CIRCULATION: An Example Calculation

Given u = x2, v = −2xy + x, find Γ for the closed path shown.

Try line integral first:

ȷ
Γ = − u dx + v dy
C

Note the following steps carefully:

1. Incorporate info on path taken. Say y = y(x) if integrating in

x; or x = x(y)
2. Coordinates if start and end points of each “segment” of path
are used to set integration limits. In this example:
• A : x = 0; 0 ≤ y ≤ 1. Since x = const along line A, we
´
only need vdy, i.e.
ˆ y=1 ˆ 1
v dy = 0 dy = 0
y=0 x=0 0

• B : Equation for this line is x = 1 − y or y = 1 − x. This

´1 ´0
means that the integral is 0 u dx + 1 v dy
ˆ 1 ˆ 0
= x2dx + (−2xy + x) dy
0 1 x=1−y
ˆ 0
x3 1 1
= + [−2(1 − y)y + (1 − y)] dy =
3 0 1 6
1
 ´1 ´1
• C: udx = − 0 x2dx = − 13
0
´ ´ ´
Therefore Γ = A + B + C = 0 + 16 − 31 = − 16

Area integral of vorticity

Stokes’ Theorem states that

‰ ˆ
V⃗ · d⃗s = (∇ × V⃗ ) · ⃗n dA
A

where A is area of region bounded by a closed path C. For 2D flows,

∇ × V⃗ = ωz = ∂x∂v
− ∂u
∂y or -2y+1 from the previous example. With
this in mind, we can evaluate the integral to find Γ.

ˆ x=1 ˆ y=‘−x
Γ=− (−2y + 1) dy dx
x=0 y=0
ˆ x=1 y=1−x
=− (−y 2 + y) dx
x=0 y=0
ˆ x=1
=− [−(1 − x)2 + (1 − x)] dx
x=0
ˆ 1
1
Γ=− −x2 + x dx = −
0 6
Note that this result is identical to the one from the line integral
approach, as required.
˜
In the special case where ωz = const, then ω ⃗ ·⃗ndA would become
simply the product of that constant and the area A.

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 EQUATIONS FOR IRROTATIONAL FLOW

Assuming constant density and irrotationality:

0 = ∇ · V⃗ = ∇ · (∇ϕ) = ∇2ϕ (Laplace Eq)
i.e. the velocity potential “satisfies the Laplace equation”, where the
Laplacian operator is defined by
2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = 2+ 2 (2D, Cartesian)
∂x ∂y
1 ∂2
 
2 1 ∂ ∂
∇ = r + 2 2 (2D, Polar)
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ

The stream function has a similar property:

2 2
   
∂ ψ ∂ ψ ∂ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ
∇2 ψ = + = +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂ ∂
= [−v] + [u] = −ωz = 0 if irrotational
∂x ∂y

Thus we have shown that, in constant-density irrotational flows, both

ψ and ϕ satisfy Laplace’s equation.

LINEAR SUPERPOSITION

Observe that the sum of any number of solutions to the Laplace

equation is also another solution.
∇2(ψ1 + ψ2) = ∇2ψ1 + ∇2ψ2 = 0 + 0 = 0 .

This is very useful, because it means if we know the ψ (or ϕ) of two

simpler irrotational flows, we can construct other irrotational flows
with more interesting properties by linear superposition.
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 ELEMENTARY POTENTIAL FLOWS

We start by considering a few of the simplest irrotational flows pos-

sible, which can be used a building blocks later, as allowed by the
principle of linear superposition.

Question: in looking for simplicity: are there some flows where, with
an appropriate choice of coordinate axes, only one velocity compo-
nent is present?

A. Uniform Flow (only 1 Cartesian component)

• This is the simplest: same velocity everywhere. Let u = V∞,

v = 0 (choose say x-axis to be along direction of flow)
• Continuity equation and irrotationality easily verified
• ψU F = V∞y + C and ϕU F = V∞x + C
• Or in polar: ψU F = V∞r sin θ + C and ϕU F = V∞r cos θ + C

Q: Can we have a flow which has one ve-

locity component that is non-uniform?
Say, u = u(x) or u = u(y) ?

B. Source and Sink (Radial velocity only)

• Polar coordinates, only ur ̸= 0

• 2D flow with streamlines extending radially from or to a central
point
• Continuity eqn: ∇ · V⃗ = 1r ∂r
∂
(rUr ) + 1r ∂u
∂θ = 0
θ

So uθ ≡ 0 implies (unless r = 0) rUr = const → Ur ∝ 1r

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 • ωz = ∂u 1 ∂ur
∂r + r (uθ − ∂θ ) = 0
θ

• Irrotationality + uθ =0 ⇒ ur = f (r) only.

Let Λ be “source strength”= vol-

ume flow rate out from source, per
unit depth ⊥ to the plane. Apply
mass conservation (think of surface
of “cylinder” as the CS):

Λ
ρΛl = ρ(2πrl)ur ⇒ ur = , uθ = 0
2πr

• As shown in text (see Sec. 3.10), for this flow

Λθ Λ ln r
ψS = + C, ϕS = +C
2π 2π
• Sometimes we leave the constant out (“understood”)
• A negative value of Λ represents a sink.
• Ex.: verify that these results for ψ and ϕ satisfy Laplace eqn.
• In this flow r = 0 is a point of singularity, where ur and ωz both
become infinite, as the fluid seems to come out from nowhere (or
disappears down the hole).

