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Critical assessment of geochronological data from the Carajás Mineral

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DOI: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103556

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Critical assessment of geochronological data from the Carajás Mineral Prov‐

ince, Brazil: implications for metallogeny and tectonic evolution

Eliza F. Trunfull, Steffen G. Hagemann, Roberto P. Xavier, Carolina P.N.

Moreto

PII: S0169-1368(19)30398-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103556
Reference: OREGEO 103556

To appear in: Ore Geology Reviews

Received Date: 1 May 2019

Revised Date: 30 March 2020
Accepted Date: 17 April 2020

Please cite this article as: E.F. Trunfull, S.G. Hagemann, R.P. Xavier, C.P.N. Moreto, Critical assessment of
geochronological data from the Carajás Mineral Province, Brazil: implications for metallogeny and tectonic
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 1

Critical assessment of geochronological data from the

Carajás Mineral Province, Brazil: implications for
metallogeny and tectonic evolution

Eliza F. Trunfulla (eliza.smith@research.uwa.edu.au), Steffen G. Hagemanna (steffen.hagemann@uwa.edu.au),

Roberto P. Xavierb (xavier@ige.unicamp.br), Carolina P.N. Moretob (cmoreto@ige.unicamp.br)

a
Centre for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia

b
Institute of Geosciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13083-870, Brazil

Abstract

The Carajás Domain in the Amazonian Craton, Brazil, displays remarkable metallogenetic diversity,
containing iron-oxide-copper-gold (IOCG), Cu-Au, Mn, Fe, Ni-Co, PGE-Cr and Au-PGE mineral
systems. It consists of Mesoarchean (2.83 to 3.08 Ga) basement granitoids and gneisses overlain by
the ca. 2.73 to 2.76 Ga rift related meta-volcanosedimentary units of the Neoarchean Carajás Basin.
Coeval ca. 2.76 mafic-ultramafic complexes host nickel-cobalt laterite (Vermelho, Puma–Onça) and
magmatic PGE-Cr (Luanga) deposits. Unconformably overlying this is the Águas Claras Formation, a
package of fluvial to shallow marine sedimentary rocks of controversial but probable Archean age,
based on 2.6-2.7 Ga cross cutting mafic dikes. This hosts manganese deposits (Azul), small
polymetallic Cu-Au deposits (Breves) and the Serra Pelada Au-Pt-Pd deposit. IOCG deposits are
located along WNW regional shear zones hosted within the Itacaiúnas Supergroup, Mesoarchean
basement, and bimodal 2.76-2.73 Ga Neoarchean granitoids and gabbro.

Geochronology supports the existence of multiple, superimposed and episodic hydrothermal and
mineral systems. Multiple mineralization ages are common within single deposits and establishing the
age of primary mineralization, as opposed to overprinting hydrothermal events, is challenging. Copper
mineralization formed as early as ca. 2.76 Ga, coeval with basin formation, while structurally controlled
IOCG deposits formed, or were substantially modified, during multiple hydrothermal episodes: ca. 2.72-
2.68 Ga, 2.6-2.45 Ga and 1.88 Ga.

For the northern IOCG deposits (e.g. Salobo and Igarapé Bahia/Alemão), a temporal overlap between
2.57 Ga mineralization and the 2.57 Ga alkaline Old Salobo Granite is commonly used to infer a genetic
 2

link. Yet this geochronology’s reliability is debatable; younger ages exist for the Old Salobo Granite
(2.55-2.53 Ga), zircons are metamict, and older mineralization ages have been reported, suggesting a
more complex history. The occurrence of ages ca. 2.60-2.45 Ga is spatially restricted to the north and
coincides with an important, yet poorly understood, tectono-thermal event involving reactivation of the
northern Cinzento Shear Zone and amphibolite facies metamorphism. Whether IOCG deposits formed
during this tectonic event or represent substantially modified or metamorphosed older mineralization
(or both), is contentious.

Older mineralization ca. 2.71 Ga at the Igarapé Cinzento IOCG deposit in the north is coeval with the
southern IOCG deposits, formed ca. 2.72-2.68 Ga (Sequeirinho, Bacaba and Bacuri). This does not
convincingly overlap with the intrusion of widespread 2.76-2.73 Ga “syntectonic” granitoids so a genetic
link with magmatic fluids is speculative and basinal brines may play a role. Due to controversy regarding
the timing of compression and basin closure, the tectonic setting is debated; mineralization either
formed during rifting or synchronous with basin inversion, but the latter is more supported by
geochronology and ore textures.

In the south Paleoproterozoic ca. 1.88 Ga IOCGs (the Sossego-Curral orebodies of the Sossego
deposit and Alvo 118), or alternatively overprinting Cu-Au systems, formed coeval with craton wide, A-
type, 1.88 Ga granite magmatism. This magmatic-hydrothermal system is responsible for a large part
of the metallogenetic diversity of Carajás Domain. Small (generally <50Mt) Cu-Au deposits (e.g. Breves
and Estrela) formed 1.88 Ga and show close spatial relationships to 1.88 Ga granites and alteration
styles consistent with granitic influence (e.g. greisenization, enrichment in granitophile elements Bi-W-
Sn). These granites are locally Sn-W mineralized in the Rio Maria Domain (e.g. Velho Guilherme
Intrusive Suite). The enigmatic Serra Pelada hydrothermal Au-Pt-Pd deposit also formed ca.1.88 Ga
and magmatic fluids have been implicated in the hypogene enrichment of the giant Serra Norte iron ore
deposits.

Keywords: Carajás Mineral Province; Fe-oxide Cu-Au deposits; geochronology; Sossego; Igarapé
Bahia; Salobo

1. Introduction

The Carajás Mineral Province (CMP) in the southern Amazonian Craton, Brazil, is one of the world’s
most metal endowed pieces of crust and contains significant copper-gold, gold-PGE, iron, nickel,
chromium, manganese and tin-tungsten deposits. The two Archean tectonic domains that make up the
CMP, the Carajás and Rio Maria Domains (Vasquez et al., 2008a) exhibit dramatically contrasting
 3

metallogenetic character. The southern Rio Maria Domain is base metal poor and mineralization is
limited to small orogenic gold systems (Sapucaia, Cumaru, Babacu, Lagoa Seca, Tucumã and Inajá)
consisting of structurally controlled quartz vein networks that cross cut 3.0 to 2.9 Ga greenstone belt
sequences and granitoids (Villas and Santos, 2001).

The northern Carajás Domain, the focus of this review, displays remarkable metallogenetic diversity
with multiple styles of base and precious metal mineralization including iron-oxide-copper-gold (IOCG)
deposits (Sossego, Igarapé Bahia/Alemão, Igarapé Cinzento, Cristalino, Salobo, Grota Funda),
transitional and controversial Cu-Au deposits such as Alvo 118, smaller (<50Mt) polymetallic Cu-Au-W-
Sn-Bi deposits (Breves, Estrela), the giant Serra Norte iron ore deposits, manganese deposits (Azul),
and nickel-cobalt (Vermelho, Puma–Onça) and PGE-Cr (Luanga) deposits. It contains a combined
indicated and measured reserve of more than 2 billion metric tonnes of Cu-Au ore (Xavier et al., 2012)
including the Salobo IOCG deposit, the largest copper deposit in Brazil, and hosts the Serra Norte
deposits, one of the largest high-grade (>65 wt % Fe) BIF iron ore resources in the world.

Owing to their metamorphosed and multiply deformed nature, the timing of mineralization within
Archean terranes such as the CMP is often controversial. Part of the challenge is establishing whether
the mineralization ages represent the introduction or concentration of metals, and not
remobilization/distribution or overprinting hydrothermal events. This is a particularly challenging task
given that the three major shear zones, Cinzento, Carajás and Canaã, that control the current geometry
of the Carajás Domain have undergone multiple periods of reactivation (Domingos, 2009; Holdsworth
and Pinheiro, 2000). Multiple mineralization ages within a single deposit are a common occurrence,
well illustrated by the Sossego IOCG deposit, in which the Sossego-Curral and Sequeirinho-Pista
orebodies are dated at 1.88 Ga and 2.72-2.68 Ga, respectively (Moreto et al., 2015b).

The following review attempts to summarise the geochronology of the Carajás Domain. It begins with
a summary of the geochronology for the stratigraphic sequence and granitoid magmatism, then the
timing of structural deformation and metamorphism, and follows with the geochronology of mineral
systems, with emphasis on the timing of Cu-Au and IOCG mineralisation. The timing relationship
between mineral systems and granitoid magmatism is discussed and the geochronology is summarised
in a regional tectonostratigraphic context.

2. Regional geology

The Carajás Mineral Province (CMP) is an Archean nucleus located in the southeastern portion of the
Amazonian Craton, Brazil (Figure 1). It is bound to the north by the Bacajá Domain, to the west by the
 4

Paleoproterozoic plutonic and volcanic sequences of the Iriri-Xingu Domain, to the south by the Santana
do Araguaia Domain and to the east by the north-south trending Neoproterozoic Araguaia Belt. The
CMP consists of two tectonic domains, the northern Carajás Domain (Figure 1) and the southern Rio
Maria Domain. The boundary is poorly defined but is approximately north of the Sapucaia Greenstone
Belt (Feio et al., 2013). A broad E-W shear zone, mostly within the Carajás Domain, occurs between
the volcano-sedimentary Carajás basin sequence and rocks of the Rio Maria Domain.

The Rio Maria Domain (RMD) is a typical granite-greenstone terrane and consists of ca. 3.0 – 2.9 Ga
greenstone belt sequences grouped in the Andorinhas Supergroup (Macambira and Lafon, 1995;
Souza et al., 2001), ca. 2.97 Ga mafic-ultramafic complexes (DOCEGEO, 1988) and diverse granitoids.
These include 2.98-2.93 Ga and 2.86 Ga tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) suites (Almeida et
al., 2011; Leite et al., 2004; Macambira and Lancelot, 1996; Rolando and Macambira, 2003), 2.87 Ga
sanukitoids (Macambira and Lancelot, 1996; Oliveira et al., 2011), ca. 2.87-2.86 Ga granites including
a leuogranodiorite granite suite, potassic leucogranites and amphibole-biotite monzogranites (Almeida
et al., 2011; Leite et al., 2004) and 1.88 Ga A-type granites (Dall'Agnol et al., 1999).

The Carajás Domain (CD) consists of Mesoarchean basement gneisses, migmatites and
orthogranulites overlain by supracrustal units of the Neoarchean Carajás Basin (Xavier et al., 2012),
both of which host IOCG deposits. The Mesoarchean basement was formerly divided into the tonalitic
to trondhjemitic gneiss and migmatite of the Xingu Complex (3066 ± 6.6 Ma, U-Pb zircon; Delinardo da
Silva (2014)) and the mafic to felsic orthogranulites of the Pium complex (3002 ± 14 Ma, U-Pb SHRIMP
zircon; Pidgeon et al. (2000)), that experienced synchronous high grade metamorphism at 2.86 Ga
(Machado et al., 1991; Pidgeon et al., 2000). Further geochronological studies (Feio et al., 2013; Moreto
et al., 2011) subdivided the Xingu Complex into compositionally distinct units (see section 3.1).

The Mesoarchean basement is overlain by metavolcano-sedimentary sequences including the ca. 2.76-
2.73 Ga (Machado et al., 1991; Trendall et al., 1998) Itacaiúnas Supergroup, and the Rio Novo Group
in the northeast (Hirata et al., 1982). The Itacaiúnas Supergroup consists of bimodal meta-volcanic
rocks, meta-sedimentary rocks and meta-banded-iron-formations (DOCEGEO, 1988; Machado et al.,
1991; Moreto et al., 2015a) and the Rio Novo Group consists of amphibolite, schist, meta-graywacke,
tholeiitic metavolcanic rocks and gabbro (Hirata et al., 1982). Several coeval ca. 2.76 Ga mafic-
ultramafic packages, including the Luanga layered intrusion (Machado et al., 1991) intrusive into the
Rio Novo Group, and the Cateté Intrusive Suite (Lafon et al., 2000; Macambira and Tassinari, 1998),
host Ni, Cr and PGE mineralization (Mansur and Ferreira Filho, 2016; Teixeira et al., 2015).

The Itacaiúnas Supergroup and Rio Novo Group are unconformably overlain by the Águas Claras
Formation, a thick, low grade, meta-sedimentary sequence deposited in a shallow marine to fluvial
 5

environment (Nogueira et al., 1995). It hosts important polymetallic Cu-Au-W-Bi-Sn (e.g. Breves), PGE
(e.g. Serra Pelada) and Mn (e.g. Azul) deposits. The age of the Águas Claras Formation is controversial
(see section 3.3), however ca. 2.70-2.65 Ga crosscutting metagabbro dikes and sills (Dias et al., 1996;
Mougeot et al., 1996b) support an Archean age.

Excluding the Mesoarchean basement granitoids there are three main episodes of granitoid magmatism
in the Carajás Domain: 1) widespread, E-W elongated, foliated, alkaline to subalkaline granites (e.g.
Plaquê, Planalto, Estrela, Igarapé Gelado, Pedra Branca, and Serra do Rabo suites) that crystallised
2.76 to 2.74 Ga and are commonly interpreted as syntectonic (Barros et al., 2004; Feio et al., 2013;
Huhn et al., 1999a; Moreto et al., 2015a; Sardinha et al., 2006); 2) Poorly exposed 2.57-2.53 Ga
peralkaline and metaluminous granitoids represented by the Old Salobo and Itacaiúnas granites that
are spatially restricted to the north of the Carajás Domain (Machado et al., 1991; Melo et al., 2017;
Souza et al., 1996); and 3) 1.88 Ga alkaline to subalkaine A-type granites that include the Central de
Carajás, Young Salobo, Cigano, Pojuca, and Breves intrusions (Machado et al., 1991; Moreto et al.,
2015a; Moreto et al., 2015b; Souza et al., 1996; Tallarico et al., 2004).

2.1 Tectonic setting

The Itacaiúnas Supergroup either formed in an extensional continental rift setting (Domingos, 2009;
Feio et al., 2012; Gibbs et al., 1986; Olszewski et al., 1989; Tavares et al., 2018) or a magmatic arc
(Barros et al., 2009; Dardenne et al., 1988; Teixeira and Eggler, 1994). The high potassium calc-alkaline
affinity of basalts has been used to support a magmatic arc setting (Dardenne et al., 1988; Teixeira and
Eggler, 1994), however arc-like geochemical signatures can be explained by contamination of within-
plate basalts with continental crust (Martins et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2016). Overall a continental
environment, like an ensialic rift or transtensional pull-apart basin, is supported by the general
stratigraphic sequence (an old sialic basement, bimodal volcanic packages, the presence of
ultramafic/komatiitic rocks and banded iron formations), the presence of granitoids generated by crustal
melting driven by underplating (Feio et al., 2012) and the ubiquity of crustal contamination by rocks of
the Mesoarchean basement, as evidenced by inherited zircons (Moreto et al., 2015b) and the variation
in eHf(t) and eNd(t) values for basalts (Martins et al., 2017).

2.2 Structural setting

The current geometry of the Carajás Domain is controlled by three major strike-slip shear zones, the
Cinzento and Carajás shear zones in the north that were active between ca. 2.7 and 2.5 Ga, and the
Canaã Shear Zone in the south (Pinheiro et al., 2013). They are an E-W to ESE-NNW trending set of
 6

discontinuous, sigmoidal, anastomosing faults approximately 200 km long, strongly influenced by the
orientation of the earlier, high grade, E-W trending, ca. 2.8 Ga, Itacaiúnas Shear Zone formed within
the Mesoarchean basement rocks (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000). Alternatively, Rosière et al. (2006)
argue that the Carajás and Cinzento shear zones run parallel to the axial plane of E-W folds as part of
a N-S compressional, flattened fold system.

The Carajás Domain, unlike the Rio Maria Domain, experienced extensive reworking along these
regional shear zones during the Neoarchean that resulted in dynamic metamorphism of the Itacaiúnas
Supergroup that varies from lower greenschist facies in the Grão Para Group in the middle portion of
the belt, to the amphibolite/granulite facies in rocks of the Igarapé Salobo and Igarapé Pojuca Groups
in the north, near the Cinzento Shear Zone (DOCEGO, 1988; Olszewki et al., 1989). These shear zones
have undergone multiple periods of reactivation (Domingos, 2009; Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000),
beginning with a postulated period of dextral transtension after the deposition of the Itacaiúnas
Supergroup responsible for the preservation of meta-volcanosedimentary rocks at bends and offsets in
fault zones (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000). A subsequent period of sinistral reactivation and tectonic
inversion between 2.7-2.6 Ga was responsible for the widespread E-W foliation in the region
(Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000), but the exact timing is still debated (section 5.3). Domingos (2009)
interprets this basin inversion to be coeval with ca. 2.74 Ga “syntectonic” granites (Barros et al., 2009),
however these granites may be rift related intrusions deformed during a later event (Tavares et al.,
2018). Late extension occurred around 1.8 Ga and there is also evidence for minor fault reactivations
in the Phanerozoic (Pinheiro and Holdsworth, 1997).

3. Geochronology of the stratigraphic sequence

3.1 Mesoarchean basement gneisses, migmatites and orthogranulites

The former Xingu Complex consists of compositionally distinct granitoids of different ages (Table 1). It
contains the oldest rocks in the Carajás Province, including the ca. 3.0 Ga Bacaba Tonalite and
Sequeirinho Granite (Moreto et al., 2011; Moreto et al., 2015b), as well as the oldest zircon in the
Carajás Domain (3076 ± 5.3 Ma; Moreto et al. (2015b)) and can be subdivided into three magmatic
stages (Feio et al., 2013; Moreto et al., 2011):

1) 3.08-3.0 Ga: Protolith of Pium Complex, Bacaba Tonalite, Sequeirinho Granite, inherited
zircons in various granitoids.
2) 2.96-2.93 Ga: Canaã dos Carajás Granite, the older part of the Rio Verde Trondhjemite.
 7

3) 2.87-2.83 Ga: Campina Verde Tonalite, the Rio Verde Trondhjemite, and the Cruzadão, Bom
Jesus and Serra Dourada granites.

Multiple ages recorded for the same granitoid, for example ages of 2929 ± 3 Ma and 2868 ± 4 Ma for
the Rio Verde Trondhjemite (Feio et al., 2013) likely reflect protolith and metamorphic ages respectively,
or an unrecognized core-rim relationship. An age of 2979 ± 5.3 Ma (Moreto et al., 2015b) for the Pista
felsic metavolcanic rocks intercalated with a meta-ultramafic lens at the Sossego IOCG deposit
supports the existence of tectonically imbricated Mesoarchean greenstone belt rocks within the
Mesoarchean basement. The high level of deformation however, precludes ruling out a deformed
Mesoarchean granitoid origin.

