How does the distance between the centre of mass and the pivot affect the period

of oscillation of a compound pendulum?

1 Introduction:
Pendulums have a myriad of real life uses, from clocks to earthquake seismometers. Even a
wrecking ball is nothing more than a large pendulum. Galileo Galilea, sometimes called the
“father of modern physics”, was the first to experiment on the properties of pendulums. There
are 3 different types of pendulums: a simple, compound and torque. A simple pendulum is a
common topic in a 10th graders physics book; but a compound pendulum is much more
complex.

When I was younger, I had a difficult time staying on beat while playing the piano. I doubt I
would have ever gotten past the grade 5 piano exam without the help of a simple device: a
metronome. I found it fascinating how simple it was to change the period of the metronome
by just sliding the weight up or down. When I was brainstorming for an interesting topic for
my physics IA, I realised it was the perfect chance to carry out an exploration on a compound
pendulum; In this exploration I would try to simulate a metronome and investigate how a
simplified version of the metronome functions. From this, I derived my research question:
How does the distance between the centre of mass and the pivot affect the period of
oscillation of a compound pendulum?

2 What is a compound pendulum?

A simple pendulum is one which has a bob tied to the end of a string oscillation around a
pivot. The string is assumed to be weightless and the centre of gravity of the bob is assumed
to be in the centre. Unlike a simple pendulum, a compound pendulum is a uniform or
irregular object that is oscillating about any point other than its centre of gravity1.

In the compound pendulum2 below(figure 1), O is the point of pivot, mg is the acceleration
due to gravity, CM is the centre of gravity, l is the distance between points O and CM and θ
is the angle at which the pendulum is released. During the experiment the angle of release is
minimised as sin θ ≈ θ when θ is small.

Figure 1
3 Theory, Background Knowledge and Deriving the Formula:
Torque is a non-linear (rotational) force that acts around a rotational axis and can be
expressed as
τ =F ∙ r

if the angle between the moment arm and the force vector is 90℃. τ is the torque, F is the
force being applied and r is the length of the moment arm. Using Newton’s second law, we
can substitute linear force with rotational force8 ( τ), acceleration with angular acceleration
(α ) and mass with moment of inertia ( I ) to get:

1
τ =I ∙ α  α =τ
I

Moment of inertia3 is the property of a rotating system that depends on the distribution of
mass. Angular acceleration α is the derivative of angular velocity ω and angular velocity ω is
the derivative of displacement θ . Therefore:

dθ dθ 2
=ω ,( ) =α
dt dt

We also know that angular velocity is:

2π 1 Figure 2
ω=2 πf =  T =2 π
T ω

Where ω is angular velocity, f is frequency and T is

period. If we substitute the values in the torque equation
with the values from figure 2, we can get:

τ =mgL ∙ sin ( θ ) ≈ mgL∙θ

if θ is small (¿ 15 ° ¿. To calculate angular velocity4 from angular acceleration, we need to

derive the formula with respect to time (T ). We can rewrite the equation for angular
acceleration as:
τ mgl ∙ θ 1 I
α= =
I I
 =
ω √ mgl

1
Moment of inertia6 for a regular body (bar/rectangle) is m L2 , where m is the mass of the
3
pendulum in kilograms and L is the total length of the pendulum in meters.

Therefore the equation we will be using is:

I
T =2 π
√mgl

Note: There are other equations for the time period of a compound pendulum5 which use
radius of gyration instead of moment of inertia, however I chose to use this equation as the
variable l is only present once.
And the final linearised question is:
I 12 1 I
( )
ln ( T )=¿ ln ⁡(2 π
mgl
) ¿=ln ( 2 π ) + ln
2 ( )
mgl
1 1 1
ln (T )=ln ( 2 π ) + ln ( I )− ln ( mg )− ln ( l )
2 2 2
1
Y =C + X
2

1 1 −1
Where Y =ln (T ) , C=ln ( 2 π ) + ln ( I )− ln ( mg ) and m= . Furthermore, if I make gravity
2 2 2
g as the subject of the equation, we get:

4π2I
g=
m¿2

4 Hypothesis:
As the distance between the pivot and the centre of gravity becomes larger, the average
period of the oscillation should decrease.

