Chapter 2

Computer Cases and the

Motherboard
Motherboard (System Board)
▪ is sandwich of several thinner layers, each containing some of
the circuitry required to connect the various components on
the board.
▪ Is a multilayer printed circuit which is the infrastructure of power
and data of the computer.
▪ It also allows devices to communicate with it and each other.
▪ if the processor is the brain of the computer, then the
motherboard and its major components (the chipset, BIOS, cache,
etc.) are the major systems that this brain uses to control the rest
of the computer.
▪ Everything that runs the computer or enhances its performance is
either part of the motherboard or plugs into it via a slot or port.
2
 Motherboard Roles
1. Organization: In one way or another, everything is eventually
connected to the motherboard.
• The way that the motherboard is designed and laid out
dictates how the entire computer is going to be organized.
2. Control: The motherboard contains the chipset and BIOS
program, which between them control most of the data flow
within the computer.
3. Communication: Almost all communication between the PC
and its peripherals, other PCs, and you, the user, goes through the
motherboard.
4. Processor Support: The motherboard dictates directly your
choice of processor for use in the system.
3
 Contd.
5. Peripheral Support: The motherboard determines, in large part,
what types of peripherals you can use in your PC.
• For example, the type of video card your system will use (ISA,
VLB, PCI) is dependent on what system buses your motherboard
uses.
6. Performance: The motherboard is a major determining factor in
your system's performance, for two main reasons.
• First and foremost, the motherboard determines what types of
processors, memory, system buses, and hard disk interface speed
your system can have, and these components dictate directly your
system's performance.
• Second, the quality of the motherboard circuitry and chipset
themselves have an impact on performance.
7. Upgradability: The capabilities of your motherboard dictate to
what extent you will be able to upgrade your machine.
4
 Motherboard Form Factors
▪ The form factor of the motherboard describes its general
shape, what sorts of cases and power supplies it can use,
and its physical organization.
▪ The form factor refers to the physical dimensions (size and
shape) as well as certain connector, screw hole, and other
positions that dictate into which type of case the board
will fit.
▪ The form factor affects where individual components go
and the shape of the computer's case.
▪ There are several specific form factors that most PC
motherboards use so that they can all fit in standard
cases.
5
 Contd.
The more commonly known PC motherboard form factors include the
following:

Obsolete Form Factors Modern Form Factors

• Baby-AT • BTX
• Full-size AT • Micro-BTX
• LPX (semiproprietary) • Pico-BTX
• WTX (no longer in production) • ATX
• ITX (FlexATX variation, never • Micro-ATX
produced) • Flex-ATX
• Mini-ITX (FlexATX variation)
• NLX

6
Form Factor Use Max. Slot
New-generation tower and desktop systems; likely to be the most
common form factor from 2005 and beyond; supports high-end 7
BTX systems
Smaller version of BTX; used in new-generation mid-range systems; fits
microBTX the microBTX or BTX chassis
4
Smallest version of BTX; used in low-end small form factor,
picoBTX entertainment, or appliance systems; fits the picoBTX, microBTX, or 1
BTX chassis
Standard tower and desktop systems; most common form factor from
ATX mid-1996 through 2004; supports high-end systems
7
A slightly smaller version of ATX that fits the ATX chassis; many ATX
Mini-ATX motherboards are sold as Mini-ATX motherboards
6
Smaller version of ATX; used in mid-range systems; fits the microATXor
microATX ATX chassis
4
Smallest version of ATX; used in low-end small form factor,
FlexATX entertainment, or appliance systems; fits the FlexATX, microATX, or 3
ATX chassis
Minimum-size FlexATX version; used in set-top boxes and
Mini-ITX compact/small form factor systems; highly integrated with one PCI 1
expansion slot; fits in the Mini-ITX, FlexATX, microATX, or ATX chassis
Corporate slim desktop or mini-tower systems; fast and easy
NLX serviceability; Varies slots on riser card
Varies
7 Belay Kal
1.AT and Baby AT Form Factors.
▪ Up until recently, the AT(Advanced Technology) and baby AT form factors
were the most common form factor in the motherboard world.
▪ These two variants differ primarily in width:
• The older full AT board is 12" wide. This means it won't typically fit into the
commonly used "mini" desktop or minitower cases.
• Since the boards overlap in full AT board, installation, troubleshooting and
upgrading more difficult.
▪ Because of its flexibility, from 1983 into early 1996, the Baby-AT form
factor was the most popular motherboard type.
▪ A Baby AT motherboard is 8.5" wide and nominally 13" long.
▪ All full-size AT and Baby-AT motherboards use the standard 5- pin DIN
type connector for the keyboard
▪ But some Baby-AT systems use the smaller 6-pin mini-DIN connector
(sometimes called a PS/2 type connector) and might even have a mouse
connector.
8
 Contd.
▪ Baby-AT boards all conform to specific widths and screw hole, slot,
and keyboard connector locations, but one thing that can vary is
the length of the board.
▪ Baby AT motherboards are distinguished by their shape, and
usually by the presence of a single, full-sized keyboard connector
soldered onto the board.
▪ The serial and parallel port connectors are almost always attached
using cables that go between the physical connectors mounted on
the case, and pin "headers" located on the motherboard..
▪ The AT and Baby AT form factors put the processor socket(s)/slot(s)
and memory sockets at the front of the motherboard, and long
expansion cards were designed to extend over them.
9
A late-model Baby-AT motherboard

