognized‌‌by‌‌others.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌24.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌proud‌‌to‌‌be‌‌the‌‌sort‌‌of‌‌person‌‌I‌‌am.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌25.‌‌I‌‌am‌‌sure‌‌as‌‌to‌‌how‌‌people‌‌feel‌‌about‌‌me.‌  ‌  ‌
Total‌‌Score‌‌in‌‌Stage‌‌5 ‌ ‌  ‌

 ‌
Stage‌‌6:‌‌Intimacy‌‌Versus‌‌Isolation‌  ‌ Score‌  ‌
‌(Early‌‌Adulthood)‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌26.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌that‌‌no‌‌one‌‌has‌‌ever‌‌known‌‌the‌‌real‌‌me.‌  ‌  ‌

_____‌27.‌‌I‌‌have‌‌a‌‌feeling‌‌of‌‌complete‌‌“togetherness”‌‌with‌‌someone.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌28.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌it‌‌is‌‌better‌‌to‌‌remain‌‌free‌‌than‌‌to‌‌become‌‌committed‌‌to‌‌marriage‌‌for‌‌life.‌  ‌   ‌
_____‌29.‌‌I‌‌share‌‌my‌‌private‌‌thoughts‌‌with‌‌someone.‌  ‌  ‌
_____‌30.‌‌I‌‌feel‌‌as‌‌thoughts‌‌I‌‌am‌‌alone‌‌in‌‌the‌‌world.‌  ‌  ‌
Total‌‌Score‌‌in‌‌Stage‌‌6 ‌ ‌  ‌

Scoring:‌I‌tems‌‌on‌‌the‌‌questionnaire‌‌were‌‌derived‌‌from‌‌Erickson’s‌‌statement‌‌about‌‌each‌‌stage.‌  ‌
Scores‌  ‌for‌  ‌each‌  ‌subscale‌  ‌range‌‌
  from‌‌
  0 ‌‌to‌‌
  15,‌‌
  ‌with‌‌
  high‌‌
  scores‌‌
  reflecting‌‌
  greater‌‌
  strength‌‌
  on‌‌
  a ‌‌
particular‌‌personality‌‌dimension.‌‌   ‌
1‌.‌T‌ he‌‌response‌‌to‌‌item‌‌1‌‌should‌‌be‌‌reversed‌‌(o‌‌=‌‌3,‌‌1‌‌=‌‌2,‌‌3‌‌=‌‌0)‌  ‌
2.‌‌Responses‌‌to‌‌items‌‌7,8,‌‌and‌‌9‌‌should‌‌be‌‌reversed‌‌and‌‌added‌‌to‌‌items‌‌6‌‌and‌‌10‌‌to‌‌assess‌‌autonomy.‌  ‌
3.‌‌Answers‌‌to‌‌12‌‌and‌‌15‌‌should‌‌be‌‌reversed‌‌and‌‌added‌‌to‌‌items‌‌11,‌‌13,‌‌and‌‌14‌‌to‌‌measures‌‌initiative.‌  ‌
4.‌‌Answers‌‌to‌‌16,‌‌18,‌‌and‌‌19‌‌should‌‌be‌‌reversed‌‌and‌‌then‌‌added‌‌to‌‌17‌‌and‌‌20‌‌to‌‌calculate‌‌industry.‌  ‌
5.‌‌Responses‌‌to‌‌21‌‌and‌‌25‌‌must‌‌be‌‌reversed‌‌and‌‌added‌‌to‌‌22,‌‌24,‌‌and‌‌25‌‌to‌‌obtain‌‌a‌‌measure‌‌of‌‌identity.‌  ‌
6.‌‌answers‌‌to‌‌26,‌‌28,‌‌and‌‌30‌‌are‌‌reversed‌‌and‌‌added‌‌to‌‌27‌‌and‌‌29‌‌to‌‌give‌‌intimacy.‌  ‌
 ‌
(Source:‌  ‌Ochse,‌  ‌R.,‌  ‌& ‌ ‌Plug,‌  ‌C.‌  ‌(1986).‌  ‌Cross-cultural‌  ‌investigation‌  ‌of‌  ‌validity‌  ‌of‌  ‌Erickson’s‌  ‌theory‌  ‌of‌  ‌personality‌  ‌development.‌  ‌Journal‌  ‌of‌‌ 
Personality‌‌and‌‌Social‌‌Psychology,‌‌50,‌‌1240-1252.‌‌Copyright©‌‌1986‌‌by‌‌the‌‌American‌‌Psychology‌‌Association.)‌  ‌

ABSTRACTION/GENERALIZATION‌  ‌

Introduction‌‌to‌‌the‌‌8‌‌Stages:‌  ‌
1. Erikson’s‌  ‌‘psychosocial’‌  ‌term‌  ‌is‌  ‌derived‌  ‌from‌  ‌the‌  ‌two‌  ‌source‌‌   words‌‌   - ‌‌namely‌‌   ‌psychological‌‌   (or‌‌ 
the‌‌   root,‌‌   ‘psycho’‌‌   relating‌‌   to‌‌   the‌‌   mind,‌‌   brain,‌‌   personality,‌‌   etc.)‌‌   and‌‌   ‌social‌‌   ‌(external‌‌   relationship‌‌ 
and‌  ‌environment),‌  ‌both‌  ‌at‌  ‌the‌  ‌heart‌  ‌of‌  ‌Erickson’s‌  ‌theory.‌  ‌Occasionally‌  ‌you’ll‌  ‌see‌  ‌the‌  ‌term‌‌ 
extended‌‌to‌‌biopsychosocial,‌‌in‌‌which‌‌“bio”‌‌refers‌‌to‌‌life,‌‌as‌‌in‌b ‌ iological.‌  ‌
2. Erikson’s‌‌   theory‌‌   was‌‌ largely‌‌ influenced‌‌ by‌‌ Sigmund‌‌ Freud.‌‌ But‌‌ Erikson’s‌‌ extended‌‌ the‌‌ theory‌‌ and‌‌ 
incorporated‌c‌ ultural‌‌and‌‌social‌‌aspects‌‌‌into‌‌Freud’s‌‌biological‌‌and‌‌sexually-oriented‌‌theory.‌  ‌
3. It’s‌‌   also‌‌   interesting‌‌   to‌‌   see‌‌   how‌‌   his‌‌   ideas‌‌ developed‌‌ over‌‌ time,‌‌ perhaps‌‌ aided‌‌ by‌‌ his‌‌ own‌‌ journey‌‌ 
through‌‌the‌‌‘psychosocial‌‌crisis’‌‌stages‌‌model‌‌that‌‌underpinned‌‌his‌‌work.‌  ‌
4. Like‌‌   other‌‌   influential‌‌   theories,‌‌   Erikson’s‌‌   model‌‌   is‌‌
  simple‌‌   and‌‌ well‌‌ designed.‌‌ The‌‌ theory‌‌ is‌‌ a ‌‌basis‌‌ 
for‌  ‌broad‌  ‌or‌  ‌complex‌  ‌discussion‌  ‌and‌  ‌analysis‌  ‌of‌  ‌personality‌  ‌and‌  ‌behavior,‌  ‌and‌  ‌also‌  ‌for‌‌ 
understanding‌  ‌and‌  ‌for‌  ‌facilitating‌  ‌personal‌  ‌development‌  ‌– ‌ ‌of‌  ‌self‌  ‌and‌  ‌others.‌  ‌It‌  ‌can‌  ‌help‌  ‌the‌‌ 
teacher‌  ‌in‌  ‌becoming‌  ‌more‌  ‌knowledgeable‌  ‌and‌  ‌at‌  ‌the‌  ‌same‌‌   time‌‌   understanding‌‌   of‌‌
  the‌‌   various‌‌ 
environmental‌‌factors‌‌that‌‌affects‌‌his‌‌own‌‌and‌‌his‌‌students’‌‌personality‌‌and‌‌behavior.‌‌   ‌
5. Erikson’s‌  ‌8 ‌ ‌stages‌  ‌theory‌  ‌is‌  ‌tremendously‌  ‌powerful‌  ‌model.‌  ‌It‌  ‌is‌  ‌very‌  ‌accessible‌  ‌and‌  ‌obviously‌‌ 
relevant‌‌   to‌‌   modern‌‌   life,‌‌ from‌‌ several‌‌ different‌‌ perspective‌‌ for‌‌ understanding‌‌ and‌‌ explaining‌‌ how‌‌ 
personality‌  ‌and‌  ‌behavior‌  ‌develops‌  ‌in‌  ‌people.‌  ‌As‌  ‌such‌  ‌Erikson’s‌  ‌theory‌  ‌is‌  ‌useful‌  ‌for‌  ‌teaching,‌‌ 
parenting,‌  ‌self-awareness,‌  ‌managing‌  ‌and‌  ‌coaching,‌  ‌dealing‌  ‌with‌  ‌conflict,‌  ‌and‌  ‌generally‌  ‌for‌‌ 
understanding‌‌self‌‌and‌‌others.‌  ‌
6. Various‌  ‌terms‌  ‌are‌  ‌used‌  ‌to‌  ‌describes‌  ‌Erikson’s‌  ‌model,‌  ‌for‌  ‌example‌  ‌Erikson’s‌‌   biopsychosocial‌‌   or‌‌ 