3.2 Itacaiúnas Supergroup

The 2.76-2.74 Ga (see Table 2) meta-volcanosedimentary Itacaiúnas Supergroup is subdivided into

the Igarapé Salobo, Igarapé Pojuca, Grão Pará and Igarapé Bahia Groups (DOCEGEO, 1988). The
Igarapé Salobo Group that hosts the Salobo IOCG deposit is located at the western end of the Cinzento
strike slip system and consists of gneisses, amphibolites, meta-arkoses, quartzites and iron formations
metamorphosed up to upper amphibolite facies. Pinheiro and Holdsworth (1997) initially grouped the
Salobo Group within the Mesoarchean basement assemblage and interpreted metamorphism and
deformation as synchronous with formation of the Mesoarchean Itacaiúnas Shear Zone. Machado et
al. (1991) interpreted poorly defined discordant ages of 2841 Ma and 2742 Ma in the basal Lower
Gneiss as protolith and metamorphic ages, respectively. A single crystal TIMS U-Pb zircon age of 2761
± 3 Ma on an amphibolite of the Salobo Group was interpreted as the age of metamorphism (Machado
et al., 1991) but there is no corresponding textural information and this age is consistent with other ages
obtained for deposition of the Itacaiúnas Supergroup. At least part of what has previously been
considered the Salobo Group in the Salobo mine area actually consists of highly deformed and
hydrothermally altered Mesoarchean rocks (see Table 1), but the existence of a quartz mylonite with
detrital zircon populations at ca. 3.1-3.0, 2.95, 2.86 and 2.74 Ga (i.e. maximum age of 2.74 Ga) supports
the existence of a Neoarchean package (Melo et al., 2017). The confusion is likely due to the complex
intercalation of Mesoarchean Xingu Complex rocks and Neoarchean units overprinted by high-grade
metamorphism and intense hydrothermal alteration.

The Igarapé Pojuca Group hosts the Grota Funda IOCG deposit and the Gameleira Cu polymetallic
deposit. It consists of greenschist to amphibolite facies, intensely deformed mafic metavolcanic rocks,
pelitic schists, meta-banded iron formations (BIF) and cordiertite-anthophyllite rich rocks (DOCEGEO,
1988). A U-Pb zircon age of 2732 ± 2 Ma for an amphibolite (Machado et al., 1991) may represent
metamorphism and not deposition, given that the overlying Grão Pará Group is ca. 2.76 Ga (Machado
 8

et al., 1991).

The Grão Pará Group consists of lower greenschist facies mafic and felsic metavolcanic rocks and
meta-BIF (DOCEGEO, 1988). It hosts IOCG (e.g. Igarapé Cinzento (GT-46) and Cristalino),
polymetallic Cu-Au-W-Bi-Sn±Mo (e.g. Estrela) and giant iron-ore (e.g. Serra Norte, Serra Sul, Serra
Leste, Serra de Sao Felix) deposits. Deposition is well constrained to ca. 2.76 Ga based on consistent
U-Pb zircon ages of 2759 ± 2 Ma (Machado et al., 1991), 2757 ± 7 Ma and 2760 ± 11 Ma (Trendall et
al., 1998) from rhyolites and a less precise but consistent age of 2774 ± 19 Ma for amphibolites (Toledo
et al., 2019). A younger 2743 ± 11 Ma strongly altered “tuff” in the Carajás Formation (Trendall et al.,
1998) may be a sill related to 2.74 Ga granitoid magmatism, or may reflect continued rift-related
volcanism within the basin. Younger ages of 2749 ± 6.5 Ma and 2745 ± 5 Ma for basalts of the
Parauapebas Formation support the latter (Martins et al., 2017).

The Igarapé Bahia Group hosts the Igarapé Bahia IOCG deposit and consists of up to greenschist
facies metavolcanic, metapyroclastic rocks, metasedimentary rocks and meta-BIF deposited ca. 2.75-
2.74 Ga based on a 2748 ± 34 Ma U-Pb zircon age (Tallarico et al., 2005) for meta-mafic volcanic rocks
and Pb-Pb zircon ages of 2745 ± 1 Ma and 2747 ± 1 Ma for meta-mafic volcanic and meta-pyroclastic
rocks, respectively (Galarza and Macambira, 2002b).

3.3 Mafic-ultramafic Complexes

Geochronology supports the intrusion of mafic-ultramafic complexes contemporaneous with the

deposition of the Itacaiúnas Supergroup ca. 2.76 Ga. Anorthositic gabbro from the Luanga Complex
returned a projected upper intercept U-Pb zircon age of 2763 ± 6 Ma (Machado et al., 1991), albeit from
only three analysis. The Serra da Onça gabbro, part of the Cateté Intrusive Suite, returned an
overlapping zircon age of 2766 ± 6 Ma (Lafon et al., 2000; Machado et al., 1991) and a Sm-Nd WR
isochron age of 2378 ± 55 Ma (Macambira and Tassinari, 1998). Zircons from the Lago Grande
Complex are partially recrystallized and complex and returned an upper intercept age of 2722 ± 53 Ma
(Teixeira et al., 2015) based on highly discordant data with significant scatter (MSWD=17). While
imprecise, this overlaps with the crystallization age of the Luanga Complex, and combined with similar
their fractionation sequences, petrological characteristics and styles of PGE mineralization, suggests
they’re part of the same PGE fertile magmatic suite (Teixeira et al., 2015).

3.4 Águas Claras Formation and cross cutting mafic dikes

 9

The age of the Águas Claras Formation, the package of shallow marine to fluvial low-grade sedimentary
rocks that unconformably overlies the Itacaiúnas Supergroup, is controversial. An Archean age is
supported by a 2708 ± 37 Ma (Mougeot et al., 1996b) cross cutting metagabbro sill and mafic dikes
with a Pb evaporation age of 2645 ± 12 Ma (Dias et al., 1996), but it has been argued that these zircons
are inherited (Tallarico et al., 2005). Similar, albeit Pb-Pb evaporation ages, of 2705 ± 2 Ma on zircon
from a mafic intrusive rock and 2683 ± 7Ma from a saprolite sample near the Gameleira deposit were
correlated with gabbro’s of the Águas Claras Cu-Au deposit (Galarza and Macambira, 2002a) but were
based on very few zircons; in the case of the mafic intrusive rock only one crystal that appears to display
a core-rim texture and could represent a mixed age. Unmetamorphosed, undeformed and unaltered
mafic dikes at the Igarapé Bahia deposit have a maximum age of around 2670 Ma, based on the
youngest of 20 concordant SHRIMP 207Pb/206Pb ages ranging from 3050 ± 9 Ma to ages of 2691 ± 52
Ma and 2653 ± 48 Ma from the youngest crystal (Tallarico et al., 2005). While there are doubtlessly
inherited zircons present, there are no known local granitoids to explain the source of ca. 2.70-2.65 Ga
zircons.

Detrital zircon from a sandstone also returned a U-Pb SHRIMP age of 2681 ± 5 Ma interpreted to reflect
syn-depositional volcanism (Trendall et al., 1998). The alternative interpretation, that the depositional
age of the sandstone is younger, and zircons were eroded from a 2680 Ma source, is inconsistent with
the uni-modal age population, the euhedral morphology of zircons, and the lack of any known local
source of zircons of this age (Trendall et al., 1998). This is a potential source for inherited zircons in
mafic dikes, but the ultimate source remains unexplained. Either an un-sampled 2.70-2.65 Ga source
rock exists to explain the presence of zircons of this age, or mafic magmatism took place in the Archean.

An Archean age is contradicted by a ca. 2.06 Ga Pb-Pb age on diagenetic pyrites (Mougeot et al.,
1996a). However a U-Pb monazite age of 2060 ± 9.6 Ma at the Bacaba IOCG deposit supports a
hydrothermal event at this time (Moreto et al., 2015a) suggesting the ca. 2.06 Ga pyrite may be
epigenetic. The pyrites lack of mass independent fractionation (MIF) signature (Fabre et al., 2011),
although consistent with formation after the great oxygenation event (GOE), cannot be used to constrain
the age.

Contradictory geochronology may reflect the existence of multiple depositional sites, some of which are
Proterozoic. A possible candidate of this is the Caninana Formation of the Paredão Group in the
southern region of Serra Norte that consists of fluvial clastic sedimentary rocks and contains detritial
zircon as young as 2011 ± 25 Ma, limiting its maximum age to Orosiriano (Pereira, 2009).

3.5 Late mafic dikes

 10

Multiple generations of younger basaltic to andesitic dikes occur in the eastern portion of the CD. A
poorly defined 1874 ± 110 Ma Rb-Sr whole rock isochron age (Rivalenti et al., 1998) was obtained on
NW-NE striking andesite and basalt dikes. A younger N-S striking Paraupebas mafic dike swarm
intruded 535 ± 1 Ma based on a U-Pb ID-TIMS baddelyite age of dolerite dike (Teixeira et al., 2019b),
consistent with a K-Ar age of 507 ± 29 Ma for the Rio da Onça gabbro (Gomes et al., 1975). This is
younger than the previously obtained K-Ar age of 679 ± 13 Ma (Teixeira et al., 2012b) for the same
sample, likely due to excess Ar (Teixeira et al., 2019b). Younger K-Ar ages ca. 200-300 Ma were also
obtained on NW striking diabase dikes (Teixeira et al., 2012a).

4. Geochronology of granite magmatism

The Carajás Domain has a complex magmatic history and contains granitoids of Archean to
Mesoproterozoic age (Table 1). Excluding the Mesoarchean basement, the most widespread episode
of felsic magmatism is represented by foliated, Neoarchean, alkaline to subalkaline, A-type granites
(e.g. Plaquê, Planalto, Estrela, Igarapé Gelado, Pedra Branca, and Serra do Rabo suites) that
crystallised ca. 2.76-2.74 Ga (Barros et al., 2009; Feio et al., 2013; Huhn et al., 1999a; Moreto et al.,
2015a; Sardinha et al., 2006). Charnockitic rocks originally grouped within the Pium Complex also
returned an age of 2735 ± 5 Ma (Feio et al., 2012). Neoarchean magmatism is bimodal and hosts
numerous IOCG deposits. The Sossego Granophyric Granite (2740 ± 26 Ma), Curral Granite (2739 ±
4.2 Ma) and coeval mafic rocks (2739 ± 5.9 Ma) host the Sossego IOCG deposit (Moreto et al., 2015b),
and the 2743 ± 3 Ma tonalite hosts the Alvo 118 Cu-Au deposit (Tallarico 2003). Despite being
interpreted as syntectonic (Barros et al., 2001), geochronology supports emplacement of the 2.76 Ga
Estrela Granite (2763 ± 7 Ma; Barros et al. (2009)) and the Igarapé Gelado Granite (2763 ± 4.4 Ma;
Melo et al. (2017)) synchronous with the deposition of the rift related Itacaiúnas Supergroup (discussed
further in section 5.2).

Neoarchean granitoids of the Planalto Suite have a large spread in age data. A Pb-evaporation age of
2747 ± 2 Ma (Huhn et al., 1999a) for the Planalto Suite is broadly consistent with ages of 2754 ± 2 Ma
(Silva et al., 2010), 2748 ± 2 Ma and 2749 ±3 Ma (Souza et al., 2010), whereas Feio et al. (2012)
obtained a range of younger ages for single samples using different techniques. A Pb-evaporation age
of 2721 ± 1 Ma, a SHRIMP age of 2730 ± 5 Ma and a younger LA-MC-ICP-MS age of 2710 ± 10 Ma
were reported for a hornblende-biotite syenogranite. Similarly a Pb-evaporation age of 2736 ± 4 Ma
and a younger LA-MC-ICP-MS age of 2706 ± 5 Ma was obtained on a biotite-syenogranite. Without
well-documented core/rim relationships and chemical information the meaning of these younger age
populations is unclear (i.e. renewed magmatism, metamorphism), but their existence is cause for
caution in using Pb-Pb evaporation ages that may reflect mixed age populations. It is also possible they
 11

are an artefact of Pb loss; simultaneous U/ Pb loss can result in pseudo-concordance with no geological
meaning (Geisler et al., 2003).

Subsequent Neoarchean magmatic events are represented by 2.65-2.64 Ga dacitic to rhyolitic

porphyries (Tallarico, 2003) and poorly exposed ca. 2.57-2.53 Ga peralkaline to metaluminous
granites. The latter are spatially restricted to near the Cinzento strike-slip fault zone in the north and
expressed by the Old Salobo Granite (Machado et al., 1991), Itacaiúnas Granite (Souza et al., 1996)
and granites in the Igarapé Cinzento deposit area (Toledo at al., 2019). Melo et al. (2017) returned a
concordant SHRIMP age of 2547 ± 5.3 Ma for the Old Salobo Granite and an age of 2535 ± 8.4 Ma for
zircons from within Cu ore at the Salobo IOCG deposit correlated with the Old Salobo Granite. Zircons
from both of these samples are fractured, completely metamict, lack any magmatic oscillatory zoning
and are from zones of intense ductile deformation so linking them with igneous crystallisation is
speculative. They are distinctly younger than the 2573 ± 2 Ma U-Pb TIMS age originally obtained by
Machado et al. (1991), possibly due to the different techniques applied; the TIMS age was obtained on
only two crystals. The concordant U-Pb ages may reflect total resetting of the U-Pb system due to
tectonic disturbance related to the Cinzento Shear Zone rather than magmatism (Melo et al., 2017),
discussed further in section 4.1. The younger ages of may be evidence for episodic tectonic
reactivation.

An age of 2557 ± 26 Ma for undeformed granite at the Igarapé Cinzento deposit is the most compelling
evidence of genuine magmatism at this time. Unfortunately the zircons do not display entirely
convincing igneous oscillatory zoning, rather they exhibit weak, blurred, patchy to oscillatory zoning and
have low Th/U ratios (average 0.04) typical of metamorphic or recrystallized zircons (Yakymchuk et al.,
2018). A projected upper intercept age of 2562 ± 39 Ma on a pegmatite as well as ages of 2639 ± 16
Ma and 2532 ± 26 Ma for a foliated tonalite were also obtained. These zircons exhibit significant lead
loss and Toledo et al. (2019) cautions the older 2.64 Ga date is possibly a hybrid between inherited
domains (ca. 2.7 Ga) and 2.5 Ga re-crystallised domains.

A Rb-Sr whole rock age of 2527 ± 34 Ma obtained for the Estrela Granite (Barros et al., 1992) initially
placed it within this 2.5 Ga magmatic episode, however later Pb-Pb dating returned an older age of
2763 ± 7 Ma (Barros et al., 2009) providing further evidence of isotopic resetting at 2.5 Ga. There is
however, no reason why both can’t be true – local granitic magmatism may accompany tectonic
reactivation and recrystallization of zircon.

A subsequent period of magmatic quiescence ended around ca. 1.88 Ga with the craton wide intrusion
of shallow emplaced A-type alkaline to subalkaline granites that include the Central de Carajás, Young
Salobo, Cigano, Pojuca and Breves intrusions (Machado et al., 1991; Moreto et al., 2015a; Souza et
 12

al., 1996; Tallarico et al., 2004), corresponding to a period of extensional tectonics (Pinheiro and
Holdsworth, 1997). The A-type granites formed by melting of Archean igneous crustal sources with no
evidence of mantle input (Teixeira et al., 2019a) and display strongly negative εNd(1.88) from -7.9 to -
9.7 (Dall'Agnol et al., 2005) and εHf(1.88) from -13 to -16 (Teixeira et al., 2019a). Magmatism is coeval
with felsic to intermediate volcanic and intrusive rocks of the Uatumã Supergroup to the west of the CD
that represents a silicic large igneous province (SLIP).

The youngest magmatic event, a Mesoproterozoic alkali rich leucogranite dated at 1583 ± 9 Ma
(Pimentel et al., 2003) is based on a single intrusion. The Formiga Granite, located 2km NE of the Serra
Pelada Au-Pt-Pd deposit, was tentatively dated at 600 Ma (Grainger et al., 2008), however this is a
poorly defined lower intercept age based on strongly discordant U-Pb data. There is no evidence of
magmatic zircon growth at 600 Ma, rather the data suggest a Mesoarchean protolith >2.8 Ga consistent
with the age of the Xingu Complex.

4.1 Comments on the interpretation of 2.5 Ga magmatism

An important question is if the ~2.5 Ga zircons of the Old Salobo Granite and correlates (Melo et al.,
2017; Toledo et al., 2019) record a tectonic or hydrothermal event (i.e. recrystallization of pre-existing
zircon or metamorphic zircon), rather than igneous crystallization. Despite the high closure temperature
of pristine zircon to Pb diffusion (Cherniak and Watson, 2001), metamict zircon is susceptible to
disturbance in the U-Pb system (Geisler et al., 2007; Mezger and Krogstad, 1997). Partial or complete
resetting of metamict zircons exposed to hydrothermal fluids has been experimentally demonstrated
and results from diffusion-reaction or dissolution-reprecipitation processes (Geisler et al., 2003; Geisler
et al., 2002; Geisler et al., 2007). Magmatic zircon that reacts at low temperatures with aqueous fluids
undergoes coupled dissolution-reprecipitation processes to produce trace element depleted zircon. If
radiogenic lead is not incorporated into the new zircon then concordant ages represent the timing of
fluid influx rather than igneous crystallisation (Geisler et al., 2003; Geisler et al., 2002; Geisler et al.,
2007). Furthermore, the reduced U and Th limits self-irradiation damage, making the new zircon less
susceptible to low-temperature alteration and Pb loss (Geisler et al., 2003; Geisler et al., 2002; Geisler
et al., 2007). Reaction rims experimentally produced at 650°C by Geisler et al. (2003) also yielded
“pseudo” U-Pb concordance as a result of simultaneous U and Pb loss, therefore concordance alone
can’t used to argue for a magmatic origin. Overall it is plausible that the 2.5 Ga zircon ages reflect
hydrothermal alteration and recrystallization, however magmatism can’t be ruled out.

