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Radial Truck Tire and Retread Service Manual
Radial Truck Tire and Retread Service Manual
And Retread
Service Manual
CONTENTS
Section Title Page Section Title Page
1. Radial Truck Tire Terms 5 8. Ride Disturbance 58
Cross-Sectional View of Typical Tire 6 Ride Test Tips 60
2. Tire Selection 8 Ride Diagnostics: Tires/Wheels 60
Tire Selection Process 9 Balance Related Vibration 60
Tire Selection Process Work Sheet 16 Run-Out Related Vibration 60
Mesuring Radial Run-Out 61
3. Mounting Procedure 19
Safety Instructions 20 9. Factors Affecting Truck Fuel Economy 63
Wheel Inspection Guidelines 20 Vehicle and Engine Design 64
Lubrication 20 Vehicle Operation 67
Tire and Rim Cleaning 21 Tire Selection and Maintenance 70
Tubes and Flaps 22 Environmental Conditions 74
Assembly of Tire Tube Flap 22 Tire Description & Specifications 76
Tubeless Tire Mounting 23 Summary 77
Installation 23 Appendix 78
Demounting 24 10. Tire Repairs 80
Matching of Duals 25 Nail Hole Repair Procedures 82
Spacing of Duals 26 Section Repair Limits in
Spacers 26 Sidewall and Shoulder Area 84
Proper Matching of Rim Parts 27 Application of Center-Over-Injury
Safety Precautions 28 Section Repairs 85
Mounting and Inflation 29 Radial Ply Tires 85
Operation 31 Crown Repair Limits 85
Servicing Tire and Rim 31
Inspection Procedures 31 11. Retreading 86
Introduction 87
4. Collecting and Storing Tire Information 34 Planning A Retread Plant Visit 87
Branding Tires 35 Plant Inspection 87
Radio Frequency Identification Tags 36 Definitions 90
RF Tag Usage 36 Retread Plant Inspection Checklist 92
5. Inflation 37 12. Miscellaneous 94
Underinflation 40 Use of Chains on Radial Truck Tires 95
Do’s and Don’ts for Maintaining Proper Tire Siping 95
Inflation Pressure 42
Nitrogen Inflation 42 Dynamometer Tests 96
Mixing Radial and Bias Ply Tires 96
6. Total Vehicle Alignment 43 Noise 97
Steer Axle Alignment 45 Tire Storage Recommendations 99
Loaded vs. Unloaded Alignment Settings 45 When Does The Warranty End? 100
Toe 46 Tire Sealants And Balance Materials 100
Camber 46
Caster 46 13. Standards and Regulations 101
Ackerman Steering Effect on Tire Wear 47 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards
Drive Axle Alignment 48 Testing and Certification 102
Trailer Axle Alignment 49 Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations 102
In-Service Alignment Recommendations 49 Inspection 103
Minimum Tread Depths 104
7. Factors Affecting Treadwear 50 Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance (CVSA) 104
Steer Tire Wear 52 Regrooving/Tire Siping 105
Setback Steer Axles 53
Drive Tires 54 Load Ratings and Inflation Data 107
Bearing Adjustment 55 Truck Type and Weight Class 108
Environmental Effects 56 Index 109
How Speed Affects Tire Wear 57
Forward
This manual was prepared as a
guide to the selection, operation,
and maintenance of Goodyear
radial truck tires.
The subjects covered are all
essential to good tire performance.
Detailed explanations on selection,
mounting, air pressure, vehicle
alignment, and other important
issues are supported by illustrations
for clarity.
Use this manual often as a
reference. It will help you get
extended fuel economy, treadwear,
and casing life from your Goodyear
radial tires.
Radial
S E C T I O N O N E Truck Tire
Nomenclature
Radial
Truck Tire
Terms
5
Radial
Truck Tire
Nomenclature
S E C T I O N O N E
I
Tread
1. 2.
Crown Shoulder
3. Tread Skirt
H. Belts
G. Radial Ply
4.
F. Sidewall Sidewall
Unisteel
Radial
A. Liner
E. Apexes
5. Stabilizer Ply
D. GG Ring
C. Chafer
6. Bead Heel
B. Bead Core
7. Bead Toe
6
Radial
S E C T I O N O N E Truck Tire
Nomenclature
Minimum
Dual
Static Loaded
Spacing
The Tire & Rim
Radius (SLR) Association
Yearbook
The Tire & Rim Association
Yearbook provides essential
information for the
interchangeability of tire,
wheel and rim products for
cars, trucks, buses, cycles,
Loaded Section off-the-road, agricultural
(LS) and industrial vehicles.
To obtain a copy, write or call:
The Tire & Rim Association, Inc.
175 Montrose West Ave.
Definition Suite 150
• Footprint — The surface of the tire in • Net/Gross Ratio — Tread pattern Copley, OH 44321
contact with the road surface at any contact area to total tread area. 330-666-8121
given load and inflation pressure. www.us-tra.org
• Outside Diameter (OD) —
• Tread Width — Distance across The unloaded diameter of the tire/
tread surface. rim combination.
• Non-Skid — Tread depth from tread • Section Width (SW) — The maximum
surface to bottom of major grooves. width of the tire section, excluding any
lettering or decoration.
• Undertread — Gauge of rubber
between top of belt package and • Section Height (SH) — The distance
bottom of grooves. from the rim to the maximum height of
the tire at the centerline.
• Turn Radius — Curvature of the
tread face from shoulder to shoulder.
7
Tire Selection
S E C T I O N T W O
Tire Selection
Selecting the proper tire size, load range and
8
S E C T I O N T W O Tire Selection
TIRE SELECTION
PROCESS
Purpose Introduction the gear ratio. Some change may require
This Recommended Practice is The process of determining which a different rim (width, pressure limits).
intended to make the tire purchaser, fleet tire to select for a particular job or Tire Clearances — In order to select
operator, or maintenance manager aware operation may sometimes seem difficult a new tire size for a given application,
of major items for consideration, and to or complex. Indeed, the proper selection the dimensional clearance of the tire
provide a step-by-step thought process involves a myriad of decisions concerning must be acceptable. The following
for selecting the best type of tire for the the size, the type, and the tread design define those areas that must be checked:
application. The following sections of the tire based upon the intended 1. Vertical Clearance is the distance
provide a brief explanation of the various application. Other considerations are between the top of the tire tread
tire selection criteria that must be the manufacturer of the tire, the tire and the vehicle immediately above
addressed. A summary of considerations dealer, price, availability, and the warranty it. This clearance varies as the axles
is also listed to enable the decision-maker coverage which comes with the product. operate. The vertical movements
to identify advantages and disadvantages However, there is a logical method for of the whole axle in relation to the
of each of the selection criterion. selecting which kind of tire would be chassis are normally limited by an
If higher steer tire pressures are most appropriate depending upon an axle stop. To determine vertical
required, this may mean you’ll be using assessment of the many considerations clearance, subtract the axle stop
different inflation pressures for drive and surrounding the fleet operation. clearance from the total clearance
trailer tires. Be aware that all tire use selections above the tire at rest.
While the considerations may not will have advantages and disadvantages
be all-encompassing, they point out the depending upon vehicle design and 2. Front Tire Clearances are the distances
major issues that should be dealt with vocation. Make certain your choices are between the front tires (on both
before selecting a tire. Because of the in line with your perceived fleet needs steering lock positions) and the
pace of technology change in the tire and contact your tire suppliers for expert vehicle. Clearances of front wheels
industry, certain considerations may assistance in making your selection. must be checked by turning the wheels
become less important while new ones from full left lock to full right lock,
may arise from time to time. Tire Clearance Restrictions since the minimum clearance might
occur at some intermediate point.
New Equipment — When spec’ing a
new vehicle, the prospective owner can 3. Overall Width — When fitting larger
be quite imaginative in creating a vehicle or wider tires to an existing vehicle,
that meets specific needs. Tires, however, the overall width across the dual tires
may be the limiting factor to this creativity is increased by half of the increase in
since they must be capable of carrying the section width of each outside tire
the expected load and be made to certain and the increase in offset of each
minimum dimensions. The fleet owner outside wheel. The overall width
can choose from several types of tires that across the tires is measured at the
can carry the anticipated load, but may twelve o’clock position and not at the
be forced to redesign a vehicle’s overall lower side (six o’clock position)
dimensions if the tires that can carry the where the tires deflect due to load.
load are larger than originally desired. When using tire chains, a minimum
Existing Equipment — When changing of two inches more clearance is needed
the type or size of tires used on existing to provide clearance between the
equipment, space restrictions are more dual assembly.
inflexible. Not only must a tire be selected
that can carry the load, it must fit in an
existing space. In addition, when changing
tire sizes on an existing power unit,
consideration must be given to the
effects the new size tire will have on
9
Tire Selection
S E C T I O N T W O
Rims And Wheels Radial and Bias Tire typically made with one steel body
The selection of rims or disc wheels Construction ply or multiple body plies of other
goes hand-in-hand with the selection of materials. Under the tread area, the
There are two basic types of tire radial tire usually has three or four
tires. When ordering new equipment, construction — radial and bias — that
specifying the recommended rim for the crossed plies or belts made of steel cord
must be considered when choosing either to stabilize the crown area and offer
tire size selected will ensure optimum a replacement tire for certain applications
performance. better puncture resistance. The radial
or when spec’ing new tires on an original sidewall area is generally less stiff than
Rims are identified by a diameter and equipment vehicle Figure 2.1.
width and, in the case of tube-type rims, the bias ply sidewall, though the tread
Bias ply tires are constructed of area is normally much stiffer.
also with a type code. The type code overlapping crossed layers of cord
designations are used on tube-type Bias ply tires have been designed over
material and are typically made with the years to perform in many different
products to help identify rings and rims nylon, polyester, or other materials.
for interchangeability. For example, types of applications from all-highway
The crossed plies run on a diagonal from to on-off road, to all off-road service
a 20 x 7.5 FL rim would have a nominal tire bead to tire bead and comprise a
diameter of 20 inches; a width between conditions. With the advent of the radial
generally stiff sidewall area. Sometimes, tire and some of its inherent advantages,
the flanges of approximately 7.5 inches; extra crossed plies or breakers are used
and be a FL type rim. Other typical the bias tire is now used much less
under the tread area to further stiffen frequently in long haul over-the-road
type codes are: CR, 5˚, LB, and LW. It is the crown area and provide better
important that the rim size be approved applications. Radial tires typically are
wear resistance or other performance used in applications where heat build-up
for the tire being used. This assures proper parameters (such as puncture
fit and performance of the tire and rim. with bias ply tires is a problem. With
resistance, etc.). the many improvements to radial tire
The tire or rim/wheel manufacturer’s data Radial ply tires are made with the
book or Tire & Rim Association Yearbook (or construction made in recent years, the
cord material running in a radial or radial tire is now used in virtually all
equivalent), and www.goodyear.com/truck direct line from bead (at 90 degrees
specify approved rims for each tire size. types of service conditions.
to the centerline of the tire), and are
When selecting the correct wheel or
rim type, it is important to determine the
operating conditions to which the wheel
or rim will be subjected. Conditions to
consider are loads, speeds, road surfaces,
use of bias or radial tires, tire pressure,
tire size, and the use of tube-type or
tubeless tires.
Caution is necessary in selecting
wheel/rim offsets to ensure proper tire
spacing, body and chassis clearance, and
overall track width. If dual tires are used,
dual spacing and tire clearance must
be considered.
Take precautions to ensure that the
rim and wheel not only have the approved
contour, but also have the load and
inflation ratings sufficient for the tire in
the intended application.
For more detail in selecting the
correct wheel/rim, refer to TMC RP211A, Radial Bias
Rim and Wheel Selection and Maintenance.
Figure 2.1
10
S E C T I O N T W O Tire Selection
11
Tire Selection
S E C T I O N T W O
The pros and cons of wide base take full advantage of the wide base change in the tire RPM is 3 percent or
singles versus duals in many performance single concept is to use a 77.5 inch wide less, a gearing change is not required.
categories are dependent on specific axle in place of the standard 71.5 inch. In a tire selection process, it is
vehicle configuration and operations. Inherent advantages of duals versus mandatory that consideration be given
Some key considerations and potential wide base singles include standardization to selecting a tire size and load range
benefits are discussed in the following of tires/wheels, reduced road service due which at least equals the maximum load
paragraphs. to tire problems through “limp” capability requirements by axle position (steer,
Potential advantages for wide base to get to repair facility, and improved drive, or trailer). All highway truck tires
singles include: increased payload vehicle stability/control during tire air loss. have load limits established for tires used
weight and volume due to lower tire/ in normal highway service. Therefore,
wheel weight/volume, ease of maintenance Matching Tires For when selecting a tire for service, both
(no mismatched tires, etc.), reduced Speed And Axle Weights the carrying capacity and speed
inventory, improved fuel economy, and implications must be considered.
sometimes more uniform wear in free- As mentioned earlier, there are drive For example, when selecting tires
rolling trailer applications. Possible train/gearing considerations which must for a tractor-trailer combination with
legal restrictions of nonsteer axle be made at the original equipment or a gross combination weight (GCW)
application of wide base singles should replacement level when utilizing low of 80,000 lbs. and an axle weight
be thoroughly investigated before profile tires. These involve engine RPM, distribution of 12,000 lbs. on the steer,
finalizing size selection. transmission, drive axle gear ratio and 34,000 lbs. on the tandem drive, and
Original equipment fitment of wide tire RPM. The objective is to obtain the 34,000 lbs. on the tandem trailer axles,
base singles offers the potential for most fuel efficient engine RPM/ground common conventional tire sizes used
lowering the center-of-gravity and thus speed relationship consistent with are 295/75R22.5 (275/80R22.5),
improving the stability of vehicles such service condition requirements. 285/75R24.5 (275/80R24.5), 11R22.5
as tankers. In retrofit applications, care The effect on road speed at the and 11R24.5 Load Range G. The
must be taken to properly select wheel/rim same engine RPM, using a 55 mph base, load and inflation tables (from the
offsets to maintain a tracking width for depends upon which conventional sizes Engineering Data Book for Over-the-
acceptable stability. A common way to and which low profile diameters are Road Truck Tires or www.goodyear.com
involved. Generally, if the percent /truck) for these sizes are shown
in Table 2.
Table 2
TABLE 2
Tire Load Limits (lbs.) At Various Cold Inflation Pressures
(The Pressure is Minimum for the Load, Maximum Speed of 60 MPH)
Inflation Pressure (psi)
Size Usage 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
11R22.5 Dual 4380 4580 4760 4950 5205(F) 5415 5625 5840(G) 5895
Single 4530 4770 4990 5220 5510(F) 5730 5950 6175(G) 6320
11R24.5 Dual 4660 4870 5070 5260 5510(F) 5675 5840 6005(G) 6205
Single 4820 5070 5310 5550 5840(F) 6095 6350 6610(G) 6790
295/75R22.5 Dual 4500 4690 4885 5070(F) 5260 5440 5675(G) 5800 6005(H)
Single 4500 4725 4945 5155 5370 5510(F) 5780 5980 6175(G)
285/75R24.5 Dual 4540 4740 4930 5205(F) 5310 5495 5675(G) 5860 6175(H)
Single 4545 4770 4990 5210 5420 5675(F) 5835 6040 6175(G)
12
S E C T I O N T W O Tire Selection
Therefore, with conventional tire is not an exact science, but there are • maintenance training for personnel
sizes, it would require at least an 11R22.5 certain general rules and guidelines • retreadability/repairability costs
tire with a carrying capacity of 6,175 lbs. which, if followed, can lead to selecting and servicing
at 105 psi on the steer axle (which would a tread design that will give the maximum • warranty and adjustment servicing
be the most critical for load and single desired performance for the service • leading edge or “experimental”
application).The 11R22.5 would be more application in a particular fleet. In order product availability
than adequate for drive and trailer axle to help select the right tread design, refer • effects of non-standardization
applications. In low profile sizes, the to Technology & Maintenace Council RP • effects of tire down-sizing on vehicle
285/75R24.5 at 105 psi would have the (Recommended Practice) 220, Tire Tread gearing and braking
adequate carrying capacity for the steer Design Selection. • timing for phase-in or changeover
as well as the drive and trailer axle loads. programs
The Tire and Rim Association has Fleet Operation • legal or contractual requirements
established inflation pressures for load Considerations
limits at various speeds for truck tires
When evaluating the many tire Retreadable Tires
used on improved surfaces. Consult Retreading your worn tires or
the Tire and Rim Association table or options available for any given vehicle
application, there are numerous purchasing retreads from a dealer can
individual tire manufacturer for specific provide new tire service and performance
recommendations to meet your management considerations in addition
to the mechanical considerations already at a fraction of the cost of a new tire.
operating condition. You can contact When selecting new tires, purchase
The Tire and Rim Association at covered. While these considerations
apply most directly when spec’ing out those that are designed to be retreadable.
330-666-8121 or www.us-tra.org. To insure retreadability, follow prescribed
new equipment, they also can be used
to reevaluate tire selection prior to maintenance and avoid regrooving
Tread Design Selection tire replacement. which may damage the valuable casing.
The selection of the proper tread Fleet Operation Considerations Retreaded Tire Considerations
design for an intended application is • availability of various products and • provide equivalent service and
very important to the fleet that wishes service maintenance performance
to obtain the maximum potential from • tire purchase price vs. performance • reduce overall cost-per-mile
tires and thereby lower tire expenses. (cost-per-mile) • conserve natural resources
Selection of the proper tread design • financial inventory investment and • tread designs available for all
space requirements applications
Figure 2.2: Tire Construction
Tube
Flap
One-Piece
Rim
Multipiece
Rim Rim Diameter Difference — 2-1/2 inches
13
Tire Selection
S E C T I O N T W O
Vehicle
Clearance
(V/C)
Tire Clearance
Tire Section Tire Section
Width Width
Rim Width
Section Width
Overall Width
“Aspect Ratio” is defined as the percent of the section height to the section width of the tire.
14
S E C T I O N T W O Tire Selection
Radial
Radial
Aspect Ratio
More recently the trend has been towards low profile tires. These are usually tubeless tires designed for either 22.5
or 24.5'' diameter wheels. The most common low profile tires are listed below showing conventional sizes which
they normally replace:
Width
Standard
Aspect
Radial Tire
90-series
(11R22.5)
Height is
75% of
Width
Low Profile
Radial Tire
75-series
(295/75R22.5)
Figure 2.5: Sizing Definition *Information courtesy of The Maintenance Council (TMC) — Recommended Practices Book
15
Tire Selection
S E C T I O N T W O
TIRE SELECTION
PROCESS WORK SHEET
STEP 1
Record maximum axle weights expected during vehicle operation.
Axle Weights
Steer Drive Drive/Trail Trail Trail
STEP 2
Check types of service
___________ Line Haul —Travel on interstate and normal highway roads at maximum speeds with runs over 250 miles.
___________ Local — Most travel between and around city areas, with runs generally less than 250 miles.
___________ On-Off-Road — Travel on some highway and secondary roads with possible travel on gravel/dirt roads.
___________ Off-Road — Travel on mostly secondary and gravel/dirt roads with a potential for tread cutting due to rocks,
debris, etc.
STEP 3
Determine size restrictions
1. If spec’ing for new equipment, provide for adequate tire clearance and brake compatibility.
a. Minimum tire diameter due to brake restrictions _________________________
b. Maximum tire diameter desired _________________________
If wheel size becomes larger (change from dual tires to wide-base tires or to larger dual tires), determine present tire
clearances:
(1) Vertical Tire Clearance _________________________
(2) Front Wheel Clearance _________________________
(3) Overall Width of Present Tire _________________________
(4) Overall Diameter of Present Tire _________________________
(5) Current Wheel Offset _________________________
(6) Overall Width Across the Tires _________________________
STEP 4
Write in type of tires to be used — Duals or Wide-Base _________________________
STEP 5
Write in type of construction to be used — Radial or Bias _________________________
16
S E C T I O N T W O Tire Selection
STEP 6
Write in type of air retention construction — Tube-type or _________________________
Tubeless (This will be determined by the type of rims to
be used.)
