FINAL LABORATORY ACTIVITIES:

ACT NO. 8
1. What is surface tension?
 Due to the cohesive nature of its molecules, the quality of a liquid's
surface that allows it to resist an external force. ... " The phenomenon
known as surface tension is caused by the cohesive forces between liquid
molecules.
 The energy, or work, required to raise the surface area of a liquid due to
intermolecular forces is known as surface tension. Surface tension causes
water droplets to develop on the water pool's surface.

2. What are the factors affecting surface tension?

 The nature of the liquid, the surrounding environment, and the temperature all
influence surface tension. Surface tension is high in liquids where molecules
have a strong attractive intermolecular force.
 Surface tension is a liquid phenomenon generated by an imbalance of molecular
tensions near the liquid's surface. Surface tension is affected by factors that
cause changes in molecular forces. The degree of surface tension is determined
by the nature of the liquid, its surroundings, and its purity.

3. What are the methods of measuring the surface tension?

 Measurement of equilibrium surface and interfacial tensions can be done in three
ways. The Du Noüy ring and Wilhelmy plate are two force tensiometer-based
approaches, whereas the pendant drop is an optical method.
4. What are the applications of surfactants?

Application of surfactants
 Optimising the wetting of solid surfaces.
 Connection between water and hydrophobic phases.
 Improvement of dispersibility of powders and pigments.
 Improvement of sprayability.
 Foam formation and foam prevention.

5. How do surfactants increase the wettability of powders?

 Change the system by being enamored with the water/non-water interface. As a
result, higher surface areas are no longer an issue for the water. The surface
tension relaxes, allowing the surface area to expand, and the water at the
interface is now as happy as water that isn't on the interface.

6. Give examples of wetting agents and their applica

 The formation of micelles is an example of how wetting agents work. Micelles

are made up of hydrophilic heads that form an outer layer around lipophilic tails.
When in water, the tails of the micelles can encircle an oil droplet while the heads
are attracted to the water. A good example of a wetting agent is dish soap.
ACT NO. 9
1. What is the principle involved in the use of Brookfield and Ostwald viscometer?
 To measure the torque required to rotate a spindle in the material, simple
rotational viscometers, also known as Brookfield type viscometers, use a torsion
spring. The measurement of different ranges of viscosity is possible by changing
the rotor speed and size.

2. What type of material can be determined using the Brookfield and Oswald
viscometer?
 Empirical devices
For Newtonian fluids, computerized falling ball viscometers and bubble time
viscometers can provide precision viscosity measurements off-line, while the falling
piston viscometer can be used in-line to produce reliably reproducible data.

3. What are the types of Non-newtonian low?

 Thixtropic
o Viscosity decrease with the stress over time
o Honey – keep stirring , and solid honey becomes liquid

 Rheopectic
o Viscosity increase with stress overtime
o Cream- the longer you whip it the thicker it gets
 Shear thinning
o Viscosity decrease with increased stress
o Tomato sauce
 Dilantant or shear thickening
 o Viscosity increase with increased stress
o Oobleck

4. Draw and label the parts. Give the use/importance of each part.
A. Brookfield viscometer

B. Ostwald viscometer
5. What are the other types of viscometer aside from the one employed in this
experiment?
 Orifice viscometers.
 Capillary viscometers.
 Falling piston viscometers.
 Rotational viscometers.
 Falling ball viscometers.
 Vibrational viscometers
ACT NO. 10
1. What is the difference between inclusions compounds and complexes?
 Inclusion compound = A complex which one component (the host) forms
a cavity or in the case of the crystal lattice containing spaces in the shape
of long tunnels or channels in which molecular entities of a second
chemical species (the guest )are located.
 Complex a group of culture traits relating to a single activity (such as
hunting), process (such as use of flint) or culture unit.

2. What are the significant contributions of complex formation in the bioavailability

of drugs?
 Bioavailability can estimated by measuring the total amount of drugs
excreted after a single dose. After multiple dosing bioavailability may be
estimated by measuring unchanged drug recovered from the urine over
24hr period under steady – state conditions.
 Plasma drug concentration increase with extend of absorption the
maximum plasma concentration is reached when the drugs elimination
rate equals absorption rate. Bioavailability determinations based on the
peak plasma concentration can be misleading because drug elimination
begins as soon as the drugs enters in the blood stream.
 Bioavailability of a drugs is largely determined by the properties of the
dosage form, which depend partly on its design and manufacture .
differences in bioavailability among formulations of a given drug can have
clinical significance , thus knowing whether drug formulation are
equivalent is essential.
 3. Give the importance of UV/VIS spectrophotometer in complexation?
 Optical microscopes are routinely found in a wide variety of laboratories,
but they are often only used as a magnifying glass to allow the user to
better see the sample. Many different types of spectra can be measured
with much smaller sampling area than is capable with a standard bench
top spectroscopy tool, such as transmission , reflection , fluorescence, and
other types of optical emission
 Microscope spectrophotometers are design to measure UV VS NIR
spectra of microscopic samples or microscopic areas of larger object.
 Beyond just measuring UV VIS NIR spectra with microscale sampling
areas, microscope spectrophotometers are also capable of microspot thin
film thickness and colorimetry measurements .
 When combined with motorized stages, hyperspectral data cubes can
even be created with various types of spectra. Since these instruments
are so flexible, MSP are used in many diverse fields of research and
industry.

ACT NO. 11
1. What is the importance of chemical kinetics in the stability of drug products?
 Chemical kinetics provide the foundation for predicting medication stability.
These studies aid in predicting a product's expiration date (shelf life).

2. What are the different methods of determining the order of reaction?

 Initial Rate Method.
 Graphical Method.
 Half Life Method.
 Van't Hoff Differential Method.
 Related Resources.
3. Based on graphical method, differentiate a zero-order from a first-order rate of
decomposition.
 The elimination rate of zero and first-order kinetics in comparison to total plasma
concentration is the key distinction. As the system becomes saturated, zero-
order kinetics undergo constant elimination regardless of plasma concentration,
followed by a linear elimination phase.

4. Differentiate a zero-order half-life from a first-order half-life.

 In the case of a zero-order reaction (Half life decreases with decreasing
concentration.) In the case of a first-order reaction (Half life is constant.) In the
case of a second-order reaction (Half life increases with decreasing
concentration.)

5. What is t90?
 It is the time from production or preparation until the active ingredient's original
potency or content has been reduced by 10% [t10 or t90], which is the chemical
degradation limit. 5 The Arrhenius equation was used to analyze several
chemical kinetic characteristics of the markers in order to predict shelf life (t90)

6. What is the Q10 method of shelf-life estimation?

 The “rule of ten,” or Q10, is a tool used in accelerated research. It is the factor by
which the rate of spoilage increases when the temperature is raised by 10
 degrees Celsius. Q10 enables the prediction of a product's shelf life in real-world
settings based on the findings of high-temperature testing.

7. What is the effect of temperature to the stability of drug product?


 Temperature: High temperatures hasten the reactions of oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis,
resulting in drug breakdown. 2. pH: The rate of breakdown of most medications is affected by
acidic and alkaline pH. Between pH 4 and 8, several medications are stable.