bio-psycho-social‌  ‌theory‌  ‌(bio‌  ‌refers‌  ‌to‌  ‌biological,‌  ‌which‌  ‌in‌  ‌this‌  ‌context‌  ‌means‌  ‌life);‌  ‌Erikson’s‌‌ 
human‌‌   development‌‌   cycle‌‌   or‌‌  life‌‌   cycle,‌‌   and‌‌   various‌‌   of‌‌  these.‌‌   All‌‌   refers‌‌   to‌‌
  the‌‌ same‌‌ eight‌‌ stages‌‌ 
psychosocial‌‌theory,‌‌it‌‌being‌‌Erickson’s‌‌most‌‌distinct‌‌work‌‌and‌‌remarkable‌‌model.‌  ‌
7. The‌  ‌epigenetic‌  ‌principle.‌  ‌As‌‌   Boeree‌‌   explains,‌‌   “T‌ his‌‌   principle‌‌   says‌‌   that‌‌   we‌‌   developed‌‌   through‌‌   a ‌‌
predetermined‌‌   unfolding‌‌   of‌‌  our‌‌   personalities‌‌   in‌‌   eight‌‌   stages.‌‌ Our‌‌ progress‌‌ through‌‌ each‌‌ stage‌‌ is‌‌ 
in‌‌ part‌‌ determined‌‌ by‌‌ our‌‌ success,‌‌ or‌‌ lack‌‌ of‌‌ success,‌‌ in‌‌ all‌‌ the‌‌ petal‌‌ opens‌‌ up‌‌ at‌‌ a ‌‌certain‌‌ time,‌‌ in‌‌ 
a‌‌
  certain‌‌   order,‌‌   which‌‌   nature,‌‌   through‌‌   its‌‌   genetics,‌‌ has‌‌ determined.‌‌ If‌‌ we‌‌ interfere‌‌ in‌‌ the‌‌ natural‌‌ 
order‌  ‌of‌  ‌development‌  ‌by‌  ‌pulling‌  ‌a ‌ ‌petal‌  ‌forward‌  ‌prematurely‌  ‌or‌  ‌out‌  ‌of‌  ‌order,‌  ‌we‌  ‌ruin‌  ‌the‌‌ 
development‌‌   of‌‌  the‌‌   entire‌‌   flower.”‌‌   ‌Erikson’s‌‌   theory‌‌   delved‌‌   into‌‌ how‌‌ personality‌‌ was‌‌ formed‌‌ and‌‌ 
believed‌  ‌that‌  ‌the‌  ‌earlier‌  ‌stages‌  ‌served‌  ‌as‌  ‌a ‌ ‌foundation‌  ‌for‌  ‌the‌  ‌later‌  ‌stages.‌  ‌The‌  ‌theory‌‌ 
highlighted‌  ‌on‌  ‌how‌  ‌earlier‌  ‌experiences‌  ‌gradually‌  ‌build‌  ‌upon‌  ‌the‌  ‌next‌  ‌and‌  ‌result‌  ‌into‌  ‌one’s‌‌ 
personality.‌  ‌
8. Each‌  ‌stage‌  ‌involves‌  ‌a ‌ ‌psychosocial‌  ‌crisis‌  ‌of‌  ‌two‌  ‌opposing‌  ‌forces‌  ‌is‌  ‌contrary‌  ‌dispositions.‌  ‌Each‌‌ 
crisis‌  ‌stage‌  ‌relates‌  ‌to‌  ‌a ‌ ‌corresponding‌  ‌life‌  ‌stage‌  ‌and‌  ‌its‌  ‌inherent‌  ‌challenges.‌  ‌Erikson‌  ‌used‌  ‌the‌‌ 
words‌‌   ‘syntonic’‌‌   for‌‌   the‌‌   first-listed‌‌   ‘positive’‌‌   disposition‌‌   in‌‌
  each‌‌   crisis‌‌   (e.g.,‌‌   Trust)‌‌   and‌‌   ‘dystonic’‌‌ 
for‌‌   the‌‌   second-listed‌‌   ‘negative’‌‌   disposition‌‌   (e.g.,‌‌   Mistrust).‌‌   To‌‌   signify‌‌   the‌‌ opposing‌‌ or‌‌ conflicting‌‌ 
relationship‌‌   between‌‌   each‌‌   pair‌‌   of‌‌   forces‌‌   of‌‌   dispositions,‌‌   Erikson‌‌ connected‌‌ them‌‌ with‌‌ the‌‌ word‌‌ 
“versus”.‌  ‌
9. If‌  ‌a ‌ ‌stage‌  ‌is‌  ‌managed‌  ‌well,‌  ‌we‌  ‌carry‌  ‌away‌  ‌a ‌ ‌certain‌  ‌virtue‌‌   or‌‌   psychosocial‌‌   strength‌‌   which‌‌   will‌‌ 
help‌  ‌us‌  ‌through‌  ‌the‌  ‌rest‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌stages‌  ‌of‌  ‌our‌  ‌lives.‌  ‌Successfully‌  ‌passing‌  ‌through‌  ‌each‌  ‌crisis‌‌ 
involves‌  ‌‘achieving’‌  ‌a ‌ ‌healthy‌  ‌ratio‌  ‌or‌  ‌balance‌  ‌between‌  ‌the‌  ‌two‌  ‌opposing‌  ‌dispositions‌  ‌that‌‌ 
represent‌‌each‌‌crisis.‌  ‌
10. On‌‌   the‌‌   other‌‌   hand,‌‌   if‌‌
  we‌‌ don’t‌‌ do‌‌ so‌‌ well,‌‌ we‌‌ may‌‌ develop‌‌ maladaptations‌‌ and‌‌ malignancies,‌‌ as‌‌ 
well‌  ‌as‌  ‌endanger‌  ‌all‌  ‌our‌  ‌future‌‌   development.‌‌   A ‌‌malignancy‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌   worst‌‌   of‌‌   the‌‌   two.‌‌   It‌‌
  involves‌ 
too‌‌   little‌‌   of‌‌   the‌‌   positive‌‌   and‌‌   too‌‌   much‌‌   of‌‌   the‌‌ negative‌‌ aspects‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ task,‌‌ such‌‌ as‌‌ a ‌‌person‌‌ who‌‌ 
can’t‌‌   trust‌‌   others.‌‌   A ‌‌maladaptation‌‌ is‌‌ not‌‌ quite‌‌ as‌‌ bad‌‌ and‌‌ involves‌‌ too‌‌ much‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ positive‌‌ and‌‌ 
too‌‌little‌‌of‌‌the‌‌negative,‌‌such‌‌as‌‌the‌‌person‌‌who‌‌trust‌‌too‌‌much.‌  ‌
11. The‌  ‌crisis‌  ‌stages‌  ‌are‌  ‌not‌  ‌sharply‌‌   defined‌‌   steps.‌‌   Elements‌‌   tend‌‌   to‌‌   overlap‌‌   and‌‌   mingle‌‌   from‌‌   one‌‌ 
stage‌  ‌to‌  ‌the‌  ‌next‌  ‌and‌  ‌to‌  ‌the‌  ‌preceding‌  ‌stages.‌  ‌It’s‌  ‌a ‌ ‌broad‌  ‌framework‌  ‌and‌  ‌concept,‌  ‌not‌  ‌a ‌‌
mathematical‌‌formula‌‌which‌‌replicates‌‌precisely‌‌across‌‌all‌‌people‌‌and‌‌situations.‌  ‌
12. Erikson’s‌‌   was‌‌   keen‌‌   to‌‌   point‌‌   out‌‌   that‌‌   the‌‌   transition‌‌   between‌‌   stages‌‌   is‌‌  ‘overlapping’.‌‌   Crisis‌‌ stages‌‌ 
connects‌‌   with‌‌   each‌‌   other‌‌ like‌‌ inter-laced‌‌ fingers,‌‌ not‌‌ like‌‌ a ‌‌series‌‌ of‌‌ neatly‌‌ stacked‌‌ boxes.‌‌ People‌‌ 
don’t‌  ‌suddenly‌  ‌wake‌  ‌up‌  ‌one‌  ‌morning‌  ‌and‌  ‌be‌  ‌in‌  ‌a ‌ ‌new‌  ‌life‌  ‌stage.‌  ‌Changes‌  ‌don’t‌  ‌happen‌  ‌in‌‌ 
regimented‌‌clear-cuts‌‌steps.‌‌Changes‌‌are‌‌graduated,‌‌mixed-together‌‌and‌‌organic.‌  ‌
 13. Erikson‌‌   also‌‌ emphasized‌‌ the‌‌ significance‌‌ of‌‌ ‘mutuality’‌‌ and‌‌ ‘generativity’‌‌ in‌‌ his‌‌ theory.‌‌ The‌‌ terms‌‌ 