STEP 7
Write in aspect ratio to be used _________________________
(This step may be incorporated into Step 8.)
STEP 8
Select tire size from Tire and Rim Association tables or tire manufacturers’ data books using the tire described in Steps 4 through 7.
Do this by cross checking the axle weights and speed restrictions to be sure the tires can carry the maximum axle load recorded in
Step 1 at operational speeds.
Tire Size ____________________ Dual Load _______________ Single Load _______________ at ____________ psi
If maximum loads cannot be attained with the initial tire desired, a change in either Steps 3(1), 4, or 5 must be made.
Repeat Step 8 until a tire size with the necessary carrying capacity is selected.
STEP 9
Write in selected tire’s dimensions from Tire and Rim Association tables or tire manufacturers’ data books.
1. If spec’ing new equipment, redesign space restrictions if adequate clearance and brake compatibility are not afforded, or return
to Step 8 and select another size tire.
2. If retrofitting tires on existing equipment and larger size tires than presently used are selected, determine clearances:
a. Vertical Clearances:
= _________________________ (Subtotal)
17
Tire Selection
S E C T I O N T W O
= _________________________ (Subtotal)
c. Overall Width:
= _________________________ (Subtotal)
= _________________________ (Subtotal)
= _________________________ (Subtotal)
If all clearances are not suitable, return to Step 8 and select a smaller size tire.
STEP 10
Select wheel/rim from Tire and Rim Association tables or wheel/rim manufacturers’ catalogs. Check to see that load and inflation
pressure ratings are adequate (compare with Single Load and Pressure in Step 8).
STEP 11
Select tread designs for steer, drive, and trailer positions using Technology & Maintenance Council Recommended Practice 220,
Tire Tread Design Selection. Call 800-ATA-Line to order.
STEP 12
Incorporate fleet operation considerations at this point. Compute gear ratio changes if appropriate.
18
Mounting
S E C T I O N T H R E E Procedure
Mounting
Procedure
It is essential that good mounting procedures
19
Mounting
Procedure S E C T I O N T H R E E
20
Mounting
S E C T I O N T H R E E Procedure
21
Mounting
Procedure S E C T I O N T H R E E
ASSEMBLY OF
TUBES & FLAPS TIRE TUBE FLAP
Always install a new radial tube and a Insert the tube into the tire and
new radial flap in a new tire. Use only partially inflate it to round out the tube.
tubes designated for radials and make Apply rubber lubricant to the inside and
sure the proper size tube and flap is used. outside surfaces of both beads and to WARNING
Never use undersized tubes. Certain the portion of the tube that appears Always use a safety cage or
precautions must be taken when mounting between the beads. Do not allow approved safety device and
used flaps, or damage to the tire and lubricant to run down into the tire. extension hose with air gauge
tube will result. Apply the lubricant with a cloth, and clip-on air chuck for airing
a tire on a multi-piece rim or
New truck and bus flaps can be used swab, or brush. single piece rim.
with any one of several different tire and For detailed, illustrated instructions
rim sizes as recommended. But, once on procedures and proper use of tire
used, the flap must be remounted in the tools in mounting and demounting Tube type tires should always be
same size tire and on the same size rim Goodyear radial truck tires on various aired once before the valve core is
from which it was removed. Always use types of rims, see the wall charts installed. This will eliminate confusion
a flap of adequate width to prevent available through RMA (www.rma.org). in inflating a tire twice. All tube type
tube pinching. After mounting and before inflating radial tires should be inflated twice.
As a precaution against flap failure, the tire, inspect all components of To inflate twice, the tire is inflated
mark the tire and rim size on the flap at multipiece rims to make sure they are in to full inflation pressure, then all the
the time of removal (if inspection shows place. See that tires are properly mounted air is let out and the tire is reinflated.
that it is not damaged and can be used and seated on the rims by checking the The first inflation seats the bead of the
again). When the flap is again mounted, distance between the tire GG ring and tire, but over stretches the tube and
this marking protects against the danger the rim flange. This distance should be flap in the area between the bead toes.
of misusing the flap with the wrong size the same all the way around the tire; Completely deflating the tire allows the
tire and rim. that is, the rim flange must be concentric tube and flap to relax. A partial deflation
with the GG ring (refer to the photograph doesn’t get the job done. The full
Figure 3.4 below, and Figure 3.3 on deflation and reinflation stretches
CAUTION page 19, for GG ring location on tire) the tube and flap uniformly.
Used flaps cause tube failure unless and the distance must be the same for Important: During the first inflation,
mounted with the size tire and rim both sides. the airing should be stopped at about 10
originally used. psi, and the side ring or lock ring should
be checked carefully to make sure it is
properly seated. Also, it is recommended
The valve core provides a temporary that the side ring or lock ring seating
air seal while air pressure checks are be checked at 10 psi during the
being made, but it will leak air slowly if second inflation.
the cap is loose, missing, or damaged.
Use a sealing-type valve cap. A metal
cap is preferred but a sealing-type nylon Figure 3.4 Use of GG ring to indicate correct mounting
cap is acceptable.
In the case of used tires and tubes,
WARNING
Never, under any circumstances,
recondition the valve stem every time a attempt to seat rim components
tire is mounted. Recondition the threads by tapping with mallet when tire
on both the inside and the outside of is inflated or partially inflated.
the stem with a valve stem rethreader Deflate tire first.
tool. Install only new valve cores. Used
or dirty valve cores may be defective.
Don’t take a chance. Valve cores must Install a sealing-type valve cap finger
be stocked in clean closed containers at tight. A valve cap has two functions to
all times, since a small particle of dirt perform. The first is to keep dirt from
will render a core ineffective. damaging the valve core sealing surface.
The second, is to provide an air seal for
22
Mounting
S E C T I O N T H R E E Procedure
TUBELESS TIRE
MOUNTING
the valve. A valve cap, therefore, must For mounting tubeless tires, the
be durable. procedure is about the same as for tube
The black plastic cap that sometimes
comes on a new tube is not a valve cap
type tires except that it is not necessary
to inflate twice. Cleaning the rim is WARNING
and will leak air at the high inflations again critical because the tire depends Always use a securely held safety
used in truck tires. Its purpose is to keep on the rim for its air seal. Make sure the cage and extension hose with
dust and dirt out of the stem during inside of the tire is clean and dry. If tires clip on air chuck for airing the
tire. Rapid air loss can propel
shipment, protect the threads of the have been stored outdoors, any water in the assembly.
stem, and shield the folded tube against the tire must be removed and the tire
abrasion by the threads. The plastic cap dried before mounting. Water vapor in
threads are easily stripped; the plastic the inflation air tends to cause rim
cap will crack in cold weather and will corrosion. The valve stem must be
melt if the stem comes in contact with inspected to make sure it is tight in the INSTALLATION
the brake drum. A metal valve cap rim and that the rubber grommet Installation of the tire on the vehicle
contains a rubber gasket which provides between the rim and stem is in good is the final step. When pulling a tire
an air seal; a plastic cap contains none. condition. from stock, check the air pressure against
Therefore, always use a metal cap or a To install the tubeless tire on the rim, the desired value. When tires are to be
self-sealing nylon cap. lubricate both bead seats of the rim and mounted as duals, make sure that the
Valve extensions, or “air-through” both tire beads to ensure damage-free two tires are actually the same size.
valves are not a substitute for caps, since and uniform mounting. Bead lubricant (See Matching of Duals on page 25.)
they are still subject to core seal leaks at must also be used during demounting to Measure the outside diameter of
high pressure. Valve extensions require a avoid damage to the bead area. Due to every tire after it is mounted and inflated
sealing-type valve cap. their greater sidewall flexibility, it may and before it goes into stock. The
Bend the valve stem to its proper be necessary to use an inflation aid to diameter should be written on the tread
position. If it is left flat and touching help seat radial tubeless tire beads. For so that it is visible when the tire is in
the rim, the valve cap will be difficult to detailed mounting and demounting the spares rack. Then by simply looking
remove and accurate air pressure checks instructions, refer to the wall charts at the treads of the spares in stock, a
will be hindered. (If it is easy to check available through OSHA Occupational replacement tire of the correct diameter
the pressure in a tire, it is more likely to Safeaty and Health Administration to match an already mounted dual can
be checked.) The stem should not be (www.osha.gov). When using tire irons, be selected.
bent up enough to cause it to touch the exercise caution to prevent damage to There are many ways of measuring
brake drum. Heat from the drum will be the tire or rim. the size of a tire, but two ways appear
conducted along the brass valve stem to Check that the distance between to be more satisfactory than the others.
the tube/flap area around the stem base the tire GG ring and the top of the Both involve measuring the complete
and cause decomposition of the rubber. rim or wheel flange is uniform all circumference of the tire. The first uses
This will lead to eventual tube failure. around the tire, and that the distance a 14-foot endless steel mating tape.
In such a heated valve stem, the valve is the same on both sides of the tire. This is a steel band that is formed into a
core seal may also be ruined. If this distance is not uniform, the hoop. The hoop is slipped over the tire,
After the tire is mounted and inflated, bead is not properly seated. pulled up tight, and a reading made.
the tire/wheel assembly should be put If the GG ring in no concentric with The second type is a pocket-size steel
into stock for 24 hours to permit a test the rim flange, it is recommended that tape. With this it is necessary to hook
of its air retention. Just prior to being the “inflate-twice” procedure also be the end in the tread and roll the tire one
put in service, the pressure in the tire used in mounting tubeless tires in order revolution, which brings the tape end
should be checked and compared with to seat beads properly. back around and permits a reading of
the initial value applied. If the pressure the circumference.
is more than 5 psi lower, the tire should Another way of measuring tires
be withheld from service and checked uses calipers that measure tire diameter.
for a leak. The tape method is preferred because
it provides an average diameter rather
than any one particular diameter
measurement.
23
Mounting
Procedure S E C T I O N T H R E E
1 2
1
10 8
7 4
3
6
5 4
5 6
7
2 9
3 8
Figure 3.6 Proper sequence for tightening stud nuts on Figure 3.8 Proper sequence for tightening stud nuts on
an 8 stud system. 10 stud system.
DEMOUNTING
Always deflate any tire to be removed
prior to loosening rim or wheel nuts.
1 Bead lubricant must be used when
4 demounting tubeless tires.
3
Figure 3.5 Measuring with pocket size steel tape.
5 2
On demountable rims, lugs should
be tightened uniformly in a triangulated
or criss-cross sequence to achieve
trueness of the rim on the wheel. Lug
nuts should be torqued properly so they
do not loosen in use. On disc wheels, Figure 3.7 Proper sequence for tightening stud nuts on
stud nuts should also be drawn up and an 5 and 6 stud systems.
tightened in a criss-cross sequence.
See rim and wheel manuals for more
installation details. Lug or stud nuts
should be checked for tightness after
the first 100 miles of travel and once 1
each week thereafter. 6 3
4 5
2
24
Mounting
S E C T I O N T H R E E Procedure
MATCHING OF DUALS
Mismatched duals have the same effect In addition to matching diameters and Matching dual tires is important
on the life of tires as low inflation or inflation pressures on dual installations, to insure even wear and load sharing
overload. An underinflated tire on a dual it is very important not to mix radials capabilities. Tire circumference of duals
assembly shifts its share of the load to and bias ply tires on the same axle due should be as close as possible with a
its mate, which then becomes overloaded to different load/deflection characteristics maximum tire circumference tolerance
and frequently fails prematurely. A of these two types of tires. Radial tires of 3/4" for tire sizes 8.25R20 and 1-1/2"
difference of 15 psi inflation may result deflect more under a given load than maximum circumference tolerance for
in the lesser inflated tire supporting 500 bias ply tires. If radial and bias ply tires tire sizes 9.00R20 and larger.
pounds less than the tire with the proper are mixed in dual installations on the When mounting duals on a truck,
inflation. A similar action occurs when same axle, the bias ply tires will bear there will generally be some difference
one tire’s diameter is smaller than its the greater part of the axle load and in the diameter of the two tires (within
mate. A difference of 1/4 inch in diameter may operate in an overloaded condition the limits described above). Mount the
may result in the larger tire carrying 600 that will lead to reduced mileage and small tire on the inside. The outside tire
pounds more than the smaller. The shift early failure. wears faster than the inside tire. As it
in load becomes more prevalent as the Radial tire overall diameter will govern wears its diameter will approach that of
difference in diameters or inflation the revolutions per mile obtained from the inside tire. Additionally, any crown
becomes greater. a given tire. It is necessary to closely on the road will favor the placement of
Improperly matched duals are subject match tire revolutions per mile with the smaller diameter tire on the inside.
to rapid treadwear because the larger tandem drive axle units coupled directly At the time of mounting duals on a
tire carries more load and will wear fast . together, as when an interaxle differential vehicle, locate the two valves diametrically
Although the mismatched duals have does not exist or is locked out. Otherwise, opposite (180 degrees apart) for
different diameters, they must rotate at the drive transmission may freeze up or accessibility. Hand holes on disc wheels
the same speed. The smaller tire then fail in some way, and/or excessive slip must be located so that the inside valve
also wears unevenly because it is forced on one of the sets of tires will lead to a is accessible.
to scuff over the road. The overall result loss in traction and uneven wear.
is abnormal and unequal treadwear for It is important that the tires of tandem
both tires. driving axles be inspected and matched
Improperly matched duals may also at regular periods, as determined by the
lead to sudden air loss as a result of one type of service.
tire being required to flex severely in
doing more than its share of the work.
25
Mounting
Procedure S E C T I O N T H R E E
SPACING OF DUALS
Proper spacing between dual tires
is important. Too often, the service Section Width Section Width
rendered by dual tires is sharply reduced
Vehicle Clearance
Tire Clearance
because of insufficient spacing. It is a
condition caused by either (a) oversized
tires or (b) improper rims and wheels.
Tires mounted too close together do not
allow proper air circulation to dissipate
tire heat. Heat increases tire tread loss CL CL
rate and reduces tire durability. When a
Spacer
Width
truck is heavily overloaded, insufficient
spacing can cause the sidewalls of the
duals to rub together, wear off rubber,
and become overheated due to
continuous friction.
If the space between duals is too Offset Offset
great, there will be excessive dragging Dual Spacing
and scuffing of the outside tire each
time a turn is made. Also, check overall Figure 3.9 Cross-section through typical dual installation
vehicle track width to assure compliance
with width laws.
Note that proper dual spacing for
Rim offset determines dual spacing
and affects vehicle clearance and possibly
SPACERS
radial tires is the same as for bias ply. overall vehicle width. Any change in Spacer installation procedure is as
An understanding of the geometry offset of the inside rim will change follows:
of a dual tire installation is important. vehicle clearance proportionally. Any 1. Examine spacer brand to be sure it
A cross-section through a typical dual offset changes of the outside rims will is not damaged, bent, or distorted.
installation is shown in Figure 3.9. change the overall distance across the It should be perfectly circular.
The dual spacing of the installation is vehicle from outside tire wall to outside 2. Do not roll vehicle, wheels, axle,
the sum of the rim offsets and the tire wall. or assemblies on spacers.
spacer width. Both load and inflation must be 3. Position inside rim over cast spoke
To determine tire clearance, subtract considered in selecting rim size or wheel as close as possible to the
the section width from the figure for type. Consult rim manufacturer for mounting level.
dual spacing. Use the loaded section recommended rim style for extra ply 4. Push spacer band over cast spoke
width (LS) at rated load for a more exact rating tires. wheel with consistent pressure on
clearance figure. The loaded section both sides. Avoid cocking band.
width can be found in the Goodyear Achieve snug fit against spokes and
Truck Tire Engineering Data Book, or inside rim gutter edge.
the width of a tire can be measured 5. Turn spacer band on wheel to check
under load. concentricity.
Dual spacing and tire clearance can 6. Position outside rim, install outer
be varied by changing spacer width. rim clamps and tighten nuts
To increase spacer width, however, the evenly. Tighten nuts gradually in
mounting width on the dual wheel must a criss-cross sequence across the
be great enough to accommodate a diameter of the wheels. Consult
wider spacer. The distance from the rim manufacturer’s recommendations
outside tire wall of one dual assembly to for proper torque range.
the outside tire wall of the assembly on 7. Examine clamps to be sure they
the other side of the truck will be made have not bottomed out. Check rim
greater when spacer width is increased. edges to be sure they consistently
If this distance is the maximum width of meet the spacer band edges.
the vehicle, state laws governing truck 8. After road service, recheck torque.
width must be considered.
26
Mounting
S E C T I O N T H R E E Procedure
PROPER MATCHING
OF RIM PARTS
CORRECT Accuride 5˚ or Motor Wheel “CR” or “FL” Flange
Motor Wheel or Accuride “CR” or “FL” Side Ring
Motor Wheel or Accuride
“CR” or “FL” Lock Ring Proper Fit
Proper Fit
Motor Wheel or Accuride “CR” or “FL” Base
Motor Wheel LW and LB Base
Accuride or Budd LB Base Motor Wheel LW Side Ring
Accuride or Budd LB Side Ring
Proper Fit
Motor Wheel or Accuride “CR” and “FL” Bases and Components Interchangeable With Accuride “CR” and “FL”
Motor Wheel “LB” Bases and Components Interchangeable With Accuride and Budd “LB”
INCORRECT
Accuride 5˚ Lock Ring “CR” / “FL” Side Ring
“LW” or “LB” Base
“CR” or “FL” Base Bead Seat Too High Loose Fit
Improper Seating
Most highway rims look alike, but all In addition to the safety problems Mismatched assemblies that result
vary somewhat in certain construction posed by mismatched rings and bases, in a low bead seat can sometimes be
features. Variances between rims of mismatched components can cause special recognized by rust on the bead face.
different types make part mixing problems in tire, flap, and tube wear. Such assemblies allow:
hazardous. A close, proper fit between Mismatched rim components that • Irregular bead base wear
rim parts is essential to long tire life as result in a high bead seat often achieve • Off-center mounting, higher
well as operating safety. Although side bead seating over only a portion of the imbalance, more vibration
rings, flanges, and lock rings of different rim circumference. This causes: • Rotational slippage of tire on rim
types appear to be properly seated, • Vibration • Valve stem tear-outs
difficult to detect gaps are often present. • Uneven wear Rim component mismatch — with
The illustrations in Figure 3.10 • Severe rim chafing at top of flange either high or low bead seat diameter —
show correct, safe matchings of rim • Larger gaps in two piece rim flanges permits bead rocking which can cause
parts. Mismatched rings and bases, which cut chafer the tire bead toe to cut through the
which almost always create an unsafe • Torn chafers at bead heel flap and tube. This additional bead
operating condition are also shown. For • Cut bead heels, which generally movement can also cause the flap edge
more information, refer to Department identify this condition to cut through the tube. In either case,
of Transportation (DOT) Multipiece • Bead base irregular chafing a flat tire is the eventual result.
Rim/Wheel Matching Chart. • Lower sidewall separation due to
(www.dot.gov) stress concentration at flange top
• Broken beads
27
Mounting
Procedure S E C T I O N T H R E E
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Inspection: Precautions And Reasons For Precautions
• Clean rims and repaint to stop • Do not, under any circumstances, • Don’t be careless or take chances.
detrimental effects of corrosion and attempt to rework, weld, heat, or braze If you are not sure about the proper
facilitate checking and tire mounting. any rim components that are cracked, mating of rim and wheel parts, consult
Be very careful to clean all dirt and broken, or damaged. Replace with a rim and wheel expert. This may be
rust from the lock ring and gutter. new parts or parts that are not cracked, the tire man who is servicing your
This is important to insure that the broken, or damaged and which are fleet, the rim and wheel distributor
lock ring seats in its proper position. of the same size and type and are in your area, or the manufacturer’s
A filter on the air inflation equipment compatible with the other parts. sales engineer.
to remove the moisture from the air Heating may weaken a part to the Failure to exercise proper care can
line helps prevent corrosion. The filter extent it is unable to withstand forces result in serious physical injury
should be checked periodically to see of inflation or operation. or death.
that it is working properly.