10
2.ATX and Mini-ATX Form Factors.
▪ ATX form factor was invented by Intel in 1995.
▪ Pentium Pro and Pentium II motherboards were the most
common users of the ATX style motherboard.
▪ ATX is a combination of the best features of the Baby-AT and
LPX motherboard designs, with many new enhancements and
features thrown in.
▪ ATX form factor is physically incompatible with either the
previous Baby-AT or LPX design.
▪ ATX
 Has more power-management features
 Supports faster systems
 Is easier to install

11
 Improvements made by ATX over Baby-AT and LPX
motherboard designs
1. Integrated I/O Port Connectors: Baby AT motherboards use
headers which stick up from the board, and a cable that goes from
them to the physical serial and parallel port connectors mounted on
to the case.
• The ATX has these connectors soldered directly onto the
motherboard. This improvement reduces cost, saves installation time,
improves reliability (since the ports can be tested before the
motherboard is shipped) and makes the board more standardized.
2. Integrated PS/2 Mouse Connector: On most retail baby AT
style motherboards, there is either no PS/2 mouse port, or to get
one you need to use a cable from the PS/2 header on the
motherboard, just like the serial and parallel ports.
• ATX motherboards have the PS/2 port built into the motherboard.
12
Contd.
3. Reduced Drive Bay Interference : there is much less
"overlap" between where the board is and where the drives are.
This means easier access to the board, and fewer cooling problems.
4. Better Power Supply Connector : The ATX motherboard
uses a single 20-pin connector instead of the confusing pair of
near-identical 6-pin connectors on the baby AT form factor.
5. "Soft Power" Support : The ATX power supply is turned on
and off using signalling from the motherboard, not a physical
toggle switch.
• This allows the PC to be turned on and off under software control,
(by clicking on shutdown button from your OS)allowing much
improved power management.

13
Contd.
6. 3.3V Power Support: The ATX motherboard has support for
3.3V power from the ATX power supply, so ATX motherboards
do not require built-in voltage regulators that are susceptible to
failure.
• The ATX specification was extended to include two additional
optional keyed power connectors called the Auxiliary Power
connector (3.3V and 5V) and the ATX12V connector for systems
that require more power than the original specification would
allow.
7. Improved cooling: The CPU and main memory are designed and
positioned to improve overall system cooling.
• This can decrease—but not necessarily eliminate—the need for
separate case or CPU cooling fans. Most higher-speed systems still
need additional cooling fans for the CPU and chassis.
14
 Figure An ATX motherboard with PCI Express and Socket 775

15
2.1 microATX Form Factors
▪ was developed as a natural evolution of the ATX form factor to
address new market trends and PC technologies.
▪ The maximum dimension for miroATX motherboard is 9.6” 9.6”.
▪ It is backward-compatible with the ATX form factor and can be
used in full-size ATX cases.
▪ It uses SFX/TFX type power supplies in addition the ATX power
supply.
▪ microATX supports:
• Current processor technologies
• AGP high performance graphics solutions
• Smaller motherboard size
• Smaller power supply form factor
16
2.2 FlexATX Form Factors
▪ was developed in 1999 and is the smallest (9” 7.5”) of all the ATX
family boards.
▪ It is backward compatible with ATX or microATX motherboards.
▪ Most FlexATX systems likely use SFX/TFX (small or thin form
factor) type power supplies (introduced in the microATX
specification), in addition to the ATX power supply types.
▪ FlexATX supports:
• Current socketed processor technologies
• Smaller motherboard size
• AGP high performance graphics solutions
• Socket only processors to keep the size small

17
3.LPX and Mini-LPX Form Factors.
▪ It goes to the small Slimline or "low profile" cases typically
found on these sorts of desktop systems.
▪ The primary design goal behind the LPX form factor is
reducing space usage (and cost).
▪ Instead of having the expansion cards go into system bus
slots on the motherboard, like on the AT or ATX
motherboards, LPX form factor motherboards put the
system bus on a riser card that plugs into the motherboard.
▪ A maximum of three riser cards are plugged into the riser card.
▪ Since the expansion cards are parallel to the plane of the
motherboard, the height of the case is reduced.