5 Variables:
Type of Variable Variable Description
Independent The distance The compound pendulum is a regular
between the pivot shape (a meter ruler) which has many
and centre of mass holes drilled into it at 10 cm intervals along
the centre of the ruler. The 50 cm mark of
the ruler is assumed to be the centre of
mass. The distance is measured by
subtracting 50 cm (the point of centre of
mass) by the length written on the pivot.
The absolute value will tell us the distance
between the pivot and the centre of mass.
Dependant The period of the The compound pendulum will be allowed
compound to oscillate many times and the time taken
pendulum to complete a specific number of integer
oscillations will be recorded using a
stopwatch. Different number of oscillations
are used for different distances between
the centre of mass and the pivot as the
pendulum oscillates fewer times with
released at the same angle.
Control (1) Using the same A compound pendulum with a different
compound shape and weight would have a different
pendulum moment of inertia as the pendulum I used.
This will change the constants in the
formula for the time period and affect the
graph and data points.
Control (2) Same location Since the force exerted by earth’s
 gravitation field varies in different
locations, and since it is a part of the
equation to determine the time period.
Furthermore, there will be similar
environmental factors in the same
location.

6 Methodology:
Equipment:

1. Meter ruler – 1
2. Stopwatch – 1
3. Retort stand - 2
4. Some Blu tack (figure 4)
5. Rod (pivot) -1 (figure 5) Figure 5
Figure 4
Procedure:

1. Use Blu tack to ensure the retort stands do not move throughout the experiment.
2. Fit the rod through the hole marked 5 cm on the compound pendulum (ruler) as
shown in figure ().
3. Use clamps to secure the rod to the retort stands.
4. Use a stopwatch to measure the time taken for the compound pendulum to oscillate
20 times (as the distance between the pivot and centre of gravity gets smaller, the
pendulum oscillated less when released at a small angle, therefore let it oscillate 15 or
10 times instead of 20). Multiple oscillation are used to minimise human error.
5. Repeat step 4 3 time and average the time taken.
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 with different the rod through the pivot points 10, 20, 30 and so
on.

Error:

Source of error Magnitude of error Magnitude of error (SI units)

Pivot point ± 0.50 cm ± 5× 10−3 m

Centre of gravity ± 0.50 cm ± 5× 10−3 m

Stopwatch ± 0.01 s ± 1× 10−2 s

Weight of Ruler ± 0.01 g ± 1× 10−5 kg

Trial experiments:

For the trial run, I used a smaller compound pendulum (50 cm). this caused the period to
more similar and lead to poor data results. Therefore I decided to use a meter ruler, hoping
it would lead me to better data. Furthermore, I did not have Blu tack to secure my retort
stands and they would sometimes rock back and forth. This may have caused some error in
my data so I made sure the retort stands where secure before starting the actual experiment.
For the experiment, no points with a distance (l ) greater than 30 cm was used as the effect of
air resistance would cause the data points to deviate from a linear equation.

Set-up:

For my set-up (figure 6), I used a 1 meter wooden ruler as

my compound pendulum. The meter ruler has holes drilled
into the centre at 10 centimetres intervals. The centre (the
50 cm mark) was assumed to be the centre of gravity,
similar to the model shown below. A thin metal rod was
placed through the holes and acted as a pivot. The ruler is
assumed to be a “knife-edge” (infinitesimally thin to the
point that there is no friction between the ruler and the
metal rod (pivot). Furthermore, there was assumed to be
no air resistance.