• Make sure correct parts are being • Don’t reinflate a tire that has been run
Parts must be clean for a proper fit — assembled. Check your distributor flat or has been run at 80 percent or
particularly the gutter section which or the manufacturer if you have less of its recommended operating
holds the lock ring in proper position. any doubts. pressure, or when there is obvious or
• Components that are cracked, badly Mismatched parts may appear to fit, suspected damage to the tire or wheel
worn, damaged, bent, repaired, or pitted but when the tire is inflated may fly components.
from corrosion must not be used and apart with explosive force sufficient Components may have been damaged
must be discarded. When component to cause serious injury or death. or dislocated during the time the tire
condition is in doubt, replace. was run flat or seriously underinflated.
Parts that are cracked, damaged or
excessively corroded are weakened.
28
Mounting
S E C T I O N T H R E E Procedure
29
Mounting
Procedure S E C T I O N T H R E E
30
Mounting
S E C T I O N T H R E E Procedure
OPERATION:
Precautions
And Reasons SERVICING TIRE AND RIM ON VEHICLE:
For Precautions Precautions And Reasons For Precautions
• Always use rims recommended for the • Block the tire and wheel on the under the jack. Always provide for
tire. Consult catalogues for proper opposite side of the vehicle before vehicle support with blocks just in
tire/rim matching. placing the jack in position. case the jack should slip.
• Don’t overload or overinflate tire/rim • Regardless of how hard or firm the The vehicle may shift, slip off the jack
assemblies. Check for adequate rim ground appears, put hardwood blocks and cause injury.
strength if special operating conditions
are anticipated.
Excessive overload or overinflation
can cause damage to the tire and Inspection Procedures For Identification
rim assembly. Of Potential “Zipper Ruptures” In Steel Cord
• Never run a vehicle on one tire of Radial Medium And Light Truck Tires
a dual assembly.
The carrying capacity of the single tire Any tire suspected of having been
and rim is dangerously exceeded, and operated underinflated and/or overloaded
operating a vehicle in this manner can
result in damage to the rim and tire or
must be approached with caution.
Completely deflate the tire by removing
WARNING
cause a tire fire. the valve core before removing the Permanent tire damage due to
tire/rim/wheel assembly from the underinflation and/or overloading
• Never use a tube in a tubeless tire/rim
vehicle. After removing from the vehicle, cannot always be detected. Any
assembly where the rim is suspected tire known or suspected to have
of leaking. clearly identify the tire, so it will not be
reinflated until carefully inspected by a been run at 80% or less of normal
Loss of air pressure through fatigue trained technician, to determine the operating inflation pressure and/or
cracks or other fractures in a tubeless overloaded, could possibly have
cause of inflation loss, as well as any tire
rim warns you of a potential rim failure. permanent structural damage
damage resulting from underinflation (steel cord fatigue). Ply cords
This safety feature is lost when tubes and/or overloading.
are used with leaking rims. Continued weakened by underinflation
and/or overloading may break
use may cause the rim to burst with
one after another, until a rupture
explosive force. occurs in the upper sidewall with
• Always inspect rims and wheels for accompanying instantaneous air
damage during tire checks. loss and large explosive force.
Early detection of potential rim This can result in serious injury
or death.
failures may prevent serious injury.
• Never add or remove an attachment
or otherwise modify a rim (especially
by heating, welding or brazing) unless
the tire has been removed and
approval has been received from
the rim manufacturer.
Modification or heating of a rim or
one of its parts may weaken it so that
it cannot withstand forces
created by inflation or operation.
31
Mounting
Procedure S E C T I O N T H R E E
A LOOK for:
Suspect Tires Mounted
on the Rim –
BLOOK for:
Tire Inflated
to 20 psi —
C LOOK for:
Tires after
Dismounting —
cuts, snags, or chips exposing body distortions or undulations (ripples bead rubber torn to the fabric or
cords or steel*; distortions or undulations and/or bulges); and steel*; cuts, snags, or chips exposing
(ripples and/or bulges), using an indirect body cords or steel*; distortions or
LISTEN for:
light source, which will produce shadows undulations (ripples and/or bulges),
left by any sidewall irregularities. any popping sound. using an indirect light source, which will
If any of these conditions are present, produce shadows left by any sidewall
FEEL for:
the tire should be made unusable irregularities; creasing, wrinkling,
soft spots in the sidewall flex area; and scrapped. cracking or possible discoloration of
distortions or undulations (ripple and/or the innerliner; and any other signs of
If none of these conditions are
bulges); protruding filaments indicating weakness in the upper sidewall.
present, dismount the tire to visually
broken cords; and
and manually inspect it, both inside If any of these conditions are
LISTEN for: and outside. present, the tire should be made
any popping sound when feeling for unusable and scrapped. *If no other
soft spots or when rolling the tire. condition is present and a tire contains
cuts, snags, or chips exposing body
If any of these conditions are present,
cords or steel, it must be referred to a
the tire should be made unusable and
full-service repair facility, to determine
scrapped. *If no other condition is
if it is repairable and not a source of a
present and a tire contains cuts, snags,
potential zipper.
or chips exposing body cords or steel,
it must be referred to a full-service If none of these conditions are
repair facility, to determine if it is present, the tire may be returned to
repairable and not a source of a service, using the procedures on the
potential zipper. next page.
If none of these conditions are present,
place the tire/rim/wheel assembly in
an approved inflation safety cage.
REMAIN OUTSIDE OF THE TIRE’S WARNING
TRAJECTORY. DO NOT PLACE
HANDS IN SAFETY CAGE WHILE STAY OUT OF TRAJECTORY AS
INSPECTING TIRE, OR PLACE INDICATED BY SHADED AREA.
HEAD CLOSE TO SAFETY CAGE. Note: Under some circumstances,
With the valve core removed, reinflate the trajectory may deviate from its
the tire to 20 psi, using a clip-on air expected path. Always deflate tires
before handling. Inflate only in
chuck with a pressure regulator and safety cage.
an extension air hose.
32
Mounting
S E C T I O N T H R E E Procedure
A LOOK for:
Tires (including
used, retreaded,
or repaired)– B LOOK for:
Tires Inflated
to 20 psi —
C LOOK for:
Inflated 20 psi OVER
Operating Pressure —
bead rubber torn to the fabric or steel*; distortions or undulations (ripples distortions or undulations (ripples
cuts, snags or chips exposing body cords and/or bulges); and and/or bulges): and
or steel*; distortions or undulations LISTEN for: LISTEN for:
(ripples and/or bulges), using an indirect
any popping sound. any popping sound.
light source, which will produce shadows
left by any sidewall irregularities; creasing, If any of these conditions are present, Any tire suspected of having been
wrinkling, cracking, or discoloration the tire should be made unusable underinflated and/or overloaded must
of the innerliner; any other signs of and scrapped. remain in the safety cage at 20 psi
weakness in the upper sidewall; If none of these conditions are present, OVER operating pressure for 20 minutes.
FEEL for: with valve core still removed, inflate the If any of these conditions are present,
tire to 20 psi OVER the recommended the tire should be made unusable
soft spots in the sidewall flex area;
operating pressure. During this step, and scrapped.
distortions or undulations (ripples
if any of the above conditions appear, If none of these conditions are present,
and/or bulges); protruding filaments
immediately stop inflation. BEFORE removing the tire/rim/wheel
indicating broken cords; and
assembly from the safety cage, reduce
LISTEN for:
the inflation pressure to the recommended
any popping sound when feeling for operating pressure. REMAIN OUTSIDE
soft spots or when rolling the tire. OF THE TIRE’S TRAJECTORY.
If any of these conditions are present, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
the tire should be made unusable and Standard 1910.177 requires all tubeless and tube-type
scrapped. *If no other condition is medium and large truck tires be inflated using an
present and a tire contains tears, cuts, OSHA-approved restraining device (e.g. safety cage)
snags, or chips exposing body cords or barrier, and using a clip-on air chuck with a
or steel, it must be referred to a full- pressure regulator and an extension air hose. While
service repair facility, to determine the OSHA (www.osha.gov) standard pertains to
if it is repairable and not a source of medium and large truck tires, RMA also strongly
a potential zipper. recommends these procedures be used for all LIGHT
If none of these conditions are present, TRUCK TIRES.
place the tire/rim/wheel assembly in
an approved inflation safety cage.
REMAIN OUTSIDE OF THE TIRE’S
TRAJECTORY. DO NOT PLACE
HANDS IN SAFETY CAGE WHILE
WARNING
Mounting Tires Is Dangerous -
INSPECTING TIRE, OR PLACE failure to follow the above and
HEAD CLOSE TO SAFETY CAGE. Rubber Manufacturer‘s Association
After properly seating the beads, with (RMA) “Demounting and Mounting
the valve core removed, adjust the tire Procedures for Truck/Bus Tires”
to 20 psi, using a clip-on air chuck with or “Demounting and Mounting
a pressure regulator and an extension Procedures for Automobiles and
air hose. Light Truck Tires” charts and safety
precautions can result in serious
injury or death. For more information
visit www.rma.org.
33
Collecting &
Storing Tire
Information
S E C T I O N F O U R
34
Collecting &
S E C T I O N F O U R Storing Tire
Information
COLLECTING &
STORING TIRE
INFORMATION BRANDING TIRES
Depending on the size of your fleet, Several branding methods exist. Before A third method is “mold branding.”
tire data can be kept using a computer- branding, you need answers to several This is done when the tire is being
aided method or simple paper files. Large questions. What branding method is best manufactured. While this method offers
fleets may need the huge information for the quantities of tires involved? On the best appearance, it’s available only
storage capacity and the networking what part of the tire is it “safe” to brand? when large quantities of tires are ordered
capability of a computer. Small fleets How deep can a tire be branded without and usually for only bias-ply tires.
may find the expense and complications damaging the tire? Should you buy tires Use lower sidewall area. Most truck
of computer-aided information storage branded to your specifications or brand tires have a special branding panel on
unnecessary. Whatever the method of them yourself? Many fleets brand their the sidewall. It’s located on the lower
storage, there are several common factors own tires. Others, particularly large fleets, portion of the sidewall where little
involved in tire data collection. Items find it more cost-effective purchasing flexing occurs under normal use, thus
recorded for tire performance records, tires branded by the manufacturer or reducing the chances of cracking.
at a minimum, should include: distributor. Three common branding If your tires don’t have these panels,
• Tire Size • Recommended methods include the “cold method,” then brand in the lower sidewall area
• Tire Brand/Type Inflation “hot method” and “mold branding.” between the top of the rim flange and
• Initial Tire Cost • General Cold branding is somewhat of a the “line” around the tire at its maximum
• Vehicle ID Comments misnomer because some heat is part of width. Never brand near the maximum
Number • Actual Inflation the procedure. In this method, pressure, section width area of a radial tire. That’s
• Vehicle Mileage • Vehicle Removal air or hydraulic, is used to produce a the tire’s critical sidewall flexing area.
at Installation Mileage brand that is legible and usually less If you’re branding tires without panels
• Installation Date • Removal Date damaging to the tire than the higher and wish to brand both sides, then
• Tread Depth at • Tread Depth temperature hot method. Another apply brands on opposite sidewalls
Installation Removal advantage to cold branding is its ability 180 degrees apart.
to emboss brand. Numbers and letters How deep?
By building a base of information are raised much like the markings on In general, you should brand truck
across the fleet, trends in tire performance a new tire. Embossed brands are less tires between 1/32 inch and 2/32 inch in
can be established. damaging to the tire than the more depth. Brands less than this depth range
• How does mileage of Tire A compare common recessed brands though often are often difficult to read. Those greater
to Tire B? more difficult to read. can result in cracking that may propagate
• Which tire brand produces the lowest Both cold and hot methods provide away from the branded area, or worse,
cost per mile? permanent brands but the higher they may go deeper into the sidewall
temperatures of a hot branding iron rubber. Eventually, these deep cracks
• Which tire has fewest adjustments?
encourage branding too deeply into the might reach the outer surface of the
A similar file can be used to track tire sidewall. Also possible is overheating the casing cords. This could allow moisture
performance through retread life. Again, rubber compound around the brand and into the casing which then could lead
performance of various tread patterns, creating a brittle surface area that could to degradation of casing durability.
retread suppliers, and casing manufacturers initiate sidewall crack. If care is exercised,
can be closely followed. Decisions on the hot method using medium heat will
future retread purchases can then be made yield acceptable results. Always strive
on hard facts rather than perceptions for the lowest possible temperature to
and guesses. produce legible brands without scorching
Permanent identification of each tire sidewall rubber.
can make the tracking from purchase
to scrap easier. Tires could be branded,
or a Radio Frequency Identification
Chip could be added to the tire to
provide a unique identity for that tire.
35
Collecting &
Storing Tire
Information
S E C T I O N F O U R
RADIO FREQUENCY
IDENTIFICATION TAGS RF TAG USAGE
Passive radio frequency (“RF”) Fleets may use RF tags for tire record Having well documented tire
identification devices can be molded keeping and maintenance as well as performance information allows intelligent
into a tire or encapsulated in a patch inventory. To ensure that RF tags are decisions to be made on alignment
and bonded to the inner liner of radial, easily read and correlated with the intervals, recommended inflation
medium and heavy duty, tubeless truck proper tires, the following tire mounting pressures and tire brand or type choices.
tires. Guidelines have been established procedures should be followed: Keeping appropriate records of tire
by the Technology and Maintenance Council A. Always mount tires with the DOT information is a final step in achieving a
(www.tmc.truckline.com) to standardize code side on the deep dish rim side lower cost per mile from tires. Having
the identification information provided of disc wheels, the fixed flange side clear records not only helps decision
by an RF transponder when it is installed of tube type demountable rims making but also provides documentation
during the tire manufacturing process, and the adapter side of tubeless of tire problems to be addressed by your
used in an aftermarket application demountable rims. tire company’s representative.
in truck tires and provide minimum B. The DOT code should be aligned After all, your goal as well as the goal
performance criteria for the use of with the valve stem so that local read of your tire representative is to provide
this technology. RF tags can be located and found you with the best tire for the job and to
The transponder is a single chip, easily except in cases where match get all the mileage and service out of
solid state, electronic device with an mounting takes a priority. your tires that they can give.
integral or external antenna. Each tag C. Local read tags will then be readable
that passes within the radio frequency on opposite sides when mounted as
transmission range of a reader/interrogator duals and will be readable on the
will be energized and have its circuit inside of the steering axle except
turned on. In turn, the tag will respond for directionally mounted tires.
by transmitting its encoded identification. D. 360 degree read tags are not restricted
The reader will receive the RF transmitted by mounting.
code and translate it into an alpha-
numeric tire identification.
36
S E C T I O N F I V E Inflation
Inflation
Proper inflation of radial truck tires is the
37
Inflation
S E C T I O N F I V E
A tire requires proper air pressure on load and service conditions. Most data each axle position. That would be ideal,
to adequately carry the load placed on contained in this book is taken from tables but impractical for many linehaul fleets.
it. The “container volume,” material published by the Tire & Rim Association
Equal inflation pressure
properties and inflation pressure determine (T&RA). Its members, U.S.-based tire,
To compromise, determine the proper
the load carrying capacity of the tire. rim and wheel manufacturers, set the
inflation pressure for each tire on the
Figure 5.1 Your tires provide traction for technical standards for manufacturing
vehicle and use the highest pressure.
braking, accelerating and turning and those products in this country.
Remember that overinflation is preferred
must carry out these tasks for many Using the tables is quite simple. First,
to underinflation. That makes the
miles. Without proper inflation pressure, determine the maximum load that your
compromise acceptable.
tires cannot carry out these tasks as they tire is likely to encounter. Then, for your
Also consider operating speeds.
were designed to do. tire size/ply rating, find the load in the
Vehicles operated at less than highway
But what is the proper inflation for table that is close to but slightly more
speeds can carry greater loads, as shown
your tires? A simple answer would be than the maximum anticipated load. The
in Table 3.
great, but not practical. inflation pressure at the top of this column
Using load/inflation tables can help
is your minimum pressure for the load.
Loads determine inflation you get the most from your current tires.
All tire manufacturers offer load/ Duals vs. singles It can also help you choose future tire
inflation tables that can be used to Note that loads are shown for single sizes based on your vehicles’ needs and
determine the proper inflation pressure and dual applications. When you run their service conditions.
at various loads. duals, the allowable load at any given Always check inflation pressures when
Load/inflation tables for Goodyear inflation pressure will be less than with tires are cold. Never bleed air from hot
commercial tires are published on the singles. That’s to minimize overloading tires to relieve normal pressure build-up.
Web site www.godyear.com/truck and in the when one tire in a dual assembly is The normal increase in pressure due to
Engineering Data Book for Over-the-Road underinflated and to compensate for service conditions will be 10 to 15 psi,
Truck Tires. This book, available at your road crown. and this is allowable in a radial truck tire.
Goodyear Commercial Truck Tire Center, Position is another consideration. Steer, It is particularly important to keep
and is updated periodically with the latest drive and trailer tires may carry different moisture from the inside of any tires and
sizes and types of commercial truck tires. loads, with steer tires normally handling we strongly encourage proper selection
Section “L” in this data book provides the heaviest because they run as singles. of compressor equipment, air-line routing,
the information you’ll need to determine To optimize tire performance, you may and the use of air dryers to avoid moisture
the proper inflation for your tires based require different inflation pressures in in high pressure air used for inflation.
LOAD
Container
Volume
Figure 5.1
38
S E C T I O N F I V E Inflation
Table 3
TABLE 3
TRUCK-BUS TIRES
The service load and minimum (cold) inflation must comply with the following limitations:
SPEED RANGE INFLATION PRESSURE INCREASE LOAD CHANGES WITH SPEED
(MPH) RADIAL PLY TIRES RADIAL PLY TIRES
CONVENTIONAL (STD. PROFILE) WIDEBASE/METRIC (LOW PROFILE) CONVENTIONAL WIDE BASE/METRIC
65 MPH 75 MPH 65 MPH 75 MPH 65 MPH 75 MPH 65 MPH 75 MPH
71 thru 75 + 5 PSI None + 5 PSI None - 12% None - 12% None
66 thru 70 + 5 PSI None + 5 PSI None - 4% None - 4% None
51 thru 65 None None None None None None None None
41 thru 50 None None None None + 9% + 9% + 7% + 7%
31 thru 40 None None None None + 16% + 16% + 9% + 9%
21 thru 30 + 10 PSI + 10 PSI + 10 PSI + 10 PSI + 24% + 24% + 12% + 12%
11 thru 20 + 15 PSI + 15 PSI + 15 PSI + 15 PSI + 32% + 32% + 17% + 17%
6 thru 101) + 30 PSI + 30 PSI + 20 PSI + 20 PSI + 60% + 60% + 25% + 25%
2.6 thru 51) + 30 PSI + 30 PSI + 20 PSI + 20 PSI + 85% + 85% + 45% + 45%
Creep thru 2.51) 2) + 30 PSI + 30 PSI + 20 PSI + 20 PSI + 115% + 115% + 55% + 55%
Creep + 40 PSI + 40 PSI + 30 PSI + 30 PSI + 140% + 140% + 75% + 75%
Stationary1) + 40 PSI + 40 PSI + 30 PSI + 30 PSI + 185% + 185% + 105% + 105%
1) On conventional tires apply load increase to dual loads and inflations only, even if tire is in single application. 2) Creep–motion for not over 200 feet in a 30 minute period.
