Table of Contents

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 2

Introduction to Hyperbolic Functions ............................................................................................ 3

Equation of land .................................................................................................................................. 6

Quadrilateral Wheel ...................................................................................................................... 6

Pentagonal Wheel ........................................................................................................................... 8

General Land Equation ................................................................................................................... 10

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 13

Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................... 15

Technology Used ........................................................................................................................... 15

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Introduction

Just over a year ago, I saw this video on YouTube called “Shapes and Solids of
Constant Width1” by Numberphile. In this video, they have explained how certain
2-dimentional and 3-dimantional shapes exist that display a property mainly
associated to a circles and spheres, respectively, i.e. the inherent ability to
maintain the same distance between the bottommost and topmost point in the
shape, no matter how the shape is rotated. This phenomenon piqued my interest
in this matter as it is not very intuitive to picture a shape other than a circle to
rotate smoothly when made to roll in a straight line. However, there is one major
caveat to this whole event. The shapes in question can only maintain a constant
distance between their bottommost and topmost point, not between their centre
and any point on its circumference. As a result of these inconsistencies in distance
maintained, it becomes virtually impossible to have any scope of building a
commercially viable device of transportation (or any other use thereof) using these
shapes as it would ‘wobble’ too much.

Hence I thought, “Is there any other possible means for a shape to exist such that
not only does it have any plausible commercial purposes but also it is able to
provide a riding experience indistinguishable from that of a circle’s?”

Well, the answer is yes and no. During the course of my investigation, I came
understand that there is no single shape that fulfils all the criteria I originally
established. However, I realized that in lieu of searching for shapes that fulfil
these criteria, there could exist land of certain forms that facilitate its respective
shape achieve these conditions.

My aim, to find the Land Equations for the case of a quadrilateral, pentagonal and
hexagonal wheel and try to generalize these equations for any n-sided polygon.

1“Shapes and Solids of Constant Width.” YouTube. YouTube, November 11, 2013.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUCSSJwO3GU.

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Introduction to Hyperbolic Functions
Before beginning with the calculation of said equations, it is necessary to have
intimate knowledge regarding Hyperbolic Function. Hence, in this section, I will
be discussing any and all maters regarding Hyperbolic Functions that may come
in need when solving for the Land Equations.

A Hyperbola may be defined as a curve on the Cartesian Plane that fulfils the
following condition: set of all points P whose absolute difference of the distances
from two fixed points (F1 and F2) is a constant.

Figure 1: A Hyperbola

The Hyperbolic Functions may be thought of as Trigonometric equivalent for a

Hyperbola. In other words, similar to how the Trigonometric Functions, sine and
cosine, provide the x-coordinates and the y-coordinates of a circle respectively the
Hyperbolic Functions, sinh (Hyperbolic sine) and cosh (Hyperbolic cosine), provide
the x-coordinates and the y-coordinates of a Hyperbola.

For the purposes of this investigation, we will henceforth focus solely on cosh as
this is the Hyperbolic Function that pertains to our case. Graphing this functions
provides us with something called a Catenary Curve.

2“File:Hyperbel-Def-E.svg.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. Accessed November 13,

2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hyperbel-def-e.svg.

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An alternative method of writing cosh is below:

e +e
cosh(x) = y =
2

Now, we will find the inverse of this function:

e +e
y=
2

∴ 2y = e + e

1
∴ 2y = e + Taking the LCM
e

∴ 2ye = e +1

∴e − 2ye + 1 = 0

∴ (e ) − 2y(e ) + 1 = 0 Solving for ex using the

Quadratic Formula
−(−2y) ± (−2y) − 4(1)(1)
∴e =
2(1)

2y ± 4y − 4
∴e =
2

2y ± 2 y − 1
∴e =
2

∴ e =y+ y −1

∴ x = ln(y + y − 1) Switching x and y

∴ y = ln(x + x − 1)

∴ cosh (x) = ln(x + x − 1) Equation 1

Page | 4
Now, we find the Integral of the following function:

1
f(x) =
√x − 1

∴y= f(x) dx

1
∴y= dx Let 𝑥 = sec θ
√x − 1
∴ = sec θ
1
∴y= sec θ • tan θ dθ
√sec θ − 1 ∴ dx = sec θ • tan θ dθ

1
∴y= • sec θ • tan θ dθ ∵ tan θ = sec θ − 1
tan θ

∴y= sec θ dθ sec θ dθ = ln(sec θ + tan θ) + 𝑐

∴ y = ln(sec θ + tan θ) + c

∴ y = ln sec θ + sec θ − 1 + c Resubstituting sec θ as x

∴ y = ln x + x − 1 + c

∴ y = cosh (x) + c As seen from Equation 1

1
∴ dx = cosh (x) + c Equation 2
√x − 1

The relationship that has just been founded between Hyperbolic cos inverse and

∫√ dx will be important later on in this investigation.