Risk assessments:

It is important to be careful while drilling the holes into

the wooden ruler. To prevent injury it is important to
ensure there is nothing below the ruler at the section being
drilled. Furthermore, it is of utmost importance that the
holes are as close to the centre of the width of the ruler.
Since the drilling process left the ruler quite rough,
splinters is also a possible risk; therefore, gloves should be
used when using this compound pendulum.

7 Raw Data:
Distance l No of Time taken for total number of Average
(m) ± 0.01 m oscillations oscillations (s) period (s)
10 T 1 10 T 2 10 T 3
0.30 10 15.10 15.08 15.18 1.51
0.25 10 15.17 15.33 15.21 1.52
0.20 10 15.63 15.70 15.53 1.56
0.15 10 16.18 16.37 16.29 1.63
0.10 10 17.73 17.73 17.82 1.78
0.05 10 24.90 24.86 24.77 2.48

Different number of oscillations were used because the number of oscillations decreases as
distance l got shorter. Instead of releasing the pendulum at a larger angle, I decided to change
the number of oscillations to prevent producing inaccurate data.

8 Uncertainty:

Calculating the period of the pendulum:

The average period can be calculated by adding t 1, t 2 and t 3 and dividing the figure by 3. This
figure must then be divided by the number of oscillations to get the average period.
10T 1 +10T 2 +10 T 3
10 T avg=
3
T avg=10 T avg ÷ 10
Example calculation for average period T when distance l=0.3 m:

15.10+ 15.08+15.18
10 T avg= =15.12
3
T avg=1.51 ÷10=1.51

Calculating uncertainty of the period T :

The uncertainty of the period can be calculated by finding the difference between the
maximum and the minimum periods among the 3 trials and dividing by 2. The next step will
be to divide by the number of oscillations to get the absolute uncertainty of the period.

10 T max −10 T min

∆ 10 T avg=
2
∆ T avg=∆ 10 T avg ÷ 10

Example calculation for the uncertainty of the period T when distance l=0.3 m:

15.18−15.08
∆ 10 T =± =± 0.05
2
∆ T =± 0.1 ÷10=± 0.005

Calculating the natural logarithm of period T and distance l:

To linearise the graph it is important to plot the natural logarithm of period T and distance l
as the Y and X axis respectively, otherwise the resulting graph would be a curve.
ln ( T )=m ×ln ( l ) +c

Example calculation for the natural logarithm of period T and distance l when distance
l=0.3 m:

ln ( T )=ln 1.51=0.412
ln (l)=ln 0.3=−1.20

Calculating the uncertainty in ln (T ):

Since we are using the natural logarithm function to linearise, the uncertainty will change
along the graph. To calculate the uncertainty can be calculated by subtracting the natural
logarithm of the period T max and T min and dividing by 2.

ln ( T max ) −ln ( T min )

ln ( ∆T )=
2
Example calculation for the uncertainty in ln ⁡(T ) when distance l=0.3 m:

ln ( 1.515 )−ln ( 1.505 )

ln ( ∆T )=± =± 0.003
2

Calculating the error in distance l:

The error in distancel is equal to the sum of the uncertainty in the location of the pivot point (
± 5× 10−3 m) and centre of gravity (± 5× 10−3 m). Therefore, the absolute uncertainty in
distance l is constant and equal to ± 0.01 m.

Calculating the uncertainty in ln (l):

The uncertainty for the natural logarithm of distance l will change. Therefore, the uncertainty
can be calculated by subtracting the natural logarithm of the distance l max and l min and dividing
by 2.

ln ( l max )−ln ( l min )

ln ( ∆l ) =
2

Example calculation for the uncertainty in ln ⁡(l) when distance l=0.3 m:

ln ( 0.301 )−ln ⁡(0.299)

ln ( ∆l ) =¿ ± =± 0.003¿
2

Graph of the Uncertainties of ln t andln l:

Distance l (m) ∆ T (s) ln (∆ T ) (s) ln (∆ l) (m)