5. Geochronology of structure and metamorphism

 13

5.1 High-grade metamorphism of Mesoarchean basement rocks

Mesoarchean basement units experienced two episodes of medium to high grade metamorphism at
2.96 Ga (Delinardo da Silva, 2014) and 2.86 Ga (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000). The latter is
evidenced by SHRIMP U-Pb zircon dating of an orthopyroxene-diopside gneiss with an anatexis age of
2959 ± 15 Ma from leucosome and a protolith age of 3066 ± 6.6 Ma from mesosome (Delinardo da
Silva, 2014). A second high-grade event took place at ~2.86-2.85 Ga and resulted in the formation of
the sinistral, transpressive, Itacaiúnas Shear Zone (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000). Regional
migmitisation of the Xingu Complex (2860 ± 2 Ma and 2859 ± 2 Ma from granitic leucosome; Machado
et al. (1991)) and granulite facies metamorphism of the Pium Complex (2859 ± 9 Ma from zircon rims;
Pidgeon et al. (2000)) were synchronous. This event is also likely responsible for a series of younger
ages obtained for 3.0-2.9 Ga granitoids; a 2868 ± 6 Ma age from the 2.9 Ga Rio Verde Trondhjemite,
a 2864 ± 6 Ma age from the 3.0-2.9 Ga Canaã dos Carajás Granite (Feio et al., 2013) and a younger
age of 2857 ± 6.7 Ma obtained on a 2.95 Ga strongly altered host rock at the Salobo IOCG deposit
(Melo et al., 2017).

5.2 Timing of Neoarchean basin closure

Regional E-W to WNE-ESE trending foliation and NE-SW trending sinistral faults and shear zones in
the CD were produced during sinistral transpression in an episode of NNE directed oblique compression
(Domingos, 2009), but the exact timing of the basin inversion is still debated (Dall'Agnol et al., 2017). It
is most commonly constrained using the age of the numerous E-W elongated ca. 2.76-2.73 Ga
granitoids, interpreted as syntectonic, that intruded along regional shear zones (Barros et al., 2001;
Barros et al., 2009; Dall'Agnol et al., 2017; Domingos, 2009). However in the north-east of the CD,
Tavares et al. (2018) observed foliation within the plutons aligned with regional foliation that cross cuts
plutons and concluded that gneissification occurred after emplacement, synchronous with Neoarchean
rifting. Distinguishing between pre and syntectonic emplacement in high-grade terranes is difficult.
Heterogeneous deformation and coaxial flattening allows the preservation of magmatic structures in
low strain zones, rotated parallel with metamorphic fabrics, falsely appearing to be syntectonic (Ring et
al., 1999). Attempts to unravel this for the Vila União granitoids yielded ambiguous results; flattened
fabrics and foliation continuous with regional foliation support a tectonic origin, but sub-solidus
deformation micro-textures support synkinematic emplacement (Oliveira et al., 2018).

Emplacement during compression for at least the ca. 2.76 Ga Estrela Granite and Igarapé Gelado
plutons (Barros et al., 2009; Melo et al., 2017) is inconsistent with geochronology that indicates ca. 2.76
Ga is the age of deposition of the rift related volcanosedimentary sequence (section 3.2). However this
does not preclude a syntectonic origin for ca. 2.74-2.73 Ga plutons, such as the Planalto Suite (Feio et
 14

al., 2012), that are distinctively younger than the well-constrained ages for deposition of the Grão Pará
Group ca. 2.76 Ga (Figure 2). Machado et al. (1991) interprets the 2732 ± 3 Ma age for amphibolite of
the Igarapé Pojuca Group as the timing of metamorphism, consistent with this. This could indicate a
potential switch to transpression/compression shortly after basin formation, ca. 2.75-2.73 Ga.
Alternatively this could be the result of these intrusions occurring in compressional environments within
an overall transtensional setting, influenced by pre-existing structural complexity.

The timing of mineralization that is structurally controlled by ductile deformation provides evidence for
shear zone activity earlier in the Neoarchean, ca. 2.68 to 2.72 Ga. At the Igarapé Cinzento IOCG
deposit, molybdenite stretched along foliation returned a Re-Os model age of 2718 ± 56 Ma (Toledo et
al., 2019) consistent with a previous Re-Os molybenite age of 2711 ± 9 Ma (Silva et al., 2005). This
foliation, related to Cinzento Shear Zone development, transposes metamorphic foliation, constraining
amphibolite facies metamorphism to pre-syn 2.71-2.72 Ga (Toledo et al., 2019). Similarly the
Sequeirinho-Pista-Baiano orebodies of the Sossego IOCG are controlled by ductile(-brittle) shear zones
(Monteiro et al., 2008) and occurred between 2.68-2.72 Ga, similar to the nearby Bacaba and Bacuri
deposits (Moreto et al., 2015a; Moreto et al., 2015b).

Younger concordia ages of 2675 ± 26 Ma, 2724 ± 15 Ma and 2709 ± 30 Ma (albeit based on ≤3 analysis)
for the Cruzadão Granite, Campina Verde Tonalite and Rio Verde Trondhjemite, respectively, in which
the same samples returned older igneous crystallisation ages between 2.86-2.85 Ga (Feio et al., 2013),
may be additional evidence for isotopic resetting ca. 2.72 to 2.68 Ga. Similar concordia ages of 2706 ±
5 Ma and 2710 ± 10 Ma (Figure 2) were obtained by LA-MC-ICP-MS for samples of the Planalto Suite
that also returned older Pb-evaporation ages around 2.73 Ga (Feio et al., 2012), however the geological
meaning of these ages remains unclear (refer back to section 4).

Basin inversion and gneissification of plutons occurred either in the Neoarchean (Holdsworth and
Pinheiro, 2000) or during ca. 2.1 to 2.06 Ga compression (Tavares et al., 2018). The latter is interpreted
by Tavares et al. (2018) to be the main regional compressive event (Figure 3) based in part on the
observation that deformation affects the Águas Claras Formation (e.g. isoclinal folding and thrust
stacking at the Serra Pelada Mine area; Berni et al. (2014)), that is interpreted to be 2.06 Ga in age.
Holdsworth and Pinheiro (2000) used a similar line of reasoning, with differing conclusions for the age
of deformation partly due to disagreement on the age of the Águas Claras Formation: deformation
affected the Águas Claras Formation as a series of complex disharmonic and curvilinear folds resulting
from deformation prior to complete lithification, and since the Águas Claras Formation is Archean, fault
movement must also be Archean, at ca. 2.6 Ga (Figure 3).
 15

However a Proterozoic timing for gneissification of the E-W trending plutons is inconsistent with a Rb-
Sr whole rock age of 2527 ± 34 Ma for the Estrela Granite (Barros et al., 1992) and ca. 2.5 Ga Pb-Pb
ages for deformed granitoids of the ca. 2.76 Ga (Barbosa, 2004) Igarapé Gelado Suite (Figure 2, Table
1). If gneissification of the Estrela Granite occurred ca. 2.0 Ga then deformation and recrystallization
should reset the Rb-Sr system. Although these ages could be geologically meaningless mixed ages
and represent a minimum (cooling) age of the opening of the isotopic system during gneissification,
ages around ca. 2.5 Ga are common regionally (Barbosa, 2004; Machado et al., 1991; Melo et al.,
2017; Teixeira et al., 2015) and represent an important tectonothermal event (section 5.3, below). There
are, however, Ar-Ar ages of 2199 ± 13 Ma (Marschik et al., 2003) on amphibole at the Sossego deposit,
and 2193 ± 4 Ma on biotite at Corta Goela (Pollard et al., 2019) that may reflect a Transamazonian
thermal event. Alternatively, they may reflect partial resetting of Archean rocks at 1.88 Ga.

An additional problem is the timing of deformation relative to the deposition of the Águas Claras
Formation. If the Águas Claras Formation is 2.68 Ga (Trendall et al., 1998), then deformation occurred
ca. 2.6 Ga, similar to, or slightly younger than, the timing of basin closure as discussed above. Yet
sedimentological and structural studies suggest the current Águas Claras Formation was part of a
regionally extensive intracratonic basin deposited prior to deformation (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000;
Nogueira et al., 1995). More complex tectonic models are necessary to explain these inconsistencies.
Resolving the timing of this deformation and understanding the tectonic regime in the Neoarchean is of
crucial importance to metallogenetic models as IOCG mineralization occurs ca. 2.72-2.68 Ga (Moreto
et al., 2015b).

5.3 Neoarchean 2.5 Ga tectonothermal event

A series of ages around 2.5 Ga from the northern portion of the CD represent a tectono-thermal event
due to the reactivation of the northern WNW-ESE striking Cinzento Shear Zone (Barbosa, 2004;
Machado et al., 1991; Pinheiro et al., 2013). There are numerous examples of both new mineral growth
and isotopic resetting at this time (Figure 2). Examples of the new mineral growth within the Salobo
Group include 2551 ± 2 Ma monazite within metamorphosed BIF, 2581 ± 5 Ma titanite in the Mirim area,
2497 ± 5 Ma titanate in K-metasomatised, sheared, amphibolite, 2555 ± 4/-3 Ma zircon in amphibolite,
and 2519 ± 5 Ma titanite within the Xingu Complex (Machado et al., 1991). These ages were interpreted
as the timing of amphibolite facies metamorphism of the Salobo Group (Machado et al., 1991).

Examples of resetting/opening of isotopic systems include a 2527 ± 34 Ma Rb-Sr whole rock age
(Barros et al., 1992) for the ca. 2.76 Ga (Barros et al., 2009) Estrela Granite and a Rb-Sr whole rock
age of 2577 ± 72 Ma (Ferreira Filho et al. 1985) for mafic metavolcanic rocks at the Igarapé Bahia IOCG
deposit known to be emplaced ca. 2.75 Ga (Tallarico et al., 2005). Evidence of resetting of the U-Pb
 16

system includes a series of inconsistent Pb-Pb ages clustered around 2.5 Ga (see Table 1, Figure 2)
from the ca. 2.76 Ga Igarapé Gelado suite (Barbosa, 2004) and possibly the concordant ca. 2.5 Ga
ages of the Old Salobo Granite (section 4.1). An imprecise age of 2553 ± 61 Ma from poor quality
zircons with textures typical of coupled dissolution-reprecipitation and recrystallization at the 2.76 Ga
Lago Grande Complex is also consistent with this (Teixeira et al., 2015). However these ages needed
to be considered with caution. Significant disturbance in the zircon U-Pb system can occur via fluid
induced dissolution-reprecipitation, in which a fluid or melt phase facilitates the removal of U and Pb
from the zircon structure causing isotopic re-equilibration that, if incomplete, may yield an age in-
between the protolith age and secondary age (Geisler et al., 2007; Putnis, 2009). Incomplete isotopic
re-equilibration may explain the large spread of ages ~2.5 Ga.

The 2.5 Ga tectonothermal event is generally spatially restricted to the northern belt (Pinheiro et al.,
2013, Moreto et al., 2015), however a 2578 ± 29 Ma Sm-Nd whole rock age on ore breccia and Pb-Pb
age of 2608 ± 25 Ma on chalcopyrite from massive ore at Sossego in the southern copper belt (Neves,
2006) suggest it may have a more far-field influence. Alternatively, this may be the coincidental result
of partial isotopic resetting.

6. Geochronology of mineral systems

The metallogenetic diversity of the CMP results from the culmination of the complex evolution of the
Carajás Domain. The BIF deposited during basin formation and the intrusion of PGE-Cr mineralized
mafic-ultramafic complexes ca. 2.76 Ga, laid the ground-work for the formation of giant iron and lateritic
nickel deposits, and the basin wide circulation of hydrothermal fluids led to the formation of ca. 2.76 Ga
syngenetic copper mineralization (Dreher et al., 2008; Galarza et al., 2008; Moreto et al., 2015a; Silva
et al., 2015). Multiple subsequent episodic hydrothermal events were involved in the formation of the
Carajás IOCG and Cu-Au deposits (Figure 4). A Re-Os molybenite age and SHRIMP Pb-Pb monazite
age of 2.57 Ga for the northern Salobo and Igarapé Bahia deposits, respectively, initially led Grainger
et al. (2008) to propose a 2.57 Ga timing for Carajás IOCG deposits genetically related to ca. 2.57 Ga
alkaline magmatism. Subsequent geochronology paints a more complex picture revealing important
spatial and temporal variation in the age of IOCG mineralization. Deposits in the south (e.g. Sequeirinho
orebody of the Sossego deposit, Cristalino, Bacaba, Bacuri) return Archean ages ca. 2.72-2.68 Ga,
distinct from those obtained in the north (Moreto et al., 2015a; Moreto et al., 2015b; Soares et al., 2001),
with the exception of the 2.71 Ga Igarapé Cinzento IOCG deposit (Toledo et al., 2019). Proterozoic
ages coincident with 1.88 Ga A-type granites have also been obtained for the Sossego orebody of the
Sossego IOCG deposit (Moreto et al., 2015b) and the Alvo 118 Cu deposit (Torresi et al., 2012).
 17

Polymetallic Cu-Au(-W-Sn-Bi) deposits, such as Breves and Estrela (Lindenmayer et al., 2005; Tallarico
et al., 2004) and Sn-W (Teixeira et al., 2002) deposits are spatially and temporally related to these 1.88
Ga A-type granites. The formation of the enigmatic Serra Pelada Au-Pt-Pd deposit is also synchronous
with this craton wide event (Grainger et al., 2008), and, although the timing is poorly constrained,
magmatic fluids from these granites are potentially involved in hypogene enrichment of iron ore
(Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2013; Lobato et al., 2005).

6.1 Timing of Cu-Au mineralization

There are two main end member styles of Cu-Au mineralization within the Carajás Domain, iron-oxide-
copper-gold (IOCG) and smaller (mostly <50 Mt @ <2% Cu and <1 g/t Au; Grainger et al. (2008))
polymetallic Cu-Mo-Sn deposits. IOCG deposits are located along E-W and WNW-ESE striking regional
shear zones. They can be divided into deposits of the Southern Copper Belt (i.e. Sossego, Cristalino
and smaller deposits that include Bacaba, Bacuri, Castanha, Visconde and Jatobá) located along the
Cannã Shear Zone (Pinheiro et al., 2013), and those of the Northern Copper Belt (i.e. Salobo, Igarapé
Bahia/ Alemão, Igarapé Cinzento and Grota Funda) located close to the Cinzento Shear Zone. Host
rocks include meta-volcanosedimentary rocks of the Itacaiúnas Supergroup, Neoarchean granitoids
and gabbro, and Mesoarchean basement granitoids, but notably not the Águas Claras Formation. Ore
bodies consist dominantly of chalcopyrite, are pyrite poor, and occur as pipe or ring-like breccia bodies
(e.g. Sossego) and as lenses parallel to mylonitic foliation (e.g. Salobo). They have a Fe-Cu-Au-REE-
P (± U, Y, Ni, Co, Pd, Sn, Bi, Pb, Ag, Te) element association (Xavier et al., 2012), and are associated
with extensive hydrothermal alteration zones that notably include significant iron oxides or iron silicates
(Grainger et al., 2008).

IOCG deposits within the Carajás Domain have returned both Archean (e.g. Sequeirinho orebody of
the Sossego deposit, Bacaba, Igarapé Bahia, Salobo) and Proterozoic (e.g. Sossego orebody) ages
(Moreto et al., 2011; Moreto et al., 2015a; Tallarico et al., 2005; Torresi et al., 2012), but the existence
of Proterozoic IOCG deposits remains contentious (Pollard et al., 2019). This is best illustrated by the
Sossego IOCG deposit. The S-shaped tabular Sequeirinho orebody, controlled by ductile(-brittle) shear
zones, is associated with high temperature albite-actinolite and massive magnetite-apatite alteration,
whereas the shallow Sossego orebody is a classic breccia pipe associated with prominent potassic and
chloritic alteration (Monteiro et al., 2008). While previously interpreted as synchronous ore bodies
formed at different crustal depths (Monteiro et al., 2008), U-Pb monazite dating of both orebodies
returned Neoarchean (2.71-2.68 Ga) and Proterozoic (1.90-1.88 Ga) ages, respectively (Moreto et al.,
2015b). Based on the abundance of quartz and pyrite and general lack of Fe-oxides in some domains
of the Sossego orebody, Pollard et al. (2019) considers it to be a Proterozoic Cu-Au deposit hosted
within Neoarchean IOCG alteration system, and not an IOCG. However the classic breccia textures
and the abundance of magnetite-apatite-actinolite and chalcopyrite as breccia infill is too similar to the
 18

Sequeirinho orebody to classify them as completely different mineralization styles. The orebodies share
similar paragenetic sequences, fluid evolution, sulfur sources and Fe-Cu-Au-REE-Ni-Co-Pd
geochemical signatures (Monteiro et al., 2008). This does not however, exclude the possibility that the
Sossego orebody is a Neoarchean IOCG that has experienced a significant Proterozoic hydrothermal
overprint. In a sense the debate comes down to semantics; at least some spatial domains of the
Sossego ore-body reflect IOCG mineralization, but it’s possible that the 1.88 Ga monazite age reflects
an overprinting hydrothermal event that is quartz-calcite rich and that may, or may not, have involved
the introduction of new metals.

Important smaller (<50 Mt @ <2% Cu and <1 g/t Au) Cu-Au deposits with a granitophile (W, Sn, Bi)
element association (Grainger et al., 2008) include the Breves, Águas Claras, Estrela and Gameleira
deposits. They generally consist of stockwork bodies and/or greisens in the roof of highly altered
granites, are hosted by metasedimentary units of the Águas Claras Formation and meta-
volcanosedimentary rocks of the Itacaiúnas Supergroup. They are distinct from IOCG deposits due to
the lack of Fe-oxides, relative abundance of quartz and the pyrite rich sulfide assemblages (Grainger
et al., 2008). They have ages indistinguishable to Proterozoic 1.88 Ga A-type magmatism (Lindenmayer
et al., 2005; Tallarico et al., 2004), yet older ages have been obtained for some deposits, for example
a 2.61 Ga Re-Os molybdenite age (Marschik et al., 2005) at the Gameleira deposit, possibly reflecting
Archean alteration systems superimposed with Proterozoic Cu-Au mineralisation.

The Alvo 118 Cu-Au deposit (170 Mt at 1.0 wt.% Cu, 0.3 g/t Au; Torresi et al., 2012) has been interpreted
as a Proterozoic IOCG (Torresi et al., 2012), a distal member of the intrusion related Cu-Au deposits
(Pollard et al., 2019), and a transitional style of deposit (Grainger et al., 2008). Despite its enrichment
in granitophile elements Bi, Sn and W, Alvo 118 has no direct spatial relationship with granites. While
the abundance of quartz-carbonate veins distinguishes it from IOCG mineralisation, the presence of
chalcopyrite with magnetite-hematite (albeit not as abundant as other IOCG deposits), the Fe-REE-P
geochemical signature, and the wide range of fluid salinities (<15 to >40wt% NaCl) are similar to IOCG
style mineralisation (Torresi et al., 2012). Here it will be treated independently.