18
Contd.
▪ The problem with LPX motherboards is that you are limited to
only two or three expansion slots!.
▪ LPX form factor motherboards also often come with VGA
adapter built into the motherboard.
▪ If the card built in is of good quality, this can save the
manufacturer money and provide the user with a good quality
display.
▪ LPX motherboards also usually come with serial, parallel and
mouse connectors attached to them, like ATX.
▪ Drawbacks of LPX Motherboard:
• non-standardization, poor expandability, poor upgradability, poor cooling
and difficulty of use for the do-it-yourselfer.
19
 a) LPX motherboard

b) LPX motherboard back

panel connectors

20
4. NLX Form Factors
▪ NLX is a low-profile form factor designed to replace the
nonstandard LPX design used in previous low-profile systems
▪ is generally the same idea as LPX, but with improvements and
updates to make it more appropriate for the latest PC
technologies.
▪ like ATX, the NLX standard was developed by Intel Corporation
and is being promoted by Intel.
▪ NLX still uses the same general design as LPX, with a smaller
motherboard footprint and a riser card for expansion cards.

21
Contd.
▪ NLX does:
Support larger memory modules and modern DIMM memory packaging.
Support for the newest processor technologies,.
Support for AGP video cards for high performance graphics solutions
Better thermal characteristics, to support modern CPUs that run hotter than
old ones.
More optimal location of CPU on the board to allow easier access and better
cooling.
Enhanced design features, such as the ability to mount the motherboard so it
can slide in or out of the system case easily.
Cables, such as the floppy drive interface cable, now attach to the riser card
instead of the motherboard itself, reducing cable length and clutter.
22
 a) NLX motherboard

23
5. BTX Form Factors
▪ BTX (Balanced Technology Extended) is designed in 2003 to eventually
replace the venerable ATX form factor.
▪ BTX represents a completely new form factor that is not backward-
compatible with ATX or other designs.
▪ A full-size BTX board is 17% larger than ATX, allowing room for more
integrated components onboard.
▪ The I/O connectors, slots, and mounting holes are in different locations than
with ATX, requiring new chassis designs.
▪ However, the power supply interface connectors are the same as in the
latest ATX12V specifications, and newer ATX, TFX, SFX, CFX, and LFX power
supplies can be used.

24
Contd.
▪ Each board has the same basic screw hole and connector placement
requirements. So, if you have a case that fits a full-size BTX board, you can
also mount a microBTX or picoBTX board in that same case.
▪ BTX uses the latest power supply form factor specifications, including a 24-
pin main connector for the board and a 4-pin ATX12V connector for the
CPU voltage regulator module.
▪ The BTX I/O connector area is similar to ATX, except that it is at the
opposite side of the rear of the board.
▪ The size of the area is slightly shorter but wider than ATX, allowing a large
number of interfaces and connectors to be built in to the motherboard.

25
 I/O Connectors Main Power
Battery Socket connector PCI card
connectors

IDE drive
connector

CPU fan power Jumpers

connector

CPU power Processor and heat sink System fan power

connector connector
connector
26
Comparison of form factors
Match to Case and
Style Width Depth Where Found
Power Supply
Full AT 12" 11-13" Very Old PCs Full AT, Full Tower
Baby AT 8.5" 10-13" Older PCs All but Slimline, ATX
ATX 12" 9.6" Newer PCs ATX
Mini ATX 11.2" 8.2" Newer PCs ATX
microATX 9.6" 9.6" Newer PCs microATX and ATX
FlexATX 9" 7.5" Newer PCs Custom Design
LPX 9" 11-13" Older Retail PCs Slimline
Mini LPX 8-9" 10-11" Older Retail PCs Slimline
NLX 8-9" 10-13.6" Newer Retail PCs Slimline
BTX 12.8" 10.5" Latest PCs ATX and BTX
microBTX 10.4" 10.5" Latest PCs ATX and microBTX
picoBTX 8" 10.5" Latest PCs ATX and picoBTX