C. Irrotational vortex (Tangential velocity only)

• A flow with circular streamlines: this means ur = 0

• Substitution of ur = 0 into ∇ · V⃗ = 1r ∂r
∂
(rur ) + 1r ∂u
∂θ = 0 gives
θ

uθ = f (r) only

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 Previously showed that for uθ =
Crn to be irrotational, n must be
equal to -1, with a point of singular-
ity at r = 0.

The strength of an I.V. is quantified by a circulation:

‰ ˆ 2π
Γ = − V⃗ · d⃗s = − uθ (rdθ) [since ur = 0] = 2πC
0
Γ
Thus ur = 0, uθ = − 2πr (Note Γ > 0 if clockwise)

Determine ψ and ϕ in polar coordinates:

Γ Γθ
ψIV = ln r, ϕIV = −
2π 2π

APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR SUPERPOSITION

Having worked out expressions for V⃗ , ψ and ϕ for (a) uniform flow,
(b) source and sink, and (c) irrotational vortex, we can now do:

• Form ϕ = ϕ1 + ϕ2: this implies V⃗ = V⃗1 + V⃗2

• Adding 2 vectors is a relatively simple task (by hand).
• Which tell us about the direction of the flow at a given point.
• If we do this at multiple points in the flow, we can make a sketch
of the streamline pattern — without having to work through the
mathematics of ψ(x, y) = const or ψ(r, θ) = const, yet.

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 • Once we draw the streamline pattern, we know where the flow is
faster or slower. Looking for locations where the velocity vectors
being added up might mutually cancel also gives us an idea about
where any stagnation points may be located.
• Bernoulli equation (P + 12 ρV 2 = const) then gives information
on the pressure distribution, too.

1. UNIFORM FLOW + SOURCE

Put the coordinate origin at the center of the source. Note carefuly
how the magnitude and orientation of V⃗S (from the source) depend
on position in the plane (e.g. weak if far from the source).

Streamlines coming from the left (uniform flow) are diverted around
the source, as if the latter were an invisible obstacle. The flow returns
to a uniform flow far downstream. A stagnation point is expected, on
the upstream side of the source. We can draw in some streamlines:

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Now do the math: both Cartesian and polar coordinates.
Λθ Λ y 
ψ = V∞r sin θ + = V∞ y + arctan
2π 2π x
Velocity components:
∂ψ Λ x ∂ψ Λ y
u= = V∞ + ; v = − = ;
∂y 2π x2 + y 2 ∂x 2π x2 + y 2
To find stagnation point(s): v = 0 when y = 0: look along the x
Λ y Λ
axis. There, u = 0 when V∞ = 2π x +y 2
2 = − 2πx . This means the
Λ
stagnation point is at (x, y) = (− 2πV ∞
, 0): On the −ve x axis, as to
be expected; and depending on the strength of Λ vs. V∞).

Streamline pattern and implications

In this flow, ψ takes the same value (Λ/2) for all r as long as θ = π.
A streamline from the left continues on the x axis — but once it
reaches the stagnation point, it gets diverted (in both upper and
lower half-planes).

Far downstream: θ → 0 for y > 0; θ → 2π for y < 0. Requiring

ψ = Λ/2 = V∞y + Λθ/(2π) gives y = ±Λ/(2V∞).

Just like body surfaces, streamlines do not allow the fluid to go

through them. If considering upper-half only, we have obtained an
inviscid model of flow over a “flat-topped hill”.

However, since the streamlines do not “come back” as x → 0, this

flow cannot represent flow over a closed body.

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 2. SOURCE AND SINK → DOUBLET

A source (+Λ) supplies fluid. A sink (−Λ) collects fluid.

A flow pattern develops if we put them some distance (l) apart.
Now let l → 0 but Λ → ∞, such that Λl reaches a constant (κ)

More details in text Sec 3.12:

−κ sin θ
ψD =
2π r

Non-concentric circles touching at origin.

For flow around a closed body of finite size (vs.

indefinite flat-topped hill in UF + Source), we
need something like a doublet where the flow comes “back”.

3. UF + DOUBLET

K sin θ
ψ = ψU F + ψD = V∞r sin θ −
2π r
K
= V∞r sin θ[1 − R2/r2] (let = R2 )
2πV∞
Observe ψ = const(0) if r = R: a circle, or cylinder if extended in
orthogonal plane. Total of two stagnation points, front and rear.

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10
Pressure distribution in inviscis flows: Bernoulli eq.

Bernoulli equation takes several different form: e.g

P + 12 ρV 2 + ρgh = const
For motion in the horizontal horizontal plane only:

If inviscid: P + 1 ρV 2 = const along streamlines

If also irrotational: P + 12 ρV 2 = const everywhere. This result also

implies max pressure at a stagnation point.

More remarks on streamline pattern

1. Since the circle r = R isa streamline,, we are seeing uniform flow

over a cylinder. Any forces associated with it?
2. Symmetry between top and bottom: from Bernoulli eqn, this
implies pressure distributions acting on upper and lower surfaces
are in balance (i.e. no unbalanced vertical force, i.e. no lift.)
3. Symmetry between front and rear:
• No net change of momentum as fluid recovers its momentum
completely after flowing over the cylinder.
• No net horizontal force too: i.e. no drag?
But this result, despite being free from mathematical error, is in
conflict with reality. Called d’Alemnert’s paradox.
The problem is that viscous forces are being neglected.

“No lift and no drag” sounds too simple, or a little un-interesting. We

will next construct an irrotational flow that has the same geometry
but can produce some lift.
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