Although the available geochronological data (Figure 4, Table 3) reveals the importance of multiple,
episodic hydrothermal events during the evolution of Carajás Cu-Au deposits, the degree to which these
ages reflect primary mineralization (i.e., the introduction/concentration of new metals in the crust) or
overprinting hydrothermal events is unclear. Monazite is regarded as a robust geochronometer due to
its high closure temperature of 700-750°C (Smith and Giletti, 1997), but there is evidence that the
growth and resetting of monazite can occur at lower temperatures than previously believed (Williams
et al., 2011). Monazite is susceptible to growth and recrystallization in the presence of acidic or alkaline
fluids (Ayers et al., 2004) and grows during superimposed hydrothermal events (Davis et al., 1994;
Harlov and Förster, 2003; Harlov et al., 2002; Harlov et al., 2005) and low-grade metamorphism
 19

(Rasmussen et al., 2001). Ages obtained using monazite, therefore, need to be treated with caution as
they may represent recrystallization or new monazite growth. This is particularly important given that,
unlike other mineralization ages that are supported by Re-Os dating that is robust under intense
deformation and metamorphism (Stein et al., 2001), the ca. 1.88 Ga IOCG mineralization event is
defined by only monazite and xenotime (Moreto et al., 2015b; Tallarico, 2003) and may represent a
superimposed hydrothermal system instead of an IOCG mineralization event. The geochronological
evidence for the five potential mineralization events evident with the CMP (2.76-2.75 Ga, 2.72-2.68 Ga,
2.60-2.45 Ga, 2.06 Ga and 1.88 Ga), will be presented below.

6.1.1 2.76 – 2.75 Ga

There is evidence of an early ca. 2.76 Ga mineralization event at the Igarapé Bahia/Alemão and Bacuri
IOCG deposits (Dreher et al., 2008; Galarza et al., 2008; Moreto et al., 2015a). A Re-Os N-TIMS age
of 2758 ± 11 Ma on molybdenite at the Bacuri IOCG deposit (Moreto et al., 2015a) provides the most
robust evidence for a ca. 2.76 Ga event, but is from a deformed chalcopyrite–calcite veinlet that cross
cuts the 2.86 Ga Serra Dourada Granite, spatially unrelated to the main ore zone. Nevertheless, it
reveals the existence of a hydrothermal system within the Mesoarchean basement beneath an active
meta-volcanosedimentary basin, consistent with a significant 2.76 Ga thermal event represented by the
ca. 2.76 Ga mafic-ultramafic complexes (Machado et al., 1991). A younger monazite age (2703 ± 6.2
Ma) for the main IOCG mineralization at Bacuri was reported within the same study, confirming the
presence of superimposed hydrothermal systems (Moreto et al., 2015a).

Imprecise Pb-Pb ages of between 2754 ± 36 Ma and 2777 ± 22 Ma on chalcopyrite from Igarapé
Bahia/Alemão IOCG deposit have also been reported (Galarza et al., 2008), but these have large
uncertainties and may reflect the source of lead rather than age. A Pb-Pb age of 2744 ± 12 Ma on gold
at Igarapé Bahia (Galarza et al., 2008) overlaps with widespread 2.74 Ga magmatism but is too
imprecise to prove a syngenetic timing. The Pb-Pb ages of 2747 ± 140 Ma (Silva et al., 2012), 2729 ±
150 Ma and 2736 ± 100 Ma (Silva et al., 2015) for chalcopyrite ore at the Visconde IOCG deposit,
although similar, are of limited use for constraining absolute timing. These ages collectively overlap
deposition of the 2.74-2.76 Ga basin fill meta-volcanosedimentary sequence and 2.74 Ga magmatism
and support either syn-depositional or intrusion related mineralization models (Dreher et al., 2008;
Galarza et al., 2008; Schwarz and Frantz, 2013). While much of the geochronology remains ambiguous,
sediment hosted chalcopyrite nodules provide textural evidence of a syngenetic, style of copper
mineralization at the Igarapé Bahia deposit (Melo et al., 2019) and the Tarzan Cu-Co deposit (Xavier
et al., 2017).

6.1.2 2.72 – 2.68 Ga

 20

There is strong evidence of a 2.72-2.68 Ga mineralization event at the Sequeirinho-Pista orebodies of

the Sossego IOCG deposit and at the Bacuri and Bacaba IOCG deposits in the Southern Copper Belt
(Moreto et al., 2015a; Soares et al., 2001; Tassinari et al., 2003), as well as at the Igarapé Cinzento
IOCG deposit in the Northern Copper Belt (Silva et al., 2005; Toledo et al., 2019). At the Sequeirinho
orebody a U-Pb age of 2712 ± 4.7 Ma on monazite from chalcopyrite ore was obtained (Moreto et al.,
2015b), whereas at the nearby smaller Bacuri deposit monazite in ore-stage chlorite alteration returned
an age of 2703 ± 6.2 Ma (Moreto et al., 2015a). Precise Re-Os molybdenite NTIMS ages of 2710 ± 11
Ma and 2685 ± 11 Ma from the Pista orebody of the Sossego IOCG deposit were obtained in sodic
altered and silicified Pista metavolcanic rocks, respectively and may or may not paragenetically relate
to Cu mineralization (Moreto et al., 2015b). Similar Re-Os molybednite ages of 2718 ± 56 Ma and 2711
± 9 Ma were obtained at Igarapé Cinzento (Silva et al., 2005; Toledo et al., 2019).

In general these deposits display early sodic and sodic-calcic (albite, albite-actinolite) alteration
synchronous with shear zone formation, cross cut by potassic (biotite, potassium feldspar) alteration
and a late actinolite-chlorite-epidote-allanite-apatite assemblage synchronous with Cu-Au- formation
(Monteiro et al., 2008; Moreto et al., 2015a). Hydrothermal monazite within the sodic alteration zone at
the Bacaba deposit (2720 ± 15 Ma) does not overlap in age with 2681± 20 Ma monazite within the
paragenetically later copper ore. Given that hydrothermal events generally last for no more than a few
million years (Chiaradia et al., 2013) distinct ages for different stages of hydrothermal alteration point
to episodic fluid flow events along major shear zones and not a single long lived hydrothermal system
(Moreto et al., 2015b).

Less robust Pb-Pb ages of 2700 ± 29 Ma and 2719 ± 36 Ma on chalcopyrite ore breccia (Soares et al.,
2001) at the Cristalino deposit and 2705 ± 42 Ma for chalcocite at Salobo (Tassinari et al., 2003) overlap
this age, but the errors also place some within error of basin formation. A U-Pb concordia age of 2724
± 4 Ma from the GT-34 deposit (Garcia et al., this issue) is from metasomatised zircons, but as cautioned
previously, fluid induced dissolution-reprecipitation processes can result in mixed ages with no
geological meaning (Geisler et al., 2007; Putnis, 2009).

The 2.72-2.68 Ga mineralization event does not convincingly overlap with either deposition of the ca.
2.76 Ga Itacaiúnas Supergroup or widespread ca. 2.74 Ga magmatism and rocks from both of these
packages host IOCG deposits. An U–Pb zircon age of 2706 ± 5 Ma (Feio et al., 2012) for the Planalto
Suite may indicate overlap with a mineralization system, however older ca. 2.74-2.73 Ga ages have
also been reported (Table 1) and the meaning of these young ages is unclear (section 4). There are,
however Pb-Pb zircon ages of 2705 ± 2 Ma for a quartz diorite at the Gameleira deposit (Galarza and
Macambira, 2002a) and 2688 ± 11 Ma for the Geladinho Granite stock (Barbosa et al., 2001). The Sm-
Nd whole rock ages obtained by Silva et al. (2005) for granites at Igarapé Cinzento/Gt46 (2668 ± 100
Ma and 2652 ± 98 Ma) are too imprecise to confirm a genetic link to mineralization. Magmatism of this
 21

age, if present, appears to be spatially restricted. No spatial link with IOCG deposits has been
established, but a role for magmatism in the IOCG mineralization process cannot be entirely excluded.
Alternatively, mineralization could be related to the inversion of the Carajás Basin during regional
sinistral transpression at ca. 2.7 Ga (see section 5.2) that drove circulation of hydrothermal fluids and
extensive metal leaching from wall rocks (Moreto et al., 2015b).

6.1.3 2.60 Ga – 2.45 Ga

Re-Os molybdenite dates of 2576 ± 8 Ma (Requia et al., 2003) and 2557 ± 8 Ma (Silva et al., 2005)
from the Salobo and Igarapé Cinzento IOCG deposits respectively are the most precise examples of a
2.57 Ga mineralization event, all located in the north of the CD. In the Igarapé Bahia/Alemão IOCG
deposit overlapping U-Pb monazite dates of 2575 ± 12 Ma (Tallarico et al., 2005) and 2559 ± 34 Ma
(Melo, 2018) from ore breccia in the Acampamento Sul and Alemão orebodies respectively indicate
that mineralization in both orebodies was coincident and coeval with mineralization at Salobo. A
consistent but imprecise Pb-Pb stepwise leaching date of 2579 ± 71 Ma (Requia et al., 2003) was also
obtained on bornite-chalcopyrite at Salobo, along with a Re-Os molydenite date of 2530 ± 60 Ma
(Hunger et al., 2018) for early magnetite-grunerite veins at the Grota Funda IOCG deposit. A younger
Ar-Ar age of 2537 ± 6 Ma for breccia hosted biotite at Igarapé Bahia displays a stepwise age spectrum
due to post-crystallisation thermal disturbance and represents a minimum age for biotite crystallization,
consistent with the above SHRIMP age (Pollard et al., 2019).

Given that these 2.5 Ga mineralization ages are spatially restricted to the north, the significance of the
contemporaneous tectono-thermal event that occurred ca. 2.5 Ga in the northern portion of the Carajás
Domain (see section 5.3) must be addressed. The main controversy is whether the 2.57 Ga
mineralization ages represent primary mineralization (Grainger et al., 2008) or reflect remobilisation,
resetting or new mineral growth due to reactivation of the northern Cinzento Shear Zone. Amphibolite
facies metamorphism around 2.5 Ga (section 5.3) may have obscured or overprinted older
mineralization events and prompted recrystallization and/or new mineral growth.

2.5 Ga mineralization ages partially overlap with the age of ca. 2.5 Ga alkaline granitoids, such as the
Old Salobo Granite (Machado et al., 1991; Melo et al., 2017) and the Itacaiúnas Granite (Souza et al.,
1996) suggesting that granites played a role in the formation of the Carajás IOCG deposits (Grainger
et al., 2008; Requia et al., 2003; Tallarico et al., 2005). However these granites are small, rare and
many of these ages were acquired in ductile deformed samples from strongly metamict zircons (e.g.
Melo et al., 2016). Their ages may reflect partial or total resetting of the U-Pb system in response to a
significant hydrothermal event (see section 4.1). An age of 2557 ± 26 Ma for an undeformed granite at
the Igarapé Cinzento deposit is the most convincing evidence of magmatism, but these granites cross
 22

cut mineralized and hydrothermally altered rocks indicating that the hydrothermal system is older than
their emplacement (Toledo et al., 2019). Geochronology with good paragenetic constraints confirms
that the main mineralisation events occurred prior to 2.5 Ga, around ca. 2.71 Ga, synchronous with
IOCG deposits in the south, and 2.60 Ga (Silva et al., 2005; Toledo et al., 2019). Younger Re-Os
molybdenite ages of 2449 ± 33 Ma and 2503 ± 51 Ma, associated with pegmatites and chlorite alteration
respectively, reflect the recurrence of younger hydrothermal events (Toledo et al., 2019). In this deposit
the Re-Os molybednite age of 2557 ± 8 Ma (Silva et al., 2005) is unlikely to represent sensu stricto
IOCG mineralization.

An older Pb-Pb stepwise leaching isochron age of 2705 ± 42 Ma on chalcocite was also obtained at
Salobo (Tassinari et al., 2003). Despite its low precision it supports a more complex evolution than a
single event ca. 2.57 Ga and may represent mineralization synchronous with the southern IOCG
deposits. An younger U-Pb monazite age of 2452 ± 14 from Cu-Au ore supports the role of reoccurring
tectono-thermal events due to the reactivation of the Cinzento Shear Zone, with hydrothermal activity
continuing into the Siderian (Melo et al., 2017). A Pb-Pb age on magnetite of 2112 ± 12 Ma at Salobo
(Tassinari et al., 2003) could represent an influence of the Paleoproterozoic Transamazonian event or
may be an artefact of lead loss.

The argument that the ca. 2.57 Ga event represents a superimposed tectonic event and not the main
mineralization episode was also made by Dreher et al. (2008) for the Igarapé Bahia deposit based on
geochronology and cross cutting relationships (Figure 5). The ore breccia is foliated, indicating
formation synchronous or prior to deformation, and does not transect the Águas Claras Formation,
suggesting mineralization occurred before deposition of these sediments ca. 2.68 Ga (Dreher et al.,
2008). Undeformed Archean mafic dikes (>2.57 Ga) cross cut both the orebody and the Águas Claras
Formation (Figure 5) and should set a minimum age for ore formation (Dreher et al., 2008), however
the dike ages may be maximum ages (section 3.4). Pb-Pb chalcopyrite dating by Galarza et al. (2008)
at Igarapé Bahia revealed older ages of 2754 ± 36 Ma and 2777 ± 22 Ma, but these may reflect
radiogenic lead contamination from the host rocks, while imprecise younger Pb-Pb ages of 2417 ± 120
Ma and 2385 ± 122 Ma imply resetting of isotope systems.

Late comb-textured quartz-calcite-chalcopyrite veins cross cut the foliated ore at Igarapé Bahia and
could represent superimposed hydrothermal events (Dreher et al., 2008). Similar late veins have been
described at Salobo (Requia et al., 2003) and Grota Funda (Hunger et al., 2018). A fluorite Sm-Nd age
of 2580 ± 79 Ma obtained for late carbonate veins (Santos, 2002) supports a 2.5 Ga vein forming event
but does not rule out one cooling ore system at this age. Indeed the 2.5 Ga age at Grota Funda for
early mineralisation (Table 3) that is cross cut by quartz-carbonate veining suggests this is the case for
this deposit (Hunger et al., 2018).
 23

A series of slightly older, overlapping Re-Os molybdenite ages ca. 2.60 Ga were obtained for the
Gameleira deposit (2614 ± 14 Ma), the Serra Verde Cu-Au-Mo deposit (2609 ± 13 Ma) and the small
Garimpo Fernano gold mine (2602 ± 13 Ma), all within the northern portion of the CD (Marschik et al.,
2005). This contrasts with a Sm-Nd WR isochron age of 1839 ± 15 Ma for quartz-grunerite-biotite-gold
veins at Gameleira (Pimentel et al., 2003) and may reflect superimposed hydrothermal systems. A
similar Re-Os age of 2600 ± 8 Ma was also obtained on molybdenite within granite at the Igarapé
Cinzento IOCG deposit, distinct from the younger ca. 2.56 Ga Re-Os ages (Table 3) obtained in
pegmatites by at least 27 Ma (Silva et al., 2005). Marschik et al. (2005) interpreted these to represent
mineralization during a shift from dextral transtension and clastic sedimentation between 2.7-2.6 Ga, to
sinistral transpression around 2.6 Ga (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000).

Overall the geochronology supports the occurrence of a significant tectono-thermal event between 2.60
and 2.45 Ga involving reactivation of the northern Cinzento Shear Zone. The protracted evolution of
the shear zone was clearly associated with widespread hydrothermal activity and potentially amphibolite
facies metamorphism, but whether it represents the an IOCG mineralizing event sensu stricto or
remobilisation/metamorphism of existing mineralization and growth of new monazite, and the
significance of granite magmatism associated with it, is debatable.

6.1.4 2.06 Ga

Evidence of a hydrothermal system ca. 2.06 Ga is restricted to a 2060 ± 9.6 Ma U-Pb monazite age
from copper ore at the Bacaba IOCG deposit, although the main IOCG mineralization event occurred
ca. 2.68 Ga (Moreto et al., 2015a). These two age populations were acquired in cores and rims of
different grains and reflect two distinct episodes of monazite growth (Moreto et al., 2015a). Monazite
growth ca. 2.06 Ga is at least 150 Ma older than 1.88 Ga mineralization (Moreto et al., 2015b; Torresi
et al., 2012) and A-type magmatism and does not overlap with any known magmatism. It is synchronous
with reactivation of regional shear zones during weak tectonic inversion of the Carajás Basin between
2.0 and 1.8 Ga (Pinheiro and Holdsworth, 1997). Given the spatial association between IOCG deposits
and large crustal discontinuities that allow the flow of sizeable quantities of hydrothermal fluids, it is
unsurprising that these deposits show evidence of overprinting hydrothermal systems. Caution needs
to be exercised while interpreting geochronology data; not all monazite ages within ore deposits
necessarily represent the timing of ore formation, even when intergrown within chalcopyrite ore.

6.1.5 1.90 – 1.88 Ga

 24

Polymetallic Cu-Au(-W-Bi-Sn ± Mo) and potentially IOCG deposits, formed ca. 1.90-1.88 Ga
contemporaneous with craton wide A-type magmatism (Bettencourt et al., 2016). The Sossego-Curral
orebodies of the Sossego IOCG deposit (Moreto et al., 2015b) and the Alvo 188 deposit (Tallarico,
2003) represent a Paleoproterozoic IOCG mineral system (Moreto et al., 2015b), or Cu-Au systems
hosted within earlier Neoarchean IOCG hydrothermal alteration zones (Pollard et al., 2019). These are
shallow-emplaced systems as evidenced by low temperature hydrothermal alteration assemblages and
breccia and open space filling textures. The U-Pb monazite dates for the Sossego (1879 ± 4.1 Ma, 1904
± 5.2 Ma) and Curral (1890 ± 8.5 Ma) orebodies of the Sossego IOCG deposit (Moreto et al., 2015b)
are similar to the U-Pb xenotime age of 1868 ± 7 Ma (Tallarico, 2003) and an Ar-Ar age of 1885 ± 4Ma
(Pollard et al., 2019) for the Alvo 118 Cu-Au deposit. The two precise monazite ages for the Sossego
orebody are separated by approximately 25 Ma suggesting multiple, discreet, hydrothermal events are
responsible for Paleoproterozoic IOCG mineralization (Moreto et al., 2015b).