are‌‌  linked.‌‌   ‌Mutuality‌‌   reflects‌‌   the‌‌  effect‌‌  of‌‌ generations‌‌ on‌‌ each‌‌ other,‌‌ especially‌‌ among‌‌ families,‌‌ 
and‌  ‌particularly‌  ‌between‌  ‌parents‌  ‌and‌  ‌children‌  ‌and‌  ‌grandchildren.‌  ‌Everyone‌‌   potentially‌‌  affects‌‌ 
everyone‌  ‌else’s‌  ‌experiences‌  ‌as‌  ‌they‌  ‌pass‌  ‌through‌  ‌the‌  ‌different‌  ‌crisis‌  ‌stages(Generativity‌  ‌v ‌‌
Stagnation,‌  ‌stage‌  ‌seven),‌  ‌reflects‌  ‌the‌  ‌significant‌  ‌relationship‌  ‌between‌  ‌adults‌  ‌and‌  ‌the‌  ‌best‌‌ 
interest‌  ‌of‌  ‌children‌  ‌– ‌ ‌one’s‌  ‌own‌  ‌children,‌  ‌and‌  ‌in‌  ‌a ‌ ‌way‌  ‌everyone‌  ‌else’s‌  ‌children‌  ‌– ‌ ‌the‌  ‌next‌‌ 
generation,‌‌and‌‌   ‌
all‌‌the‌‌following‌‌generations.‌  ‌
 ‌
Now‌‌   you‌‌  are‌‌   ready‌‌  to‌‌  go‌‌
  over‌‌   the‌‌  eight‌‌  stages.‌‌   As‌‌
  you‌‌
  read,‌‌
  enjoy‌‌  filling‌‌   up‌‌ the‌‌ concept‌‌ map‌‌ 
we‌  ‌made,‌  ‌found‌  ‌at‌  ‌the‌‌   beginning‌‌   of‌‌
  each‌‌   stage.‌‌  This‌‌  will‌‌
  help‌‌
  you‌‌
  remember‌‌   the‌‌   important‌‌   terns‌‌  in‌‌ 
each‌‌   stage‌‌  and‌‌   how‌‌   these‌‌  terms‌‌   are‌‌
  interrelated.‌‌   Use‌‌
  the‌‌  side‌‌
  margins‌‌   to‌‌
  write‌‌   your‌‌   thoughts‌‌   about‌‌ 
the‌‌stage‌‌and‌‌how‌‌they‌‌connect‌‌to‌‌your‌‌own‌‌life‌‌and‌‌as‌‌a‌‌future‌‌teacher‌.  ‌‌ ‌
 ‌
THE‌‌EIGHT‌‌PSYCHOSOCIAL‌‌STAGES‌‌OF‌‌DEVELOPMENT‌: ‌ ‌
Stage‌‌One‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌

Psychosocial‌‌Crisis‌  ‌
The‌‌   first‌‌ stage,‌‌ infancy,‌‌ is‌‌ approximately‌‌ the‌‌ first‌‌ year‌‌ or‌‌ year‌‌ and‌‌ half‌‌ of‌‌ life.‌‌ The‌‌ crisis‌‌ is‌‌ trust‌‌ vs.‌‌ 
mistrust.‌  ‌The‌  ‌goal‌  ‌is‌  ‌to‌  ‌develop‌  ‌trust‌  ‌without‌  ‌completely‌  ‌eliminating‌  ‌the‌  ‌capacity‌  ‌for‌  ‌mistrust.‌  ‌If‌  ‌the‌‌ 
primary‌‌   caregivers,‌‌   like‌‌   the‌‌   parents‌‌   can‌‌   give‌‌   the‌‌   baby‌‌   a ‌‌sense‌‌   of‌‌  familiarity,‌‌ consistency,‌‌ and‌‌ continuity,‌‌ 
then‌‌ the‌‌ baby‌‌ will‌‌ develop‌‌ the‌‌ feeling‌‌ that‌‌ the‌‌ world‌‌ is‌‌ a ‌‌safe‌‌ to‌‌ be,‌‌ that‌‌ people‌‌ are‌‌ reliable‌‌ and‌‌ loving.‌‌ If‌‌ 
the‌  ‌parents‌  ‌are‌  ‌unreliable‌  ‌and‌  ‌inadequate,‌  ‌if‌  ‌they‌  ‌reject‌  ‌the‌  ‌infant‌  ‌or‌  ‌harm‌  ‌it,‌‌   if‌‌
  other‌‌   interest‌‌   cause‌‌ 
both‌  ‌parents‌  ‌to‌  ‌turn‌  ‌away‌  ‌from‌  ‌the‌  ‌infant’s‌  ‌needs‌  ‌to‌  ‌satisfy‌  ‌their‌  ‌own‌  ‌instead,‌  ‌then‌  ‌the‌  ‌infant‌  ‌will‌‌ 
develop‌‌mistrust.‌‌He‌‌or‌‌she‌‌will‌‌be‌‌apprehensive‌‌and‌‌suspicious‌‌around‌‌people.‌  ‌
 ‌
Maladaptation/Malignancy‌  ‌
Please‌‌   understand‌‌   that‌‌   these‌‌   doesn’t‌‌   mean‌‌   that‌‌   the‌‌   parents‌‌   have‌‌ to‌‌ be‌‌ perfect.‌‌ In‌‌ fact,‌‌ parents‌‌ 
who‌  ‌are‌‌   overly‌‌   protective‌‌   of‌‌  the‌‌   child,‌‌   who‌‌   are‌‌   there‌‌   the‌‌   minute‌‌   the‌‌   first‌‌
  cry‌‌   comes‌‌   out,‌‌   will‌‌
  lead‌‌   that‌‌ 
child‌  ‌into‌  ‌the‌  ‌maladaptive‌  ‌tendency‌  ‌which‌  ‌Erikson’s‌  ‌calls‌  ‌sensory‌  ‌maladjustment:‌  ‌over‌‌   trusting,‌‌   even‌‌ 
gullible,‌  ‌this‌  ‌person‌  ‌cannot‌  ‌believe‌  ‌anyone‌  ‌would‌  ‌mean‌  ‌them‌  ‌harm‌  ‌, ‌ ‌and‌  ‌will‌  ‌use‌  ‌all‌‌   the‌‌   defenses‌‌   at‌‌ 
their‌‌  command‌‌   to‌‌   find‌‌   an‌‌   explanation‌‌   or‌‌  excuse‌‌   for‌‌
  the‌‌   person‌‌   who‌‌   did‌‌ him‌‌ wrong.‌‌ Worst,‌‌ of‌‌ course,‌‌ is‌‌ 
the‌  ‌child‌  ‌whose‌  ‌balance‌  ‌is‌  ‌tipped‌  ‌way‌  ‌over‌  ‌on‌  ‌the‌  ‌mistrust‌  ‌side.‌  ‌They‌  ‌will‌  ‌develop‌  ‌the‌  ‌malignant‌‌ 
tendency‌‌of‌w ‌ ithdrawal,‌‌‌characterized‌‌by‌‌depression,‌‌paranoia,‌‌and‌‌possible‌‌psychosis.‌  ‌
 ‌
Virtue‌‌    ‌
If‌‌the‌‌proper‌‌balance‌‌is‌‌achieved,‌‌the‌‌child‌‌will‌‌develop‌‌the‌‌virtue‌‌of‌h ‌ ope,‌t‌ he‌‌strong‌‌belief‌‌that,‌‌  
even‌‌   when‌‌   things‌‌   are‌‌   not‌‌   going‌‌   well,‌‌   they‌‌   will‌‌  work‌‌   out‌‌   well‌‌   in‌‌
  the‌‌   end.‌‌   One‌‌   of‌‌
  the‌‌   signs‌‌ that‌‌ a ‌‌child‌‌ is‌‌ 
doing‌  ‌well‌  ‌in‌  ‌the‌  ‌first‌  ‌stage‌  ‌is‌‌   when‌‌   the‌‌   child‌‌   isn’t‌‌  overly‌‌   upset‌‌   by‌‌  the‌‌   need‌‌   to‌‌
  wait‌‌   a ‌‌moment‌‌   for‌‌   the‌‌ 
satisfaction‌‌   of‌‌  his‌‌   or‌‌   her‌‌   needs:‌‌   Mom‌‌   or‌‌  Dad‌‌   doesn’t‌‌   have‌‌   to‌‌
  be‌‌ perfect;‌‌ I ‌‌trust‌‌ them‌‌ enough‌‌ to‌‌ believe‌‌ 
that,‌‌  if‌‌
  they‌‌   can’t‌‌   be‌‌   here‌‌   immediately,‌‌   they‌‌   will‌‌   be‌‌
  here‌‌   soon;‌‌   things‌‌   may‌‌   be‌‌  tough‌‌   now‌‌ , ‌‌but‌‌ they‌‌ will‌‌ 
work‌‌   out.‌‌   This‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌   same‌‌   ability‌‌   that,‌‌   in‌‌ later‌‌ life,‌‌ gets‌‌ us‌‌ through‌‌ disappointments‌‌ in‌‌ love,‌‌ our‌‌ careers,‌‌ 
and‌‌many‌‌other‌‌domains‌‌of‌‌life.‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
Stage‌‌Two‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌

Psychosocial‌‌Crisis‌  ‌