Page | 5
Equation of land
Before we start with the calculations regarding the Land Equation, it is necessary
to set the preface. In each of the following cases below, a diagram representing a
wheel of a particular shape and a ‘bump’ has been shown. This bump is what
represents that equation of land that that wheel can roll smoothly on. It is
important to note that when we say ‘smoothly’, it is implied that when the wheel
is rolling, the distance between its centre and bottommost point remains a
constant, and since the bottommost point is always in contact with the land, the
height of the centre as viewed from an outside perspective always remains the
same.

Quadrilateral Wheel
The diagram on the left is of
quadrilateral (square) wheel
rolling smoothly on a curve.
For this to be possible, the
distance of the centre O from
the floor must be a constant d.
However, when the vertex of
the wheel and the root of the
curve coincide, the distance d
is equal to the length of the
diagonal. Therefore, d must
be √2a (by Pythagoras
Theorem). Point I represents the point at which the wheel and the curve meet
tangentially. In this particular instance, the length of a single side of the square
be 2. Therefore, apothem a will be 1. Entering this value of a in the previous
equation, we get d as √2. The angle θ represents the amount of degrees the wheel
has spun since completing a full rotation. The small triangle NIL is used to
determine the slope of the line tangential to the curve.

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Upon zooming into Triangle ONI, we see the following Figure 2:

1
∴ cos θ =
√2 − y

Upon zooming into Triangle NLI, we see the following Figure 3:

dy
∴ tan θ =
dx

dy
∴ sec2 θ − 1 =
dx
Figure 2

2 dy
Figure 3 ∴ √2 − y −1 = From Triangle ONL
dx

dy
∴ = dx
2
√2 − y −1

dy
∴ = dx Let √2 − y = 𝑢
2
√2 − y −1
∴ √2 − y = 𝑢

− du
∴ =x+c ∴ −1 =
√u2 − 1

∴ − cosh (u) = x + c As seen from Equation 2

∴ u = cosh(−(x + c)) Resubstituting u as √2 − y

∴ √2 − y = cosh(x + c) As 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥) is an even function,

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥)
∴ y = √2 − cosh(x + c)

Finding the value of c

When x = 0, y = √2 − 1

∴ √2 − 1 = √2 − cosh(c)

∴ c = cosh (1) = 0

Therefore, for a square wheel of side 2 units, the Land Equation is:

y = √2 − cosh(x)

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Pentagonal Wheel
This method’s use is not limited to Quadrilateral Wheels. It can also be used for
finding the Land Equation for a Pentagonal Wheel. Below is the explanation and
working of the Land Equation for a Pentagonal Wheel.

Similar to the previous case,

For the pentagonal wheel to
roll smoothly, centre O must
be at a constant distance d
away from the floor. Distance
d is also the diagonal of the
pentagon. Therefore, d must
be equal to a • sec (using

basic Trigonometric rules).

Point I represents the point at
which the wheel and the curve meet tangentially. In this particular instance, the
length of a single side of the pentagon be 2. Therefore, apothem a will be cot

(using basic Trigonometric rules). Entering this value of a in the previous

equation, we get d as sec . The angle θ represents the amount of degrees the wheel

has spun since completing a full rotation.

Upon zooming into Triangle ONI, we see the following Figure 4:

π
cot 5
∴ cos θ = π
sec − y
5

Upon zooming into Triangle NLI, we see the following Figure 5:

dy
∴ tan θ =
dx

dy
∴ sec2 θ − 1 =
dx
Figure 4

Figure 5
Page | 8
 2
π
sec −y dy
∴ 5 −1 = From Triangle ONL
π dx
cot
5
dy
∴ = dx
π 2
sec − y
5 −1
π
cot
5
dy
∴ = dx Let =𝑢
π 2
sec − y π
5 −1 sec5−y
π ∴ π = 𝑢
cot cot5
5
1
π ∴− π =
− cot du cot5
∴ 5 =x+c
√u2 − 1
π As seen from Equation 2
∴ − cot • cosh (u) = x + c
5
x+c
∴ u = cosh(− π) Resubstituting u as
cot
5
π
sec − y x+c
∴ 5 As 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥) is an even function,
π = cosh π
cot cot 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥)
5 5

π π x+c
∴ y = sec − cot cosh π
5 5 cot
5
Finding the value of c

When x = 0, y = sec − cot

π π π π c
∴ sec − cot = sec − cot cosh π
5 5 5 5 cot
5

∴ c = cosh (1) = 0

Therefore, for a pentagonal wheel of side 2 units, the Land Equation is:

π π x
y = sec − cot cosh π
5 5 cot
5

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General Land Equation
In the previous section, we took the examples of a quadrilateral wheel of sides 2
units and a pentagonal wheel of sides 2 units to find their respective Land
Equations. However, it is now imperative that we generalise these Land
Equations to any polygon of any side length.