39
Inflation
S E C T I O N F I V E
A tire’s cold inflation pressure will Since this difference is small, the effect The inflation pressure reading at
change with altitude and temperature. of altitude change on tire inflation, in 0 degree F might happen when the truck
The air pressure gauge reads the difference general, is not considered to be significant. is parked on a cold winter night. It will
between the tire’s contained air pressure Ambient temperature effects on a increase rapidly, though, once the truck
and atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric tire’s cold inflation pressure, on the other begins to run and the tires warm up.
pressure changes 0.48 psi for every 1000 hand, is significant. Using as an example At the other extreme of ambient
feet change in altitude. Assuming constant a tire with an initial inflation pressure temperatures, for example during the
temperature and internal tire volume, of 100 psi at 60 degree F ambient summer, it is common to find tire inflation
if a tire pressure gauge reads 100 psi at temperature, for each 10 degree F change pressures in the 115 to 120 psi range.
sea level, for every 1000 feet increase in temperature, there is about a 2 psi We always caution operators not to
in altitude, the gauge will read 0.5 psi change in the tire’s inflation pressure, bleed air pressure down on cold tires
higher inflation pressure, see Figure 5.2. see Figure 5.3. when they are at these higher ambient
temperature conditions. Always inflate
105 tires cold to the required pressure no
matter whaat the ambient temperature is.
104
UNDERINFLATION
Inflation Pressure (psi)
110
Expected Mileage (percent)
90
100
80
90
70
80
60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 10 20 30
Ambient Temperature (deg F) Under Inflation (percent)
40
S E C T I O N F I V E Inflation
41
Inflation
S E C T I O N F I V E
42
Total Vehicle
S E C T I O N S I X Alignment
Total Vehicle
Alignment
Vehicle alignment settings serve several
OR MODIFYING AXLE/STEERING
MECHANISM COMPONENTS.
43
Total Vehicle
Alignment S E C T I O N S I X
44
Total Vehicle
S E C T I O N S I X Alignment
45
Total Vehicle
Alignment S E C T I O N S I X
TOE
Toe settings generally have the At high values of toe-in or toe-out
greatest effect on truck tire treadwear. and at relatively early mileage, the tread
Camber Wear
One side of thread
Toe is also the easiest front-end alignment of the outside or inside ribs can be worn excessively
variable to adjust in the shop. completely worn away. For 5/16-inch
Road tests were made using three toe-in condition this can occur after
trucks with different amounts of loaded only 19,000 miles of highway travel.
truck toe-in (1/32-inch, 1/8-inch and Gauges for measuring toe-in setting
1/4-inch) with radial tires on the are relatively simple and inexpensive.
steering axles. Every maintenance shop should use
The test results showed: them frequently. It is not necessary to
• Tire tread mileage decreases with send a truck to an alignment shop to
increased toe-in. The 1/32-inch toe-in check toe-in settings.
showed the best treadwear rate Setting toe alone is usually not
(miles per 32nd of tread depth). sufficient. A total vehicle alignment
• Assigning a value of 100 to the (toe and axle) is recommended per Figure 6.6
treadwear rate with 1/32-inch toe-in, TMC RP642.
the treadwear rate values compared
as follows:
CASTER
CAMBER Generally, caster is not considered to
Loaded After years of recommending camber affect tire wear, but is important in the
Toe-in Comparative settings of +1/4 degree for left front and handling and driveability of the vehicle.
Value Treadwear 0 degrees for right front, major axle Overall effects of caster can be
(Inches) Rates manufacturers have changed to 0 degree summarized as follows:
1/32 100 settings for both left and right steer axle —Too little caster causes:
1/8 82 positions on axles designed for line • Unstable steering
1/4 76 haul service. • Constant corrections required
The objective of this change is to • Wander and weave
optimize steer tire wear and minimize or • Oversteer
In addition to wear, drivers’ reactions • Failure to return to straight ahead
to the toe-in settings, without power eliminate irregular wear. Theoretically,
these new settings will result in steer out of a turn
steering indicated that the 1/4-inch toe-in • Roadwalk
caused the truck to “roadwalk” badly. tires running straight down the road
in a 0 toe/0 camber mode. Goodyear —Too much caster causes:
The 1/32-inch value was considered • Hard steering
to have the best handling. Proving Ground tests and independent
field tests support this theory. • Shimmy
Tire wear due to excessive toe-in on • Road shock
radial tires shows up initially as irregular Tires with excessive camber will wear
as shown in Figure 6.6. It can be seen Vehicle manufacturers normally
wear — more so on the outside than the recommend caster settings for their
inside grooves of the tires and more so on that improper camber causes wear on
one side of the tire, this can be on the vehicles. Proper caster is that which
the right-front than on the left-front tire. gives best handling in combination
Excessive toe-out will show a reversed inside or outside of the tire depending
on camber setting and tire position with the camber and king pin inclination
effect: more wear on the inside than the designed into the axle.
outside grooves and more so on the (LF or RF).
left-front than the right-front tire.
46
Total Vehicle
S E C T I O N S I X Alignment
Ackermann Principle
• Definition
The Ackermann Principle
States that for Any Given
Corner the Outside Wheel
Should Have Less Turn
Angle Because It Is
Running at a Larger
Radius than the
Inside Wheel.
Figure 6.7
47
Total Vehicle
Alignment S E C T I O N S I X
48
Total Vehicle
S E C T I O N S I X Alignment
TRAILER AXLE
ALIGNMENT
With more long-wearing radial tires The loaded axle camber can be up The following guidelines have proved
being applied to trailer axles, their to negative 1° without affecting to be beneficial for improving overall
alignment has become an important issue. tire wear. tire treadwear:
Trailer-axle tires have the potential for
Axles should be parallel to each other STEER AXLES
longer life (more miles per thirty-second
within 1/8-inch measured between TOE IN (unloaded):
inch of treadwear) than any of the tires on
axles on both sides of the trailer at Check Limits* 1/16'' ± 1/16''
the tractor. They are, therefore, more
a 71.5-inch axle track. This provides (Range 0-1/8'')
susceptible to irregular wear due
a scrub angle of ±0.1°. Reset Limits 1/16'' ± 1/32''
to misalignment than any other tires on
the vehicle. Axles should be perpendicular to the *When alignments are found within
Goodyear’s recommendations for centerline of the trailer frame within these limits, adjustment is not
trailer alignment are as follows: 1/8-inch per side or 1/4-inch from necessary. If outside of check lim-
side to side at a 71.5-inch axle track. its, set to the reset limits.
Preferred toe setting: DRIVE AXLES
This provides a thrust angle of ±0.2°.
1/32-inch toe-in to 1/32-inch Tandem axles to be parallel within
toe-out, or ±2.7 minutes per spindle. 1/8'' measured at axle end.
Acceptable toe setting:
1/16-inch toe-in to 1/16-inch toe-out, Axles to be perpendicular to chassis
centerline within 1/8'' when measured
or ±5.4 minutes per spindle. IN-SERVICE from axle end to chassis centerline,
ALIGNMENT or within 1/4'' when measured from
•Rear Tandem Parallelism RECOMMENDATIONS left to right axle end.
Toe-in is recognized throughout the TRAILER AXLES
industry as the most important contributor Tandem axles to be parallel within
to optimizing steer tire treadwear. In 1/8'' measured at axle end.
order of priority, gains in tread life can
A B be expected by focusing on the Axles to be perpendicular to chassis
following vehicle alignment parameters: centerline within 1/8'' when measured
• TOE from axle end to chassis centerline,
• REAR TANDEM PARALLELISM or within 1/4'' when measured from
• CAMBER (NON-ADJUSTABLE) left to right axle end.
A = B within 1/8 inch • REAR TANDEM PERPENDICULARITY Nominal toe setting:
• CASTER 0'' ± 1/32''
Figure 6.11 Most vehicle manufacturers, in recent
years, have developed new factory
•Rear Tandem Perpendicularity equipment and procedures to control
alignment to much narrower tolerances
than was previously possible. Today
there is less need to adjust alignment
A B
on new vehicles than in the past.
Alignment accuracy and repeatability
can best be achieved by proper training,
adherence to strict procedures and by
properly maintaining and frequently Reference TMC Recommended
calibrating alignment equipment. Practice RP642 regarding total vehicle
THE VEHICLE MANUFACTURER’S alignment for more detailed information.
ALIGNMENT SPECIFICATIONS
A = B within 1/4 inch SHOULD BE ADHERED TO.
Figure 6.12
49
Factors
Affecting
Treadwear
S E C T I O N S E V E N
Factors
Affecting
Treadwear
Alignment problems are often blamed for all
of trouble.
50
Factors
S E C T I O N S E V E N Affecting
Treadwear
Footprint Shapes
ALIGNMENT
DUAL
MATCHING
Bias Radial
INFLATION
Figure 7.1 A bias tire footprint is oval shaped…
the radial footprint is rectangular.
BALANCING
TIRE
SELECTION
The issue of irregular tire wear has in bias ply tires. Since the tread wears
always been a concern even in the days away usually much faster on bias tires,
when most trucks ran bias ply tires. With unusual wear patterns are literally
today’s longer wearing radial tires, scrubbed off as they develop.
irregular wear has surfaced as the primary The Technology & Maintenance
concern of most truck maintenance Council (TMC) of the American
managers. In fact, it is the ability of today’s Trucking Association has publicly said
advanced radial tires to deliver long that the positive attributes of the radial
original tread life which requires even tire, particularly longer tread life, Figure 7.2 Radial Tire Conditions Analysis Guide
more attention to good maintenance can result in the tire exhibiting more — an excellent reference book.
practices and vehicle alignment. irregular wear patterns when vehicle and
Radial tires have a different footprint tire maintenance or tire construction
shape than bias tires. See Figure 7.1. is inadequate.
This results in less scrubbing and longer The TMC has also published an
tread life. However, this same attribute excellent reference guide titled Radial Tire
of the radial design can also result in the Conditions Analysis Guide. This booklet
tire exhibiting more irregular wear when clearly defines the types of irregular wear
vehicle and tire maintenance are below common to steer, drive, and trailer axles
par. These wear patterns are not as evident and offers possible reasons that such
wear occurs. Figure 7.2.
Contact The Technolgy &
Maintenance Council at http://tmc.
truckline.com or order publications
through The ATA Marketplace:
1-800-282-5463.
51
Factors
Affecting
Treadwear
S E C T I O N S E V E N
52
Factors
S E C T I O N S E V E N Affecting
Treadwear
53
Factors
Affecting
Treadwear
S E C T I O N S E V E N
DRIVE TIRES
Let’s review some of the key elements
that impact drive tire wear:
Engine Torque (More usable torque
means less tread life)
Engine torque is measured in foot-
pounds of twisting force without regard
to time. Peak torque on many of today’s
engines occurs at lower engine rpms and
remains at a relatively high level over a
wide rpm range. A typical engine might
develop 1,200 to 1,250 foot-pounds of
peak torque at only 1,300 rpms.
High engine torque over a wide rpm
range adversely affects drive tires, which
transmit this higher torque to the highway.
Increased stress, deflection, deformation
and reduced tread life result.
Highway Speeds
(Faster speeds mean less tread life)
Linehaul tractor trailers are now
permitted to travel at 65 mph in rural But tighter turns equate to higher Extreme variations in air pressures of
areas in place of 55 mph in 71 percent cornering forces in the drive tire footprint dual wheel assemblies is another major
of the states. At 65 mph, that means a and reduced tread life. Depending on the cause of reduced tread life and also of
16-percent tread life penalty, according percentage of straight-ahead highway irregular drive tire treadwear. Fleets that
to one study. Experts cite as causes driving, these forces can also cause rear don’t control air pressures of duals in
increased tire footprint deformation and tandems to wear much faster than effect allow the tire with lower air pressure
higher tire running temperatures. forward tandems. to overdeflect, deform, scrub excessively
and non-uniformly and eventually develop
Inexperienced Drivers Rear Suspensions
irregular drive tire wear.
(Tread life can suffer) (Service/maintenance sensitive)
Here are some tips to obtaining
High turnover means truckload and Good suspension and shock
desirable drive tire tread life with minimum
irregular route drivers are less experienced maintenance is critical to obtain long
irregular wear:
than in the past. Driver turnover surpasses tread life and uniform wear. Inadequate
care can cause uncontrolled jounce and • Recognize the effect of vehicles,
100 percent annually in some fleets.
rebound, and over long time periods, service and operating conditions
Inexperienced drivers can abuse their
irregular drive tire wear as well. on drive tire tread life.
vehicles with rough gear shifting,
Empty backhauls can aggravate the • Train drivers in proper operating
spinning wheels on wet surfaces and
problem. Lightly loaded trucks with leaf techniques.
fast accelerating and braking.
spring suspensions and deep tread tires • Exercise speed control.
Setback Steer Axles can develop a cyclic bouncing process, • Maintain rear axle/tandem alignment.
(Affect drive tire wear) particularly on rutted or deteriorating • Balance air pressure between duals.
Setback steer axles were engineered to highways and highly crowned roads.
improve vehicle comfort, load distribution Significant tread life losses and various
and vehicle maneuverability. A tractor’s degrees of irregular wear can result.
wheelbase is shorter when its steer axle
is placed 13 to 15 inches behind the
usual position (or up to 25 inches in the
case of super setback axles). Shorter
wheelbases mean greater wheel cut
angles, from the normal 30 degrees up to
42 inches in some cases. Smaller turning
radii are the result of higher cut angles.
54
Factors
S E C T I O N S E V E N Affecting
Treadwear
55
Factors
Affecting
Treadwear
S E C T I O N S E V E N
Axle end play changes camber and A .020-inch end play will only change toe properly so irregular tire wear will be
toe setting. For example, pushing in the the camber about 1/8 of a degree. Camber chronic if end play is not within spec.
top of the assembly and pulling out at the tolerance is commonly plus or minus 1/4 Some experienced mechanics claim
bottom will change camber angle. Similarly, of a degree, so if end play is kept within improved tire and bearing life with
pushing on the front side of the tire spec, the camber change caused by this “preloaded” bearings. In addition, some
while pulling on the rear alters toe setting, amount of play is insignificant. long-life, low maintenance wheel systems
which raises the obvious question: “How But tolerances are closer for toe. Toe are being offered that require a preloaded
much change in camber and toe does setting is commonly expressed as the bearing arrangement as part of their
wheel bearing end play cause?” difference in distance from the tractor standard installation requirements. To
The amount of change can be center line to the front and rear edge avoid overtorquing these systems, a great
predicted with mathematical calculations. of each tire as measured at hub center deal of care must be used to achieve a
The graph in Figure 7.6 shows height. Recommended settings for proper bearing preload. As a result, the
camber change for a given amount of over-the-road trucks are: manufacturer’s recommendations should
end play. Steer axles: be closely followed.
Toe in 1/16'' ± 1/32'' (unloaded) Bearing manufacturers strongly
End Play vs. Camber For trailer axles: discourage overtorquing a bearing just to
0 ± 1/32'' eliminate servicing after a break-in period.
.020
We also calculated possible toe-in Although you get more bearing and tire
End Play (in)
.015
change at various end play settings. wear, a too-loose bearing is safer on an
Remember, toe in is the relationship over-the-road truck than a too-tight one:
.010
Max. Recommended By
between front and rear sides of one tire, the overtorqued bearing can heat up,
Most Manufacturers so we can look at toe change due to end may crack and could cause a dangerous
.005
play on one side or both sides of the axle failure on the road.
0 .02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12 vehicle. The graph in Figure 7.7 illus- We urge you to limit axle end play
Total Camber Change (˚) trates our findings. to the low end of the specified tolerance
Figure 7.6 range and follow the manufacturer’s
End Play vs. Toe Change recommendations when preload is
If end play and bearing taper angle or Camber Change
required. Make periodic end play checks
are known, calculations may be used to when permitted by the manufacturer to
determine the diametral clearance (DC) maintain tight settings. The payoff will
of both inner and outer bearings. Then, be more accurate toe adjustment, safer
knowing the distance between the bearings, operation and longer tire life, particularly
the angle change is found using the for high mileage radials.
following formula:
1/2 DC (Inner Bearings) x 1/2 DC
(Outer Bearing) ENVIRONMENTAL
Distance between bearings EFFECTS
Figure 7.7 Road surfaces and environmental
factors play a big factor in tire performance
If both sides of the steer axle are at and tread life. An understanding of the
maximum allowable end play, toe change effect pavement conditions have on
End Play of .080 (more than 1/16) inch could treadwear can help fleet managers analyze
vs. Toe result. That’s a very significant difference variables in overall tire costs. Engineering
Change because maximum allowable toe tolerance studies have drawn conclusions about
or is only 1/32-inch. So you should keep the following variables:
Camber end play on steer axles well below
Change accepted maximums to get longest tire life. Road surface textures on treadwear
Maintain within specs for longer tire Tire engineers agree that rough, sharp
wear. Obviously, any tire/wheel/ hub surfaces and those with embedded shells
assemblies that are outside the current are more abrasive and tend to generate
spec for axle end play have potential for faster wear rates than polished concrete and
tire wear problems. And they won’t go smooth asphalt. Rough surfaces create a
away. Excessive end play prevents setting higher scrub force, which accelerates
56
Factors
S E C T I O N S E V E N Affecting
Treadwear
treadwear. (Tests show coarse chip and Curves and tread life Also affected directly is tire performance.
seal pavement increased rolling resistance More curves, lower tread life. That’s The faster you roll, the more heat
by 33 percent over concrete.) because curve-imposed side forces cause your tire casing creates. This degrades
To illustrate, engineers have designed lateral tire deflection and deformation. casing durability, promotes irregular
indoor laboratory tests and imposed Tests show frictional forces during specific treadwear, shortens tread life and
extreme conditions on sets of similar cornering can be 5.8 times as great as reduces impact resistance.
tires. In one specific example, they found when driving straight. During braking, Casing durability: The extra heat
abrasive surfaces can create a 100 percent frictional forces can be 2.4 times as great. associated with running faster will affect
worn situation in as little as 1,000 miles. your tire casings over time. If you’re
Climate and tire wear
Meanwhile, the same tires evaluated on currently averaging two retreads per
Water acts as a lubricant. Tires that
polished/ worn surfaces typically were casing, you may only average 1.5 to 1.75
often travel over wet pavements can
only 25 percent worn after 2,000 miles. retreads per casing by running at higher
show up to 30 percent longer treadwear
While far from real road conditions, the speed limits.
than tires that run only on dry pavements.
tests showed a wear rating improvement Running hotter can take its toll on
Temperature is also a factor. When the
for the smooth surfaces of 800 percent. rubber. A good example is in the tire’s
temperature increases, so do treadwear
Under actual conditions, the tires would shoulder area, where the belt edge of the
rates. For example, when roads are wet,
have run much farther in both cases. top steel belt can obtain temperatures up
fleets typically obtain better treadwear
Fresh concrete is tough on tires. In to 180 degrees F running continuously
in the fall and winter verses spring
outdoor tests, engineers found treadwear at 75 mph. At 55 mph, belt edge
and summer.
rates were 70 percent faster on month-old temperatures average 160 degrees F.
Driving technique plays a major role
pavement than on 24-month-old concrete. The increased temperature degrades
in maximizing tire life, but so does
Reason: Over time, traffic wears down the casing durability, especially in the
where the vehicle is driven.
abrasive edges of the fresh surface. second and third retread stages.
If we were to assign wear ratings to Accelerated Treadwear: Tests show
several different road surface materials,
the differences would be significant.