0.30 0.005 0.003 0.003
0.25 0.008 0.005 0.004
0.20 0.009 0.006 0.005
0.15 0.01 0.006 0.007
0.10 0.005 0.003 0.01
0.05 0.007 0.003 0.02

Calculating the moment of inertia for the compound pendulum:

1 1
Moment of Intertia= M L2= ( 0.0967 kg)¿
3 3

9 Processed data:

Distance l (m)
ln (l) Period T (s) ln (T )
± 0.01
0.30 -1.20 1.51 0.412
0.25 -1.36 1.52 0.419
 0.20 -1.61 1.56 0.445
0.15 -1.90 1.63 0.489
0.10 -2.30 1.78 0.577
0.05 -3.00 2.48 0.908

ln ( T ) against ln (l):

ln ( T )( s )

ln (l)(cm)
As stated above in section 2, the theoretical gradient of the graph should be -0.5; and the
experimental gradient is -0.151.

10 Graph evaluation:
Although the graph has a strong negative correlation of -0.979, the graph shows that as ln ( l )
increases ln ( T ) decreases. The large difference between the experimental and the actual
gradient can is a result of systematic and random errors. Furthermore, the graph has a slight
curve as the errors affecting the experiment must have affected each data point to a different
degree. Although the error due to the apparatus is extremely small, the deviation of the data
points from the maximum and minimum lines is large. the max gradient is -0.2743 and the
minimum gradient is -0.2783.

Furthermore, to check the accuracy of the data produced, we can calculate the value of
gravity g using the data produced and comparing the value to the literature value of
g=9.81 ms−2 . The average value of ln (l) is −1.895 and the average value of ln ( T ) is
0.5416. Therefore, l=0.1503 cm and T =1.719 s. Using the equation stated in section 3, we
can calculate that:
4π2I 4 π 2 ×3.22 ×10−2
g= 2
= 2
=29.60 m s−2
m¿ 0.0967 × 0.1503 ×(1.719)

Since the experimental value of g is higher than the actual value of gravity, we can conclude
that there were systematic and random errors that caused the data produced to be slightly
inaccurate. However, since the time taken for total number of oscillations and during the
experiment, as seen in the raw data table, was very close, we can conclude that random
errors played a less significant role and systematic errors caused the disparity between the
actual and the experimental the data points collected and value of gravity.

11 Conclusion:
From the earlier calculation of gravity, we can conclude that the data produced from
the experiment is somewhat inaccurate. However, the graph depicted a strong negative
correlation of -0.979, when ln ( T ) was plotted against ln (l); therefore, it can be assumed that
the data is reliable. The results supports the hypothesis as an increase in ln (l) results in a
decrease in ln ( T ). If both ln (l) and ln ( T ) were converted back to l and T , it would be clear
that as distance l becomes larger, the average period T of the pendulum should decrease.

12 Further Evaluation:

Sources of error and its Significance and evidence Improvements

effects
Systematic errors affecting accuracy
Friction between pivot Higher significance: A compound pendulum
and pendulum: The There was a large that has a “knife-edge”
friction was a result of the deviation between the could be used as it would
rough texture of the theoretical data and the theoretically have an
wooden ruler. Since the actual data. infinitely small area in
holes in the compound contact with the pivot.
pendulum had not been The pendulum’s Since area is proportional
sanded down to smoothen oscillations would be to friction, theoretically
the edges, there a large slower, and it would there would be no friction
amount of friction in the oscillate less when between the pivot and the
system. released at a small angle. compound pendulum.
Furthermore, some
lubricant could be used.
Air resistance: Increases Lower significance: A thinner compound
the time taken for each Air resistance played a pendulum could be used.
oscillation due to friction small part in the For example, a thin sheet
between air particles and experiment as the of metal cut as a rectangle;
the pendulum. pendulum was extremely this pendulum would be
thin and released at a considered a “knife-edge”.
small angle