Polymetallic Cu-Au(-W-Bi-Sn ± Mo) deposits also formed ca.1.88 Ga and display a close spatial link to
1.88 Ga granites. At the Breves deposit, hosted by the Águas Claras Formation and Breves Granite,
late quartz-arsenopyrite-chalcopyrite stockwork veins that cross cut the greisen and granite returned a
SHRIMP monazite-xenotime age of 1872 ± 7 Ma, indistinguishable from the SHRIMP 207Pb/206Pb zircon
ages of the episyenite (1880 ± 9 Ma) and granite (1878 ± 8 Ma) host rocks (Tallarico et al., 2004). This
is supported by an Ar-Ar biotite age from a biotite-chalcopyrite vein of 1886 ± 5 Ma (Pollard et al., 2019).
Similarly the Estrela deposit, hosted by andesites, gabbros and rhyolites of the Grão Para Group and
the Estrelinha Granite, is spatially associated with alkaline and peraluminous albite-orthoclase granite
dated at 1881 ± 5 Ma. This is consistent with an imprecise Sm-Nd isochron age of 1857 ± 98 Ma
(Lindenmayer et al., 2005) and a biotite Ar-Ar age of 1896 ± 7 Ma (Pollard et al., 2019). Poorly
documented EPMA monazite ages of 1886 ± 19 Ma from aplite and 1839 ± 14 Ma from mineralised
quartz-biotite veins are supportive of a 1.8 Ga event (Volp et al., 2006) but the general limitations of
chemical dating (Spear et al., 2009) preclude using them to infer younger events. An older Re-Os age
of ca. 2.7 Ga is mentioned by Lindenmayer et al. (2005) and Bettencourt et al. (2015) for deformed
molybdenite at the edge of a mineralized vein but is not documented.

The Gameleira deposit has been classed both as an IOCG deposit (Pimentel et al., 2003) and grouped
within the ca. 1.88 Ga polymetallic group (Grainger et al., 2008; Pollard et al., 2019). There are two
intrusive phases in the deposit area, a quartz-syenite to alkali feldspar granite correlated with the nearby
1874 ± 2 Ma Pojuca Granite (Machado et al., 1991), and a 1583 ± 9 Ma muscovite bearing syenogranite,
the Gameleira Granite (Pimentel et al., 2003), the only example of Mesoproterozoic magmatism in the
CD. Banded quartz-grunerite(-chalcopyrite) veins returned a Sm-Nd whole rock isochron age of 1839
± 15 Ma (Pimentel et al., 2003) that, while slightly younger than 1.88 Ga, given the different methods,
likely represents the 1.88 Ga event. Pervasive potassic alteration returned a disturbed Ar-Ar minimum
age of 1734 ± 8 Ma (Pimentel et al., 2003), however a significantly older Re-Os age of 2614 ± 14 Ma
 25

(Marschik et al., 2005) from molybdenite inter-grown with biotite points to the presence of an older
mineral system (section 6.1.3). Late quartz-biotite-chalcopyrite-bornite veins that cross cut quartz-
grunerite veins, returned an Ar-Ar age of 1908 ± 7 Ma (Pollard et al., 2019) and a Sm-Nd age of 1700
± 31 Ma (Pimentel et al., 2003). This latter reflects partial isotopic resetting, possibly related to ca. 1.58
Ga magmatism (Pimentel et al., 2003). This contrasts with an older whole rock Pb-Pb chalcopyrite
isochron age of 2419 ± 12 Ma on chalcopyrite veins that cross cut mafic volcanic rocks (Galarza and
Macambira, 2002a), interpreted as a minimum mineralization age. Younger ages of 2217 ± 19 Ma and
2180 ± 84 Ma obtained by Pb-Pb stepwise leaching of chalcopyrite likely reflect partial isotopic resetting
but still support an older mineral system (Galarza and Macambira, 2002a).

Given the closure temperature for A-Ar in biotite is ~300°C (Harrison et al., 1985), some Ar-Ar ages
may reflect resetting due to the emplacement of the 1.88 Ga A-type granites, a craton scale thermal
event. Indeed Silva et al. (2005) obtained Ar-Ar biotite ages of 1858 ± 7 Ma and 1810 ± 15 Ma for
potassic alteration and a 1752 ± 77 Ma Sm-Nd isochron age for ore breccia at the Igarapé Cinzento
deposit, while Re-Os dating by Toledo et al., (2019) constrained mineralisation to the Neoarchean.

6.2 Nickel-PGE

Mafic-ultramafic complexes (section 3.3) that intrude the Mesoarchean basement rocks and volcano-
sedimentary rocks of the Carajás Basin are synchronous with bimodal magmatism of the Grão Para
Group (ca. 2.76 Ga; Machado et al., 1991) and host large Ni laterite and magmatic PGE deposits. The
Cateté Intrusive Suite (Serra da Onça, Serra do Puma, Serra do Jacaré-Jacarezinho, Vermelho and
Igarapé Carapanã bodies) hosts large lateritic nickel-cobalt deposits (e.g. Vermelho, Puma–Onça) and
was emplaced 2766 ± 6 Ma (Lafon et al., 2000). Coeval PGE mineralized mafic-ultramafic layered
intrusion complexes of the Serra Leste Suite, in the northeastern portion of Carajás, include the 2722
± 53 Ma Lago Grande Complex (Teixeira et al., 2015) and the 2763 ± 6 Ma Luanga Complex (Machado
et al., 1991) that hosts the namesake Luanga Cr-PGE deposit (Mansur and Ferreira Filho, 2016).

Zircons of the Lago Grande Complex also yielded an imprecise upper intercept age of 2553 ± 61 Ma
from three concordant to slightly discordant ages from zircons with recrystallised domains and rims
(Teixeira et al., 2015). Although this age does not unequivocally constrain the timing of recrystallization,
it is coincident with ca. 2.5 Ga tectonothermal event (section 5.3) and mineralization ages (section
6.1.3). While speculative, it may be linked to hydrothermal alteration within the Lago Grande Complex;
Cl minerals within altered and deformed sulfide bearing harzburgite samples support the involvement
of Cl rich fluids and may indicate a link with the hypersaline hydrothermal fluids invoked in the genesis
of IOCG deposits. Altered samples also display variable Pt/Pd ratios (<0.02 to 8.0) suggestive of PGE
mobilization during hydrothermal alteration (Teixeira et al., 2015). Leaching from mafic-ultramafic
 26

complexes provides an explanation for the anomalously high Ni-Co observed in various Cu-Au deposits
(Xavier et al., 2012) and the source of hydrothermal PGE-Au at the Serra Pelada deposit (Teixeira et
al., 2015).

6.2.1 The Serra Pelada Au-Pt-Pd deposit

The Serra Pelada deposit, located in the NE of the province, is a high-grade hydrothermal, epigenetic
Au, Pd and Pt deposit hosted by metasedimentary rocks of the Águas Claras Formation within the Serra
Pelada syncline (Berni et al., 2014). Near-surface bonanza Au-Pd-Pt mineralization reached
spectacular grades of up to 0.5m at 132 000 g/t Au and 11 400 g/t Pt and Pd (Cabral et al., 2002)
attracting up to one hundred thousand garimpeiros to the area in the 1980s. Hypogene Au-Pt-Pd
mineralization is associated with intense argillic alteration, hematite breccias and silification and is
enriched in LREE (Berni et al., 2014). Highly oxidising ore fluids neutralised by dolomites and reduced
by carbonaceous shales are involved in ore formation, with the highest grades occurring within
brecciated metasiltstones enriched in amorphous carbon (Berni et al., 2014; Grainger et al., 2008).

Au-Pt-Pd mineralization, structurally controlled by subvertical NE trending faults that formed well after
the pervasive Neoarchean deformation responsible for folding of the Águas Claras Formation (Berni et
al., 2014), occurred ca. 1.88 Ga. An imprecise U-Pb age of 1861 ± 45 Ma for hydrothermal monazite
intergrown with Au and Pt-Pd minerals and an overlapping Ar/Ar age of 1883 ± 2 Ma for hydrothermal
biotite associated with chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite-bornite from the distal alteration zone (Grainger et al.,
2008) are contemporaneous with the intrusion of the adjacent, ca.1.88 Ga Cigano A-type granite
(Machado et al., 1991). While Grainger et al. (2008) favoured a magmatic-hydrothermal model, Berni
et al. (2014) considers the deposit a variant of an unconformity related uranium deposit formed by
mixing of fluids that interacted with oxidised cover sequences and highly reduced rocks within brittle-
ductile structures. The overlapping ages of magmatism and mineralization however, make a magmatic
connection compelling, even if it only supplies the heat that drives circulation of hydrothermal fluids that
leach PGEs from surrounding rocks.

Cabral et al. (2011) argues that an 40Ar-39Ar age of 75 ± 6 Ma from a Mn-Ba oxide aggregate intergrown
with gold and Pd-Pt minerals within shallow ore, along with As, Sb, Hg, Se enrichment, supports a low-
temperature Late Cretaceous hydrothermal system. Grainger et al. (2008) however, attributes this
shallow mineralization to metal enrichment during weathering and this Ar-Ar age overlaps with the onset
of tropical laterization ~72 Ma (Vasconcelos et al., 1994).

6.3 Sn-W
 27

Sn-W occurrences are spatially and genetically associated with the post-magmatic alteration and
greisen/cupola zones of evolved, 1.88 Ga, A-type granites (e.g. Central de Carajás Granite, Velho
Guilherme Intrusive Suite) that have spatially variable metal associations across the craton. The
granites intrusive into the Carajás Domain are associated with Cu-Au (± Sn, W) mineralization, whereas
those within the Rio Maria Domain or Uatumã Group are Sn-W dominant and lack Cu-Au. The 1.88 Ga
Cu-Au deposits (e.g. Breves, Estrela, Águas Claras) share important similarities with Sn-W
mineralization, namely a spatial association with the greisen zones of highly altered A-type granites and
the presence of anomalous, but not economic, Sn and W.

The tin mineralized Velho Guilherme Intrusive Suite is located in the western portion of the Carajás
Province, within the Rio Maria Domain (Teixeira et al., 2002). It is evolved, silica-rich (SiO2 >75%),
strongly enriched with LREE and consists of subalkaline, metaluminous to peraluminous, syenogranites
to monzogranites. It has an Archean igneous crustal source with similar Hf-O isotope compositions to
coeval CD granites, but with a possible minor supracrustal component (Teixeira et al., 2019a). Primary
concentrations of cassiterite occur in the greisenized zones of the Antonio Vicente and Mocambo
massifs (Teixeira et al., 2002) and alluvial cassiterite, wolframite and lesser columbite and tantalite are
exploited at the Pedra Preta mine hosted within the Bom Jardim granite of the Velho Guilherme Intrusive
Suite (Lamarão et al., 2012).

Current geochronology hints at temporal-spatial variation in these ca. 1.88 granites. Pb-Pb zircon ages
of 1867 ± 4 Ma, 1862 ± 16 Ma and 1866 ± 3 Ma for the Antonio Vicente granite massif, Mocambo
granite massif and Rio Xingu granite massif, respectively are a little younger than Paleoproterozoic
magmatism in the CD (Teixeira et al., 2002). This could be an artefact of the Pb-Pb stepwise leaching
technique. Single zircon Pb-Pb ages for the Antonio Vicente and Rio Xingu are consistently around
1870 Ma, but the age of the Mocambo granite is based on averaging Pb-Pb ages between 1839 ± 2
Ma and 1921 ± 4 Ma (Teixeira et al., 2002). U-Pb SHRIMP ages of 1857± 14 Ma and 1865 ± 6.6 Ma
for leuco-monzogranites of the Redenção and Bannach plutons of the Jamon Suite in the RMD,
however support the existence of a genuinely younger phase of magmatism (Teixeira et al., 2018).

6.4 BIF/Fe

The giant iron deposits of the Carajás Domain are hosted within BIF of the ca. 2.76 Ga Grão Para
Group (Machado et al., 1991). Goethite samples taken from canga at the N4C deposit returned (U-
Th)/He ages between 0.7 to 41 Ma representing multiple complex episodes of Fe-oxide precipitation
(Shuster et al., 2012) and demonstrating that supergene enrichment of iron occurred over millions of
years. However it is also widely acknowledged that hypogene upgrading occurred prior to the
 28

superimposed shallow supergene formation of iron ore (Dalstra and Guedes, 2004; Figueiredo e Silva
et al., 2013; Lobato et al., 2005). Fe mineralization is associated with the contact between BIF and
underlying chlorite-hematite altered basalts and is partially structurally controlled by the pre-existing
Archean structural architecture, with hard ore-bodies formed along the hinge zones of folds related to
regional E-W shear zones (Lobato et al., 2005; Rosière et al., 2006). Fluid inclusion and oxygen isotope
data support the involvement of an low Cl/Br saline magmatic fluid that caused the oxidation of
magnetite to hematite, and the progressive influx of light δ18O meteoric water in the paragenetically
later alteration stages (Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2013). A Paleoproterozoic timing for hypogene iron
mineralization and a genetic link to 1.88 Ga granites is inferred based on a poorly documented and
unpublished whole rock Sm-Nd isochron age of 1701 ± 97 Ma on the hematite altered mafic rocks that
form the wall rock to iron ore (Lobato et al., 2005). However, while supportive of a Proterozoic
hydrothermal event, this doesn’t overlap with 1.88 Ga magmatism. SHRIMP Pb-Pb and Pb-Th dating
on anatase in hematized mafic volcanic rock and monazite intergrown with hydrothermal hematite also
returned two temporally discreet ages of 1717 ± 12 Ma and 1613 ± 21 Ma, respectively, interpreted to
be responsible for hypogene enrichment in the N5E deposit (Santos et al., 2010).

6.5 Mn

Very limited geochronology is available on manganese mineralization within the CD. Attempts to date
K bearing Mn oxides such as cryptomelane by K-Ar and 40Ar-39Ar methods revealed that the intense
lateritization, responsible for concentrating manganese, began by 72 ± 6 Ma and continued throughout
the Cenozoic (Vasconcelos et al., 1994). The Azul manganese deposit is hosted by the Águas Claras
Formation that in the deposit area consists of red to white sandstones and siltstones with lenticular
layers of gray siltstones and black shales rich in carbonaceous organic matter and manganese oxy-
hydroxides (Costa et al., 2005). Vasconcelos et al. (1994) identified four periods of K-Mn oxide
precipitation, 3 of which were interpreted to coincide with different textural manganese generations that
reflect episodic weathering events associated with global climatic changes: 1) early pseudomorphic
cryptomelane that replaces metasedimentary rocks (65-69 Ma), 2) botryoidal cryptomelane infilling
cavities (51-56 Ma), and 3) microkarstic cryptomelane (49-44 Ma). A role of a hypogene manganese
mineralization event analogous to that in the iron system has not been investigated in detail, however
Fabre et al. (2011) correlates the Carajás Mn deposits with the Paleoproterozoic deposits in Gabon and
South Africa, consistent with formation of the Águas Claras Formation ca. 2.06 Ga after the Great
Oxidation Event (GOE).

7. Summary of the timing relationship between mineral systems and granitoid magmatism
 29

Several mineral systems within the CMP, including IOCG, copper-gold, tin-tungsten and gold-PGE,
have spatial or temporal links to granitoids. A 2.76 Ga hydrothermal system (Moreto et al., 2015a) and
possible syngenetic Cu-Au mineralization (Dreher et al., 2008; Galarza et al., 2008) is coeval with
bimodal ca. 2.76 Ga magmatism of the Itacaiúnas Supergroup (Machado et al., 1991; Trendall et al.,
1998; Wirth et al., 1986) and intrusion of the ca. 2.76 Ga Estrela (Barros et al., 2009) and Igarapé
Gelado (Melo et al., 2017) plutons. In the northern copper belt an overlap between ca. 2.57 Ga IOCG
mineralization at the Salobo (Melo et al., 2017; Requia et al., 2003) and Igarapé Bahia (Tallarico et al.,
2005) IOCG deposits with the intrusion of the alkaline ca. 2.57 Ga Old Salobo Granite (Machado et al.,
1991) has been used to infer a genetic link. However, at the Salobo deposit younger ages for both
mineralization (ca. 2.45 Ga) and the Old Salobo Granite (2.53-2.55 Ga) do not overlap (Melo et al.,
2017), and the influence of the reactivation of the Cinzento Shear Zone and associated local (dynamic)
metamorphism on these ages is an area of ongoing debate (refer back to section 4.1 and 5.3).

Precise ages for IOCG deposits in the Southern Copper Belt, including the Sequeirnho and Pista
orebodies of the Sossego deposit and the Bacaba and Bacuri deposits, constrain mineralization to ca.
2.72-2.68 Ga (Moreto et al., 2015a; Moreto et al., 2015b). There is no entirely convincing overlap with
granitoid magmatism at this age. Mineralization does not overlap with either ca. 2.76 Ga bimodal
volcanism of the Grão Para Group or widespread ca. 2.76-2.73 Ga alkaline magmatism. Younger ages
around 2.70 Ga for the Planalto Suite (Feio et al., 2012) have been obtained so a genetic link cannot
be entirely precluded, but the geological meaning of these younger ages is uncertain and may reflect
resetting/opening of the U-Pb system and not magmatism.

Proterozoic ages for mineralization at the Sossego orebody of the Sossego deposit (Moreto et al.,
2015b) and the Alvo 118 deposit (Tallarico, 2003) overlap with the emplacement of craton wide 1.88
Ga A-type magmatism (Machado et al., 1991; Moreto et al., 2015a; Souza et al., 1996; Tallarico et al.,
2004). Ore samples from both Sossego and Alvo 118 are distinct due to their high Nb content,
supporting an affinity with fluids sourced from alkaline to subalkaline granites (Monteiro et al., 2013),
consistent with models that propose a genetic link between IOCG deposits and A-type magmatism in
intracratonic settings (Groves et al., 2010; Pollard, 2006). Polymetallic Cu-Au deposits (e.g. Breves,
Estrela) also formed at 1.88 Ga (Lindenmayer et al., 2005; Tallarico et al., 2004) and have close spatial
and temporal relationships with ca. 1.88 Ga A-type granites, and alteration styles consistent with granitic
influence (e.g. greisenization, enrichment in granitophile elements such as B, Bi, F, Cl, Sn, and W). The
1.88 Ga Au-Pt-Pd Serra Pelada deposit (Grainger et al., 2008) is located close to the 1.88 Ga Cigano
granite (Machado et al., 1991) and either has magmatic-hydrothermal origins (Grainger et al., 2008) or
is primarily redox-controlled (Berni et al., 2014). Magmatic fluids also possibly played a role in the
hypogene enrichment of iron ore (Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2013; Lobato et al., 2005), however there is
currently no geochronology that links this to 1.88 Ga magmatism.
 30

8. Regional tectonostratigraphic context with emphasis on the evolution of mineral systems

The tectonic framework of the CMP is a result of overprinting events that span from the Mesoarchean
to at least the Neoproterozoic. The presence of sanukitoids and TTG magmatism in the Rio Maria
Domain, and their absence within the Carajás Domain (with the exception of the Sapucaia subdomain
of Dall’Agnol et al. (2013) that consists of rocks similar to the RMD, including TTGs) suggests the two
domains experienced different tectonic evolutions during the Mesoarchean (Feio et al., 2013).
Generation of TTG magmas in the RMD occurred between 2.98-2.92 Ga via partial melting of mafic
slab in a subduction setting (Almeida et al., 2013; Oliveira et al., 2011). These magmas interacted with
the overlying mantle producing metasomatised mantle.