the‌‌   second‌‌   stage‌‌   is‌‌
  early‌‌
  childhood,‌‌   form‌‌   about‌‌   eighteen‌‌   months‌‌  to‌‌ three‌‌ or‌‌ four‌‌ years‌‌ old.‌‌ the‌‌ 
task‌  ‌is‌  ‌to‌  ‌achieve‌  ‌a ‌ ‌degree‌  ‌of‌  ‌autonomy‌  ‌while‌  ‌minimizing‌  ‌shame‌  ‌and‌  ‌doubt.‌  ‌If‌  ‌mom‌  ‌and‌  ‌dad,‌  ‌or‌‌ 
caregivers‌‌   permits‌‌   the‌‌   child,‌‌   now‌‌  a ‌‌toddler,‌‌  to‌‌
  explore‌‌ and‌‌ manipulate‌‌ his‌‌ or‌‌ her‌‌ environment,‌‌ the‌‌ child‌‌ 
will‌  ‌develop‌  ‌a ‌ ‌sense‌  ‌of‌  ‌autonomy‌  ‌or‌  ‌independence.‌  ‌The‌  ‌parents‌  ‌should‌  ‌not‌‌   discourage‌‌   the‌‌   child,‌‌
  but‌‌ 
neither‌  ‌should‌  ‌they‌  ‌push.‌  ‌A ‌ ‌balance‌  ‌is‌  ‌required.‌  ‌People‌  ‌often‌  ‌advise‌  ‌new‌  ‌parents‌  ‌to‌  ‌be‌  ‌“firm‌  ‌but‌‌ 
tolerant”‌  ‌at‌  ‌this‌  ‌stage,‌  ‌and‌  ‌the‌  ‌advice‌  ‌is‌  ‌good.‌  ‌This‌  ‌way,‌  ‌the‌  ‌child‌  ‌will‌  ‌develop‌  ‌both‌  ‌self-control‌  ‌and‌ 
self-esteem.‌  ‌On‌‌   the‌‌   other‌‌   hand,‌‌  it‌‌
  is‌‌
  rather‌‌
  easy‌‌   for‌‌
  the‌‌  child‌‌
  to‌‌
  develop‌‌  instead‌‌   a ‌‌sense‌‌
  of‌‌
  shame‌‌   and‌‌ 
doubt.‌‌   if‌‌ the‌‌ parents‌‌ come‌‌ down‌‌ hard‌‌ on‌‌ any‌‌ attempt‌‌ to‌‌ explore‌‌ and‌‌ be‌‌ independent,‌‌ the‌‌ child‌‌ will‌‌ soon‌‌ 
give‌‌  up‌‌  with‌‌   the‌‌
  belief‌‌   that‌‌   he/she‌‌   cannot‌‌   and‌‌   should‌‌   not‌‌  act‌‌
  on‌‌
  his/her‌‌
  own.‌‌   We‌‌   should‌‌ keep‌‌ in‌‌ mind‌‌ 
that‌  ‌even‌  ‌something‌  ‌as‌  ‌innocent‌  ‌as‌  ‌laughing‌  ‌at‌  ‌the‌  ‌toddler’s‌  ‌effort‌  ‌can‌  ‌lead‌  ‌the‌  ‌child‌  ‌to‌  ‌feel‌  ‌deeply‌‌ 
ashamed‌‌and‌‌to‌‌doubt‌‌his‌‌or‌‌her‌‌abilities.‌  ‌
There‌  ‌are‌  ‌other‌  ‌ways‌  ‌to‌  ‌lead‌  ‌children‌  ‌to‌  ‌shame‌  ‌and‌  ‌doubt.‌  ‌If‌  ‌you‌  ‌give‌  ‌children‌  ‌unrestricted‌‌ 
freedom‌  ‌and‌  ‌no‌  ‌sense‌  ‌of‌  ‌limits,‌  ‌or‌  ‌if‌  ‌you‌  ‌try‌  ‌to‌  ‌help‌  ‌children‌  ‌do‌  ‌what‌  ‌they‌  ‌should‌  ‌learn‌  ‌to‌  ‌do‌  ‌for‌‌ 
themselves,‌‌   you‌‌
  will‌‌
  also‌‌ give‌‌ them‌‌ the‌‌ impression‌‌ that‌‌ they‌‌ are‌‌ not‌‌ good‌‌ for‌‌ much.‌‌ if‌‌ you‌‌ aren’t‌‌ patient‌‌ 
enough‌‌   to‌‌
  wait‌‌
  for‌‌
  your‌‌  child‌‌
  to‌‌
  tie‌‌
  on‌‌  his‌‌  or‌‌
  her‌‌   shoe-laces,‌‌   your‌‌ child‌‌ will‌‌ never‌‌ learn‌‌ to‌‌ tie‌‌ them,‌‌ and‌‌ 
will‌‌assume‌‌that‌‌this‌‌is‌‌too‌‌difficult‌‌to‌‌learn!‌  ‌
 ‌
Maladaptation/Malignancy‌  ‌
Nevertheless,‌  ‌a ‌ ‌little‌  ‌“shame‌  ‌and‌  ‌doubt”‌  ‌is‌  ‌not‌  ‌only‌‌   inevitable,‌‌   but‌‌   beneficial.‌‌   Without‌‌   it,‌‌
  you‌‌ 
will‌  ‌develop‌‌   the‌‌   maladaptive‌‌   tendency‌‌   Erikson‌‌   calls‌‌   ‌impulsiveness,‌‌   ‌a ‌‌sort‌‌   of‌‌  shameless‌‌   willfulness‌‌   that‌‌ 
leads‌  ‌you,‌  ‌in‌  ‌later‌  ‌childhood‌  ‌and‌‌   even‌‌   adulthood,‌‌   to‌‌   jump‌‌   into‌‌   things‌‌   without‌‌   proper‌‌   consideration‌‌   of‌‌ 
your‌‌   abilities.‌‌   Worse,‌‌   of‌‌   course,‌‌   is‌‌
  too‌‌
  much‌‌   shame‌‌   and‌‌   doubt,‌‌   which‌‌   lead‌‌   to‌‌  malignancy‌‌ Erikson’s‌‌ calls‌‌ 
compulsiveness.‌‌   ‌The‌‌   compulsive‌‌   person‌‌   feels‌‌   as‌‌  if‌‌ their‌‌ entire‌‌ being‌‌ rides‌‌ on‌‌ everything‌‌ they‌‌ do,‌‌ and‌‌ so‌‌ 
everything‌  ‌must‌  ‌be‌  ‌done‌  ‌perfectly.‌  ‌Following‌  ‌all‌  ‌the‌  ‌rules‌  ‌precisely‌  ‌keeps‌  ‌you‌  ‌from‌  ‌mistakes,‌  ‌and‌‌ 
mistakes‌‌   must‌‌   be‌‌   avoided‌‌   at‌‌
  all‌‌
  cost.‌‌  Many‌‌   of‌‌  you‌‌   know‌‌   how‌‌   it‌‌
  feels‌‌   to‌‌   always‌‌   be‌‌
  ashamed‌‌ and‌‌ always‌‌ 
doubt‌  ‌yourself.‌  ‌A ‌‌little‌‌   more‌‌   patience‌‌   and‌‌   tolerance‌‌   with‌‌   your‌‌   own‌‌   children‌‌   may‌‌   help‌‌
  them‌‌   avoid‌‌  your‌‌ 
path.‌‌And‌‌give‌‌yourself‌‌a‌‌little‌‌slack,‌‌too!‌  ‌
 ‌
Virtue‌‌   ‌
If‌‌  you‌‌  get‌‌   the‌‌  proper,‌‌   positive‌‌   balance‌‌   of‌‌  autonomy‌‌   and‌‌   shame‌‌   and‌‌ doubt,‌‌ you‌‌ will‌‌ develop‌‌ the‌‌ 
virtue‌‌   of‌‌
  ‌willpower‌‌   or‌‌  ‌determination.‌‌ ‌One‌‌ of‌‌ most‌‌ admirable‌‌ ‌– ‌‌and‌‌ frustrating‌‌ – ‌‌things‌‌ about‌‌ two‌‌ – ‌‌and‌‌ 
three-year-olds‌‌   is‌‌   their‌‌   determination.‌‌   “Can‌‌   do”‌‌   is‌‌
  their‌‌ motto.‌‌ If‌‌ we‌‌ can‌‌ preserve‌‌ that‌‌ “can‌‌ do”‌‌ attitude‌‌ 
(with‌‌appropriate‌‌modesty‌‌to‌‌balance‌‌it)‌‌we‌‌are‌‌much‌‌better‌‌off‌‌as‌‌adult.‌  ‌
 ‌
Stage‌‌Three‌  ‌
Psychosocial‌‌Crisis‌  ‌
Stage‌  ‌three‌  ‌is‌  ‌the‌  ‌early‌  ‌childhood‌  ‌stage,‌  ‌from‌  ‌three‌  ‌or‌  ‌four‌  ‌to‌  ‌five‌  ‌or‌‌  six.‌‌
  The‌‌  task‌‌  is‌‌
  to‌‌
  learn‌‌ 
initiative‌‌ without‌‌ too‌‌ much‌‌ guilt.‌‌ Initiative‌‌ means‌‌ a ‌‌positive‌‌ response‌‌ to‌‌ the‌‌ world’s‌‌ challenges,‌‌ taking‌‌ on‌‌ 
responsibilities,‌  ‌learning‌  ‌new‌‌   skills,‌‌
  feeling‌‌
  purposeful.‌‌   Parents‌‌   can‌‌  encourage‌‌   initiative‌‌   by‌‌
  encouraging‌‌ 
children‌  ‌to‌‌   try‌‌  out‌‌