HOW SPEED AFFECTS that every 1 mph increase over 55 mph
Ride Disturbance
Vibration in modern over-the-road trucks
58
Ride
S E C T I O N E I G H T Disturbance
Frame Flexing/
Resonance
59
Ride
Disturbance S E C T I O N E I G H T
60
Ride
S E C T I O N E I G H T Disturbance
MEASURING
RADIAL RUN-OUT
High Spot
High Spot
Assembly
Wheel
Index
Low Spot
61
Ride
Disturbance S E C T I O N E I G H T
First Assembly
High Spot First Assembly RF
High Spot
4 • If the assembly RRO is over 0.060”, 6 • If above step is OK and the run-out 8 • Remount tire on the vehicle and
rotate tire 180° on wheel and is still unacceptable, and the new measure radial run-out. Run-out
remeasure on balancer. If OK, stop. high spot is within 6” of the wheel should be the same as measured
If still excessive, rotate 90° and index, replace the wheel. (i.e., If the on the balancer. If out of limits,
remeasure. If OK, stop and balance. high spot moves with the wheel, check the stud circle run-out
the wheel’s run-out contribution is • When re-installing steer assemblies
higher than the tire’s contribution) on vehicle and before tightening
lug nuts, locate the high RRO spot
at 12:00 on the hubs
Wheel • When re-installing drive dual
Index
7 • Mark final assembly high spot assemblies on vehicle, install
(red) from inside to outside of tire, highest RRO spot of one assembly
so it is visible for mounting on the at 12:00 on the hub. The high
New Assembly truck. Erase original marks on the spot of RRO on the other assembly
High Spot tire (yellow) should be opposite (180° from)
• Balance all assemblies before the first assembly
replacing on vehicle • Torque all lug nuts to manufacturer’s
First Assembly • Repeat steps 1-6 for each assembly specification and re-ride the truck
High Spot
on vehicle to optimize overall
vehicle ride
5 • If the run-out is still unacceptable
and the new high spot is within
6” of the first high spot on the tire,
replace the tire. (i.e., If the high
spot moves with the tire, the tire’s
run-out contribution is higher
than the wheel’s contribution) For further information, see TMC
Recommended Practice RP648 regarding
ride troubleshooting.
62
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
Factors
Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
63
Factors
Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
S E C T I O N N I N E
VEHICLE AND
ENGINE DESIGN
A. Performance Factors
Fuel consumption is a function of FIGURE 1
power required at the wheels and overall Vehicle Speed
engine-accessories-driveline efficiency. vs.
Aerodynamic Drag and Tire Drag
Factors that affect fuel consumption
at steady speeds over level terrain are:
Drag Force
Power Output-Engine-Accessory-
Driveline System rag
cD
1. Basic engine characteristics; fuel mi
yna
consumption vs. RPM and BHP. rod
Ae
2. Overall transmission and drive axle
gear ratios. Tire Drag
3. Power train loss; frictional losses in
overall gear reduction system.
4. Power losses due to fan, alternator,
air-conditioning, power steering, and 30 40 50 60 70 80
any other engine-driven accessories. Vehicle Speed
Power Required - Vehicle and Tires
The horsepower required for a vehicle
to sustain a given speed is a function of B. Type of Vehicle Trailer shape has a large impact on the
the vehicle’s total drag. The greater the The type of vehicle affects aerodynamic aerodynamic drag of the tractor-trailer
drag, the more horsepower is required. drag through its size (frontal area) and combination. Some examples of trailers that
The total vehicle drag can be broken shape. The following illustration shows have lower aerodynamic drag shapes are:
into two main components; aerodynamic two tractor-trailer combinations which,
drag and tire drag. Factors affecting as a result of their shorter height
these components are: (h2 and h3), have smaller frontal areas
Factors than the standard van-type trailer.
Influencing Drag
Aerodynamic – Vehicle speed
Vehicle Frontal area
Vehicle Shape
Tire – Vehicle Gross Weight h1
Tire Rolling Resistance
Both aerodynamic drag and tire drag
are influenced by vehicle speed. It is
important, though, to note that speed
has a much greater affect on aerodynamic
drag than on tire drag, Figure 1.
Gains in fuel economy can be made h2
by either optimizing or reducing some
of the factors affecting drag.
h3
64
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
Airflow
Rounded Vertical Edge – Maintains
“Attached” airflow along the trailer
sides, which reduces drag.
Airflow
Sharp Vertical Edge
Airflow
Airflow
65
Factors
Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
S E C T I O N N I N E
Gap
Also of importance is the amount of gap
between the back of the tractor cab and
the front of the trailer. The larger the gap,
the greater the disruption to the airflow
and the resulting drag. This becomes
even more important when encountering
crosswind conditions (yaw wind). A rule
of thumb is for every 10'' over a 30'' gap
there is about a 1/10 drop in MPG.
Gap
Long Wheelbase Tractor
Airflow
66
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
VEHICLE OPERATION
The effect of tire overall diameter on A. General resistance to the total BHP required. In
fuel consumption can be illustrated using Consider a typical tractor and van this case, reducing tire rolling resistance
an engine fuel map, Figure 2. This is an combination operating at 80,000 lb. by switching to radials has a greater
example of a typical part load brake specific gross combination weight and at 55 MPH impact on reducing the total BHP
fuel consumption (BSFC) engine map. It on a level highway. No aerodynamic required.
shows lines of constant BSFC as a function drag reduction devices are used on
of engine BHP output (vertical axis) and either the tractor or the trailer. Using FIGURE 3
engine RPM (horizontal axis). bias ply tires in all wheel positions, the Tractor-Trailer Horsepower Requirements
By Component
A smaller diameter drive axle tire approximate distribution of horsepower
results in an increase in engine cruise requirements is as follows: Van Trailer
RPMs, from point A to B. At point B the 400
HP 357
engine is consuming more fuel for the Item Requirement Percent 334
;;
;;;
;;
;;
Engine Accessories 20 8
257 100 32%
Engine RPM=V x TR x AR x (Tire RPM) 100 38% 34% 28%
60
;;
;;;
;;;
;
Where: In this example, the horsepower 17% 15%
V = Vehicle Speed (mph)
TR = Transmission Ratio @
required to overcome bias ply tire rolling ;;;;;;
;;;;;; ;;;;;;
;;;;;; ;;;;;
;;;;;
resistance is essentially the same as that 0
Top Gear (e.g. 1.0 for Bias Rad Bias Rad Bias Rad
required to counteract aerodynamic drag. GCW=78,500 GCW=25,000 GCW=78,500
Direct Drive)
The total horsepower requirement can 55 MPH 65 MPH
AR = Rear Axle Ratio (e.g. 3.70)
Tire RPM = Tire Revs Per Mile be lowered with the use of radial ply tires.
(obtained from Goodyear’s Because radial ply tires have lower
Engineering Data Book or rolling resistance than bias ply tires, Tanker Trailer
www.goodyear.com/truck) tire horsepower requirements are lower. 400
As a result, fuel economy is improved.
Engine Brake Horsepower Required
;;
; ;;
;;
;;
134 128
300 requirements are given in Figure 3. 41%
37%
At lower Gross Combination Weights 100 46% 42%
Increasi
270
;;
;;;;;;
;
Engine Output - BPH
150
This is also true as speed is increased (at 55 MPH 65 MPH
120 the same GCW). As the vehicle’s aero- Key: HP Required to Overcome –
dynamics are improved, as in the case of
;;
90
Aerodynamic Drag
60 a tractor pulling a tanker trailer rather
than a van trailer, the BHP required to Tire Rolling Resistance
30
overcome aerodynamic drag is reduced.
;;;;;
Driveline Losses
600 900 1200 1500 1800 1200 This has the effect of increasing the ;;;;;
;;;;; Accessory Losses
Engine Speed - RPM percent contribution of tire rolling
Source: Mack Truck Engineering, Allentown, PA, Oct. 1992 Source: Goodyear Maintenance Calculations
67
Factors
Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
S E C T I O N N I N E
Horsepower Required
Vehicle Speed Requirements
minimum of stop-and-go driving and is also an increase in the horsepower 11R22.5 Radial Tires
300 GCW=78,500 Lb.
with a minimum of turning. Shorter runs required to overcome increasing tire
involve more braking, acceleration and rolling resistance, though this occurs at 200 Aero. Drag
turning. The engine and tires operate a lower rate. The sum total horsepower
at less than optimum conditions. Fuel requirement for a tractor-trailer vehicle 100 Tire Roll. Resist.
economy tends to be reduced. In some increases along a curve which has a
Driveline Losses
cases of stop-and-go driving, tires may continually steeper slope as speed is 0 Accessories
be operating “cold” part of the time increased. For example, Figure 5 shows 20 30 40 50 60 70
without sufficient continuous driving that the total horsepower requirement at Truck Speed–MPH
time for adequate warm-up. A curve of 65 MPH is 40 percent greater than at
tire rolling resistance vs. warm-up time 55 MPH for the typical tractor and van- Source: Goodyear Maintenance Calculations
as obtained from a laboratory test is type trailer. As a result, fuel economy will A rule of thumb. Increase of
given in Figure 4. fundamentally decrease as operating 10 mph = decrease of 1 mpg.
speed is increased from 55 to 65 MPH.
FIGURE 4 50
FIGURE 6
Uncorrected Rolling Resistance–Lb.
A 1975 study by the U.S. Department Source: Goodyear Fuel Economy Model Prediction
of Transportation and the U.S. Super Hi-Miler and Custom Cross Rib
Environmental Protection Agencya A calculated curve of the percent difference bias ply tires on the same vehicles to
concluded that the type of haul (local, in MPG versus speed is shown in Figure 6. determine relative miles per gallon.a
short-haul, or long-haul trips) has a strong A reduction in MPG of about eight Figure 7 shows the results of the tests
effect on fuel economy improvement percent was found for every 5 MPH along with calculated curves passing
attributable to radial tires. increase in vehicle speed over 55 MPH. through the test points. The effect of
The increased stop-and-go driving For 65 MPH, this would equal close to vehicle gross combination weight on miles
of the shorter haul reduces the fuel a mile-per-gallon loss in fuel economy. per gallon is shown. Note that as truck
economy gain due to radials. The gross weight was increased, miles per
results of the study are given below: D. Vehicle Gross gallon decreased with both the Unisteel
Fuel Economy Improvement Due To
Combination Weight radial tire and the bias ply tire; however,
As gross combination weight is the Unisteel tire gave proportionately
Radial Tires Versus Driving Mode
increased, tire rolling resistance increases, greater improvement in fuel economy
Fuel Economy
Driving Mode Improvement and vehicle miles per gallon decreases, as truck gross weight was increased.
Local 3 to 5% assuming speed is maintained constant. Tests were run at the San Angelo
Short-Haul 4 to 8% To verify this point, fuel economy Proving Groundsa to determine the effect
Long-Haul 5 to 9% tests were conducted at the Goodyear of Gross Combination Weight on vehicle
aInteragency Study of Post-1980 Goals for Commercial San Angelo Proving Grounds on miles per gallon, comparing 11R22.5
Motor Vehicles; Revised Executive Summary, November 1976. Goodyear over-the-road tractor-trailers. Unisteel radial to 11-22.5 bias ply tires at
U.S. Department of Transportation and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Unisteel radial tires were compared to 60 MPH. Figure 8 shows that at a GCW of
68
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
TIRE SELECTION
AND MAINTENANCE
A. Tire Rolling Resistance
The primary cause of tire rolling FIGURE 11
resistance is the hysteresis of the tire Radial Ply vs. Bias Ply Construction
materials/structure, its internal friction,
which occurs as the tire flexes when the
vehicle moves. Tire rolling resistance
acts in a direction opposite the direction
of travel and is a function of both the
applied load and the tire’s inflation
pressure (See Figure 10).
FIGURE 10
Load
Tire
Rolling
Resistance
Direction (Tire Drag)
of Travel Unisteel Radial Ply Bias Ply
To accurately determine a tire’s rolling B. Types of Tires Tubeless vs. Tube Type
resistance, a controlled laboratory test is Radial Ply vs. Bias Ply Laboratory rolling resistance tests
conducted. One method employed, is to The significant differences between indicate that by changing from a 10.00R20
run the tire against an electrically driven these two tires are the angle of body plies tube type tire to an equivalent 11R22.5
67'' diameter flywheel. A torque cell is and the presence of belts. Figure 11 shows tubeless tire in all wheel positions, a
used to measure the amount of torque the basic structural differences. Note gain of about 2% in miles per gallon can
required to maintain a set test speed at a that the Unisteel radial tire incorporates be achieved at 80,000 Ib. GCW.
prescribed test load condition. With this a single radial ply and a multiple belt
torque value, additional adjustments are Larger Diameter Tires
system. The bias ply tire has six to eight Laboratory tests indicate that, under
performed to arrive at the tire’s rolling diagonally oriented plies and no belt
resistance. The laboratory test provides the same load and inflation condition,
system (although the bias ply tire usually larger diameter tires produce slightly
a procedure where environmental has two fabric “breakers” under the
influences (such as ambient temperature, lower rolling resistance, as in the case of
tread with same angle as the plies). One an 11R22.5 versus an 11R24.5. This can
wind, and road surface texture) can be significant advantage of the Unisteel
either controlled or eliminated. Also, produce an improvement in fuel economy
tire is the relatively low internal friction coupled with the reduction in engine RPMs
strict limits are placed on allowable compared to that in a tire using bias
variations in test speed, slip angle, applied due to the larger overall tire diameter on
ply construction. drive axles. (See Section 1-D for the
load, and specified test inflation. These The lower internal friction of the
controls insure test repeatability and effect of engine RPMs on MPG.)
Unisteel tire helps minimize operating
allow the accurate assessment of a tire’s temperatures and rolling resistance,
true rolling resistance. major causes of tire wear and excess
Tire rolling resistance is commonly fuel consumption.
defined in two ways: Unisteel radial ply tires can provide
a. Pounds resistance per 1000 pounds fuel savings of six percent and more
of load compared to bias ply tires in over-the-road
b. Pounds resistance per pound load tractor-trailer applications.
(rolling resistance coefficient)
70
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
Wide Base Super Single Tires radial tires instead of 11R22.5 steel the percentage due to steer, drive, and
Goodyear Proving Grounds tests show radial tires in the dual positions. A trailer tires. For maximum fuel economy
that a fully-loaded tractor-van trailer comparison of the super single versus as well as for best handling, radial tires
using Goodyear Super Single Unisteel duals configuration is shown in Figure 12. should be used in all positions of a tractor-
15R22.5 tires instead of dual steel radial trailer unit. Using radial tires especially
Retreaded Radial Tires
11R22.5 tires on tractor drives and on designed for trailer application will also
Goodyear laboratory tests show that
trailer, obtains an average increase of provide an additional improvement in
the rolling resistance of newly retreaded
seven to eight percent in MPG. fuel economy. For example, the radial
radial tires is, on the average, the same
Commercial fleet testing using loaded low profile G114 offers approximately a
as radial tires with the full original tread.
tractor-tanker trailers showed a nine 10 percent lower rolling resistance than
There are some differences due to type
percent gain in measured MPG through the G159 low profile.
of retread, but all newly retreaded radial
the use of wide base single 15R22.5 steel For a vehicle already equipped with
tires tested exhibited considerably lower
radial tires and being switched to another
rolling resistance than new bias ply tires.
FIGURE 12 type of radial, the percent contribution
Radial Wide Base Single Tire Radial Tires on Trailer Axles by axle to fuel economy will differ
vs. Radial Dual Tire Assembly The type of tire used on an axle has from that shown in Figure 13. A rule of
Wide Base Single a direct impact on the vehicle’s fuel thumb for this case is that the front tires
economy. Testing has shown that using contribute about 14 percent of the total,
radial tires on trailer axles produces over the drive tires about 39 percent, and the
half of the total improvement obtained trailer tires about 47 percent. It should be
when converting a vehicle from all bias noted that the actual percent contribution
to all radial. Figure 13 details the total may differ from the above due to the
percent gain in MPG by switching from effects of vehicle loading, tire inflation,
bias to radial tires and, of this total gain, and tire type.
Dual Assembly
71
Factors
Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
S E C T I O N N I N E
FIGURE 14
5.0 Radial Truck Tire Inflation
4.5
4.0 vs.
3.5 Percent Change in MPG
3.0
2.5
% Difference in MPG
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5 Tire Inflation Varied:
-1.0
-1.5 Front Axle
-2.0
-2.5 Drive Axles
-3.0
-3.5
-4.0 Trailer Axles
-4.5
-5.0 Front, Drive and
-5.5 Trailer Axles
-6.0
C. Tire Maintenance A dual tire load of 4250 Ibs./tire and inflation pressures results in the smallest
Inflation Pressure a steer tire load of 5390 Ibs./tire were percent change in MPG.
Laboratory tests were conducted to selected along with a specified inflation It must be noted that the tractor-
determine the effect of inflation pressure pressure of 100 PSI for all tires. Figure 14 trailer load affects the percent reduction
on the rolling resistance of the 295/75R22.5 shows the percent loss in fuel economy in MPG due to underinflation. The
G159, G167, and G114 radial truck tires. due to the lower inflation pressures. lighter the GCW, the smaller the percent
This laboratory data was used to calculate Operating a loaded tractor-trailer loss in MPG (for the same reduction in
the corresponding effect of inflation with inflation pressures of all tires as low tire inflation).
pressure on the fuel consumption of a as 70 PSI results in a calculated reduction
typical tractor-trailer at 55 MPH on a in MPG of about five percent. The largest A good rule of thumb is that every
level highway. The effect of inflation contributor to this loss in MPG is the 10 PSI reduction in overall tire
pressure on fuel consumption by axle reduction in inflation pressure of the inflation results in about a one
position was also studied. The results trailer tires — it alone accounts for half percent reduction in MPG.
are shown on Figure 14. the loss. Varying only the steer tire
72
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
80
Alignment Goodyear fuel economy test program run Radial ply
For optimum fuel economy on a tractor- at TRC of Ohio in 1986. These evaluations 60
trailer, and also for optimum tire wear, were Type II tests conducted to SAE J1376
tandem drive axles and tandem trailer standards. Tests #2 and #3 with steer axle 40
axles should be maintained in proper toe-in of 1/4- inch, along with misaligned
20
alignment. Alignment of the vehicle’s tandem axles of 1/2-inch total (difference
tandem axles should be considered as in fore and aft distance between axle
0
important as the alignment of the steer center lines, from one side of the vehicle 0 20 40 60 80 100
axle tires. The importance of this is not to the other), did not result in a significant Percent Treadwear
only reflected in the loss of MPG due loss in MPG versus the specification 10.00R20/11R22.5 Sizes At Approx. Rated
to the increase in tire rolling resistance, aligned tractor-trailer. The percent Dual Load And Inflation, LR-F
but also in the increase in tire wear as increase in tire rolling resistance due to ‘‘Tips For Truckers’’ FEA/DOT/EPA
a result of the greater amount of side- the slip angles (under .2°) generated by Document GPO 910-940
scuffing. The effects of drive axle and these misalignment conditions is small. Calspan Rep. DOT-TST-78-1
Goodyear Test
trailer axle alignment is even greater What is of greater significance is the
Calculation, Based On Goodyear Fuel
due to the number of tires involved: loss in tire treadwear life. Economy Test
eight vs. two. Increasing the steer tire toe-in to 3/8-
Figure 15 illustrates the results of a inch and the tandem axle misalignment Source: Goodyear Fuel Tests at TRC of Ohio, 1986
73
Factors
Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
S E C T I O N N I N E
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
A. General C. Road Surface Another study on passenger tiresc
Conditions external to the vehicle The type of road surface can affect investigated the effect of road roughness
can have a strong influence on the fuel tire rolling resistance. Smooth-textured (not surface texture) on rolling losses
economy achieved by a given driver and highway surfaces provide the lowest and concluded:
tractor-trailer/tire combination. Some of rolling resistance, while coarse-textured 1. Road roughness increases both
the greater influences are exerted by: surfaces give the highest tire rolling resist- rolling and aerodynamic losses (the
Winds ance and the lowest fuel economy. latter due to vehicle pitching action).
In a test,b it was found that a coarse 2. Road roughness significantly increases
Road Surface vehicle rolling losses due to energy
chip-and-seal pavement surface gave an
Ambient Temperature increase in passenger tire rolling resistance dissipation in the tires and suspension.
Terrain of 33 percent over that obtained on a 3. Tests on rough roads led to increases
typical new concrete highway surface. in rolling losses as large as 20 percent,
B. Winds Relative rankings of the test surfaces were: in addition to introducing increases
Headwinds and crosswinds reduce in aerodynamic drag.