The rod acting as the Lower significance: Use a straight rod as a

pivot not being straight:
The pivot rod was made of
copper and was not
perfectly straight. Due to
many dents, the pendulum
may not have been straight
and slightly tilted.
The ruler would oscillate
back and forth, however
The indents are pivot.
insignificant and little
hence the effect on the
oscillations must be small.
Lower significance: The significance is so low
Although it would make that it does not require an
 would oscillate left and measuring the time of the improvement.
right slightly: the oscillations, it would not
pendulum would not vary the time taken to
oscillate perfectly in a complete oscillations.
straight line and would
instead oscillate is a
somewhat elliptical
fashion.
Random Errors affecting Precision
Reaction time: there is Higher significance: To reduce reaction time
always an uncertainty or Observing the data there was to repeat the number
error when reaction time are huge gaps within each of trials for more than 10
of a human is involved. trial collecting the data times, to improve
Whether the stopwatch precision. 
was stopped early or late, This can be observed
there is an error due to within the graph where
that, which affects the certain points are
length of the period and anomalous and stick away
the average periods and so from the best fit
on.
Done by eye: To identify Higher significance: An improvement would be
when the disk had Could have possibly to set up a special type of
completed one oscillation assumed it finished an camera with a stopwatch,
required, intuition and was oscillation, however it may to record the movement of
done by eye. have not completed it, the disk to improve
which could affect the precision.
period.
Stopwatch precision: the Lower significance:  Its insignificance is the
stopwatch had an The uncertainty is so reason why no
uncertainty of ±0.01s minute that its effect on improvement is required.
which affects the period by the period is very little. (its
giving a value either percentage uncertainty
slightly greater or lesser. would be 1% or less)
Tape measure precision: Lower insignificance: Its insignificance is the
to measure the suspension Once again, the reason why no
length of the disk, the uncertainty is extremely improvement is required.
measuring tape had an minute hence its effect on
uncertainty of ±0.001m. the length of the
This could affect the graph suspension length and the
by pushing it slightly to period of the disk rotation
either the left or the right. is small. (its percentage
uncertainty would be 1%
or less)

13 Extensions and Strengths:

If I were to carry out this experiment again, I would use a thin metal sheet rectangle as my
compound pendulum instead of a wooden ruler as this would result in a decrease in the
deviation on plotted data points as there is less air-resistance and friction due in between the
pendulum and the pivot. Moreover, I would apply some form of lubricant to further decrease
the friction. Even though I tried to minimise the error in multiple ways, there was some
deviation from the line of best fit or the theoretical function between period T against
distance l. Human error in the experiment was minimised and resulted in reliable data being
produced. The exploration was extremely insightful and helped me understand metronomes
to a new depth. I would like to do a similar exploration on torsion pendulum as they have a
large degree of utility, for example in wrist-watches.
14 Bibliography:

1. The Compound Pendulum,

farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/lectures/node141.html.

2. Engineer, Mechanical, et al. Compound Pendulum,

www.aboutmech.com/2013/11/compound-pendulum.html.

3. Halliday, David, et al. Fundamental of Physics. John Wiley & Sons, 2001.

4. Hamper, Chris. Physics: Higher Level (plus Standard Level Options): Developed
Specifically for the IB Diploma. Pearson Education, 2009.

5. Hodgkins, Leila. “The Compound Pendulum.” Schoolphysics,

www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-19/Mechanics/Rotation%20of%20rigid
%20bodies/text/Compound_pendulum/index.html.

6. Jones, Andrew Zimmerman. “Formulas for Finding the Moment of Inertia.”

ThoughtCo, www.thoughtco.com/moment-of-inertia-formulas-2698806.

7. “Radius of Gyration in Structural Engineering.” Engineering ToolBox,

www.engineeringtoolbox.com/radius-gyration-structural-engineering-
d_1331.html.

8 .Rotational Inertia (Article). www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/torque-

angular-momentum/torque-tutorial/a/rotational-inertia.