  their‌‌
  ideas.‌‌   We‌‌
  should‌‌  accept‌‌  and‌‌   encourage‌‌   fantasy‌‌
  and‌‌  curiosity‌‌   and‌‌   imagination.‌‌ 
This‌‌
  is‌‌
  a ‌‌time‌‌  for‌‌ play,‌‌ not‌‌ for‌‌ formal‌‌ education.‌‌ The‌‌ child‌‌ is‌‌ now‌‌ capable,‌‌ as‌‌ never‌‌ before,‌‌ of‌‌ imagining‌‌ a ‌‌
future‌  ‌situation,‌  ‌one‌  ‌that‌  ‌isn’t‌  ‌a ‌ ‌reality‌  ‌right‌  ‌nw.‌  ‌initiative‌  ‌is‌  ‌the‌  ‌attempt‌  ‌to‌  ‌make‌  ‌that‌  ‌non-reality‌  ‌a ‌‌
reality.‌  ‌
But‌‌
  if‌‌
  children‌‌   can‌‌   imagine‌‌   the‌‌
  future,‌‌   if‌‌
  they‌‌   can‌‌
  plan‌‌   that‌‌ they‌‌ can‌‌ be‌‌ responsible‌‌ as‌‌ well,‌‌ and‌‌ 
guilty.‌‌
  if‌‌
  my‌‌
  two-year-old‌‌   flushes‌‌   my‌‌   watch‌‌   down‌‌   the‌‌
  toilet,‌‌  I ‌‌can‌‌ safely‌‌ assume‌‌ that‌‌ there‌‌ were‌‌ no‌‌ “evil‌‌ 
intentions”.‌‌   It‌‌
  was‌‌  just‌‌  a ‌‌matter‌‌ of‌‌ a ‌‌shiny‌‌ object‌‌ going‌‌ around‌‌ and‌‌ round‌‌ and‌‌ down.‌‌ What‌‌ fun!‌‌ But‌‌ if‌‌ my‌‌ 
five-year-old‌‌   does‌‌   the‌‌  same‌‌   thing‌‌
  …well,‌‌   she‌‌  should‌‌   know‌‌   what’s‌‌   going‌‌
  to‌‌
  happen‌‌   to‌‌ the‌‌ watch,‌‌ what’s‌‌ 
going‌‌
  to‌‌
  happen‌‌   to‌‌  daddy’s‌‌   temper,‌‌   and‌‌  what’s‌‌   going‌‌   to‌‌
  happen‌‌ to‌‌ her!‌‌ She‌‌ can‌‌ be‌‌ guilty‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ act‌‌ and‌‌ 
she‌‌can‌‌begin‌‌to‌‌feel‌‌guilty‌‌as‌‌well.‌‌The‌‌capacity‌‌for‌‌moral‌‌judgement‌‌has‌‌arrived.‌  ‌
Erikson‌  ‌is,‌  ‌of‌‌
  course,‌‌   a ‌‌Freudian,‌‌   and‌‌
  as‌‌  such,‌‌   he‌‌  includes‌‌   the‌‌  Oedipal‌‌   experience‌‌   in‌‌
  this‌‌  stage.‌‌ 
From‌  ‌his‌  ‌perspective,‌  ‌the‌  ‌Oedipal‌  ‌crisis‌  ‌involves‌  ‌the‌‌   reluctance‌‌   a ‌‌child‌‌  feels‌‌
  in‌‌
  relinquishing‌‌   his‌‌
  or‌‌
  her‌‌ 
closeness‌‌   to‌‌  the‌‌
  opposite‌‌   sex‌‌
  parent.‌‌
  A ‌‌parent‌‌   has‌‌  the‌‌   responsibility,‌‌   socially,‌‌  to‌‌  encourage‌‌   the‌‌  child‌‌ to‌‌ 
“grow‌  ‌up‌  ‌– ‌ ‌you’re‌  ‌not‌  ‌a ‌ ‌baby‌  ‌anymore!”‌  ‌but‌‌   if‌‌
  thus‌‌  process‌‌   is‌‌
  done‌‌   too‌‌  harshly‌‌   and‌‌
  too‌‌
  abruptly,‌‌   the‌‌ 
child‌‌learns‌‌to‌‌feel‌‌guilt‌‌about‌‌his‌‌or‌‌her‌‌feelings.‌  ‌
Maladaptation/Malignancy‌‌   ‌
Too‌‌   much‌‌   initiative‌‌   and‌‌
  too‌‌  little‌‌
  guilt‌‌
  means‌‌ a ‌‌maladaptive‌‌ tendency‌‌ Erikson‌‌ calls‌‌ ‌ruthlessness.‌‌ 
To‌  ‌be‌  ‌ruthless‌  ‌is‌  ‌to‌  ‌be‌  ‌heartless‌  ‌or‌  ‌unfeeling‌  ‌or‌  ‌be‌  ‌“without‌  ‌mercy”.‌  ‌The‌  ‌ruthless‌  ‌person‌  ‌takes‌  ‌the‌‌ 
initiative‌‌   alright.‌‌  They‌‌   have‌‌  their‌‌
  plans,‌‌   whether‌‌   it’s‌‌
  a ‌‌matter‌‌  of‌‌
  school‌‌  or‌‌
  romance‌‌   or‌‌ politics‌‌ or‌‌ career.‌‌ 
It’s‌‌
  just,‌‌  that‌‌   they‌‌  don’t‌‌   care‌‌  who‌‌  they‌‌   step‌‌  on‌‌
  to‌‌  achieve‌‌   their‌‌
  goal.‌‌
  The‌‌
  goals‌‌
  are‌‌
  the‌‌   only‌‌
  things‌‌   that‌‌ 
matters,‌  ‌and‌‌   guilty‌‌   feelings‌‌  and‌‌
  mercy‌‌   are‌‌
  only‌‌  signs‌‌   of‌‌
  weakness.‌‌   The‌‌
  extreme‌‌   form‌‌  of‌‌  ruthlessness‌‌   is‌‌ 
sociopathy‌. ‌ ‌
Ruthlessness‌‌   is‌‌
  bad‌‌  for‌‌
  others,‌‌
  but‌‌
  actually‌‌   relatively‌‌ easy‌‌ on‌‌ the‌‌ ruthless‌‌ person.‌‌ Harder‌‌ on‌‌ the‌‌ 
person‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌
  malignancy‌‌   of‌‌
  too‌‌
  much‌‌
  guilt,‌‌
  which‌‌  Erikson‌‌   calls‌‌
  ‌inhibition‌. ‌‌The‌‌  inhibited‌‌ person‌‌ will‌‌ not‌‌ 
try‌‌
  things‌‌   because‌‌
  “nothing‌‌   ventured,‌‌
  nothing‌‌  lost”‌‌   and,‌‌
  particularly,‌‌   nothing‌‌   to‌‌  feel‌‌
  guilty‌‌
  about.‌‌
  They‌‌ 
are‌‌so‌‌afraid‌‌to‌‌start‌‌and‌‌take‌‌a‌‌lead‌‌on‌‌a‌‌project.‌‌They‌‌fear‌‌that‌‌if‌‌it‌‌fails,‌‌they‌‌will‌‌be‌‌blamed.‌  ‌
Virtue‌‌   ‌
A‌‌  good‌‌
  balance‌‌   leads‌‌   to‌‌  the‌‌   psychosocial‌‌   strength‌‌   of‌‌
  purpose.‌‌  A ‌‌sense‌‌  of‌‌
  purpose‌‌ is‌‌ something‌‌ 
many‌‌  people‌‌   crave‌‌
  for‌‌
  in‌‌
  their‌‌  lives,‌‌   yet‌‌
  many‌‌   do‌‌
  not‌‌
  realize‌‌  that‌‌ they‌‌ themselves‌‌ make‌‌ their‌‌ purposes,‌‌ 
through‌‌   imagination‌‌   and‌‌   initiative.‌‌   I ‌‌think‌‌
  an‌‌
  even‌‌  better‌‌
  word‌‌ for‌‌ this‌‌ virtue‌‌ would‌‌ have‌‌ been‌‌ ‌courage‌, ‌‌
the‌‌capacity‌‌for‌‌action‌‌despite‌‌a‌‌clear‌‌understanding‌‌of‌‌your‌‌limitations‌‌and‌‌past‌‌failings.‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
Stage‌‌Four‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
Psychosocial‌‌Crisis‌  ‌
Stage‌  ‌four‌  ‌is‌  ‌the‌  ‌school-age‌  ‌stage‌  ‌when‌  ‌the‌  ‌child‌  ‌is‌  ‌from‌  ‌about‌  ‌six‌  ‌to‌  ‌twelve.‌  ‌The‌  ‌task‌  ‌is‌  ‌to‌‌ 
develop‌‌   a ‌‌capacity‌‌   for‌‌
  industry‌‌   while‌‌
  avoiding‌‌   an‌‌  excessive‌‌ sense‌‌ of‌‌ inferiority.‌‌ Children‌‌ must‌‌ “tame‌‌ the‌‌ 
imagination”‌‌   and‌‌