27
Motherboard Manual
▪ No motherboard is complete without proper documentation. It should include
the following at an absolute minimum:
▪ General Information: The model number of the board, the name of the
manufacturer, and contact information.
 You need this to get help, BIOS upgrades or information on your board.
▪ Assembly Instructions: Instructions on how to install, jumper, and configure
the board. This should include a diagram of the board showing where all the
components are.
▪ Configuration Information: Information on acceptable processor and
memory configurations for the board.
 You need this information to determine what processor and system memory to
buy.
▪ BIOS Manual: An explanation of the board's BIOS settings, what they mean, and
how you should set up the machine.
 Motherboard assembly instructions are much more board-specific and so are
harder to find outside the manual itself.
28
Motherboard Integrated Components

29
1. Processor Sockets or slots
▪ The CPU is installed in either a socket or a slot, depending on the type of
chip.
▪ The motherboard has one or more sockets or slots to hold the processor(s).
▪ The type of socket or slot used dictates the type of processor (and in some
cases the speed) that can be used by the motherboard.
▪ Originally, all processors were mounted in a square-shaped sockets (or
soldered directly to the motherboard).
▪ The newest processors from Intel, starting with the Pentium II, are mounted
on a daughterboard, which plugs into an SEC(Single-edge Connector) slot to
connect to the motherboard because these processors incorporated built-in
L2 cache.
▪ Most modern motherboards that have a socket use the ZIF(Zero Insertion
Force) style, that allows the processor to be inserted or removed from the
motherboard by using a lever that tightens or loosens the processor's pins in
the socket.
30
2. Memory Sockets
▪ Most motherboards today come with between 2 and 8 sockets for the
insertion of memory.
▪ These are usually either SIMMs (single inline memory modules) or DIMMs
(dual inline memory modules).
▪ The motherboard usually labels these sockets "SIMM0" through "SIMM7" or
"DIMM1" through "DIMM3", etc.
▪ Most Pentium class or higher motherboards require SIMMs to be inserted in
pairs, but DIMMs may be inserted individually.
▪ DIMMs are ideal for Pentium and higher systems because the 64-bit width of
the DIMM exactly matches the 64-bit width of the Pentium processor data
bus.
▪ The maximum number of memory modules on a motherboard is dictated by
the design of the motherboard's chipset.
31
3. Cache and/or cache sockets
▪ The cache is a buffer of sorts between the very fast processor and the
relatively slow memory that serves it.
▪ Virtually all newer Pentium class motherboards come with either
integrated secondary cache or sockets for secondary cache to be
inserted.
▪ Also called "Level 2" or "L2" cache, secondary cache is high-speed
memory that is used to buffer processor requests to the regular
system memory.
▪ Motherboards for Pentium Pro and Pentium II PCs don't have L2
cache on them; it is already integrated into the processor itself for the
Pentium Pro, and into the processor package for the Pentium II.
▪ Motherboards typically have either cache chips soldered directly into
the board, sockets for cache chips, or a socket for COASt,(cache on a
stick) or sometimes known as CELP ("card edge low profile").
32
4. I/O Bus Slots
▪ All motherboards have one or more system I/O buses, that are used
to expand the computer's capabilities.
▪ The slots in the back of the machine are where expansion cards are
placed (like your video card, sound card, network card, etc.).
▪ Most modern PCs have two different types of bus slots.
▪ ISA(Industry Standard Architecture): most PCs have 3 to 4 of these.
▪ PCI(Peripheral Component Interconnect): again most PCs have 3 to
4 of them
▪ The newest PCs add another, new connector to the motherboard
called an Accelerated Graphics Card(AGP) slot.
▪ AGP is not really a bus, but is a single-device port used for high-
performance graphics.