Relative
truck fuel economy by increasing truck Rolling Truck fuel economy may be expected
airspeed and/or yaw angle, thus increasing Surface Resistance % to be influenced in a manner similar to
aerodynamic drag. To avoid excessive Polished Concrete 88 that of passenger cars; by the surface
fuel consumption in sustained strong New Concrete 100 condition of the roadways traveled and
headwinds, a decrease in truck highway Rolled Asphalt by the type of materials used in the
speed is indicated. (rounded aggregate) 101 pavement—especially in asphalt/ crushed
Crosswinds also tend to diminish the Rolled Asphalt (medium stone mixes. Tire treadwear as well as
effectiveness of aerodynamic drag-reducing coarse aggregate) 104 vehicle fuel economy may be influenced
devices such as cabmounted flow deflectors. Rolled Asphalt by the particular area of the country
Tailwinds are generally beneficial in (coarse aggregate) 108 being traversed, depending upon the
increasing fuel economy because of the Sealed Coated Asphalt sharpness and hardness of the local
reduced airspeed for a given highway (very coarse) 133 crushed stone used in asphaltic concrete
speed. However, if the driver takes road pavement mixes.
advantage of the tailwind and increases
his highway speed, the fuel economy bL. W. DeRAAD “THE INFLUENCE OF ROAD SURFACE
TEXTURE ON TIRE ROLLING RESISTANCE”, SAE
gains will be reduced or lost completely. TECHNICAL PAPER 780257 PRESENTED AT THE
CONGRESS AND EXPOSITION, COBO HALL,
DETROIT, FEBRUARY 27 - MARCH 3, 1978.
74
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
5.4
MPG vs. Average Daily Ambient Air Temperature
5.2
*
5
** * * * ** *
MPG
4.8
* * **
* *
* * **
4.6
* * *
****** *
* * * *
4.4 * ** * * *
** *
4.2 * *** 40
0 20 60 80 100
75
Factors
Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
S E C T I O N N I N E
TIRE DESCRIPTION
AND SPECIFICATIONS
• Static Loaded Radius (SLR)—The
Goodyear Unisteel
distance from the road surface to
Low Profile Radial
the horizontal centerline of the wheel,
under dual load
1 • Minimum Dual Spacing—The minimum
dimension recommended from rim
centerline to rim centerline for optimum
9 performance of a dual wheel
4
installation
• Loaded Section (LS)—The width of
2 the loaded cross-section
Tire profile or cross-sectional shape is
described by aspect ratio (AR): the ratio
8 of section height (SH) to section width
(SW) for a specified rim width. For a
5 7 given tire size, the aspect ratio for a
Goodyear radial truck tire is the same
6 3 as for a bias ply truck tire.
10
Cross-Sectional View of Typical Tire Section
Width (SW)
1. Tread—This rubber provides the 7. Chafer—A layer of hard rubber that
interface between the tire structure resists rim chafing. Outside Section
and the road. Primary purpose is to Diameter Height (SH)
8. Radial Ply—The radial ply, together (OD)
provide traction and wear.
with the belt plies, withstands the
2. Belts—Steel cord belt plies provide burst loads of the tire under operating Rim
strength to the tire, stabilize the pressure. The ply must transmit all Flange Width
Height
tread, and protect the air chamber load, braking, and steering forces
from punctures. between the wheel and the tire tread.
Minimum
3. Stabilizer Ply—A ply laid over 9. GG Ring—Used as reference for Static Loaded Dual
Radius (SLR) Spacing
the radial ply turnup outside of the proper seating of bead area on rim.
bead and under the rubber chafer
10. Bead Core—Made of a continuous
that reinforces and stabilizes the
high-tensile wire wound to form a
bead-to-sidewall transition zone.
high-strength unit. The bead core is Loaded Section
4. Sidewall—The sidewall rubber must the major structural element in the (LS)
76
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
SUMMARY
The average fuel costs of a given
trucking fleet are related to two factors:
• Average fleet miles per gallon
• Average fuel cost per gallon
While it seems little can be done at
the present time to reduce fuel cost per
gallon, there are steps that can be taken
to increase average fleet miles per gallon.
The miles per gallon achieved by a
given truck depends on many factors,
the major ones being:
• Vehicle, Engine and Accessory Design
and Maintenance
• Vehicle Operation
• Tire Selection and Maintenance
• Environmental Conditions
Major fuel-saving steps to apply to
trucking operations are:
1. Use fuel-efficient high torque rise,
lower RPM engines.
2. Use engine accessories with reduced
horsepower requirements, such as
clutch fans, synthetic lubricants, etc.
3. Use aerodynamic drag reduction
devices such as flow deflectors and
rounded trailer fronts and corners
on tractors pulling van-type trailers.
Cover open-topped trailers with a
tightly-stretched tarpaulin.
4. Use radial tires in all wheel positions,
trailer as well as tractor.
5. For best fuel economy, do not allow
radial tires to operate below 95 PSI
cold inflation pressure.
6. Do not exceed the tire’s rated speed;
operate truck fully loaded as much
of the time as possible to increase
ton-miles per gallon.
77
Factors
Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
S E C T I O N N I N E
APPENDIX
Fuel Economy Test Procedures
There are three fuel economy test A. SAE Type I B. SAE Type II
procedures which have been developed The SAE Type I procedure is best used The SAE Type II procedure is best
by the Society of Automotive Engineers to evaluate a component which can be used to evaluate a component which
(SAE) and which are currently being easily switched from one vehicle to another. requires a substantial amount of time
used by vehicle manufacturers, tire The procedure requires two vehicles for removal and replacement.
manufacturers, and by some fleet owners. of the same specification; these are run This procedure also requires two
These offer a standardized method to simultaneously and are identified as vehicles, though they do not have to be
evaluate either a complete vehicle or a vehicles “A” and “B.” of the same specification. The vehicles
component. Consideration has been given The minimum mileage required for are identified as “C” and “T.” Vehicle “C”
to the effects of environmental conditions one complete test cycle is 200 miles. is the control vehicle and as such is not
(such as those described in Section 4), This is composed of a 100 mile round modified during the course of the test;
and their effect on fuel economy results. trip with the test component on vehicle vehicle “T” is the test vehicle which is
This is accomplished by requiring the “B” and then another 100 mile round trip used to evaluate the test component.
use of a control vehicle which is run with the test component on vehicle “A.” The minimum mileage for a complete
simultaneously with the test vehicle. Since a round trip must start and finish test is 240 miles. This is composed of
Environmental conditions should affect at the same location, the minimum three valid test runs of 40 miles (minimum)
both vehicles in a similar manner so that length of the outbound and inbound each with vehicle “T” running a baseline
for a set of tests, the ratio of either the test leg is 50 miles. component (control component) and
fuel used or the MPG of the test and On the outbound test leg vehicle “A” then three valid test runs of 40 miles
control vehicles should be relatively leads vehicle “B” (approximately 200 - (minimum) each with vehicle “T” running
constant even though the actual values 250 yard separation). At a point halfway the test component. Vehicle “T” starts
of either the fuel used or the MPG may through this test leg (approx. 25 miles) off first; after approximately 5 minutes
vary from test to test. vehicle “A” slows down to allow vehicle vehicle “C” begins its run. The test run
A brief description of each procedure “B” to take the lead. At the completion of starts and finishes at the same location.
is listed along with some of their important the outbound leg, fuel tanks are weighed For each test run the amount of fuel
requirements. or fuel meter readings are recorded. On used by vehicle “T” is compared to that
the inbound test leg, vehicle “B” leads “A” used by vehicle “C” in the form of a T/C
(same separation distance as outbound ratio—the quantity of fuel used by vehicle
leg). Also at a point halfway through the “T” divided by the quantity of fuel used
test leg “B” slows down to allow “A” to by vehicle “C.” To be considered valid
take the lead. Upon completion, fuel is test runs, three T/C ratios within a two
weighed or meters recorded. The test percent band must be obtained. This may
component is then switched between require one or more additional test runs.
vehicles and another round trip is made. Test speed — as required
The amount of fuel used by vehicles Vehicle loads — not required to
“A” and “B” when they are operating be the same
with the test component is compared to Vehicle
that used by both vehicles without the warm-up — minimum of one
test component. hour at test speed
Test speed — as required Test run time — elapsed time of the
Vehicle loads — within five percent test runs must be
of each other within .5%
Vehicle
warm-up — representative of fleet
operation or not less
than 45 minutes at
test speed
78
Factors
S E C T I O N N I N E Affecting Truck
Fuel Economy
79
Tire Repairs
S E C T I O N T E N
Tire Repairs
High loads, speeds and tire operating
80
S E C T I O N T E N Tire Repairs
Tire repairs normally made by fleet Significant cuts and cracks in the The cutaway view of the Unisteel tire
operators and tire service centers are sidewall area should be spot repaired in Figure 10.1 shows the construction
limited to simple punctures such as nail as soon as possible to prevent the need typical of Goodyear radial truck tires.
holes. Anything more extensive, such as for a major section repair. Frequent tire The single radial ply of steel cord as
spot, reinforcement, or section repairs inspection in service is recommended. well as the four steel cord belt plies
should be referred to an authorized full This section gives information are evident.
service Goodyear retreading and concerning tire damage, extent, and
repair facility. location, to help determine whether
or not section repairs are feasible.
81
Tire Repairs
S E C T I O N T E N
Radial Only
Repair Area
Figure 10.2 Any number of repairs in the approved Figure 10.4 Beads in relaxed position. Using a car- Figure 10.6 Brush chemical cure cement on nozzle and
crown area only tread minus outer 1” area bide cutter, drill the injury from the inside to clean and insert into the hole while turning clockwise.
(use outer grooves as a guide). Refer larger injuries to prepare the injury for the plug.
a full service repair shop. Do not overlap patches.
Figure 10.3 Dismount tire. Remove puncturing object. Figure 10.5 Apply a coating of chemical cure cement Figure 10.7 Apply air pressure (80 psi) to top of gun.
Using a probing awl, determine the size and extent to the leading 1/3 of the cured plug. Remove This presses the plug through the nozzle into and
of injury, and angle of penetration. Thoroughly the end of the plug insertion tool and insert the plug through the injury. Remove the gun while turning in a
inspect the inside of the tire for additional damage. into the nose piece. Do not contaminate the plug or clockwise direction.
Clean area to be repaired inside of tire cross thread the nose piece. If a pull-through plug is used, insert the plug into
with scraper and pre-buff cleaner. the wire puller, apply chemical vulcanizing cement
to the leading 1/3 of the cured plug and pull
through the injury from the inside of the tire.
82
S E C T I O N T E N Tire Repairs
Figure 10.8 Cut excess plug 1/16'' above the liner Figure 10.10 If using a chemical cure repair patch,
surface on the inside. Do not stretch plug. cement the back of the patch and the buffed liner with
chemical vulcanizing cement. If using a “Versacure” type
repair patch, cement the buffed liner only. Thoroughly
cover the cemented areas with a light, even coat. Allow
proper drying time before applying the repair patch.
RADIAL ONLY
Radial Only
Figure 10.9 If necessary, repeat the liner cleaning Figure 10.11 Place beads in a relaxed position. Center
procedure with pre-buff cleaner. Using a low-speed the patch over the plug and stitch the patch from the
grinder, buff the liner to an RMA1 texture finish. center out. Directional arrows on the patch
Then vacuum to remove dust and debris. must be properly aligned, after stitching is *When using chemical cure MCX series patches,
complete. Apply a coat of butyl liner repair sealer to use chemical vulcanizing solution on the buffed
the patch edges and the over buffed liner. Trim the excess liner and back of repair patch for heat and
plug no more than 1/8” above the outside tread surface. non-heat applications.
83
Tire Repairs
S E C T I O N T E N
Max Repair
Figure 10.14
Y
Body Ply X
Figure 10.12
Maximum
Injury Size
Casing Size (b) (X) Width (Y) Length
Figure 10.13
84
S E C T I O N T E N Tire Repairs
APPLICATION OF
CENTER-OVER-INJURY
SECTION REPAIRS RADIAL PLY TIRES
Non-Repairable Areas
Tire Size Dimension A
Figure 10.20
Dimension
A
Figure 10.17
Sidewall or
Shoulder Repair
Center Patch
Over Injury
Figure 10.21
85
Retreading
S E C T I O N E L E V E N
Retreading
The purpose of this Recommended Practice
86
S E C T I O N E L E V E N Retreading
87
Retreading
S E C T I O N E L E V E N
88
S E C T I O N E L E V E N Retreading
89
Retreading
S E C T I O N E L E V E N
DEFINITIONS
Base Width – A measurement of that Tread Cracks (Channel or Groove) – retreading in some processes.
portion of the tread rubber that joins Cracks in the base of the tread
Gauge – Thickness, usually expressed
to the buffed surface of the worn tire. grooves or voids.
in thirty-seconds of an inch, by the
Beads – The anchoring part of the tire Buckled – Any gross distortion decimal system, or in millimeters in the
that is shaped to fit the tim. Made of of the tire body or tread area metric system.
high tensile steel wires wrapped and evidenced by wrinkling on the
Injuries – A break or cut of any shape
reinforced by the plies. inside of the casing.
caused by a penetrating object or severe
Bead Sealing Area – The flat area and Buffed Contour – The shape of the buffed scuff or impact.
heel area of the bead that contacts the rim. tire that usually includes a specified
Injury Size – Widest opening in the
With tubeless tires, the bead area seals radius and width.
cord body after skiving and buffing.
to the rim and rim flange to retain air.
Buffed Radius – A measure of the buffed
Inner Liner – The tubeless tire inner
Belted Bias Tires – Tires constructed so surface curvature from shoulder to shoulder.
surface used to retain the inflation media.
the ply cords extend from bead to bead
Buffed Texture – That surface produced
and are laid at alternate angles Kinked (Beads) – A sharp permanent bend
by buffing, rasping, or cutting as defined
substantially less than 90˚ to the in the bead wires at one or more points
by The Rubber Manufacturers Association,
centerline of the tread. On top of the around the circumference of the bead.
“Buffed Textures” (RMA Shop Bulletin No. 29,
body plies are two or more belt plies
www.rma.org). Load Range – Specified as a letter (A, B,
extending approximately from shoulder
C, etc.) to identify a given size tire with
to shoulder running circumferentially Casing – The complete tire structure.
its load and inflation limits when used in
around the tire at alternate angles.
Cement – An adhesive compound used a specific type of service as defined in
Bias Ply Tires – Tires constructed so the to provide building tack. May be brushed Tire and Rim Association, Inc. (or
ply cords extend from bead to bead and or sprayed on the buffed surface. equivalent) yearbooks.
are laid at alternate angles substantially
Check Template – A precut pattern used Matrix – Aluminum, rubber, or steel
less than 90˚ to the centerline of the tread.
to determine the contour of a buffed tire rings or segments that form the cavity
Body Plies – Layers of rubber-coated to check compatibility to a matrix. in which a tire retread is cured and with
parallel cords extending from bead to bead. which the tread design is formed.
Cords – The individual strands forming
Breaks (Cracks) – A surface opening the plies in a tire. Nail Hole – A penetration caused by a
extending into or through the plies. small, sharp object, 3/8 inch maximum
Cross Section – The section width of a
diameter.
Flex Breaks – A break into or tire casing.
through one or more plies, usually Outside Steam Bag – A flexible bag,
Cure – The process of vulcanization
parallel to the beads. usually reinforced, used to encompass
of rubber by applying heat and pressure
the tread and tire shoulders of a tire
Impact Breaks – A star- or X-shaped for a specified time.
being retreaded or repaired.
or diagonal break into or through
Curing Tubes – Special tubes placed
plies, usually visible from the inside Plies – Layers of rubber-coated
within the tire while curing.
of the tire. parallel cords.
Diaphragm – A flexible sheet used to
Radial Crack – A crack in the outer
encompass part or all of a tire during
surface of the tire, usually in the
sidewall area proceeding perpendicular
towards the bead.
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S E C T I O N E L E V E N Retreading
Protector Ply – A ply added primarily Precured Tread Retreading – Splices – A junction of the ends of any
for casing protection which in some Replacement of the worn tread tire components.
cases may be removed during retreading. areas with pre-vulcanized treads
Spot (Repair) – The replacement of
containing the tread design already
Radial Tire – A tire that has ply cords rubber only in an injury that penetrated
cured in.
from bead to bead extending at about to no more than 25% of the body plies
90˚ to the centerline of the tread. On Sections – Reinforced repairs made to a in a radial tire. Rubber replacement only.
top of the body plies are two or more casing where an injury larger than a nail
Stitching – A method used to both remove
belt plies of rubber-coated cords extending hole extends through more than 75% of
trapped air and improve rubber contact
approximately from shoulder to shoulder the plies or through the casing in the
for better adhesion.
and running circumferentially around tread or sidewall areas.
the tire at alternate angles at substantially Synthetic Rubber – Man-made rubber.
Separation – Lack of adhesion or cohesion
less than the ply cord angle.
between any adjacent materials in a tire. Texture – (See Buffed Texture)
Reinforcement (Repair) – Any material,
Tread Separation – Pulling away of Tread – That portion of a tire that comes
usually rubber and fabric, vulcanized to
the tread from the tire body. in contact with the road.
a tire to add strength to the tire cord
body at an injury. Repairs to over 25% Retread Separation – A separation Tread Design – The non-skid pattern or
of plies usually require reinforcement. between the tread rubber and the design on the tread of a tire.
Repairs of more than 75% of plies are buffed tire casing.
Tread Grooves – The space between
usually called section repairs.
Ply Separation – A separation two adjacent tread ribs, lugs, or bars.
Repair Material – Any rubber compound between adjacent layers of
Undertread (Replacement) – The rubber
or patch material used to make repairs. cords (plies).
between the base of the tread groove
Repairing – Reconditioning of portions Bead Separation – A breakdown and the buffed surface.
of tires injured by punctures, cuts, of the bond between components
Vulcanization – A chemical reaction
breaks, cracks, etc. These repairs restore in the bead area.
which takes place under appropriate
strength for additional safe service
Belt Edge Separation – A breakdown time, temperature and pressure and
(See Reinforcement, Spot, Sections, Nail Holes).
of the bond between components develops desirable characteristics and
Retreading (Recapping) near the edge of the belt plies. properties. (See Cure)
Full Treading – Replacement of the Shoulder – The upper sidewall areas of Weather Checking – Tire sidewall
worn tread with rubber extending the tire casing immediately adjacent to surface crazing or cracking attributable
over the shoulders. the tread area. to aging and atmospheric conditions
rather than to flexing.
Top Treading – Replacement of the Sidewall – That portion of the tire casing
worn tread area only. between the tread and bead. Wicking – A capillary action caused by
fabrics or cords that allows air to escape
Bead-To-Bead Retreading – Skive – Removal of damaged material
from the tire casing or from under
Replacement of the worn tread area prior to making a repair.
an envelope.
and sidewall rubber extending to
the bead.