  dedicate‌‌   themselves‌‌ to‌‌ education‌‌ and‌‌ to‌‌ learning‌‌ the‌‌ social‌‌ skills‌‌ their‌‌ society‌‌ requires‌‌ 
for‌‌
  them.‌‌   There‌‌ is‌‌ a ‌‌much‌‌ broader‌‌ social‌‌ sphere‌‌ at‌‌ work‌‌ now:‌‌ the‌‌ parents‌‌ and‌‌ other‌‌ family‌‌ members‌‌ are‌‌ 
joined‌‌   by‌‌   teachers‌‌   and‌‌ peers‌‌ and‌‌ other‌‌ members‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ community‌‌ at‌‌ large.‌‌ They‌‌ all‌‌ contribute.‌‌ Parents‌‌ 
must‌  ‌encourage,‌  ‌teacher‌  ‌must‌  ‌care,‌  ‌peers‌‌   must‌‌   accept.‌‌
  Children‌‌   must‌‌   learn‌‌
  that‌‌   there‌‌
  is‌‌
  pleasure‌‌   not‌‌ 
only‌  ‌in‌‌
  conceiving‌‌   a ‌‌plan,‌‌
  but‌‌
  in‌‌
  carrying‌‌
  it‌‌
  out.‌‌
  They‌‌  must‌‌
  learn‌‌  the‌‌  feeling‌‌
  of‌‌
  success,‌‌   whether‌‌   it‌‌
  is‌‌
  in‌‌ 
school‌‌or‌‌on‌‌the‌‌playground,‌‌academic‌‌or‌‌social.‌  ‌
A‌‌
  good‌‌   way‌‌   to‌‌ tell‌‌ the‌‌ difference‌‌ between‌‌ a ‌‌child‌‌ in‌‌ the‌‌ third‌‌ stage‌‌ and‌‌ one‌‌ in‌‌ the‌‌ fourth‌‌ stage‌‌ is‌‌ 
to‌  ‌look‌  ‌at‌  ‌the‌  ‌way‌  ‌they‌  ‌play‌  ‌games.‌  ‌Four-year-olds‌  ‌may‌  ‌love‌  ‌games,‌  ‌but‌  ‌they‌  ‌will‌  ‌have‌  ‌only‌  ‌a ‌ ‌vague‌‌ 
understanding‌‌   of‌‌  the‌‌   rules.,‌‌   may‌‌  change‌‌ them‌‌ several‌‌ times‌  ‌during‌‌ the‌‌ course‌‌ of‌‌ the‌‌ game,‌‌ and‌‌ be‌‌ very‌‌ 
unlikely‌  ‌to‌  ‌actually‌  ‌finish‌  ‌the‌  ‌game,‌  ‌unless‌  ‌it‌  ‌is‌  ‌by‌  ‌throwing‌  ‌the‌  ‌pieces‌  ‌at‌  ‌their‌  ‌opponents.‌  ‌A ‌‌
seven-year-old,‌‌   on‌‌  the‌‌   other‌‌   hand,‌‌
  is‌‌
  dedicated‌‌
  to‌‌
  the‌‌
  rules,‌‌   considers‌‌   them‌‌  pretty‌‌  much‌‌ sacred,‌‌ and‌‌ is‌‌ 
more‌‌likely‌‌to‌‌get‌‌upset‌‌if‌‌the‌‌game‌‌is‌‌not‌‌allowed‌‌to‌‌come‌‌to‌‌its‌‌required‌‌conclusion.‌  ‌
If‌‌
  the‌‌   child‌‌
  is‌‌
  allowed‌‌
  to‌‌ little‌‌ success,‌‌ because‌‌ of‌‌ harsh‌‌ teachers‌‌ or‌‌ rejecting‌‌ peers,‌‌ for‌‌ example,‌‌ 
then‌  ‌he‌  ‌or‌  ‌she‌  ‌will‌  ‌develop‌  ‌instead‌  ‌a ‌ ‌sense‌  ‌of‌  ‌inferiority‌  ‌or‌  ‌incompetence.‌  ‌Additional‌  ‌sources‌  ‌of‌‌ 
inferiority,‌  ‌Erickson‌  ‌mentions,‌  ‌are‌  ‌racism,‌  ‌sexism,‌‌   and‌‌   other‌‌
  forms‌‌   of‌‌
  discrimination.‌‌
  If‌‌
  a ‌‌child‌‌
  believes‌‌ 
that‌‌success‌‌is‌‌related‌‌to‌‌who‌‌you‌‌are‌‌rather‌‌than‌‌to‌‌how‌‌hard‌‌you‌‌try,‌‌then‌‌why‌‌try?‌  ‌

Maladaptation/Malignancy‌  ‌
Too‌  ‌much‌  ‌industry‌  ‌leads‌  ‌to‌  ‌the‌  ‌maladaptive‌  ‌tendency‌  ‌called‌  ‌narrow‌  ‌virtuosity.‌‌   We‌‌
  see‌‌
  this‌‌   in‌‌ 
children‌  ‌who‌  ‌aren’t‌  ‌allowed‌  ‌to‌  ‌“be‌  ‌children,”‌  ‌the‌  ‌ones‌‌
  that‌‌  parents‌‌   or‌‌  teachers‌‌   push‌‌  into‌‌
  one‌‌
  area‌‌   of‌‌ 
competence,‌  ‌without‌  ‌allowing‌  ‌the‌  ‌development‌  ‌of‌  ‌broader‌  ‌interest.‌‌   These‌‌   are‌‌
  the‌‌
  kids‌‌  without‌‌   a ‌‌life:‌‌ 
child‌‌
  actors,‌‌
  child‌‌
  athletes,‌‌   child‌‌
  musicians,‌‌   child‌‌
  prodigies‌‌   of‌‌ all‌‌ sort.‌‌ We‌‌ all‌‌ admire‌‌ their‌‌ industry,‌‌ but‌‌ if‌‌ 
we‌‌look‌‌a‌‌little‌‌closer,‌‌it’s‌‌all‌‌that‌‌stands‌‌in‌‌the‌‌ways‌‌of‌‌an‌‌empty‌‌life.‌  ‌
Much‌‌   more‌‌   common‌‌ is‌‌ the‌‌ malignancy‌‌ called‌‌ ‌inertia.‌‌ ‌This‌‌ includes‌‌ all‌‌ of‌‌ us‌‌ who‌‌ suffers‌‌ from‌‌ the‌‌ 
“inferiority‌‌ complexes”‌‌ Alfred‌‌ Adler‌‌ talked‌‌ about.‌‌ If‌‌ at‌‌ first‌‌ you‌‌ don’t‌‌ succeed,‌‌ don’t‌‌ ever‌‌ try‌‌ again!‌‌ Many‌‌ 
of‌‌
  us‌‌
  didn’t‌‌
  do‌‌  well‌‌  in‌‌
  mathematics,‌‌ for‌‌ example,‌‌ so‌‌ we’d‌‌ die‌‌ before‌‌ we‌‌ took‌‌ another‌‌ math‌‌ class.‌‌ Others‌‌ 
were‌  ‌humiliated‌‌   instead‌‌   in‌‌
  the‌‌
  gym‌‌  class,‌‌
  so‌‌
  we‌‌  never‌‌
  try‌‌
  out‌‌
  for‌‌
  a ‌‌sport‌‌   or‌‌
  play‌‌   a ‌‌game‌‌
  of‌‌
  basketball.‌‌ 
Others‌‌   never‌‌  developed‌‌   social‌‌
  skills‌‌
  – ‌‌the‌‌
  most‌‌ important‌‌ skills‌‌ of‌‌ all‌‌ – ‌‌and‌‌ so‌‌ we‌‌ never‌‌ go‌‌ out‌‌ in‌‌ public.‌‌ 
We‌‌become‌‌inert.‌  ‌
Virtue‌  ‌
A‌  ‌happier‌  ‌thing‌  ‌is‌  ‌to‌  ‌develop‌  ‌the‌  ‌right‌  ‌balance‌  ‌of‌  ‌industry‌  ‌and‌  ‌inferiority‌  ‌--‌  ‌that‌  ‌is,‌  ‌mostly‌‌ 
industry‌  ‌with‌  ‌just‌  ‌a ‌ ‌touch‌  ‌of‌  ‌inferiority‌  ‌to‌  ‌keep‌  ‌us‌  ‌sensibly‌  ‌humble.‌  ‌Then‌  ‌we‌  ‌have‌  ‌the‌  ‌virtue‌  ‌called‌‌ 
competency.‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
Stage‌‌Five‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
Psychosocial‌‌Crisis‌  ‌
Stage‌‌   five‌‌ is‌‌ adolescence,‌‌ beginning‌‌ with‌‌ puberty‌‌ and‌‌ ending‌‌ around‌‌ 18‌‌ or‌‌ 20‌‌ years‌‌ old.‌‌ The‌‌ task‌‌ 
during‌  ‌adolescence‌  ‌is‌  ‌to‌  ‌achieve‌  ‌ego‌  ‌identity‌  ‌and‌  ‌avoid‌  ‌role‌  ‌confusion.‌  ‌It‌  ‌was‌  ‌adolescence‌  ‌that‌‌ 
interested‌‌   Erikson‌‌   first‌‌
  and‌‌
  most,‌‌
  and‌‌
  the‌‌
  patterns‌‌   he‌‌
  saw‌‌ here‌‌ were‌‌ the‌‌ bases‌‌ for‌‌ his‌‌ thinking‌‌ about‌‌ all‌‌ 
the‌‌other‌‌stages.‌  ‌
Ego‌‌   identity‌‌   means‌‌