Just like in the previous

examples, on the left is a n-
sided polygon with centre O
rolling smoothly on the curve.
Distance d is the length of the
diagonal. Point I represents
the point at which the wheel
and the curve meet
tangentially. In this instance
however, instead of
measuring a side, we use the
apothem a for any further
calculation purposes. The
angle θ represents the
amount of degrees the wheel has spun since completing a full rotation.

Upon zooming into Triangle ONI, we see the following Figure 6:

a
∴ cos θ =
d−y

Upon zooming into Triangle NLI, we see the following Figure 5:

dy
∴ tan θ =
dx

dy
∴ sec2 θ − 1 =
dx

Figure 6

Figure 7
Page | 10
 2
𝑑−𝑦 dy
∴ −1 = From Triangle ONL
𝑎 dx

dy
∴ = dx
2
𝑑−y
−1
a

dy
∴ = dx Let =𝑢
2
𝑑−y
−1 ∴
𝑑−y
= 𝑢
a a

−a du ∴− =
∴ =x+c
√u2 − 1

∴ − a • cosh (u) = x + c As seen from Equation 2

x+c
∴ u = cosh(− ) Resubstituting u as
a

𝑑−y x+c As 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥) is an even function,

∴ = cosh
a a 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥)

𝑥+𝑐
∴ y = 𝑑 − a cosh
𝑎

Finding the value of c

When x = 0, y = 𝑑 − a

c
∴ d − a = d − a cosh
𝑎

∴ c = cosh (1) = 0

Therefore, for any n-sided polygonal wheel of apothem a, the Land Equation is:

x
y = 𝑑 − a cosh
a

Page | 11
However, for any n-sided polygon, we can also find the relation between the
diagonal and the apothem.

In Figure 8, a n-sided polygon has

been shown. In the polygon:

2𝜋
2𝜃 =
𝑛
𝜋
∴ 𝜃=
𝑛

From any one of the previous

examples, we can see that:

a
cos θ =
d
Figure 8: n-sided polygon

But we found that 𝜃 =

𝜋 𝑎
∴ cos =
𝑛 𝑑
𝑎
∴𝑑= 𝜋
cos
𝑛

Substituting this value in the General Land Equation, we get:

𝑎 x
y= 𝜋 − a cosh a
cos 𝑛

Since this equations curve gives an entire Hyperbolic Curve and we are solely
interested in the part above the x-axis, we simply take a square root and then
square y. Using this method, we also forgo the need of calculating the range of x
values. Hence we get the final equation as:

𝑎 x
𝑦 = 𝜋 − a cosh
cos a
𝑛

Page | 12
Conclusion
The Land Equation for any n-sided polygon has been found. However, graphing
this equation yields only one curve, and since we want a series of curves, we must
find a value by which this curve must be shifted to the right (or left) continually
so that we get a good look at what the land will look like in real life.

In order to do this, we must find the distance between the two points where a
single curve touches the x-axis. Then perform horizontal translation of all those
points by that difference. Continuous iterations of this process should yield a look
at the Land.

The difference between these two points is the essentially the distance between
the two roots as illustrated in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Land Equation and corresponding Land curve

Therefore, the two roots:

𝑎 x
0= 𝜋 − a cosh a
cos 𝑛

x 𝑎
a cosh = 𝜋
a cos 𝑛

1
x = ±𝑎 • cosh As 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥) is an even function,
𝜋
cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥)
𝑛

Hence, and part of the Land is given by this equation:

𝑎 x 1
𝑦 = Where −∞ < 𝑖 < ∞
𝜋 − a cosh a + 𝑖 • a • cosh 𝜋
cos 𝑛 cos 𝑛

Page | 13
Therefore, having several of them graphed together, we get Figure 10

Figure 10: Land Illustrated with i ranging from -2 to 2

Page | 14
Bibliography
1. Wagon, Stan. “The Ultimate Flat Tire.” Mathematical Association of
America, February 1999.
https://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Evans/februa
ry_1999_14.pdf.
2. Fonstad, Stacy Hoehn. “Smooth Rides on Square Wheels.” Vanderbilt
University, October 4, 2011.
https://my.vanderbilt.edu/stacyfonstad/files/2011/10/squareWheels.pdf.
3. Serras, Herman. “Polygonal Wheels.” Polygonal wheels and their associated
roads, January 26, 2011. https://cage.ugent.be/~hs/wheels/wheels.html.

Technology Used
1. Geogebra Graphing Calculator; Mentioned figures are taken as screenshots
using Geogebra.
2. Desmos Graphing Calculator; Mentioned figures are taken as screenshots
using Desmos.
3. Casio fx – CG 50.

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