The collision between the Rio Maria Domain and the Carajás Domain (Figure 6a) occurred ca. 2.86 Ga
(Feio et al., 2013) and resulted in high-grade metamorphism of CD Mesoarchean basement rocks
(Machado et al., 1991; Pidgeon et al., 2000), the formation of the high metamorphic grade Itacaiúnas
Shear Zone (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000) and the emplacement of 2.86-2.83 granitoids (e.g.
Campina Verde Tonalite, the Rio Verde trondhjemite, and the Cruzadão, Bom Jesus and Serra Dourada
granites) along shear zones (Feio et al., 2013; Moreto et al., 2011). The RMD experienced a
tectonothermal event at 2.87 Ga that generated sanukitoid magmas through melting of the
metasomatised mantle (via previous TTG magmatism), possibly triggered by slab break off or
interaction with a mantle plume (Oliveira et al., 2011). The resultant higher temperatures in the
continental crust promoted partial melting of the TTG crust and generation of 2.86 Ga potassic
leucogranites (Almeida et al., 2011). The development of 2.86 Ga shear zones marks the last
deformation event within the Rio Maria Domain (Souza et al., 2001) until the emplacement of 1.88 Ga
A-type granites and dikes (Dall'Agnol et al., 2005), and is possibly important in the formation of orogenic
gold deposits within the RMD.

The subsequent formation of the Carajás Basin occurred over a Mesoarchean continental substrate
around 2.76 Ga (Figure 6b). Deposition of the meta-volcanosedimentary Itacaiúnas Supergroup,
including exhalative BIF and coeval PGE mineralized mafic-ultramafic complexes, was the precursor to
lateritic nickel and hypogene/supergene iron ore deposits. The presence of 2.76 Ga mafic-ultramafic
rocks (Lafon et al., 2000; Machado et al., 1991; Teixeira et al., 2015) indicates a mantle connection at
this time, either involving a mantle plume, upwelling due to extension of continental crust, or post
orogenic collapse following the Mesoarchean orogeny (Tavares et al., 2018). Heat from this fueled the
circulation of a regionally extensive hydrothermal system beneath an active volcano-sedimentary basin
that extended into the Mesoarchean basement, as evidenced by the 2.76 Ga molybdenite age at the
Bacuri deposit (Moreto et al., 2015a). Mantle, granite derived, and basinal fluids circulated through
crustal weaknesses and shear zones, the orientation of which was influenced by the earlier E-W
trending Mesoarchean shear zones that were also exploited by A-type like granites such as the 2.76
 31

Ga Estrela (Barros et al., 2009) and Igarapé Gelado Granites (Melo et al., 2017). Minor syngenetic Cu-
Au mineralization occurred at this time, including some of the Cu mineralization at the Bacuri and
Igarapé Bahia deposits (Dreher et al., 2008; Galarza et al., 2008; Melo et al., 2019; Moreto et al.,
2015a).

The subsequent Neoarchean evolution of the Carajás Basin either involved basin inversion shortly after
basin formation (Figure 6c), evidenced by widespread 2.76 to 2.73 Ga “syntectonic” granites (Barros et
al., 2009; Domingos, 2009), or continued rifting (Tavares et al., 2018). The U-Pb data support intrusion
synchronous with rift basin formation ca. 2.76 Ga for at least the Estrela and Igarapé Gelado plutons
but the timing of basin closure after this is debatable (section 5.2). As such the tectonic setting in which
2.70 to 2.68 Ga IOCG mineralization (Moreto et al., 2015a; Moreto et al., 2015b) in the Southern Copper
Belt occurred is still debated.

The presence of mafic dikes cross cutting the Águas Claras Formation, if Archean ca. 2.6-2.7 Ga (Dias
et al., 1996; Mougeot et al., 1996b), support an extensional tectonic setting (Figure 6d). If the Águas
Claras Formation is ca. 2.68 Ga (Trendall et al., 1998) then mineralization occurred synchronous with
an active sedimentary basin and volcanism in the late stages of accumulation of the rift related Carajás
Basin that was active for roughly 80 Ma. In this case basinal brines may play an important role in ore
formation (Haynes, 2000). While an association between IOCG mineralization and extensional
environments was proposed by Hitzman et al. (1992), IOCG deposits occur in a variety of tectonic
settings. For example deposits in Clonurry, Australia, formed at least in part in a collisional and syn-
metamorphism setting, with multiple mineralization events occurring in varying tectonic regimes over
an interval of 100 Ma (Duncan et al., 2011; Williams and Pollard, 2001).

IOCG mineralization alternatively occurred during or after a shift to compressional tectonics (Figure 6e)
ca. 2.7 Ga (Domingos, 2009). The morphology of the S-shaped Sequeirinho orebody formed at the
intersection of WNE-ESE trending Canaã Shear Zone and NE-SW sinistral faults supports this
(Domingos, 2009; Moreto et al., 2015b), as does the development of early, ductile, fault controlled sodic
alteration (Monteiro et al., 2008). IOCG mineralization was synchronous with the development of the
Cinzento Shear Zone ca. 2.71 Ga, at the Igarapé Cinzento IOCG deposit (Toledo et al., 2019). Textures
and hydrothermal alteration assemblages consistent with development during progressive exhumation
and the ductile to brittle transition, such as the deformed quartz-muscovite veins and later quartz-
feldspar-epidote veins with open space filling textures at the Bacuri deposit (Melo et al., 2014), support
IOCG formation during tectonic inversion. They could also, however, reflect multiple hydrothermal
events or simply cooling.
 32

The basin scale circulation of hydrothermal fluids along regional shear zones promoted widespread
metal leaching and ore deposit formation. The leaching of metals via albitization of country rocks prior
to mineralization is a fundamental precursor to IOCG mineralization, ubiquitous within Carajás IOCG
deposits (Xavier et al., 2012) and those of the Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Canada (Corriveau et al.,
2016), and the Cloncurry District (Oliver et al., 2004) and Olympic Cu-Au Province (Kontonikas-Charos
et al., 2014), Australia. In the Starra system in Cloncurry, sodic-calcic alteration occurred synchronous
with metamorphism, prior to the intrusion of the Williams-Naraku batholith, and a metamorphic fluid
involvement was proposed (Duncan et al., 2011). Similarly the occurrence of syn-deformation, ductile
controlled, sodic alteration at 2,720 ± 15 Ma is temporally distinct from copper mineralization at 2,681
± 20 Ma at the Bacaba IOCG deposit (Moreto et al., 2015a).

If the Águas Claras Formation is ca. 2.68 Ga then it may have formed broadly synchronous with
compressional/transpressional deformation and IOCG formation ca. 2.72-2.68 Ga. This is consistent
with its low metamorphic grade and evidence that deformation occurred prior to complete lithification
(Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000). In this case IOCG formation occurred beneath a regionally extensive
active sedimentary basin (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000; Nogueira et al., 1995). Similarly, at the
Olympic Dam IOCG deposit, South Australia, the bedded sedimentary facies within the breccia complex
is laterally continuous and not limited to maar-diatreme craters as previously believed, suggesting the
hydrothermal system formed beneath an active sedimentary basin (McPhie et al., 2011). Access to
overlying sedimentary successions may have played a role in ore genesis – but the lack of IOCG
mineralization within the Águas Claras Formation and the fact that it truncates ore at the Igarapé Bahia
deposit (Figure 5) necessitates are more nuanced interpretation for the CD.

A significant tectonothermal event within the northern CD occurred ca. 2.5 Ga (Figure 6f) and involved
the protracted re-activation of the northern Cinzento Shear Zone (Machado et al., 1991; Melo et al.,
2017). This may correspond with the shift from dextral transtension and clastic sedimentation between
2.7-2.6 Ga, to sinistral transpression around 2.6 Ga (Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000), however there is
evidence for basin closure earlier in the Neoarchean. This resulted in the widespread resetting of the
Rb-Sr and U-Pb isotope systems between 2.57 and 2.50 Ga (Barbosa, 2004; Barros et al., 1992;
Ferreira Filho, 1985; Teixeira et al., 2015), local metamorphism of the Salobo Group (Machado et al.,
1991) and either the intrusion of the alkaline ca. 2.5 Ga Old Salobo Granite (Machado et al., 1991; Melo
et al., 2017) or intense deformation of older granites and resetting of the U-Pb system. IOCG
mineralization, including the Igarapé Bahia and Salobo deposits (Melo et al., 2017; Requia et al., 2003;
Tallarico et al., 2005), either formed at this time or was substantially modified and metamorphosed.
While a temporal overlap between mineralization and voluminous magmatism is a common (but not
universal) feature of IOCG deposits (e.g. mineralization at Olympic Dam, Australia, is synchronous with
the Hilbata Suite granitoids; Skirrow et al. (2007)), magmatism in Carajás at 2.5 Ga is rare and spatially
restricted. Resolving the significance of 2.5 Ga ages for magmatism and mineralization is crucial in
 33

assessing genetic models of IOCG formation that emphasise a link to alkaline magmatism (Groves et
al., 2010; Meyer, 1988; Pollard, 2006), as well as a possible role for metamorphic fluids.

Given that ages around 2.5 Ga are spatially restricted to the northern CD, any correlation with the
Bacajá Domain to the north must be examined. The Bacajá Domain consists dominantly of
Transamazonian 2300-2050 Ma granitoids (Macambira et al., 2009; Vasquez et al., 2008c). Archean
inliers consisting of 2671 Ma and 2503-2440 Ma granitoids, some of which contain 2.58 Ga inherited
zircons (Santos, 2003), possibly represent a remnant island or continental arc (Macambira et al., 2009;
Vasquez et al., 2008c). While most authors place collision between the Carajás and Bacajá Domains
during the 2.2 – 1.9 Ga Tranzamazonian Orogeny (Macambira et al., 2009; Tavares et al., 2018;
Teixeira et al., 2007; Teixeira et al., 1989), the coincidence of ca. 2.5-2.4 Ga magmatism within the
Bacajá Domain with the ca. 2.5 Ga magmatic and tectono-thermal event in the CD raises the possibility
that they shared a common evolution prior to this.

In fact, the εNd(T) data from the Bacajá crust appears on a continuum of crustal reworking with Carajás
crust, and this, combined with their similar gravity and magnetic responses and V p/Vs ratios, led Motta
et al. (2019) to suggest that the Bacajá and Carajás domains represent one crustal block in which the
Bacajá Domain experienced intense Tranamazonian re-working. This is an important distinction as it
extends the potential for copper mineralization into the Bacajá Domain (Motta el al. 2019). Nd isotope
work suggests rocks in the north of the Bacajá Domain are dominantly juvenile while towards the margin
with the CD, Paleoproterozoic reworked Archean crust with εNd(T) from -2.9 to -8.3 (TDM 2.57-2.93Ga)
dominates (Macambira et al., 2009). Based on the older TDM ages (2.9-3.2 Ga) of CD granitoids,
indicating derivation from older Archean crust, Macambira et al. (2009) concluded there was no
correlation with the CD. However TDM ages can be skewed due to mixing with younger juvenile material,
represented in the Bacajá Domain by 2.67 Ga tonalitic gneiss, 2.34-2.36 Ga supracrustal rocks and
2.13-2.16 Ga granitoids (Macambira et al., 2009). None of these have known equivalents within the
CD. If the two domains were juxtaposed prior to the Tranzamazonian Orogeny, exactly when and how
remains unresolved. This is especially important given the nebulous nature of the 2.5 Ga tectono-
thermal event in the CD; shear zone reactivation and metamorphism occurred in response to what?

Subsequent weak tectonic inversion of the Carajás Basin occurred between 2.0 and 1.8 Ga (Holdsworth
and Pinheiro, 2000) as part of the ca. 2.2 – 1.9 Ga Transamazonian Orogeny (Teixeira et al., 2007;
Teixeira et al., 1989). This may have occurred as a response to the development of an accretionary
front marked by juvenile Ryhacian rocks further to the north (Figure 6g) than the current Carajás-Bacajá
domain boundary (Motta el al. 2019). The growth of 2.06 Ga monazite at the ca. 2.68 Ga Bacaba IOCG
deposit (Moreto et al., 2015a) supports the presence of a hydrothermal system at this time and its role
in upgrading or modifying ore deposits cannot be dismissed. Tectonic inversion was either weak
(Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000) or the main penetrative deformation event responsible for
 34

gneissification of Estrela and associated plutons (Tavares et al., 2018), but the latter is inconsistent with
the 2.5 Ga Rb-Sr age for the Estrela Granite (Barros et al., 1992) and the general paucity of
geochronology supporting a major 2.0 Ga event. If the Águas Claras Formation is ca. 2.06 Ga (Mougeot
et al., 1996a) then it represents a foreland basin, consistent with the presence of 2.0 Ga fluvio-deltaic
formations deposited in foreland basins in most cratons in both West Africa and South America (Zhao
et al., 2002). A Proterozoic age for the Águas Claras Formation, however, is inconsistent with cross
cutting Archean mafic dikes (Dias et al., 1996; Mougeot et al., 1996b), and its truncation of the >2.57
Ga orebody at the Igarapé Bahia deposit (Dreher et al., 2008).

Tavares et al. (2018) argues for an additional Orosirian compressional event (Sereno Event) in-between
2.06 and 1.88 Ga with no related magmatism and very low-grade metamorphism. The existence of the
Caninana Formation, a possible foreland basin with a maximum age of 2.01 Ga and a notable absence
of 1.88 Ga zircons (Pereira, 2009), is consistent with this.

A late phase of extension (Figure 6f) took place around 1.8 Ga (Pinheiro and Holdsworth, 1997). The
craton wide nature of 1.88 Ga A-type magmatism and the related Uatumã SLIP, combined with
evidence for a true polar wander event between 1860 and 1880 Ma (Antonio et al., 2017), support a
mantle plume or mantle superswell event underneath a Trans-Amazonian supercontinent (Dall'Agnol
et al., 2005; Teixeira et al., 2018). Underplating drove the melting of igneous Archean crust to produce
A-type granites (Dall'Agnol et al., 2005; Teixeira et al., 2019a). While 1.88 Ga mafic magmatism is not
directly observed within the CD, a 1.88 Ga quartz diorite at Estrela (Lindenmayer et al., 2005) and an
andesite with a poorly defined 1.87 Ga Rb-Sr whole rock age (Rivalenti et al., 1998) is documented.
Coeval mafic dike swarms associated with the Jamon Suite (Dall'Agnol et al., 2005) and bimodal
Tucumã dike swarms (Silva et al., 2016; Teixeira et al., 2019b) occur in the RMD, supporting an
extensional tectonic setting.

A diverse range of mineral deposits formed in this intracratonic setting within the CD including the
Sossego orebody at the Sossego IOCG deposit (Moreto et al., 2015b), the Alvo 118 Cu-Au deposit
(Tallarico, 2003), polymetallic Cu-Au-W-Bi-Sn deposits including Breves (Tallarico et al., 2004) and
Estrela (Lindenmayer et al., 2005) and the Au-Pt-Pd Serra Pelada deposit (Berni et al., 2014; Grainger
et al., 2008). The cooling of shallow emplaced 1.88 A-type granites and the resulting fluid/vapour-rich
carapace formed during the last stage of magma crystallisation and resulted in the formation of
polymetallic Cu-Au-W-Bi-Sn deposits. A-type granites are Cu mineralized in the CD (Tallarico et al.,
2004) and Sn-W mineralized to the west and in the RMD (Lamarão et al., 2012; Teixeira et al., 2002),
due to their differing source regions within a heterogeneous Archean basement (Dall’Agnol et al., 2005;
Teixeira et al., 2002), differing oxidation states (Dall’Agnol et al., 2005) and host rocks, or (speculatively)
to previous enrichment within the SCLM beneath the CD during Neoarchean rift formation.
 35

Heat from the 1.88 Ga magmatic event drove the widespread circulation of hydrothermal and magmatic
fluids that experienced extensive fluid-rock interaction, leaching metals (Cu, Fe, Au, PGE, Ni, Co) from
the surrounding rocks as well as potentially from the existing Archean IOCG deposits. PGEs leached
from mafic-ultramafic intrusive complexes concentrated to form the hydrothermal Serra Pelada Au-Pt-
Pd deposit, as supported by evidence of PGE mobilization in the Lago Grande Complex (Teixeira et
al., 2015). Magmatic-hydrothermal fluids interacted with banded iron formations of the Grão Para Group
and caused hypogene iron enrichment in BIF (Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2013; Lobato et al., 2005). The
craton scale of this thermal magmatic event, the pre-existing Mesoarchean shear zones and
Neoarchean basin architecture that focus hydrothermal fluid flow, and the presence of favorable
lithologies within the Carajás Basin (e.g. mafic-ultramafic packages, BIF, reduced/carbonaceous
sedimentary rocks in the Águas Claras Formation) combine to create the remarkable metallogenetic
diversity ca. 1.88 Ga.

The preservation of a 1.88 Ga Rb-Sr whole rock age for the Young Salobo Granite (Cordani, 1981) and
coincidence between zircon and titanite ages for the Gogó da Onça Granite Suite in the RMD (Teixeira
et al., 2017) indicate there was no regionally significant metamorphism after 1.88 Ga.

The formation of the Neoproterozoic Araguaia Fold Belt to the east is of Brasiliano age and part of the
larger Pan-African/Brasiliano Orogen that led to the closure of several oceans associated with
Gondwana (Fonseca et al., 2004; Herz et al., 1989). Lower intercept ages of 566 ± 85 Ma, 441 ± 16
Ma, 444 ± 67 Ma and for the Sequeirinho, Serra Dourada and Sossego Granophyric granites (Moreto
et al., 2011; Moreto et al., 2015b) and ~600 Ma for the Formiga Granite (Grainger et al., 2008), were
interpreted to reflect opening of the U-Pb system related to thrusting of the Araguaia Fold Belt against
the Amazonian Craton (Grainger et al., 2008; Moreto et al., 2015b). However interpreting lower intercept
ages as geological events is questionable (Mezger and Krogstad, 1997; Tilton, 1960). Given the very
low metamorphic grades in the western portion of the Araguaia Fold Belt (Herz et al., 1989), this
collisional event is unlikely to have affected the U-Pb zircon system and numerous Ar-Ar ages around
1.8 (e.g. Pollard et al., 2019) suggest no regionally significant thermal events occurred after this.
Nevertheless the emplacement of the Early Cambrian Paraupebas mafic dike swarm at 535 ± 1 Ma
represents extension along the craton margin correlated with post-collisional magmatism within the
Araguaia Belt (Teixeira et al., 2019b). Whether this is simply fortuitous is debatable.