  knowing‌‌  who‌‌ you‌‌ are‌‌ and‌‌ how‌‌ you‌‌ fit‌‌ into‌‌ the‌‌ rest‌‌ of‌‌ society.‌‌ It‌‌ requires‌‌ that‌‌ 
you‌  ‌take‌  ‌all‌  ‌you’ve‌  ‌learned‌  ‌about‌  ‌life‌  ‌and‌  ‌yourself‌  ‌and‌  ‌mold‌  ‌it‌  ‌into‌  ‌unified‌  ‌self-image,‌  ‌one‌  ‌that‌‌  your‌‌ 
community‌‌finds‌‌meaningful.‌  ‌
There‌  ‌are‌  ‌number‌  ‌of‌  ‌things‌  ‌that‌  ‌make‌  ‌things‌‌   easier:‌‌
  first,‌‌
  we‌‌
  should‌‌  have‌‌
  a ‌‌mainstream‌‌   adult‌‌ 
culture‌  ‌that‌  ‌is‌  ‌worthy‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌adolescent’s‌  ‌respect,‌  ‌one‌  ‌with‌‌
  good‌‌   adult‌‌
  role‌‌
  models‌‌   and‌‌
  open‌‌
  lines‌‌
  of‌‌ 
communication.‌  ‌
Further,‌‌   society‌‌   should‌‌   provide‌‌   clear‌‌   ‌rites‌‌
  of‌‌
  passage,‌‌   ‌certain‌‌  accomplishments‌‌   and‌‌
  rituals‌‌  that‌‌ 
help‌‌  to‌‌
  distinguish‌‌   the‌‌
  adult‌‌
  from‌‌   the‌‌ child.‌‌ In‌‌ primitive‌‌ and‌‌ traditional‌‌ societies,‌‌ an‌‌ adolescent‌‌ boy‌‌ may‌‌ 
be‌‌
  asked‌‌   to‌‌
  leave‌‌  the‌‌
  village‌‌  for‌‌
  a ‌‌period‌‌   of‌‌  time‌‌ to‌‌ live‌‌ on‌‌ his‌‌ own,‌‌ hunt‌‌ some‌‌ symbolic‌‌ animal,‌‌ or‌‌ seek‌‌ 
an‌‌
  inspirational‌‌   vision.‌‌   Boys‌‌
  and‌‌   girls‌‌
  may‌‌   be‌‌   required‌‌ to‌‌ go‌‌ through‌‌ certain‌‌ test‌‌ of‌‌ endurance,‌‌ symbolic‌‌ 
ceremonies,‌  ‌or‌  ‌educational‌  ‌events.‌  ‌In‌  ‌one‌‌   way‌‌   or‌‌
  another,‌‌   the‌‌   distinction‌‌
  between‌‌  the‌‌
  powerless,‌‌   but‌‌ 
irresponsible,‌‌time‌‌of‌‌childhood‌‌and‌‌the‌‌powerful‌‌and‌‌responsible‌‌time‌‌of‌‌adulthood,‌‌is‌‌made‌‌a‌‌clear.‌  ‌
Without‌  ‌these‌  ‌things,‌  ‌we‌  ‌are‌  ‌likely‌  ‌to‌  ‌see‌‌   role‌‌   confusion,‌‌
  meaning‌‌   an‌‌
  uncertainty‌‌
  about‌‌   one’s‌‌ 
place‌‌   in‌‌  society‌‌
  and‌‌
  the‌‌  world.‌‌  When‌‌   an‌‌   adolescent‌‌   is‌‌
  confronted‌‌
  by‌‌
  role‌‌
  confusion,‌‌ Erikson‌‌ says,‌‌ he‌‌ or‌‌ 
she‌  ‌is‌  ‌suffering‌  ‌from‌  ‌an‌  ‌identity‌  ‌crisis.‌  ‌In‌  ‌fact,‌  ‌a ‌ ‌common‌  ‌question‌  ‌adolescent‌  ‌in‌  ‌our‌  ‌society‌  ‌ask‌  ‌is‌  ‌a ‌‌
straight-forward‌‌question‌‌of‌‌identity‌‌“who‌‌am‌‌I?”‌‌   ‌
One‌‌   of‌‌
  Erikson’s‌‌   suggestions‌‌   for‌‌   adolescence‌‌   in‌‌
  our‌‌   society‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌
  ‌psychosocial‌‌ moratorium.‌‌ ‌He‌‌ 
suggests‌  ‌you‌  ‌take‌  ‌a ‌ ‌little‌  ‌“time‌‌   out”.‌‌   If‌‌
  you‌‌   have‌‌   a ‌‌money,‌‌   go‌‌  to‌‌
  Europe.‌‌   If‌‌
  you‌‌
  don’t.‌‌
  bum‌‌   around‌‌   the‌‌ 
Philippines.‌‌   Quit‌‌   school‌‌   and‌‌   get‌‌
  a ‌‌job.‌‌   Quit‌‌   your‌‌   job‌‌   and‌‌  go‌‌   to‌‌
  school.‌‌ Take‌‌ a ‌‌break,‌‌ smell‌‌ the‌‌ roses,‌‌ get‌‌ 
to‌  ‌know‌  ‌yourself.‌  ‌We‌  ‌tend‌  ‌to‌‌   want‌‌   to‌‌  get‌‌  to‌‌   “success”‌‌   as‌‌
  fast‌‌   as‌‌
  possible,‌‌   and‌‌  yet‌‌
  few‌‌
  of‌‌
  us‌‌  have‌‌
  ever‌‌ 
been‌  ‌taken‌  ‌the‌  ‌time‌  ‌to‌  ‌figure‌  ‌out‌  ‌what‌  ‌success‌  ‌means‌  ‌to‌  ‌us.‌  ‌A ‌ ‌little‌  ‌like‌  ‌the‌  ‌young‌  ‌Oglala‌  ‌Lakota,‌‌ 
perhaps‌‌we‌‌need‌‌to‌‌dream‌‌a‌‌little.‌  ‌
There‌‌ is‌‌ such‌‌ a ‌‌thing‌‌ as‌‌ too‌‌ much‌‌ “ego‌‌ identity,”‌‌ where‌‌ a ‌‌person‌‌ is‌‌ so‌‌ involved‌‌ in‌‌ a ‌‌particular‌‌ role‌‌ 
in‌  ‌a ‌ ‌particular‌  ‌society‌  ‌or‌  ‌subcultural‌  ‌that‌  ‌there‌  ‌is‌  ‌no‌  ‌room‌  ‌left‌  ‌for‌  ‌tolerance.‌  ‌Erickson‌  ‌calls‌  ‌this‌‌ 
maladaptive‌  ‌tendency‌  ‌fanaticism‌. ‌ ‌A ‌ ‌fanatic‌  ‌believes‌  ‌that‌  ‌his‌  ‌way‌  ‌is‌  ‌the‌  ‌only‌  ‌way.‌  ‌Adolescents‌‌   are,‌‌
  of‌‌ 
course,‌‌   known‌‌   for‌‌
  their‌‌   idealism,‌‌   and‌‌  for‌‌
  their‌‌
  tendency‌‌  to‌‌  see‌‌
  things‌‌
  in‌‌
  black-and-white.‌‌ These‌‌ people‌‌ 
will‌‌  gather‌‌  others‌‌   around‌‌   them‌‌   and‌‌  promote‌‌   their‌‌
  beliefs‌‌ and‌‌ life-styles‌‌ without‌‌ regard‌‌ to‌‌ others’‌‌ rights‌‌ 
to‌‌disagree.‌  ‌
The‌  ‌lack‌  ‌of‌‌
  identity‌‌
  is‌‌
  perhaps‌‌   more‌‌  difficult‌‌
  still,‌‌
  and‌‌
  Erikson‌‌
  refers‌‌
  to‌‌  the‌‌
  malignant‌‌   tendency‌‌ 
here‌  ‌as‌  ‌repudiation.‌  ‌To‌  ‌repudiate‌‌   is‌‌
  to‌‌
  reject.‌‌
  They‌‌
  reject‌‌   their‌‌
  membership‌‌   in‌‌  the‌‌
  world‌‌   of‌‌
  adults‌‌  and‌‌ 
even‌  ‌more,‌  ‌they‌  ‌reject‌  ‌their‌  ‌need‌  ‌for‌  ‌an‌  ‌identity.‌  ‌Some‌  ‌adolescents‌  ‌prefer‌  ‌to‌  ‌go‌  ‌to‌  ‌groups‌  ‌that‌  ‌go‌‌ 
against‌  ‌the‌  ‌norms‌  ‌to‌  ‌form‌  ‌their‌  ‌identity:‌  ‌religious‌  ‌cults,‌  ‌militaristic‌  ‌organizations,‌  ‌groups‌  ‌founded‌  ‌on‌‌ 
hatred,‌  ‌groups‌  ‌that‌  ‌have‌  ‌divorced‌  ‌themselves‌  ‌from‌  ‌the‌  ‌painful‌  ‌demands‌  ‌of‌‌   mainstream‌‌   society.‌‌  They‌‌ 
may‌  ‌become‌  ‌involved‌  ‌in‌  ‌destructive‌  ‌activities-‌  ‌drugs,‌  ‌or‌  ‌alcohol-or‌  ‌they‌  ‌may‌‌   withdraw‌‌   into‌‌   their‌‌
  own‌‌ 