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Retreading
S E C T I O N E L E V E N
RETREAD PLANT
INSPECTION CHECKLIST
PLANT: ____________________________________________________________ DATE: ____________________________
INSPECTOR(S): __________________________________________________________________________________________
NOT
ACCEPTABLE ACCEPTABLE COMMENTS
Plant Image
A. Appearance
B. Space and layout
C. Lighting
D. Ventilation
E. Production capacity
F. Outside certification
G. Material storage
H. Evidence of training
Casing Inspection
A. Lighting
B. Dry casings
C. Repairs removed
D. Casing I.D./tracking
Casing Repairing
A. Location and lighting
B. Repair information/procedures
C. Material shelf life dates
D. Material storage
E. Single brand materials
F. Repair I.D.
G. Tool RPMs
Buffing
A. Buffed dimensions, profile
B. Specification information
C. Exposed cords finished
D. Exposed cords cementing
E. Texturize unbuffed areas
F. Mold fit measurement
G. Rasp condition/smoking
H. Buff texture
I. Handling, cleanliness
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S E C T I O N E L E V E N Retreading
NOT
ACCEPTABLE ACCEPTABLE COMMENTS
After-Buff Preparation
A. Holes/cuts probed
B. Buzz-out limits
– Bias
– Radial
C. Cement application
D. Cement dry time
E. Cement shelf life
Tread Application
A. Buzz-outs filled
B. Tread rubber manufacturer
brand/grade
C. Spliced tread rubber
– 2 splices maximum
– minimum 120˚ spacing
D. Handling/cleanliness
Curing
A. Thermocouple tests
B. Controls: pressure,
temperature, and time
C. Air/steam leaks
D. Tire storage–distortion free
E. Staples in tread of tire only
Final Inspection
A. Lighting
B. Inspect on spreader
C. Inspect hot
D. Staples removed
E. DOT serial number
F. RAR identification
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Miscellaneous
S E C T I O N T W E L V E
Miscellaneous
The following section explains the use of
94
S E C T I O N T W E L V E Miscellaneous
USE OF CHAINS
ON RADIAL
TRUCK TIRES TIRE SIPING
The use of tire chains can be helpful Tire siping is a process of making On the other hand, siping is generally
in providing additional traction in severe small knife-like slits in the tread rubber believed to detract from treadwear on lug
weather conditions (such as ice and heavy surface. Normally this is accomplished type tires used on drive-wheel position.
snow) especially when traveling in hilly by a machine that uses sharp, highspeed This is because siping tends to break up
or mountainous terrain. Tire chains can be rotating discs to make cuts that are at an the tread pattern and cause increased
used safely and successfully with Goodyear angle of 90° to the circumference of the bending of the tread elements. This
radial truck tires provided several simple tread. Siping cuts are normally controlled results in faster wear due to increased
and important points are followed. so they are spaced a specific distance scuffing as the tire goes through its
Always select chains that are specifically apart from one another. They also will footprint under torque.
designed for radial tires. These chains vary in depth across the tread face. The effect tread siping has on tire
normally have shorter cross chains than Proponents of tread siping have claimed performance can vary considerably with
older designs and allow the position of various performance improvements for the particular tire pattern being siped.
the side chains to be higher on the tire truck tires. These claims include improved For example, in a heavily bladed tread
sidewall. This is out of the high-flex treadwear and reduced irregular wear. pattern it is believed that siping in the
sidewall area of a radial tire and results Also, it is often claimed that siping original tread state could hurt treadwear.
in less susceptibility to sidewall damage. improves traction for winter and wet Other tread patterns, such as those
Be sure to use the proper chain size driving conditions on certain road types. having a much higher net-to-gross
for the tire on which it is being attached. At present, the majority of truck tire footprint area, might be more adaptable
Tighten chains when they are first siping is done in the westernmost for siping under the service conditions
applied, then after a short run-in period, Midwest states and the Northwest discussed earlier.
readjust to ensure a continued snug fit corridor. It is popular in certain areas, If a customer chooses to sipe his
on radial tires. Serious sidewall damage and especially during the winter months, Goodyear tires, we strongly recommend
may result from loose chains. to sipe both steer and drive, and that he pay close attention to the type of
Check for adequate dual spacing, sometimes trailer tires. siping used. Specifically, our experience
especially if using single tire chains on Goodyear’s position on siping is that is that siping should be performed laterally
each tire of a dual assembly. The greater it may, under certain operating conditions, across the tread, although angles that
deflection of the radial tire may require improve tire performance. However, vary somewhat from this might also be
more dual spacing in marginally-spaced under the vast majority of truck operating acceptable. However, to the best of our
dual assemblies. conditions, new tires are designed and knowledge, siping that is more or less
Finally, always remove chains as soon produced with tread patterns and tread circumferential has not been demonstrated
as they are no longer needed. compounds that do not require tread to be successful. Also, our experience
siping to give satisfactory performance. shows that siping with varying depth
Actual testing indicates that siping across the face of the tread usually
may improve the tire’s resistance to yields better results than constant depth
irregular wear on free-rolling wheel siping. This also appears to provide the
positions that are susceptible to irregular minimum risk for increasing the tire’s
wear due to the combination of operating susceptibility to tread rubber chunking.
service and tire application. Specifically, It is important to note that the
siping may help reduce irregular wear Goodyear warranty provides protection
on trailer axles where light, one-way for the user against failures from
loads are encountered, such as grain workmanship or material conditions.
trailers or belly dumps that operate If a tire failure occurs because of a
under extreme load variations from condition beyond Goodyear’s control,
unloaded to loaded conditions. such as siping, the warranty is null
and void.
95
Miscellaneous
S E C T I O N T W E L V E
96
S E C T I O N T W E L V E Miscellaneous
NOISE
Tires are one source of noise emitted 400
Sound Level = 20 LOG10 Measured Sound Pressure Bias Ply
by a truck operating at speeds above 35 Reference Sound Pressure Production
Cross Rib
MPH on a highway. In addition to the
tires, other major sources of noise are:
Note:
• Engine The reference pressure is usually taken as the
• Radiator fan 300
sound pressure at the threshold of hearing: the
• Engine exhaust quietest sound that can be heard, 0.0002 microbar
• Engine air intake of pressure.
• Driveline
• Aerodynamics (wind noise)
Noise is defined as a disagreeable 200
Radial Cross
sound. Pressure waves in the air produce
Bias Ply
sound. The human ear is designed to sense Rib
these pressure waves and transmit signals Radial
to the brain indicating the magnitude Rib
and characteristics of the sound. 100
The ear mechanism can detect very 68 70 72 74 76 78 80
faint sounds with very low air pressure Sound Level Decibels (A)
energy levels and yet can detect and
withstand relatively loud sounds with Figure 12.2 Relative sound pressure vs. sound level in dB(A) from SAE J57 tests.
high energy levels without becoming
damaged. To accomplish this wide range Sound level units are measured in The data for the curve were obtained
of hearing, the ear mechanism/brain decibels, abbreviated dB. Since the from standard SAE J57 tests using a truck
response is not directly proportional to human ear does not respond the same with four test tires on drive axle and two
the sound pressure, but is less sensitive for all frequencies of sound, the sound rib tires on steer axle. The test consisted
at the louder end of the range. level meter has been modified to agree of a 50-mph coast-by with microphone
The total noise output of a truck is closely with the frequency response of at 50 feet from the line of travel.
usually measured with an instrument the human auditory system. When the When several sources cause sound
called a sound level meter. The input frequency adjustments are included, the waves to impinge on the ear
to the sound level meter is through a suffix (A) is added to the dB unit: dB(A). simultaneously, the ear perceives the
microphone that is placed nominally The relationship of sound pressure to sum total of sound air pressure on the
50 feet from the center of the highway sound level in the region caused by the ear drum; the pressures are additive.
lane that is being monitored. tires of a truck is shown in a relative However, the sound level perceived by
The sound level meter has electronic fashion by the curve in Figure 12.2. the overall auditory system is increased
circuitry designed to approximate the Note the relative increase in noise, only according to the logarithmic rule
human auditory system. Thus, the input going from the relatively non-aggressive demonstrated by the curve.
is varying air pressure caused by the radial rib tire to the bias ply rib tire; to Therefore, when sounds are emitted by
sound — through a microphone — and the radial cross rib; to the bias ply cross various sources in a truck, the combined
the output is a value indicated on a scale rib tire. effect can be obtained by adding sound
that gives the sound level of the noise. Also note the nature of the curve pressures and then converting the total
The sound level or more precisely, wherein greater changes in sound pressure sound pressure to dB(A). If individual
the sound pressure level, indicates the are required to cause a given change in sources of sound have already been
degree of loudness to the human ear of sound level at the higher sound pressures computed or measured in dB(A), the
a given sound. than at the lower sound pressures. combinations of these sounds in terms
of dB(A) cannot be obtained by addition
of the individual dB(A) values.
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Miscellaneous
S E C T I O N T W E L V E
Typical sound levels of various Since the enactment of the Noise For trucks of 1986 model year
over-the-road truck components and Control Act of 1972, the EPA has been manufacture and later, the standard
the effect on total sound level of empowered to issue regulations controlling requires that the external noise level
combining these noise sources are the operational noise levels of interstate values must not exceed:
shown in Figure 12.3. The tire noise rail and common carriers, and the noise • 87 dB(A) on highways at speeds
value listed assumes the use of eight bias emissions of newly manufactured products. greater than 35 mph
ply cross-rib drive tires on the truck. To do this, the EPA must identify a certain • 83 dB(A) on highways at speeds
area of commercial endeavor or a certain of 35 mph or less
Speeds Above 35 MPH – product as a “major noise source.” It then
Six Predominant Noise Sources • 85 dB(A) during stationary runup
has the authority to pursue regulatory at governed engine rpm
Engine 80 activity to control and monitor that area
New medium and heavy duty trucks
82 or product. Early on, the railroads, airports,
(vehicles with GVWR of 10,000 lbs.
Fan 79 certain manufacturing operations, and a
or greater) must meet noise emission
86 host of other activities were identified as
standards based on a vehicle acceleration
Exhaust 80 major noise sources in need of regulatory
and pass-by test at speeds of up to
attention. The Agency specifically
83 but not exceeding 35 mph. The noise
Intake 80 labeled medium and heavy trucks as
87-90 measurement is taken at a distance of
significant sources of environmental
dB(A) 50 feet from the centerline of vehicle
Driveline 83 noise and has set up standards for the
travel, and the test is performed by
testing and control of the “total vehicle
the vehicle manufacturer himself and
Tires 75-86 noise emission package.” These standards,
certified to the EPA. For medium and
known as the Interstate Motor Carrier
heavy duty trucks produced prior to
Figure 12.3 Combining noise sources. Noise Emission Standards, are contained
January 1, 1988, manufacturers had to
in Volume 40, Parts 202 and 205, of the
test their vehicles to a maximum external
Typical methods used to reduce truck Code of Federal Regulations. They have
noise level of 83 dB(A). For trucks
noise to meet limits prescribed by law been in force since 1975, and apply to
manufactured after January 1, 1988, the
are as follows: all vehicles in over-the-highway service
maximum external noise level permitted
• Reduce speed as well as to newly manufactured vehicles.
is 80 dB(A).
• Retrofit equipment They set definite limits for total noise
• Improve maintenance levels at various speeds and under
• Remove irregularly worn tires stationary conditions.
• Restrict lug tires to drive axles The legislation for in-service interstate
• Use radial tires on all axles motor carriers requires that overall
• Use rib tires on all axles external noise levels for trucks
• 87-90 dB(A) manufactured previous to the 1986
model year not exceed the following
Laws on noise are established by the
values, measured at a distance of 50 feet
Federal government, and are administered
from the vehicle centerline:
by the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). Active enforcement, however, • 90 dB(A) on highways at speeds
generally is the responsibility of state greater than 35 mph
highway authorities. • 86 dB(A) on highways at speeds
of 35 mph or less
• 88 dB(A) during stationary runup
at governed engine rpm
98
S E C T I O N T W E L V E Miscellaneous
TIRE STORAGE
RECOMMENDATIONS
For Tires Not Installed 4. Undue Stress in Storage electrical sources and cut down on air
on Vehicles If possible, tires should be stored circulation which will minimize both
vertically on treads. Severely stressed the available oxygen and ozone which
1. Oil, Solvents and Grease and distorted tires are subject to much degrade rubber.
Mounted or unmounted tires should greater damage from solvent, ozone or
never be stored on oily floors or otherwise 8. Do Not Use Paint to Preserve Tires
oxidative attack than those which are
in contact with solvents, oil or grease. not stressed or are stressed minimally
Nor should tires be stored in the same or and uniformly. Unmounted tires stacked For Tires Installed
adjoining rooms with volatile solvents. horizontally (on sidewall) should be on Vehicles
These solids, liquids or vapors are readily piled symmetrically and never so high as 1. The storage area surface under each
absorbed in rubber and will damage and to cause severe distortion to the bottom vehicle should be firm, reasonably
weaken it. tire. Tires that are mounted on rims but level, well drained and free of all
not on vehicles should follow the same oil, fuel or grease. Clean 1/4'' - 3/4''
2. Ozone
recommendations as for unmounted tires. gravel under each tire is desirable if
Mounted and unmounted tires should
the area is not paved. Storage should
be stored away from electrical devices 5. Foreign Material - Dirt, Water not be permitted on blacktop or oil
such as motors, generators, arc welders Unmounted tires should be stored stabilized surfaces.
and switches because they are active under a waterproof covering. Dirt is not 2. When storage longer than 6 months
sources of ozone. Ozone attacks rubber harmful to a tire. However, dirt on the is anticipated, the vehicle should be
causing it to crack perpendicular to any inside of a tire placed in service can blocked up so weight does not rest
applied stress. Such cracking exposes the cause early tube failure or a slow leak. on the tires and inflation pressure
new rubber surface at the base of the crack Water on the inside of a tire in service reduced to 15 PSI. Storage of such
to greater stress and consequently to can be turned into steam which can vehicles should be under cover if
more severe ozone attack until eventually quickly destroy the strength of both the possible. Otherwise, tires should
the cracks can penetrate to the carcass rubber and the textile members of the be protected from elements by an
where continued rubber degradation tire. Additionally, water and dirt inside opaque waterproof covering.
could cause carcass failure. Minor, ozone a tubeless tire can cause corrosion to 3. If it is not possible to block up the
induced, surface cracks will seldom cause tubeless rims and plug tubeless values, vehicle, inflation pressure in the tires
tire failure, but can form an access route both a source of potential tire failure. should be increased to 25% above the
for foreign material to penetrate the Foreign material on the tire bead seat inflation required for the actual load
carcass once the tire is placed in service. could affect air seal and cause air loss. on the tire in the storage condition.
3. Heat and Light 6. Inflation 4. Vehicles should not be moved during
Tires should be stored in a cool place, If tires are mounted on rims and extremely cold weather. Under
away from direct sunlight or strong inflated, pressure should be maintained moderate temperature conditions,
artificial light. Both heat and light are at 10 PSI. If tires are inflated and put in vehicles may be moved if necessary.
sources of oxidation of the tire surfaces. storage during warm weather, the initial 5. Inflation in the tires must be adjusted
The oxidation is characterized by a inflation should be about 15 PSI to offset to the recommended service pressure
“crazed” or “alligatored” surface which the drop in pressure which will occur before shipping or putting a stored
does not penetrate the rubber deeply. during the cold weather months. vehicle into service.
The severity of the oxidation is, of course, 6. Both tires and vehicles should be used
a time- and temperature-dependent 7. Protective Cover on a first-in, first-out basis to avoid
variable. Long term storage at ambient If tires are stacked, first lay a foundation excessive aging due to storage.
temperatures have been equated to short of clean wood to protect them from dirt, 7. Based on varying weather conditions,
term storage at elevated temperatures. oil, grease, etc. Tires should be covered if tires are stored uncovered on
For instance, three days storage at 158˚ F with an opaque or black polyethylene vehicles under load, some weathering
causes approximately the same loss in film. PVC or any other clear film is not may occur at approximately one year
tensile strength as three years storage at satisfactory. The polyethylene film will storage period.
75˚ F. Oxidation may cause sufficient protect against ozone generated by
damage to the inside of an unmounted
tire as to cause early tube failure or a
slow leak.
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Miscellaneous
S E C T I O N T W E L V E
100
Standards &
S E C T I O N T H I R T E E N Regulations
Standards &
Regulations
Both truck tire manufacturers and truck tire
101
Standards &
Regulations S E C T I O N T H I R T E E N
102
Standards &
S E C T I O N T H I R T E E N Regulations
INSPECTION
front wheels which have a load carrying A regular program of tire inspection is
capacity equal to or greater than that of essential for the prevention of rapid air
8.25-20 8 ply-rating tires. loss failures. At a minimum, tires should
(f) Tire loading restrictions (except on be inspected at the time of the regular
manufactured homes). No motor vehicle preventive maintenance checks.
(except manufactured homes, which are The Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety
governed by paragraph (g) of this sec- recommends an inspection by the driver
tion) shall be operated with tires that prior to every trip in its “Truck Driver’s
carry a weight greater than that marked Pre-trip Check List.”
on the sidewall of the tire or, in the In any tire inspection routine, tires
absence of such a marking, a weight should be inspected for the following
greater than that specified for the tires in conditions. If any are found, the tire
any of the publications of any of the should be removed and repaired, retreaded
organizations listed in Federal Motor or scrapped as the condition indicates.
Vehicle Safety Standard No. 119 (49 • Any blister, bump or raised portion
CFR 571.119, S5.1(b)) anywhere on the surface of the tire
unless: tread or sidewall (other than a bump
(1) The vehicle is being operated made by a repair). These indicate
under the terms of a special permit the start of internal separation.
issued by the State; and • Any cut that reaches to the belt or
(2) The vehicle is being operated at a sidewall of the tire or, in the absence of ply cords, or any cut that is large
reduced speed to compensate for the tire such a marking, the load rating specified enough to grow in size and depth.
loading in excess of the manufacturer's in any of the publications of any of the • Any nail or puncturing object.
rated capacity for the tire. In no case shall organizations listed in FMVSS No. 119 • If any stone or object is held by a
the speed exceed 80 km/hr (50 mph). (49 CFR 571.119, S5.1(b)). tread groove and is starting to drill
(g)(1) Tire loading restrictions for (h) Tire inflation pressure. (1) No into the tread base, remove the object.
manufactured homes built before motor vehicle shall be operated on a tire • Look for skid spots and irregular wear
January 1, 2002. Manufactured homes which has a cold inflation pressure less conditions and refer to the chapter on
that are labeled pursuant to 24 CFR than that specified for the load being alignment, irregular wear, and rotation.
3282.362(c)(2)(i) before January 1, 2002, carried. The owner or operator should also be
must not be transported on tires that are (2) If the inflation pressure of the tire aware that the use of recapped, retreaded,
loaded more than 18 percent over the has been increased by heat because of or regrooved tires is restricted by the
load rating marked on the sidewall of the the recent operation of the vehicle, the BMCS, Federal Motor Carrier Safety
tire or, in the absence of such a marking, cold inflation pressure shall be estimated Regulations, and some state regulations,
more than 18 percent over the load rating by subtracting the inflation buildup and that the Rubber Manufacturers
specified in any of the publications of factor shown in Table 1 from the Association recommends against their
any of the organizations listed in FMVSS measured inflation pressure. use in certain applications.
No. 119 (49 CFR 571.119, S5.1(b)). In addition to the routine type of
Manufactured homes labeled before Table I — Inflation pressure measurement correction common-sense, owner-performed tire
January 1, 2002, transported on tires for heat inspection just described, there are
overloaded by 9 percent or more must mandatory inspections which involve
not be operated at speeds exceeding 80 Minimum inflation
pressure buildup agents and agencies of the federal
km/hr (50 mph). government. For example, the inspection
(2) Tire loading restrictions for manu- Average speed Tires with Tires with over of tires for defects is required by NHTSA
factured homes built on or after January of tire in 4,000 lbs. 4,000 lb. Vehicle In Use Inspection Standards,
1, 2002. Manufactured homes that are previous hour (1,814 kg) (1,814 kg) and by BMCS, Federal Motor Carrier
labeled pursuant to 24 CFR 3282.362 maximum load load rating Safety Regulations.