33
5. Power connectors
▪ The motherboard has a socket to attach the power cables coming from
the power supply.
▪ It is through this connection (or set of connections) that the various
voltages and other signals are sent between these two important
devices.
▪ Different form factors use different numbers, types, shapes and sizes of
connectors between the power supply and motherboard.
▪ ATX form factor motherboards and power supplies use a single, keyed
20-wire motherboard power cable and all others use a pair of 6-wire
cables.
▪ This connector is usually found near the back right-hand side of the
motherboard, near the power supply.
34
6. Voltage Regulators and Capacitors
▪ The voltage regulator (and the jumpers that control it) is responsible
for generating the correct voltage for the processor.
▪ The voltage regulators reduce the 5V signal (provided by the power
supply) to those voltages typically needed by processors, 3.3V or
lower.
▪ The voltage regulator can normally be identified by the large heatsinks
that are placed on it; voltage conversion generates a great deal of heat.
▪ Capacitors are electrical components that are used to filter and
smooth signals on the motherboard.
▪ Capacitors of the type used on motherboards generally come in two
flavors: tantalum or electrolytic.
35
7. Keyboard and Mouse Connectors
▪ The types of keyboard and mouse connectors your PC will have
depend on the style and form factor of your motherboard.
▪ Newer PCs, PCs using the ATX, LPX or NLX form factors, and
many proprietary (brand name) machines, use a pair of small 6-
pin connectors for the keyboard and dedicated (PS/2) mouse.
▪ Older PCs using the AT form factor use the older, large, 5-pin
keyboard connector, and do not have a dedicated mouse port
connector.
▪ These PCs use a serial port for the mouse.
▪ These connectors are located at the back of the motherboard.
36
8. Chipset Chips
▪ The system chipset and controllers are the logic circuits that are
the intelligence of the motherboard.
▪ A chipset is nothing but it is a collection of millions of chips that
control data transfers between the processor, cache, system buses,
peripherals--basically everything inside the computer.
▪ In most cases there are between two and four chips, labeled with
the name of the company that supplied the chipset for your
motherboard, with in the motherboard.
▪ Intel also calls their chipsets "PCIsets" and "AGPsets", referring to
the system bus technologies the chipsets implement.
37
Contd.
▪ The chipset originally was made up of a large number of electronic
chips, hence the name. It generally has two components:
A. The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge
of controlling transfers between the processor and the RAM.
▪ It is located physically near to the processor.
▪ It is sometimes called the GMCH, for Graphic and Memory Controller
Hub.
B. The SouthBridge (also called the I/O controller or expansion
controller) handles communications between peripheral devices.
▪ It is also called the ICH (I/O Controller Hub).
▪ The tem bridge is generally used to designate a component which
connects two buses.
38
9. Keyboard and Super I/O controllers
▪ The keyboard controller does what the name implies. It also controls the
built-in PS/2 port, if it exists on the motherboard.
▪ The Super I/O controller is a single chip that, much like the system
chipset, performs many of the standard input/output functions that used
to be done by multiple smaller chips.
▪ The Super I/O chip typically is responsible for controlling the slower-speed,
mundane peripherals found in every PC.
▪ The major functions of the Super I/O controller chip are:
▪ Serial Port Control and Parallel Port Control
▪ Floppy Disk Drive Control
▪ In some newer PCs, the keyboard controller, real-time clock and IDE hard
disk controllers are integrated into the the Super I/O controller chip.
▪ National Semiconductor makes a large number of these chips, and they
can sometimes be identified by looking for their name or logo on the
surface of the chip.
39
 10. Real-Time Clock and CMOS Memory Chip
▪ This chip holds the real-time clock that keeps the date and time on your
PC, as well as the CMOS RAM that holds your PC’s BIOS settings.
▪ It is powered by the PC's built-in battery, which may in some cases be
built into the real-time clock package itself.
▪ This chip is often marked "Dallas", after Dallas Semiconductor, the
company that makes a large number of them.

11. BIOS Chips

▪ The system BIOS is coded into read-only memory (ROM) chips that are
placed on your motherboard.
▪ There are usually one or two BIOS chips, depending on the board, and often
labeled with the name of the BIOS software company (usually Award or AMI).
40
12. Battery
▪ The PC uses a low-power battery to maintain certain information(BIOS
settings and date and time) when the power is off.
▪ This battery can take one of several forms:
On many older PCs, it is a large rectangular box that is attached to the
motherboard with wires,
Some PCs use a battery soldered to the board that looks like a small
cylinder or barrel. It is not generally detachable.
Some PCs use a flat round watch battery in a metal holder.
Some PCs it may be integrated with other packages like the real-time clock
package.
▪ If you ever need to clear the CMOS memory on the motherboard due to
corruption or a lost password, it is much more difficult to do with an
integrated battery unless there is a CMOS clear jumper on the
motherboard.
41
13. Jumpers
▪ Jumpers are pins on a motherboard or other device, that are used
to provide configuration information to the hardware.
▪ A single jumper consists of a pair of pins, with a small rectangular
shunt that can be placed over both pins to short them together.
▪ The hardware is programmed to act one way when the jumper is
shorted, and another way when it is left open.
▪ Every motherboard differs in its jumper numbering, positioning, and
most importantly, what the settings for each jumper mean.
▪ In the newest PCs, with "jumperless" motherboard, the hardware
settings, such as CPU type and speed, and even CPU voltage, are
performed by using the BIOS settings.
42
14. Ports and Headers
▪ Ports are connectors used to connect external cables and devices
to the motherboard.
▪ In addition to the keyboard and PS/2 mouse connectors, some
types of motherboards (such as the ATX) have on the back edge of
the motherboard integrated serial, parallel, USB and other ports.
▪ Motherboards that don't use integrated ports, use headers on the
motherboard instead.
▪ Headers are groups of pins used to connect devices or ports to
the motherboard. A cable runs from the port and is plugged into
the header on the board.