psychotic‌‌fantasies.‌‌After‌‌all,‌‌being‌‌“bad”‌‌or‌‌being‌‌“nobody”‌‌is‌‌better‌‌than‌‌not‌‌knowing‌‌who‌‌you‌‌are!‌  ‌
If‌  ‌you‌  ‌successfully‌  ‌negotiate‌  ‌this‌  ‌stage,‌  ‌you‌  ‌will‌  ‌have‌  ‌the‌‌   virtue‌‌   Erikson‌‌   called‌‌  ‌fidelity.‌‌   ‌Fidelity‌‌ 
means‌  ‌loyalty,‌  ‌the‌‌   ability‌‌  to‌‌
  live‌‌  by‌‌
  societies‌‌
  standards‌‌   despite‌‌   their‌‌  imperfections‌‌   and‌‌  incompleteness‌‌ 
and‌  ‌inconsistencies.‌‌   We‌‌
  are‌‌  not‌‌  talking‌‌  about‌‌   blind‌‌
  loyalty,‌‌
  and‌‌   we‌‌
  are‌‌   not‌‌   talking‌‌
  about‌‌   accepting‌‌   the‌‌ 
imperfections.‌  ‌After‌  ‌all,‌‌   if‌‌
  you‌‌  love‌‌  your‌‌  community,‌‌   you‌‌
  will‌‌
  want‌‌   to‌‌  see‌‌   it‌‌
  become‌‌   the‌‌   best‌‌
  it‌‌
  can‌‌
  be.‌‌ 
But‌  ‌fidelity‌  ‌means‌  ‌that‌  ‌you‌  ‌have‌  ‌found‌  ‌a ‌ ‌place‌  ‌in‌  ‌that‌  ‌community,‌  ‌a ‌ ‌place‌  ‌that‌  ‌will‌  ‌allow‌  ‌you‌  ‌to‌‌ 
contribute.‌  ‌
Stage‌‌Six‌  ‌
 ‌
  ‌
  ‌
  ‌
  ‌
  ‌
  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
 ‌
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P
‌ sychosocial‌‌Crisis‌  ‌
If‌‌
  you‌‌ have‌‌ made‌‌ it‌‌ this‌‌ far,‌‌ you‌‌ are‌‌ in‌‌ this‌‌ stage‌‌ of‌‌ young‌‌ adulthood,‌‌ which‌‌ last‌‌ from‌‌ about‌‌ 18‌‌ to‌‌ 
about‌  ‌30.‌  ‌The‌  ‌ages‌  ‌in‌  ‌the‌‌
  adult‌‌
  stages‌‌   are‌‌
  much‌‌   fuzzier‌‌   than‌‌
  in‌‌
  the‌‌
  childhood‌‌
  stages,‌‌   and‌‌
  people‌‌  may‌‌ 
differ‌‌dramatically.‌‌The‌‌task‌‌is‌‌to‌‌achieve‌‌some‌‌degree‌‌of‌‌intimacy,‌‌as‌‌opposed‌‌to‌‌remaining‌‌in‌‌isolation.‌  ‌
Intimacy‌  ‌is‌  ‌the‌  ‌ability‌  ‌to‌‌   be‌‌  close‌‌   to‌‌  others,‌‌   as‌‌
  a ‌‌lover,‌‌
  a ‌‌friend,‌‌  and‌‌   as‌‌
  a ‌‌participant‌‌   in‌‌  society.‌‌ 
Because‌  ‌you‌  ‌have‌  ‌a ‌ ‌clear‌‌   sense‌‌   of‌‌
  who‌‌   you‌‌   are,‌‌
  you‌‌   no‌‌  longer‌‌  need‌‌   to‌‌
  fear‌‌   “losing”‌‌   yourself,‌‌  as‌‌
  many‌‌ 
adolescents‌‌   do.‌‌  The‌‌
  “fear‌‌   of‌‌
  commitment”‌‌   some‌‌   people‌‌   seem‌‌  to‌‌  exhibit‌‌   is‌‌ an‌‌ example‌‌ of‌‌ immaturity‌‌ in‌ 
this‌‌
  stage.‌‌
  This‌‌  fear‌‌
  isn’t‌‌ always‌‌ obvious.‌‌ Many‌‌ people‌‌ todays‌‌ are‌‌ always‌‌ putting‌‌ off‌‌ the‌‌ progress‌‌ of‌‌ their‌‌ 
relationships:‌  ‌I’ll‌  ‌get‌  ‌married‌  ‌(or‌  ‌have‌  ‌a ‌ ‌family,‌  ‌or‌  ‌get‌‌   involved‌‌   in‌‌
  important‌‌   social‌‌   issues)‌‌
  as‌‌
  soon‌‌   as‌‌
  I ‌‌
finish‌‌  school,‌‌  as‌‌  soon‌‌  as‌‌
  I ‌‌have‌‌   a ‌‌job,‌‌   as‌‌
  soon‌‌   as‌‌
  I ‌‌have‌‌  a ‌‌house,‌‌ as‌‌ soon‌‌ as…‌‌ if‌‌ you’ve‌‌ been‌‌ engaged‌‌ for‌‌ 
the‌‌last‌‌ten‌‌years,‌‌what’s‌‌holding‌‌you‌‌back?‌  ‌
Neither‌  ‌should‌  ‌the‌  ‌young‌  ‌adult‌  ‌need‌  ‌to‌  ‌prove‌  ‌him-‌  ‌or‌‌  her‌‌  anymore.‌‌  A ‌‌teenage‌‌  relationship‌‌   is‌‌ 
often‌  ‌a ‌‌matter‌‌
  of‌‌  trying‌‌
  to‌‌
  establish‌‌
  identity‌‌   through‌‌   “couple-hood.”‌‌   Who‌‌
  am‌‌
  I?‌‌
  I’m‌‌
  her‌‌
  boyfriend.‌‌   The‌‌ 
young‌‌ adult‌‌ relationship‌‌ should‌‌ be‌‌ a ‌‌matter‌‌ of‌‌ two‌‌ independent‌‌ egos‌‌ wanting‌‌ to‌‌ create‌‌ something‌‌ larger‌‌ 
than‌‌
  themselves.‌‌   We‌‌  intuitively‌‌
  recognize‌‌   this‌‌
  when‌‌  we‌‌  frown‌‌   on‌‌  a ‌‌relationship‌‌  between‌‌ a ‌‌young‌‌ adult‌‌ 
and‌‌a‌‌teenager:‌‌we‌‌see‌‌the‌‌potential‌‌for‌‌manipulation‌‌of‌‌the‌‌younger‌‌member‌‌of‌‌the‌‌party‌‌by‌‌the‌‌older.‌  ‌
 ‌
Maladaptation/Malignancy‌  ‌
Erikson‌‌   calls‌‌
  the‌‌ maladaptive‌‌ from‌‌ ‌promiscuity‌, ‌‌referring‌‌ particularly‌‌ to‌‌ the‌‌ tendency‌‌ to‌‌ become‌‌ 
intimate‌  ‌to‌  ‌freely,‌  ‌too‌  ‌easily,‌  ‌and‌  ‌without‌  ‌any‌  ‌depth‌  ‌to‌  ‌your‌  ‌intimacy.‌  ‌This‌  ‌can‌  ‌be‌  ‌true‌  ‌of‌  ‌your‌‌ 
relationships‌‌with‌‌friends‌‌and‌‌neighbors‌‌and‌‌your‌‌whole‌‌community‌‌as‌‌well‌‌as‌‌with‌‌lovers.‌  ‌
The‌  ‌malignancy‌  ‌he‌  ‌calls‌  ‌exclusion,‌  ‌which‌  ‌refers‌  ‌to‌  ‌the‌  ‌tendency‌  ‌to‌  ‌isolate‌  ‌oneself‌  ‌from‌  ‌love,‌‌ 
friendship,‌‌and‌‌community,‌‌and‌‌to‌‌develop‌‌a‌‌certain‌‌hatefulness‌‌in‌‌compensation‌‌for‌‌one’s‌‌loneliness.‌  ‌
Virtue‌‌   ‌
If‌‌  you‌‌ successfully‌‌ negotiate‌‌ this‌‌ stage,‌‌ you‌‌ will‌‌ instead‌‌ carry‌‌ with‌‌ you‌‌ for‌‌ the‌‌ rest‌‌ of‌‌ your‌‌ life‌‌ the‌‌ 
virtue‌‌   or‌‌   psychosocial‌‌   strength‌‌   Erikson‌‌   calls‌‌
  ‌love.‌‌
  ‌Love,‌‌
  in‌‌ the‌‌ context‌‌ of‌‌ his‌‌ theory,‌‌ means‌‌ being‌‌ able‌‌ to‌‌ 
put‌‌
  aside‌‌   differences‌‌  and‌‌  antagonism‌‌   through‌‌   “mutuality‌‌   of‌‌
  devotion.”‌‌   It‌‌
  includes‌‌   not‌‌
  only‌‌
  the‌‌
  love‌‌ we‌‌ 
find‌  ‌in‌  ‌a ‌ ‌good‌  ‌marriage,‌  ‌but‌  ‌the‌  ‌love‌  ‌between‌  ‌friends‌  ‌and‌  ‌the‌‌   love‌‌
  of‌‌
  one’s‌‌   neighbor,‌‌  co-worker,‌‌  and‌‌ 
compatriot‌‌as‌‌well.‌  ‌
Stage‌‌Seven‌  ‌
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