Widespread tropical laterization of the CD began 72 Ma (Vasconcelos et al., 1994) and resulted in
supergene enrichment of Fe, Ni, Mn and Au-PGE’s forming the Vermelho and Puma–Onça lateritic
nickel deposits, the Azul manganese deposit (Costa et al., 2005), upgrading the Serra Norte iron
deposits, forming the shallow bonanza ore at the Serra Pelada Au-Pt-Pd deposit (Grainger et al., 2008)
and forming the supergene copper enrichment at Alvo 118.
 36

9. Conclusions and Future Work

 Geochronological data paints a picture in which superimposed and episodic hydrothermal

systems ranging in age from Archean to Neoproterozoic are responsible for the amazing
metallogenetic diversity of the Carajás Domain. It is unlikely that the Carajás IOCG deposits
formed during a single, widespread, hydrothermal event. Deposits in the Northern Copper Belt
formed (or were modified) ca. 2.60-2.45 Ga, while those of the Southern Copper Belt formed
ca. 2.72 to 2.68 Ga and 1.88 Ga. The existence of 2.71 Ga mineralization at the northern
Igarapé Cinzento IOCG deposit suggests this Neoarchean event was regionally extensive.
There is also evidence of syngenetic Cu mineralization ca. 2.76 Ga as well as episodic events
within these main metallogenetic epochs.

 To understand the tectonic setting during ca. 2.72-2.68 Ga IOCG mineralization, the timing of
compression and basin inversion needs to be resolved. Current geochronology favors a
Neoarchean timing, either ca. 2.74 Ga, 2.72-2.68 Ga, or both.

 A temporal overlap between 2.72-2.68 Ga IOCG mineralization and widespread magmatism

has not been convincingly established. Unraveling the geological meaning of younger ages for
the 2.74 Ga Planalto Suite is crucial for this.

 Questions remain about the interpretation of ca. 2.5-2.6 Ga magmatism (e.g. Old Salobo
Granite) and IOCG mineralization (e.g. Salobo, Igarapé Bahia) that may represent the re-
activation of the Cinzento Shear Zone and amphibolite facies metamorphism overprinting
existing mineralization, rather than IOCG mineralization sensu stricto. Resolving this is
important in assessing IOCG models that emphasize a link to alkaline magmatism (Groves et
al., 2010) and understanding the relationship between mineralization and metamorphism.
Paragenetic studies that clarify the timing between regional high-grade metamorphic
assemblages and IOCG hydrothermal alteration systems are needed.

 The timing of juxtaposition of the Carajás and Bacajá domains, and any relationship this may
have with the 2.5 Ga tectono-thermal event, has implications for exploration potential north of
the CD. Better descriptions and geochronology for the southern Bacajá Domain is needed.

 Craton scale 1.88 Ga A-type magmatism acted as a heat source that fueled the regional
circulation of hot magmatic-hydrothermal fluids through major shear zones. These fluids
leached metals (Cu, Fe, Au, PGE) from the surrounding rocks. This magmatic-hydrothermal
system is responsible for a large part of the metallogenetic diversity of CD (e.g. Sn-W, Cu-Au,
Au-Pt-Pd deposits, hypogene enrichment of BIF hosted Fe ore).
 37

 The age of the Águas Claras Formation is controversial and has implications for the relative
timing of IOCG formation and the age of the main regional compressional deformation event
(Holdsworth and Pinheiro, 2000; Tavares et al., 2018). Geochronology currently supports an
Archean age.

 The presence and age of hypogene or syn-sedimentary manganese mineralization within the
Águas Claras Formation should be investigated. It has implications for both manganese
exploration and our understanding of the age of the Águas Claras Formation.

 Well-constrained geochronology on the hypogene stage of the iron deposits should be a focus
of future research. Although fluid inclusion and oxygen isotope data support the involvement of
magmatic fluids, genetic links to Proterozoic 1.88 Ga magmatism are currently unsupported by
geochronology.

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Dr Peter Pollard and the anonymous reviewer and editors that have
greatly improved this manuscript. We are also very grateful to the Vale Company for allowing us a site
visit and we thank Maria Emilia Schutesky Della Giustina for editorial handling.

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Williams, P. J., and Pollard, P. J., 2001, Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview with New
Metallogenic and Exploration Data from the Cloncurry District, Northwest Queensland: Exploration and Mining
Geology, v. 10, p. 191-213.
Wirth, K. R., Gibbs, A. K., and Olszewski, W. J., Jr., 1986, U-Pb ages of zircons from the Grão Pará Group and Serra dos
Carajás granite, Pará, Brasil: Revista Brasileira de Geociências, v. 16, p. 195−200.
Xavier, R., Moreto, C., Melo, G., Toledo, P., Hunger, R., Silva, M. A., Faustinoni, J., Lopes, A., Monteiro, L., Previato, M., and
S.G.P. de Jesus, S., 2017, Geology and Metallogeny of Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic Copper Systems of the
Carajás Domain, Amazonian Craton, Brazil, Mineral Resources to Discover - 14th SGA Biennial Meeting 3: Quebec.
Xavier, R. P., Monteiro, L. V. S., Moreto, C. P. N., Pestilho, A. L. S., Melo, G. H. C., Silva, M. A. D., Aires, B., Ribeiro, C., and
Silva, F. H. F., 2012, The Iron Oxide Copper-Gold Systems of the Carajás Mineral Province, Brazil, Geology and
Genesis of Major Copper Deposits and Districts of the World: A Tribute to Richard H. Sillitoe, Society of Economic
Geologists.
Yakymchuk, C., Kirkland, C. L., and Clark, C., 2018, Th/U ratios in metamorphic zircon: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v.
36, p. 715-737.
Zhao, G., Cawood, P. A., Wilde, S. A., and Sun, M., 2002, Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia
supercontinent: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 59, p. 125-162.
 44

Figure 1: Geological map of the Carajás Domain showing the location of the major mineral deposits.
Inset illustrates location in A) Brazil, B) Carajás Province and C) map area. CD = Carajás Domain, BD
= Bacajá Domain, RMD = Rio Maria Domain. Modified from Vasquez et al. (2008b), margin with
Bacajá Domain from Costa et al., (2016).

Figure 2: A summary of the geochronological data for the Neoarchean evolution of the Carajás
Domain correlated with the main tectonic events. Where no error bars are visible errors are smaller
than the symbol size.

Data is sourced from: 1) Avelar et al. (1999), 2) Barbosa et al. (2001), 3) Barbosa et al. (2004), 4)
Barros et al. (1992), 5) Barros et al. (2009), 6) Dias et al. (1996), 7) Feio et al. (2012), 8) Feio et al.
(2013), 9) Galarza and Macambira (2002a), 10) Galarza and Macambira (2002b), 11) Galarza et al.
(2003), 12) Gibbs et al. (1986), 13) Huhn et al. (1999a), 14) Huhn et al. (1999b), 15) Lafon et al.
(2000), 16) Machado et al. (1991), 17) Martins et al. (2017), 18) Melo et al. (2017), 19) Montalvão et
al. (1984), 20) Moreto et al. (2015a), 21) Moreto et al. (2015b), 22) Mougeot et al. (1996b), 23) Santos
(2002), 24) Santos (2003), 25) Sardinha et al. (2004), 25) Sardinha et al. (2006), 27) Silva et al.
(2010), 28) Silva et al. 2015, 29) Souza et al. (1996), 30) Souza et al. (2010), 31) Tallarico (2003), 32)
Tallarico et al. (2005), 33) Teixeira et al. (2015), 34) Toledo et al. (2019), 35) Trendall et al. (1998),
36) Wirth et al. (1986).

Figure 3: Schematic chart of stratigraphy and mineralisation events correlated with the tectonic
regimes of Tavares et al. (2018) and Holdsworth and Pinheiro (2000).

Figure 4: A summary of the geochronological data for IOCG, Cu-Au, Au-PGE and Fe mineral
systems in the Carajás Domain correlated with the main tectonic and magmatic events.

Data is sourced from: 1) Tallarico et al. (2005), 2) Santos (2002), 3) Galarza et al. (2008), 4) Silva et
al. (2005), 5) Tassinari et al. (2003), 6) Réquia et al. (2003), 7) Melo et al. (2017), 8) Moreto et al.
(2015a), 9) Silva et al. (2012), 10) Silva et al. (2015), 11) Soares et al. (2001), 12) Moreto et al.
(2015b), 13) Neves (2006), 14) Marschik et al. (2003), 15) Tallarico (2003), 16) Pimentel et al. (2003),
17) Galarza and Macambira (2002a), 18) Marschik et al. (2005), 19) Lindenmayer et al. (2005), 20)
Tallarico et al. 2004, 21) Grainger et al., (2008), 22) Santos et al. (2010), 23) Lobato et al. (2005). 24)
Toledo et al. (2019), 25) Pollard et al. (2019), 26) Hunger et al., (2018), 27) Melo (2018).

Figure 5: Schematic, simplified cross sections for a) Alemão orebody and b) Acampamento Norte
orebody of the Igarapé Bahia IOCG deposit illustrating cross cutting relationships and relevant
geochronology. Cross sections modified after Dreher et al. (2008), originally sourced from Santos
(2002) and CVRD, 2000, Mapa geológico escala 1:12.500 de Igarapé Bahia e secções verticais,
unpublished. Geochronology data sourced from: 1) Dias et al. (1996), 2) Galarza and Macambira
 45

(2002a), 3) Galarza et al. (2008), 4) Mougeot et al. (1996a), 5) Mougeot et al. (1996b), 6) Tallarico et al.
(2005), 7) Trendall et al. (1998).

Figure 6: Schematic model of the tectonic evolution of the Carajás Domain. Black arrows illustrate
tectonic regimes. BD = Bacajá Domain, CD = Carajás Domain, RMD = Rio Maria Domain, IS=
Itacaiúnas Supergroup, AC= Águas Claras Formation, CF= Caninana Formation.

Table 1: Available geochronology on granitoids in the Carajás Domain

Age (Ma) Unit Method Reference

U-Pb SHRIMP,
ca. 600* Formiga Granite - lower intercept age Grainger et al. (2008)
Zr
Granitic
rocks
U-Pb SHRIMP,
1583 ± 9 Gameleira Granite Pimentel et al. (2003)
Zr

U-Pb SHRIMP,
1882 ± 10 Teixeira et al. (2018)
Zr

Serra dos Carajás Granite Machado et al.

1880 ± 2 U-Pb, Zr (TIMS)
(1991)

1820 ± 49 U-Pb, Zr Wirth et al. (1986)

Machado et al.
1874 ± 2 U-Pb, Zr (TIMS)
(1991)
Pojuca Granite
2560 ± 37 Pb-Pb, Zr Souza et al. (1996)

U-Pb SHRIMP,
1879 ± 6 Breves Granite Tallarico et al. (2004)
Zr

1880 ± 80 Young Salobo Granite Rb-Sr, WR Cordani (1981)

U-Pb SHRIMP,
1884 ± 4 Teixeira et al. (2018)
Zr
A-type
U-Pb SHRIMP,
granites 1884 ± 3 Cigano Granite Teixeira et al. (2018)
Zr

Machado et al.
1883 ± 2 U-Pb, Zr (TIMS)
(1991)

Lindenmayer et al.
1875 ± 2 Granite at the Estrela deposit U-Pb, Zr (TIMS)
(2005)

Quartz diorite spatially related to Estrela Lindenmayer et al.

1881 ± 5 U-Pb, Zr (TIMS)
mineralisation (2005)

1886 ± 19
Monazite in aplite (spatially related to U-Th-Pb CHIME
1827 ± 23 Volp et al., (2006)
Estrela mineralisation) (EPMA)
1716 ± 9

Machado et al.
1883 ± 5 Musa Granite U-Pb, Zr (TIMS)
(1991)

1886 ± 4.2 Quartz porphyry (Serra Dourada area) U-Pb SHRIMP Zr Moreto et al. (2015b)

2525 ± 38 Itacaiúnas Granite Pb-Pb, Zr Souza et al. (1996)

 46

2560 ± 37

Montalvão et al.
2480 ± 37 Rb-Sr, WR
(1984)

2503 ± 10 Tonalitc Gneisses U-Pb, Zr Santos (2003)

2440 ± 7 Tonalitc Gneisses Pb-Pb, Zr Vasquex et al. (2005)

Zircon from high grade ore at Salobo U-Pb SHRIMP,

2535 ± 8.4 Melo et al. (2017)
Deposit - Old Salobo Granite? Zr

Undeformed isotropic granite at Igarapé

2557 ± 26 U-Pb, Zr Toledo et al. (2019)
Cinzento/Gt46

U-Pb SHRIMP,
2547 ± 5.3 Melo et al. (2017)
Zr
Old Salobo Granite
Machado et al.
2573 ± 2 U-Pb, Zr (TIMS)
(1991)

Gray granite (host rock at Igarapé

2612 ± 2 U-Pb, Mz Silva et al. (2005)
Cinzento/Gt46) ?mineralisation age?

Pegmatite at Igarapé Cinzento/Gt46

2562 ± 39 U-Pb, Zr Toledo et al. (2019)
(incipient crystal preferred orientation)

2532 ± 26
Foliated tonalite (host rock at Igarapé
U-Pb, Zr Toledo et al. (2019)
Cinzento/Gt46)
2639 ± 16

Pink and gray granites and garnet granites

2652 ± 98 Sm-Nd, WR Silva et al. (2005)
(host rock at Igarapé Cinzento/Gt46)

2645 ± 9
Neoarchean Dacitic to rhyolitic porphyry at Alvo 118 U-Pb SHRIMP,
Tallarico (2003)
granitoids deposit Zr
2654 ± 9

Pink and gray granites (host rock at

2668 ± 100 Sm-Nd, WR Silva et al. (2005)
Igarapé Cinzento/Gt46)

2688 ± 11 Geladinho Granite stock Pb-Pb Zr Barbosa et al., 2001

Galarza and
2705 ± 2 Quartz diorite (host rock at Gameleira) Pb-Pb, Zr
Macambira (2002)

2719 ± 80 Meta-andesite (host rock at Gameleira) Sm-Nd, WR Pimentel et al. (2003)

Machado et al.
~2732 Granitic vein Pb-Pb, Zr
(1991)

Charnockite spatially associated with Pium

2735 ± 5 U-Pb, Zr Feio et al. (2012)
Complex - Orthopyroxene quartz-gabbro

2747 ± 2 Planalto Suite Pb-Pb, Zr Huhn et al. (1999b)

2754 ± 2 Pb-Pb, Zr Silva et al. (2010)

Stocks of Planalto suite (?) in the southern
2748 ± 2 Pb-Pb, Zr
part of the Transition subdomain.
Souza et al. (2010)
2749 ± 3 Pb-Pb, Zr

2733 ± 2 Pb-Pb evap, Zr

2729 ± 17 Planato Suite - biotite-hornblende U-Pb, Zr

syenogranite
U-Pb SHRIMP,
2738 ± 3 Feio et al. (2012)
Zr

2731 ± 1 Pb-Pb, evap Zr

Planato Suite - hornblende-biotite
syenogranite
2710 ± 10 U-Pb, Zr
 47

U-Pb SHRIMP,
2730 ± 5
Zr

2736 ± 4 Pb-Pb evap, Zr

Planato Suite - biotite syenogranite
2706 ± 5 U-Pb, Zr

2750 ± 5

2954 ± 52** Pedra Branca Suite U-Pb, Zr Feio et al. (2013)

2701 ± 6*

Cascata Gneiss at Salobo Deposit,

2763 ± 4.4 U-Pb SHRIMP Zr Melo et al. (2017)
correlated with Igarapé Gelado Granite

Mylonitised Cascata gneiss in Salobo

2701 ± 30 deposit region- correlated with Igarapé U-Pb, Zr Melo et al. (2017)
Gelado Granite

2731 ± 26 Igarapé Gelado Suite Pb-Pb, Zr Barbosa et al. (2004)

2508 ± 14

2588 ± 5
Igarapé Gelado Suite (recrystallised
2533 ± 7 Pb-Pb, Zr Barbosa et al. (2004)
zircons)
2576 ± 4

2574 ± 8

Sardinha et al.
2734 ± 4 Biotite-hornblende granite Pb-Pb, Zr
(2004)

2736 ± 24 Plaquê Suite Pb-Pb, Zr Avelar et al. (1999)

2738 ± 6 Diorito Cristalino Pb-Pb, Zr Huhn et al. (1999a)

U-Pb SHRIMP,
2739 ± 4.2 Curral Granite Moreto et al. (2015b)
Zr

2740 ± 26 Sossego Granophyric Granite U-Pb, Zr Moreto et al. (2015b)

U-Pb SHRIMP,
2741 ± 4.7 Quartz-feldspar porphyry Moreto et al. (2015a)
Zr

U-Pb SHRIMP,
2743 ± 3 Alvo 118 Tonalite Tallarico (2003)
Zr

Sardinha et al.
2743 ± 1.6 Serra do Rabo Granite U-Pb, Zr
(2006)

2744 ± 5 Visconde granite Pb-Pb, Zr Silva et al. 2015

U-Pb SHRIMP,
2745 ± 4 Castanha quartz–feldspar porphyry Moreto et al. 2015a
Zr

2763 ± 7 Pb-Pb, Zr Barros et al. (2009)

Estrela Granite
2527 ± 34 Rb-Sr, WR Barros et al. (1992)

Sardinha et al.
2765 ± 39 Trondhjemite U-Pb, Zr, TIMS
(2004)

2860 ± 22 U-Pb, Zr Moreto et al. (2011)

Mesoarchean 2831 ± 6 U-Pb, Zr Feio et al. (2013)

Serra Dourada Granite
granitoids
U-Pb SHRIMP,
2848 ± 5.5 Moreto et al. 2015a
Zr
 48

U-Pb SHRIMP,
2833 ± 6
Zr

U-Pb SHRIMP,
3017 ± 5** Bom Jesus granite Feio et al. (2013)
Zr

U-Pb SHRIMP,
3074 ± 6**
Zr

2845 ± 15

2857 ± 8
Cruzadão Granite- biotite syenogranite
2785 ± 16*
U-Pb, Zr Feio et al. (2013)
2675 ± 26*

2875 ± 12
Cruzadão Granite- biotite
leucosyenogranite
3053 ± 8**

Machado et al.
2851 ± 2 Felsic gneiss U-Pb, Zr
(1991)

Machado et al.
2856 ± 3 Xingu Complex Pb-Pb, Zr
(1991)

2859 ± 2
Xingu complex - granitic leucosome Machado et al.
U-Pb, Zr
(migmitisation event) (1991)
2860 ± 2

U–Pb SHRIMP,
2871 ± 7.7 Moreto et al. 2015a
Zr
Campina Verde Tonalite (calc-alkaline)
U–Pb SHRIMP,
2876 ± 5.4 Moreto et al. 2015a
Zr

2872 ± 1 Pb-Pb, Zr

2850 ± 7 U-Pb, Zr
Campina Verde Tonalite - biotite-
hornblende tonalite 1
3002 ± 23** U-Pb, Zr

2724 ± 15* U-Pb, Zr

Feio et al. (2013)
2854 ± 2 Pb-Pb, Zr
Campina Verde Tonalite - biotite-
2966 ± 5** Pb-Pb, Zr
hornblende tonalite 2
2849 ± 18 U-Pb, Zr

Campina Verde Tonalite - biotite

2868 ± 2 Pb-Pb, Zr
granodiorite

2929 ± 3 Pb-Pb, Zr
Rio Verde Trondhjemite - biotite
2923 ± 15 U-Pb, Zr
trondhjemite
2858 ± 6* U-Pb, Zr
Feio et al. (2013)
2869 ± 4 Pb-Pb, Zr
Rio Verde Trondhjemite - biotite
2820 ± 22 U-Pb, Zr
granodiorite
2709 ± 30* U-Pb, Zr

2857 ± 6.7 Strogly altered host rocks at the Salobo

U-Pb SHRIMP,
IOCG deposit - Xingu Complex protolith Melo et al. (2017)
Zr
2950 ± 25 and metamorphism?