43
Contd.
▪ The following are the headers that are commonly found on a
typical Baby AT style motherboard:
▪ Serial Ports: there are usually two serial port headers. Each has 9
or 10 pins (only the first 9 are used, however).
▪ Parallel Port: This header is used for the external parallel port
and has 26 pins (25 are actually used).
▪ PS/2 Mouse Port: Some good motherboards provide a header for
a PS/2 mouse port when this port is not already on the board.
▪ USB (Universal Serial Bus): A new technology, USB is proposed
to be the new standard for connecting devices such as
keyboards, mice and external modems to the PC. This header has
10 pins.
44
Contd.
▪ IR (Infrared) Port: Some motherboards have a header to allow you
to run a connection for an infrared communications port, typically
used for wireless communication to printers and similar devices.
▪ Infrared ports are far more common on laptop computers than
desktop machines.These headers have 4 or 5 pins.
▪ Primary and Secondary IDE/ATA Hard Disk Interface: Most newer
motherboards have integrated headers for two IDE channels. Each
has 40 pins.
▪ Floppy Disk Interface: Most newer motherboards provide a 34-pin
header for the floppy disk cable.
▪ SCSI(Small Computer System Interface): Some motherboards have
integrated SCSI ports or headers, though they are uncommon.
▪ They are either 50 or 68 pins in size, depending on the flavor of SCSI
implemented.
45
15. Pin Connectors
▪ The motherboard provides several connectors that are attached to the case
LEDs, indicators, and switches.
▪ These are the pin connectors you will typically find on a modern motherboard:
Power LED and Keylock Switch
Reset Switch
Turbo Switch
Power Switch
IDE/ATA Hard Disk Activity LED
Speaker
CPU Fan
Suspend Mode Switch
Suspend Mode LED

46
System Buses
▪ Most of the internal system components, including the processor,
cache, memory, expansion cards and storage devices, talk to each other
over one or more buses.
▪ A bus, in computer terms, is simply a channel over which
information flows between two or more devices.
▪ Technically, a bus with only two devices on it is considered as a
port instead of a bus.
▪ A bus normally has access points, or places into which a device can
tap to become part of the bus, and devices on the bus can send to,
and receive information from, other devices.
▪ The input/output(I/O) buses are also known as Expansion buses.
47
System Buses Functions and Features
▪ Every system has the following characteristics:
1. Bus Hierarchy:- defines the hierarchy of system buses based on their speed.
Most modern PCs have at least four buses:
a. The Processor Bus: This is the highest-level bus that the chipset uses to send
information to and from the processor.
b. The Cache Bus(backside bus): is the bus used by chipset for accessing the
system cache.
c. The Memory Bus: This is a second-level system bus that connects the memory
subsystem to the chipset and the processor.
d. The Local I/O Bus: This is a high-speed input/output bus used for connecting
performance-critical peripherals(video cards, disk storage devices & NICs) to
the memory, chipset, and processor.
▪ The two most common local I/O buses are the VESA Local Bus (VLB) and the PCI
e. The Standard I/O Bus: are used to connect slower peripherals (mice, modems,
regular sound cards, low-speed networking) to processor, cache or memory.
48
Contd.
2. Data and Address buses:- Every bus is composed of two
distinct parts: the data bus and the address bus.
The data bus is what most people refer to when talking about a bus;
These are the lines that actually carry the data being transferred.
The address bus is the set of lines that carry information about
where in memory the data is to be transferred to or from.
In addition, there are a number of control lines that, well, control how
the bus functions, and allow users of the bus to signal when data is
available.
These are sometimes referred to as the control bus.