(c)(2)(i) on or after January 1, 2002, rating or less Part 396 of the Federal Motor Carrier
must not be transported on tires loaded Safety Regulations authorizes special
41 to 55 mph 5 psi 15 psi
beyond the load rating marked on the (66 to 88.5 (34.5 kPa) (103.4 kPa) agent personnel of the Federal Highway
km/hr)
103
Standards &
Regulations S E C T I O N T H I R T E E N
COMMERCIAL VEHICLE
MINIMUM SAFETY ALLIANCE
TREAD DEPTHS (CVSA)
Administration, including Bureau of Under FMCSR Part 393.75, operators
Motor Safety inspectors, to perform are required to maintain at least 4/32'' of
inspections of a motor carrier’s vehicles tread groove depth on the front tires of
which are currently in operation. These any bus, truck, or truck tractor covered
inspections may be performed at a facili- by that law, and the standard 2/32''
ty of the motor carrier (such as a termi- remaining tread depth on the other
nal) or at some other location (such as wheel positions.
on-highway) at the discretion of the In conjunction with the federally
inspector. The results of these inspec- required tire inspections previously
tions are recorded in a Driver-Equipment mentioned, much work has been done
Compliance Check report. If the check to promote commonly performed and
is done at a location other than one of recognized tire inspection criteria within
the motor carrier’s facilities, the driver is the scope of the total vehicle inspection
required to deliver this report to the program in use by the Commercial
motor carrier upon his arrival at the car- Minimum tread groove depths are Vehicle Safety Alliance (CVSA).
rier’s next terminal, or to mail it to the specified for tire manufacturers under The CVSA is a voluntary organization
carrier if he is not scheduled to be in a Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard made up of states and provinces which
terminal within 24 hours after the time of 119, and for in-use applications by have responsibility for commercial vehicle
the inspection. The motor carrier then Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations, safety operations and which perform
has 15 days from the inspection date to part 393.75. Under FMVSS 119, vehicle inspections and conduct other
correct any violations or defects, certify manufacturers must include tread depth safety related programs. The aims of
any action taken using Form MCS-63, indicators, commonly called “wear bars”, the organization are to maximize the
and return the form to the BMCS office in six locations evenly spaced around utilization of commercial vehicle, driver
address indicated on the report. the circumference of a highway truck and cargo inspection resources, to avoid
Part 397 of the same regulation tire, so that they become visible when duplication of effort, to expand the
requires that for the transport of haz- 2/32'' of tread groove depth is remaining. number of inspections performed on a
ardous materials, vehicles equipped with regional basis, to advance uniformity of
duals on any axle must have the tires inspection, and to minimize delays in
inspected every two hours or 100 miles, industry schedules which could result
whichever occurs first, for the duration from this type of enforcement activity.
of the trip. The CVSA does not supersede
or countermand any legally required
inspection process or any state laws.
It is simply a working agreement among
member jurisdictions to use standardized
procedures. It has gained widespread
acceptance and has made great
progress toward providing a common
inspection program.
CVSA members inspect vehicles
on-highway and in terminals. Areas
covered by a CVSA vehicle inspection
are the driver (license, hours-of-service
records, medical certificate), steering
mechanism, brakes, brake lights/turn
signals, drawbars, suspension, fifth wheels,
air loss and warning, wheels and tires.
Vehicles which pass the inspection are
issued a CVSA decal, colored differently
for each quarter of the year, and honored
for the month of issuance plus the
104
Standards &
S E C T I O N T H I R T E E N Regulations
REGROOVING/
TIRE SIPING
following two months by all participating Drive/Trail Tires Out of Service Regrooving is used in certain types of
states and provinces. • 75 percent or more tread width loose service to extend the mileage obtainable
Criteria for the tire inspection portion or missing, in excess of 12 inches of from the original tire tread. Tires designed
of the CVSA inspection program tire’s circumference. with sufficient undertread depth to permit
recommends replacement of a tire • Less than 1/32 inch tread depth at two regrooving are labeled on the sidewalls
with any of the following conditions: adjacent, major tread grooves at three as regroovable. Undertread depth refers
separate locations on tire. With duals, to the thickness of tread compound
Steering Axle of Power Unit both tires must have listed defect to between the bottom of the original tread
• Less than 2/32-inch tread depth at warrant out-of-service judgement. grooves and the top of the uppermost
two, adjacent, major tread grooves breaker or belt. The use of regrooving is
• Tire flat or has leak that can be felt
anywhere on the tire. more common in intra-state bus service
or heard.
than in trucking fleets.
• Portion of breaker strip or casing ply • Bias-ply tire with more than one ply Goodyear recommends retreading
visibe in tread. exposed in tread area or sidewall, or radial tires for truck use rather than
• Sidewall is cut, worn, or damaged when exposed area of top ply exceeds regrooving. If retreading is not practical,
thereby exposing ply cord. 2 square inches. With duals, both tires front tires can be regrooved and moved
• Labeled “Not for Highway Use” must have listed defect to warrant to trailers. Drive tires should be taken
or other marking excluding current out-of-service judfgement. off when about 80 percent worn, the
application (Excluding farm/ • Radial tire with two or more plies non-skid depth increased by regrooving,
off-road vehicles briefly on the road. exposed in tread area, or damaged and then reapplied to the drive axle.
• Bulge suggesting tread/sidewall cords evident in sidewall or exposed Regrooving requires probing the depth
separation. Exception: Bulge from section area on sidewall exceeding 2 square of the undertread so that a minimum
repair (sometimes identified by adjacent blue, inches. With dual, both tires must undertread depth of 3/32 inch remain
triangular label) is not a defect unless higher have listed defect to warrant out-of- below the newly cut groove. It is
than 3/8 inch. service judgement recommended that the local Goodyear
• Bulge suggesting tread/sidewall representative be contacted for information
• Tire flat or has leak that’s felt
separation. Exception: Bulge from section if regrooving is being considered.
or heard.
repair (sometimes identified by adjacent blue,
• Mounted/inflated so tire contacts part Tire Siping For Traction
triangular label) is not a defect unless higher
of vehicle.
than 3/8 inch. Adding tire siping to new or partially
• Tire overloaded, including overload worn rib tires for additional traction
• Mounted or inflated so tire contacts
resulting from under-inflation. (as differentiated from regrooving worn
part of vehicle or in the case of a dual
Exception: Does not apply to special tread for additional mileage) is an
assembly, its mate.
permit vehicle operated at a speed low enough accepted practice for trucking fleets
to compensate for underinflation. • Tire overloaded, including overload
resulting from under-inflation. operating on and off the road.
Exception: Does not apply to special permit Partially worn radial lug tires can
vehicle operated at a speed low enough to also benefit from regrooving the tread
compensate for underinflation. pattern down to 80% of the deepest
portion of the original non-skid depth
for added traction.
105
Standards &
Regulations S E C T I O N T H I R T E E N
DOT Regulations On regrooves tires and leases them to own- (g) If the tire is siped by cutting the
Regrooved Tire ers or operators of motor vehicles and tread surface without removing
Purpose and Scope any person who regrooves his own tires rubber, the tire cord material shall
for use on motor vehicles is considered not be damaged as a result of the
This part sets forth the conditions
to be a person delivering for introduc- siping process, and no sipe shall
under which regrooved and regroovable
tion into interstate commerce within the be deeper than the original or
tires manufactured or regrooved after
meaning of this part. retread groove depth.
the effective date of the regulation may
(2) A regrooved tire may be sold, (B) Siped regroovable tires. No person
be sold, offered for sale, introduced for
offered for sale, or introduced for sale or shall sell, offer for sale, or introduce for
sale or delivered for introduction into
delivered for introduction into interstate sale or deliver for introduction into
interstate commerce.
commerce only if it conforms to each of interstate commerce a regroovable tire
Definitions the following requirements: that has been siped by cutting the tread
(A) Regroovable tire means a tire, (a) The tire being regrooved shall surface without removing rubber if the
either original tread or retread, designed be a regroovable tire; tire cord material is damaged as a result
and constructed with sufficient tread (b) After regrooving, cord material of the siping process, or if the tire is
material to permit renewal of the tread below the grooves shall have siped deeper than the original or retread
pattern or the generaton of a new tread a protective covering of tread groove depth.
patternin a manner which conforms to material at least 3/32 inch thick;
this part. (c) After regrooving, the new grooves Labeling of
(B) Regrooved tire means a tire, either generated into the tread material Regroovable Tires
original tread or retread, on which the and any residual original molded
Each tire designed and constructed
tread pattern has been renewed or a new tread groove which is at or below
for regrooving shall be labeled on both
tread has been produced by cutting into the new regrooved depth shall
sidewalls with the word “Regroovable”
the tread of a worn tire to a depth equal have a minimum of 90 linear
molded on or into the tire in raised or
to or deeper than the molded original inches of tread edges per linear
recessed letters 0.025 to 0.040 inch. The
groove depth. foot of the circumference;
word “Regroovable” shall be in letters
(d) After regrooving, the new groove
0.38 to 0.50 inch in height and not less
Applicability width generated into the tread
than 4 inches and not more than 6 inches
(A) General. Except as provided in material shall be a minimum of
in length. The lettering shall be located
paragraph (B) of this section, this part 3/16 inch and a maximum of
in the sidewall of the tire between the
applies to all motor vehicle regrooved 5/16 inch;
maximum section width and the bead in
or regroovable tires manufactured or (e) After regrooving, all new grooves
an area which will not be obstructed by
regrooved after the effective date cut into the tread shall provide
the rim flange.
of the regulation. unobstructed fluid escape
passages; and See Page 102 (Subpart G -
(B) Export. This part does not apply
(f) After regrooving, the tire shall Miscellaneous Parts and Accessories)
to regrooved or regroovable tires intended
not contain any of the following for the Federal Motor Carriers Safety
solely for export and so labeled or tagged.
defects, as determined by a visual Regulatons regarding regrooved tires.
Requirements examination of the tire either
(A) Regrooved tires. (1) Except as per- mounted on the rim, or dismounted,
mitted by paragraph (A)(2) of this sec- whichever is applicable:
tion, no person shall sell, offer for sale, (i) Cracking which extends to
or introduce or deliver for introduction the fabric.
into interstate commerce regrooved tires (ii) Groove cracks or wear
produced by removing rubber from the extending to the fabric, or
surface of a worn tire tread to generate a (iii) Evidence of ply, tread or
new tread pattern. Any person who sidewall separation.
106
LOAD RATINGS AND INFLATION DATA FOR RADIAL TRUCK TIRES
Tubeless Tube Type Load Range Load Range Load Range Load Range Load Range Load Range Load Range
Dual Tire Load Rating D E F G H J L
7.50R16LT 2140@65 2440@80
LT225/75R16 2150@65 2470@80
LT245/75R16 2381@65 2778@80
LT215/85R16 2150@65 2470@80
LT235/85R16 2381@65 2778@80 3415@110
8.75R16.5LT 2070@65 2360@80
9.50R16.5LT 2445@65 2790@80
8R17.5 2755@85
8.5R17.5 3085@90
9R17.5HC 8.25R15 3660@105 3970@110 5675@125*
10R17.5 4410@110
11R17.5HC 10.00R15TR 4430@95 4850@110 6395@125
8R19.5 2700@80 3375@110
9R22.5 8.25R20 3950@95
10R22.5 9.00R20 4875@100 5250@115
11R22.5 10.00R20 5750@105 5800@110
12R22.5 11.00R20 5780@95 6750@120
13R22.5 7160@125
12.00R20 7200@110
14.00R20 9610@105*
11R24.5 10.00R22 6000@105 6170@110
12R24.5 11.00R22 6720@110
11.00R24 7130@110
12.00R24 8100@110
215/75R17.5 4540@125*
225/70R19.5 3415@95
245/70R19.5 3875@85 4375@100
265/70R19.5 4750@105
255/70R22.5 5070@115
245/75R22.5 4410@110
265/75R22.5 4805@100
295/75R22.5 5675@100 6005@110
295/80R22.5 6610@115
315/80R22.5 7610@120 7750@120*
13/80R20 7160@110
285/75R24.5 5675@100
Single Tire Load Rating
7.50R16LT 2440@65 2780@80
LT225/75R16 2335@65 2680@80
LT245/75R16 2623@65 3042@80
LT215/85R16 2335@65 2680@80
LT235/85R16 2623@65 3042@80 3750@110
8.75R16.5LT 2350@65 2680@80
9.50R16.5LT 2780@65 3170@80
8R17.5 2835@85
8.5R17.5 3195@90
9R17.5HC 8.25R15 4070@105 4410@110 6005@125*
10R17.5 4675@110
11R17.5HC 10.00R15TR 5050@105 5530@120 6945@125
8R19.5 2800@80 3500@110
9R22.5 8.25R20 4500@105
10R22.5 9.00R20 5150@100 5680@115
11R22.5 10.00R20 6175@105 6610@120
12R22.5 11.00R20 6590@105 7390@120
13R22.5 8270@125
12.00R20 8210@120
14.00R20 10960@115*
11R24.5 10.00R22 6430@105 7030@120
12R24.5 11.00R22 7660@120
11.00R24 8130@120
12.00R24 9230@120
215/75R17.5 4805@125*
225/70R19.5 3640@95
245/70R19.5 4080@85 4545@100
265/70R19.5 5000@105
255/70R22.5 5510@115
245/75R22.5 4675@110
265/75R22.5 5205@110
295/75R22.5 6175@110 6610@120
295/80R22.5 7390@115
315/80R22.5 8270@120 9000@120*
13/80R20 8050@110
14/80R20 9090@120
365/80R20 10000@130
285/75R24.5 6175@110
385/65R22.5 9370@120
425/65R22.5 10500@110
445/65R22.5 12300@120
Notes: 1. With above loads and inflations, the maximum speed is 65 MPH. *55 MPH max.
2. For ML tires, see Tire and Rim Year Book for separate ML table.
107
TRUCK TYPE AND WEIGHT CLASS
The vehicle icons on the following page depict examples of vehicles in each DOT classification 1-8 with corresponding load
ranges. These classifications are guidelines in understanding the type of vehicle used for different applications by vehicle class.
CLASS ONE
6,000 lbs. or less
Full Size Pickup Mini Pickup Minivan SUV Utility Van
CLASS TWO
6,001 to 10,000 lbs.
Crew Size Pickup Full Size Pickup Mini Bus Minivan Step Van Utility Van
CLASS THREE
10,001 to 14,000 lbs.
City Delivery Mini Bus Walk In
CLASS FOUR
14,001 to 16,000 lbs.
City Delivery Conventional Van Landscape Utility Large Walk In
CLASS FIVE
16,001 to 19,500 lbs.
Bucket City Delivery Large Walk In
CLASS SIX
19,501 to 26,000 lbs.
Beverage Rack School Bus Single Axle Van Stake Body
CLASS SEVEN
26,001 to 33,000 lbs.
City Transit Bus Furniture High Profile Semi Home Fuel Medium
Semi Tractor
Refuse Tow
CLASS EIGHT
33,001 lbs. & over
Cement Mixer Dump Fire Truck Fuel Heavy Refrigerated Van
Semi Tractor
TRAILERS
Auto Transport Double Van Drop Frame Dry Bulk Dump Trailer Flatbed
108
INDEX
Ackerman Steering Effect In-Service Alignment Recommendations..49 Retreading ...............................................86
on Tire Wear........................................47 Inflation ...................................................37 Definitions ..............................................90
Alignment................................................43 Do’s and Don’ts for Maintaining Introduction.............................................87
Ackerman Steering Effect on Proper Inflation Pressure........................42 Planning A Retread Plant Visit .................87
Tire Wear ...........................................47 Nitrogen Inflation ....................................42 Plant Inspection .......................................87
Camber...................................................46 Underinflation .........................................40 Retread Plant Inspection Checklist ..............92
Caster.....................................................46 Inspection..............................................103 Safety Instructions...................................20
Drive Axle Alignment ...............................48 Inspection Procedures.............................31 Safety Precautions...................................28
In-Service Alignment Installation...............................................23 Section Repair Limits in
Recommendations .................................49 Sidewall and Shoulder Area................84
Loaded vs. Unloaded Servicing Tire and Rim ...........................31
Loaded vs. Unloaded Alignment Alignment Settings..............................45
Settings...............................................45 Setback Steer Axles.................................53
Lubrication ..............................................20 Siping.......................................................95
Steer Axle Alignment ................................45
Toe.........................................................46 Matching of Duals ..................................25 Spacers.....................................................26
Trailer Axle Alignment..............................49 Minimum Tread Depths .......................104 Spacing of Duals .....................................26
Mixing Radial and Bias Ply Tires............96 Speed and Tire Wear ..............................57
Bearing Adjustment.................................55 Mounting and Inflation ..........................29 Standards and Regulations ...................101
Branding Tires .........................................35 Mounting Procedure...............................19 Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance
Camber....................................................46 Assembly of Tire Tube Flap........................22 (CVSA)...........................................104
Caster.......................................................46 Demounting.............................................24 Federal Motor Carrier
Center-Over-Injury Section Repairs ......85 Inspection Procedures ................................31 Safety Regulations .............................102
Chains on Radial Truck Tires .................95 Installation..............................................23 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards
Collecting and Storing Lubrication..............................................20 Testing and Certification......................102
Tire Information ..................................35 Matching of Duals...................................25 Inspection..............................................103
Branding Tires.........................................35 Mounting and Inflation ............................29 Minimum Tread Depths ..........................104
Radio Frequency Operation ...............................................31 Steer Axle Alignment..............................45
Identification Tags................................36 Proper Matching of Rim Parts...................27 Steer Tire Wear .......................................52
Radio Frequency Tag Usage......................36 Safety Instructions....................................20 Tire and Rim Cleaning............................21
Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance Safety Precautions....................................28 Tire Description & Specifications...........76
(CVSA)..............................................104 Servicing Tire and Rim .............................31 Tire Industry Definitions ........................90
Cross-Sectional View of Typical Tire.......6 Spacers...................................................26 Tire Repairs..............................................80
Crown Repair Limits...............................85 Spacing of Duals .....................................26 Application of Center-Over-Injury
Tire and Rim Cleaning..............................21 Section Repairs ....................................85
Demounting ............................................24
Tubeless Tire Mounting .............................23 Crown Repair Limits ................................85
Drive Axle Alignment.............................48 Nail Hole Repair Procedures......................82
Drive Tires...............................................54 Tubes and Flaps.......................................22
Wheel Inspection Guidelines.......................20 Radial Ply Tires ......................................85
Dynamometer Tests................................96 Radial Tire Section Repairs .......................84
Factors Affecting Treadwear...................50 Nail Hole Repair Procedures..................82 Radial Tires ............................................84
Bearing Adjustment...................................55 Nitrogen Inflation ...................................42 Radial Section Repair Limits......................84
Drive Tires ..............................................54 Noise........................................................97 Section Repair Limits in
Environmental Effects................................56 Operation ................................................31 Sidewall and Shoulder Area...................84
How Speed Affects Tire Wear.....................57 Tire Sealants And Balance Materials ....100
Planning A Retread Plant Visit...............87 Tire Selection & Maintenance ................70
Setback Steer Axles...................................53 Plant Inspection ......................................87
Steer Tire Wear........................................52 Tire Selection Process ...............................9
Proper Matching of Rim Parts................27 Tire Selection Process Work Sheet ........16
Factors Affecting Truck Fuel Economy..63
Appendix ................................................78 Radial Ply Tires........................................85 Tire Siping/Regrooving.........................105
Environmental Conditions..........................74 Radial Tire Section Repairs.....................84 Tire Siping for Traction...........................105
Summary................................................77 Radial Tires ..............................................84 DOT Regulations on Regrooved Tire .......106
Tire Description and Specifications..............76 Radial Section Repair Limits ..................84 Labeling of Regroovable Tires...................106
Tire Selection and Maintenance ..................70 Radial Truck Tire Terms............................5 Toe ..........................................................46
Vehicle and Engine Design.........................64 Cross-Sectional View of Typical Tire ............6 Trailer Axle Alignment............................49
Vehicle Operation ....................................67 Radio Frequency Identification Tags......36 Tube Flap Assembly ................................22
Federal Motor Carrier Radio Frequency Tag Usage...................36 Tubeless Tire Mounting ..........................23
Safety Regulations.............................102 Regrooving/Tire Siping.........................105 Tubes and Flaps .......................................22
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards Tire Siping for Traction...........................105 Underinflation.........................................40
Testing and Certification..................102 DOT Regulations on Regrooved Tire .......106
Labeling of Regroovable Tires...................106 Vehicle and Engine Design ....................64
Retread Plant Inspection Checklist........92 Vehicle Operation...................................67
Wheel Inspection Guidelines.................20
109
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