2959 ± 6
Canaã dos Carajás Granite U-Pb, Zr Feio et al. (2013)
2864 ± 12 *
 49

3030 ± 15 **

Sardinha et al.
2928 ± 1 Leucomonzogranite - Canaã dos Carajás Pb-Pb, Zr
(2004)

2852 ± 16 Granodiorite Pb-Pb, Zr Avelar et al. (1999)

2974 ± 15 Granodioritic orthogneiss Pb-Pb, Zr Avelar et al. (1999)

3001 ± 3.6

3004.6 ± 9 Bacaba Tonalite U-Pb, Zr Moreto et al. (2011)

2990.9 ± 5.8

3014 ± 22 U-Pb Zr

3010 ± 21 Sequeirinho Granite (host rock Sossego- U-Pb Zr

Moreto et al. (2015b)
Sequeirinho orebody)
U-Pb SHRIMP,
2989 ± 5.2
Zr

Xingu Complex - migmatized

2959 ± 15 orthopyroxene-diopside gneiss
(leucosome)
Delinardo da Silva
U-Pb SHRIMP Zr
(2014)
Xingu Complex - migmatized
3066 ± 6 orthopyroxene-diopside gneiss
(mesosome)

Inherited zircon from Sequeirinho ore U-Pb SHRIMP,

3076 ± 5.3 Moreto et al. (2015b)
breccia- Xingu Complex? Zr

Rodrigues et al.
3050 ± 57 Granulite Pb-Pb, Zr
(1992)
Pium
Complex 3002 ± 14 Protoliths of the enderbite
U-Pb SHRIMP,
Pidgeon et al. (2000)
Zr
2859 ± 9* Granulitization event

* Reset age or metamorphism, ** Inherited zircon. Abbreviations: Mz = monazite, Ti = titanite, Zr = zircon, WR = whole rock

Table 2: Available geochronology on the Carajás Basin and mafic magmatism

Age (Ma) Unit Method Reference

211 ± 7 K-Ar Teixeira et al. (2012a)

234 ± 11 K-Ar Teixeira et al. (2012a)

NW striking diabase dikes
254 ± 18 K-Ar Teixeira et al. (2012a)

300 ± 7 K-Ar Teixeira et al. (2012a)

507 ± 29 NNW striking Rio da Onça gabbro K-Ar Gomes et al. (1975)
Mafic dikes
535 ± 1 N-S striking diabase dikes - Paraupebas dike U-Pb, ID- Teixeira et al. (2018b)
swarm TIMS, Bd

632 ± 14 K-Ar Teixeira et al. (2012b)

668 ± 14 K-Ar Teixeira et al. (2012b)

679 ± 13 K-Ar Teixeira et al. (2012b)

 50

1874 ± 110 NW-NE striking andesite and basalt Rb-Sr, WR Rivalenti et al. (1998)

Águas Claras 2681 ± 5 Sandstone (zircon derived from syndepositional U-Pb, Zr Trendall et al. (1998)
Formation volcanic rock) SHRIMP

Caninana 2011 ± 25 Youngest detrital zircon U-Pb, Zr Pereira (2009)

Formation

2615 ± 10 Saprolite 6km NE of Gameleira deposit Pb-Pb, Zr Galarza and Macambira

(2002a)

2645 ± 12 Gabbro dikes cross cutting Águas Claras U-Pb, Zr Dias et al. (1996)
Formation

<2670 Mafic dyke - cross cuts Águas Claras formation at U-Pb,Zr Tallarico et al. (2005)
the Igarapé Bahia deposit. SHRIMP

2683 ± 7 Saprolite 6km NE of Gameleira deposit Pb-Pb, Zr Galarza and Macambira

Mafic dikes, (2002a)
sills,
metagabbro 2705 ± 2 Mafic intrusive rock Pb-Pb, Zr Galarza and Macambira
(2002a)

2708 ± 37 Metagabbro U-Pb, Zr Mougeot et al. (1996b)

2757 ± 81 Metagabbro and cogenetic meta-volcanic rocks Sm-Nd, WR Pimentel et al. (2003)
at Gameleira deposit

2739 ± 5.9 Mafic intrusive rock, gabbronorite (host rock of U-Pb,Zr

the Sequeirinho–Baiano ore bodies, Sossego SHRIMP Moreto et al. (2015b)
deposit)

2744 ± 1 Hornblende-gabbronorite Pb-Pb, Zr Santos et al. (2013)

Pium
Diopside 2745 ± 1 Diopside-norite Pb-Pb, Zr Santos et al. (2013)
Norite
2744 ± 1 Quartz-gabbro Pb-Pb, Zr Santos et al. (2013)

2748 ± 34 Mafic meta-volcanic rock U-Pb, Zr Tallarico et al. (2005)

SHRIMP

2745 ± 1 Mafic meta-volcanic rock Pb-Pb, Zr Galarza and Macambira

(2002b)

2747 ± 1 Metapyroclastic rock Pb-Pb, Zr Galarza and Macambira

Igarapé Bahia (2002b)
Group
2758 ± 75 Mafic meta-volcanic rock Sm-Nd, WR Galarza et al. (2003)

2776 ± 12 Mafic meta-volcanic rock Pb-Pb, WR Galarza et al. (2003)

2751 ± 81 Metavolcanic and metapyroclastic rocks Pb-Pb, WR Santos (2002)

2759 ± 24 Metavolcanic and metapyroclastic rocks Sm-Nd, WR Santos (2002)

2687 ± 54 Basalt and basaltic andesite Rb-Sr, WR Gibbs et al. (1986)

2743 ± 11 Tuff? Possibly intrusive sill (Carajas Formation) U-Pb, Zr Trendall et al. (1998)
SHRIMP

2757 ± 7 Mylonitised metarhyolite, Parauapebas U-Pb, Zr Trendall et al. (1998)

Grão Pará
Formation SHRIMP
Group
2758 ± 39 Felsic volcanic rock U-Pb, Zr Wirth et al. (1986)

2759 ± 2 Rhyodacite Pb-Pb, Zr Machado et al. (1991)

2759 ± 2 Rhyolite U-Pb, Zr Machado et al. (1991)

 51

2760 ± 11 Porphyritic meta-rhyolite (Parauapebas U-Pb, Zr Trendall et al. (1998)

Formation) SHIRMP

2774 ± 19 Amphibolite (host rock at Igarape Cinzento U-Pb, Zr Toledo et al. (2019)
IOCG)

2661 ± 110 Black shales within Serra Sul BIF sequence Re-Os Cabral et al. (2013)
(subset n=5,
2710 ± 38)

2749 ± 6.5 Basalts of the Parauapebas Formation U-Pb,Zr Martins et al. (2017)
SHRIMP
2745 ± 5

2719 ± 80 Meta-andesite Sm-Nd, WR Pimentel et al. (2003)

Igarapé
Pojuca Group
2732 ± 2 Amphibolites U-Pb, Zr Machado et al. (1991)

2497 ± 5 Foliated amphibolite (metamorphism) - U-Pb, Ti Machado et al. (1991)

titanite associated with K-metasomatism
within shear zone

~2732 Granitic vein Pb-Pb, Zr Machado et al. (1991)

2581 ± 5 U-Pb, Ti Machado et al. (1991)

Salobo Group 2584 ± 5

2555 +4/-3 Foliated amphibolite U-Pb, Zr Machado et al. (1991)

2551 ± 2 Banded iron formation U-Pb, Mz Machado et al. (1991)

~2758 Granitic vein Pb-Pb, Zr Machado et al. (1991)

2761 ± 3 Foliated amphibolite (metamorphism?) U-Pb, Zr Machado et al. (1991)

Macambira and Tassinari

2378 ± 55 Serra da Onça (gabbro) Sm-Nd , WR (1998)

2553 ± 61 Lago Grande Complex - recrystallised zircon U-Pb, Zr Teixeira et al. (2015)
Mafic- rims
ultramafic
complexes 2722 ± 53 Lago Grande Complex U-Pb, Zr Teixeira et al. (2015)

2763 ± 6 Luanga Complex - Anorthositic gabbro U-Pb, Zr Machado et al. (1991)

2766 ± 6 Cateté Intrusive Suite- Serra da Onça U-Pb, Zr Lafon et al. (2000)

Abbreviations: Mz = monazite, Ti = titanite, Zr = zircon, Bd = baddeleyite, WR = whole rock

Table 3: Available geochronology on mineralization

Deposit Age (Ma) Rock/mineral Method Reference

IOCG Deposits

Northern Copper Belt

2112 ± 12 Magnetite leachates Pb-Pb

2427 ± 130 Chalcopyrite leachates Pb-Pb

Salobo Tassinari et al. (2003)
2587 ± 150 Tourmaline leachates Pb-Pb

2705 ± 42 Chalcocite leachates Pb-Pb

 52

2562 ± 8
Molybdenite Re-Os
2576 ± 8 Réquia et al. (2003)

2579 ± 71 Bornite-chalcopyrite leachates Pb-Pb

2452 ± 14 Monazite - ore U-Pb Melo et al. (2017)

1752 ± 77 Ore breccia Sm-Nd, WR

1810 ± 15 Biotite (potassic alteration) Ar-Ar Silva et al. (2005)

1858 ± 7 Biotite (potassic alteration) Ar-Ar

Moldenite within pegmatite (interstitial to

2449 ± 44 Re-Os Toledo et al. (2019)
quartz-feldspar crystals and as veinlets)

Molybednite from chlorite altered rock

2503 ± 51 Re-Os Toledo et al. (2019)
(disseminated molybednite and chalcopyrite)

Igarapé 2554 ± 8
Cinzento/ Gt46 Molybdenite from pegmatitic granite Re-Os
2557 ± 8

2600 ± 8 Molybdenite from granite Re-Os

Silva et al. (2005)
Monazite iin gray granite (mineralisation vs.
2612 ± 1.5 U-Pb
magmatism?)

2711 ± 9 Molybdenite from amphibolite Re-Os

Molydenite within amphibolite (disseminated

2718 ± 56 along foliation with subordinate chalcopyrite- Re-Os Toledo et al. (2019)
ore stage 1)

2385 ± 122
Chalcopyrite leachates Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)
2417 ± 120

Monazite from ore breccia (Acampamento

2575 ± 12 U-Pb SHRIMP Tallarico et al. (2005)
Sul)

2559 ± 34 Monazite (Alemão orebody) U-Pb Melo et al., (2019)

2539 ± 26 Chalcopyrite + gold Pb-Pb

2521 ± 56 Sulfides (ore breccia) Pb-Pb

Santos (2002)
2575 ± 86 Gold (magnetite ore breccia) Pb-Pb
Igarapé Bahia/
Alemão
2580 ± 79 Fluorite (late carbonate vein) Sm-Nd

2744 ± 12 Gold Pb-Pb

2754 ± 36 Chalcopyrite (metapyroclastic rock) Pb-Pb

2756 ± 24 Chalcopyrite (mafic metavolcanic rock) Pb-Pb Galarza et al. (2008)

2772 ± 46 Chalcopyrite (hydrothermal breccia) Pb-Pb

2777 ± 22 Chalcopyrite (mafic intrusive rock) Pb-Pb

Biotite (veins cross cut magnetite and

2537 ± 6 Ar-Ar Pollard et al. (2019)
precede chalcopyrite in breccia zone)

Molybdenite from grunerite-magnetite veins

Grota Funda 2530 ± 60 Re-Os Hunger et al. (2018)
(early mineralisation stage)

Southern Copper Belt

2199 ± 13 Hydrothermal ore-related amphibole Ar-Ar Marschik et al. (2003)

2530 ± 25 Chalcopyrite massive ore Pb-Pb WR Neves (2006)

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2608 ± 25
Sossego-
Sequeirinho 2578 ± 29 Ore breccia Sm-Nd, WR
orebody
2712 ± 4.7 Ore breccia monazite U-Pb Moreto et al. (2015b)

molybdenite from silicified Pista

2685 ± 11 Re-Os NTIMS
metavolcanic rock
Sossego-Pista
Moreto et al. (2015b)
orebody
molybdenite from Na altered Pista
2710 ± 11 Re-Os NTIMS
metavolcanic rock

1592 ± 45 Chalcopyrite ore breccia Pb-Pb WR Neves (2006)

Sossego-
Sossego 1879 ± 4.1 Ore breccia - monazite U-Pb
orebody Moreto et al. (2015b)
1904 ± 5.2 Ore breccia - monazite U-Pb

Sossego- Curral
1890 ± 8.5 Ore breccia - monazite U-Pb Moreto et al. (2015b)
orebody

2719 ± 36 Chalcopyrite and pyrite from the ore breccia

Pb-Pb Soares et al. (2001)
2700 ± 29 Chalcopyrite
Cristalino
Biotite (biotite-quartz-chalcopyrite vein) -
2388 ± 5 minimum age (significant post-crystallisation Ar-Ar Pollard et al. (2019)
Ar loss).

Biotite (clinopyroxene-biotite vein, biotite

GT34 2512 ± 7 Ar-Ar Pollard et al. (2019)
may be earlier than sulfide mineralisation).

1869 ± 7 Xenotime- massive-ore, breccia

U-Pb SHRIMP Tallarico (2003)
1868 ± 7 Xenotime- vein-ore breccia
ALVO 118
Biotite (quartz-biotite-carbonate vein, main
1885 ± 4 Ar-Ar Pollard et al. (2019)
mineralisation stage)

2720 ± 15 Monazite- Na-altered Serra Dourada Granite U-Pb

Bacaba 2060 ± 9.6 Moreto et al. (2015a)

Monazite - ore breccia U-Pb
2681 ± 20

2703 ± 6.2 Monazite- ore stage chlorite alteration U-Pb

Bacuri Moreto et al. (2015a)
2758 ± 11 Molybdenite vein Re-Os N-TIMS

2747 ± 140 Chalcopyrite - ore breccia Pb-Pb Silva et al. (2012)

Visconde 2729 ± 150 Chalcopyrite - ore breccia Pb-Pb

Silva et al. 2015
2736 ± 100 Chalcopyrite - ore breccia Pb-Pb

Corta Goela 2193 ± 4 Biotite (biotite-quartz-chalcopyrite vein) Ar-Ar Pollard et al. (2019)

Cu-Au Deposits

1700 ± 31 Biotite-sulfide veins Sm-Nd, WR

Biotite (Potassic alteration) from meta-

1734 ± 8 Ar-Ar
andesite
Pimentel et al. (2003)
1839 ± 15 Quartz-grunerite-gold vein Sm-Nd, WR
Gameleira
1958 ± 230 Garnet-biotite schist Sm-Nd, WR

2217 ± 19
Chalcopyrite concentrates
Galarza and
2180 ± 84 Pb-Pb
Macambira (2002a)
2419 ± 12 Chalcopyrite from quartz veins
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2614 ± 14 Molybdenite Re-Os Marschik et al. (2005)

1908 ± 7 Biotite Ar-Ar Pollard et al. (2019)

Lindenmayer et al.
1857 ± 98 Mineralised vein Sm-Nd, WR
(2005)

Biotite (quartz-biotite-chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite
Estrela 1896 ± 7 Ar-Ar Pollard et al. (2019)
vein)

Unpublished monazite age (mineralisaed EMPA

1839 ± 14 Volp et al., (2006)
quartz-green biotite stockwork veins) (CHIME)

Monazite and xenotime from late- post-

1872 ± 7 U-Pb SHRIMP Tallarico et al. 2004
mineralisation veins
Breves
1886 ± 5 Biotite (biotite-chalcopyrite vein) Ar-Ar Pollard et al. (2019)

Serra Verde 2609 ± 13 Molybdenite Re-Os Marschik et al. (2005)

2602 ± 13 Molybdenite Re-Os Marschik et al. (2005)

Garimpo
Fernando (Au)
2592 ± 13 Molybdenite Re-Os Marschik et al. (2005)

Au-PGE

Hydrothermal monazite intergrown with Au

1861 ± 45 U-Pb SHRIMP
and Pt-Pd minerals
Serra Pelada Grainger et al., (2008)
1882 ± 3 Hydrothermal biotite Ar-Ar

Fe

1717 ± 12 Anatase in hematised mafic volcanic rock U-Pb SHRIMP Santos et al. (2010)
Serre Norte N5E
Monazite in hydrothermal hematite in iron
1613 ± 21 U-Pb SHRIMP Santos et al. (2010)
ore

Serre Norte 1701 ± 97 Hematite altered mafic rocks Sm-Nd, WR Lobato et al. (2005)

Highlights:

 IOCG mineralization in the south occurred at 2.72-2.68 Ga and 1.88 Ga.

 IOCG mineralization in the north occurred 2.60-2.45 Ga.
 Nickel-PGE deposits are hosted by 2.76 Ga mafic-ultramafic bodies.
 Polymetallic Cu-Au deposits occurred 1.88 Ga synchronous with A-type
granites.
 Hypogene BIF-Fe mineralization is Proterozoic.
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