49
Contd.
3. Bus Width:- A bus is a channel over which information flows.
The wider the bus, the more information can flow over the channel.
The original ISA bus on the IBM PC was 8 bits wide; the universal ISA bus
used now is 16 bits.
The other I/O buses (including VLB and PCI) are 32 bits wide.
The memory and processor buses on Pentium and higher PCs are 64 bits
wide.
The width of the address bus dictates how many different memory
locations that bus can transfer information to or from.
4. Bus Speed:- The speed of the bus reflects how many bits of information
can be sent across each wire each second.
▪ Most buses transmit one bit of data per line, per clock cycle, although newer
high-performance buses like AGP may actually move two bits of data per clock
cycle.
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Contd.
5. Bus Bandwidth:- Bandwidth, also called throughput, refers to the
total amount of data that can theoretically be transferred on the
bus in a given unit of time.
The italics on the word "theoretical“ indicates; most buses can't
actually transmit anywhere near to their maximum numbers
because of command overhead and other factors.
6. Bus Interfacing:- On a system that has multiple buses, circuitry
must be provided by the chipset to connect the buses and allow
devices on one to talk to devices on the other. This device is
called a bridge.
By far the most commonly found bridge is the PCI-ISA bridge, which is
part of the system chipset on a Pentium or Pentium Pro PC.
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Contd.
7. Bus Mastering:- On the higher-bandwidth buses, a great deal of information is
flowing through the channel every second.
Normally, the processor is required to control the transfer of this
information.
But bus masters, devices which are capable of controlling the bus and
transferring the information, can "cut out" the middleman and perform the
transfer directly.
In order to do bus mastering properly, a facility to arbitrate between
requests to "take over the bus" must exist; this is provided by the chipset.
Bus mastering is also called "first party" DMA since the work is controlled by
the device doing the transfer.
Currently most bus mastering in the PC world is done on the PCI bus.
In addition, support has been added for IDE/ATA hard disk drives to do bus
mastering on PCI under certain conditions.

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Input/output Bus Types
A. ISA (Industry Standard Architecture):- is the bus
architecture that was introduced as an 8-bit bus with the original
IBM PC in 1981.
▪ it was later expanded to 16 bits with the IBM PC/AT in 1984.
▪ ISA is the basis of the modern personal computer and was the primary
architecture used in the vast majority of PC systems until the late 1990s.
▪ Two versions of the ISA bus exist, based on the number of data bits that
can be transferred on the bus at a time: the older version is an 8-bit(62
pin bus) bus; and the newer version is a 16-bit bus (98 pin bus).
▪ The original 8-bit version ran at 4.77MHz in the PC and XT, and the 16-
bit version used in the AT ran at 6MHz and then 8MHz.
▪ Later, the industry as a whole agreed on an 8.33MHz maximum standard
speed for 8/16-bit versions of the ISA bus for backward compatibility.
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B. Micro Channel Architecture(MCA) Bus
▪ The introduction of 32-bit chips meant that the ISA bus could not
handle the power of another new generation of CPUs.
▪ MCA bus was IBM's attempt to replace the ISA bus with something
"bigger and better“; It runs at 10 MHz.
▪ It was not downward compatible ; i.e. it was incompatible with ISA.
▪ MCA is 32 bits wide, and offers several significant improvements over
ISA:
▪ 32 Bit Bus Width: The MCA bus features a full 32 bit bus width, the same
width as the VESA and PCI local buses.
▪ Bus Mastering : The MCA bus supports bus mastering adapters for greater
efficiency, including proper bus arbitration.
▪ Plug and Play : MCA automatically configured adapter cards, so there was no
need to fiddle with jumpers.
▪ One of MCA's disadvantages was poor DMA controller circuitry.
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C. Extended ISA(EISA) Bus
▪ The downward incompatibility and the cost of MCA systems led to the
demise (failure)of the MCA buses.
▪ EISA was announced in Sept. 1988 as Compaq's answer to IBM's MCA bus.
▪ Compaq avoided the two key mistakes that IBM made when they developed
EISA.
First, they made it compatible with the ISA bus.
Second, they opened the design to all manufacturers instead of keeping it
proprietary, by forming the non-profit EISA committee to manage the design
of the standard.
▪ EISA was similar to MCA both in terms of technology and market
acceptance.
▪ The EISA bus can handle up to 32 bits of data at an 8.33MHz cycle rate.
▪ The maximum bandwidth on the bus is 33MBps, as the following formula
shows: 8.33MHz × 4 bytes (32 bits) = 33MBps
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D. VESA Local Bus (VLB)
▪ The Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) local bus was
the most popular local bus design from its debut in August 1992
through 1994.
▪ Is the first local bus to gain and it was designed to improve video
performance in PCs.
▪ The VL-Bus can move 32 bits of data at a time, enabling data to flow
between the CPU and a compatible video subsystem or hard drive
at the full 32-bit data width of the 486 processor/memory chip.
▪ The maximum rated throughput of the VL-Bus is 133MBps.
▪ A VLB slot is a 16-bit ISA slot with third and fourth slot connectors
added on the end.
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E. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Local Bus
▪ Is currently by far the most widely used local I/O bus, and was
developed by Intel and introduced in 1993.
▪ Like the VESA Local Bus, PCI is a 32-bit bus that normally runs at a
maximum of 33MHz.
▪ The key to PCI's advantages over its predecessor, the VESA local bus,
lies in the chipset that controls it.
▪ The PCI bus is controlled by special circuitry in the chipset that is
designed to handle it, where the VLB was basically just an extension
of the 486 processor bus.
▪ It is used for
 Just about any peripheral
 Can support multiple high-performance devices
 Graphics, full-motion video, SCSI, local area networks, etc.
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PCI Express Buses
▪ The PCI-Express bus is a third-generation development of the PCI bus
designed to replace the older PCI, PCI-X and AGP standards.
▪ It can be thought of as a high-speed serial replacement of the older
(parallel) PCI/PCI-X bus.
▪ The speed of PCI-Express is described in terms of lanes.
▪ A lane is composed of a transmit and receive pair of differential lines.
▪ Each lane is composed of 4 wires or signal paths, meaning conceptually,
each lane is a full-duplex byte stream, transporting data packets in 8 bit
'byte' format, between endpoints of a link, in both directions
simultaneously.
▪ Physical PCIe slots may contain from one to thirty-two lanes, in powers
of two (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32).
▪ Lane counts are written with an × prefix (e.g., ×16 represents a sixteen-
lane card or slot), with ×16 being the largest size in common use
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PCI Express Buses
▪ They come with different standards
▪ PCI Express 1.0 {The personal computer bus specification}
▪ PCI Express 2.0 {Jan 2007}
▪ PCI Express 3.0 {Nov 2010}, is the latest standard for expansion
cards that is available on mainstream personal computers.
PCI express bus type Transfer Rate

PCI-Express 1.0 (PCI-Express ×1) 250MBps

PCI-Express 2.0 (PCI-Express ×4) 1,000MBps
PCI-Express 3.0 (PCI-Express ×16) 4,000MBps

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F. Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)
▪ Intel created AGP as a new bus specifically designed for high performance
graphics and video support.
▪ First appeared on Pentium II boards
▪ AGP is based on PCI, but it contains several additions and enhancements
and is physically, electrically, and logically independent of PCI.
▪ AGP is more of a point-to-point high-performance connection designed
specifically for a video card in a system because only one AGP slot is
allowed for a single video card.
▪ Intel originally released the AGP specification 1.0 in July 1996 and defined
a 66MHz clock rate with 1x or 2x signaling using 3.3V.
▪ AGP version 2.0 was released in May 1998 and added 4x signaling as well
as a lower 1.5V operating capability.
▪ AGP is considered a port, and not a bus, because it only involves two
devices (the processor and video card) and is not expandable.
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G. USB (Universal Serial Bus)
▪ USB ports corresponding to USB 1.1 or USB 2.0 are now found on most
motherboards, and Windows 98, Windows Me, Windows 2000, and
Windows XP provide you with a wide range of operating systems that
support them properly.
▪ One potential problem is that USB takes another interrupt from your system
(in some cases, more than one), and many computers either don’t have
any free or are down to their last one.
▪ But if your system supports PCI IRQ steering this shouldn’t be much of a
problem because the IRQ used by your USB controller should be
sharable with other PCI devices.
▪ The big advantage of either type of USB from an IRQ or a resource
perspective is that the USB bus uses only one IRQ no matter how many
devices (up to 127) are attached or how many USB ports are installed on
systems with a single USB controller
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H. FireWire i-link (IEEE 1394)
▪ In addition, external CD/DVD drives are now available on the market
with a FireWire (also called IEEE 1394 or iLink) interface.
▪ FireWire is a high-performance serial bus for digital and audio equipment
to exchange data.
▪ It evolved as an Apple standard and is used primarily on Macintosh
systems.
▪ FireWire drives can be useful if you work in a two-platform environment
(both PCs and Macs).
▪ FireWire often used for transferring digital video to the PC straight from
a digital camera.
▪ Like USB, FireWire bus also supports plug and play and multiple high-
performance devices (up to 63).

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